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Systematics - classifying organisms (Taxonomy) and determining their evolutionary
relationships (Phylogenetics)
Taxonomy - gray area in Biology because it is constantly/continuously changing
Hypothesis
Classifying and naming organisms
Ordered division of organisms based on similar/different characteristics
A. Taxonomic Categories
Domain
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Linnaeus Modern
B. Phylogenetic Trees
Phylogenetic Tree - Branching diagram that shows evolutionary history of a group of organisms
BRANCH LENGTHS:
Can represent genetic change
Can indicate time
Highest taxon: Kingdom below (Carolus Linnaeus) because he only based it according to
morphology
a. Archaea - Archaebacteria
No peptidoglycan in the cell walls
Extremophiles (loving extreme conditions)
Microscopic
b. Bacteria - Eubacteria
Has peptidoglycan in the cell walls
Prokaryotic single celled organisms
Microscopic
c. Eukarya - Animal, Plant, Fungi, Protista
All have organisms made of eukaryotic cells
Macroscopic
D. Plant growth
ROOT ANATOMY
Zone of Maturation: primary growth → functionally mature
Zone of Elongation: cells elongate, push root tip ahead
Zone of Cell Division: apical meristem; mitosis
Root Cap: protects meristem, pushing it through soil
Fruit
Egg cell → plant embryo
Ovules inside ovary → seeds
Ripe ovary → fruit
Protects seed
Aids in dispersal by wind, water, or animals
Types:
a. Simple
b. Aggregate
c. Multiple
Seeds
Mature seed → dormancy (resting)
Low metabolic rate
growth/development suspended
Resumes growth when environmental conditions are suitable for germination
Germination - seed take up water (imbibition) → trigger metabolic changes to begin growth
Very hazardous for plants due to vulnerability
F. Animal tissue types
1. Structure
Anatomy: study of biological form (STRUCTURE) of an organism
Structure dictates function!
2. Function
Physiology: study of biological FUNCTIONS an organism performs
3. Classification
CO6:
Sensory Organs (5 senses)
Mechanoreceptors: physical stimuli - pressure, touch, stretch, motion, sound
Thermoreceptors: detect heat/cold
Chemoreceptors: transmit solute conc. Info - taste (gustatory), smell (olfactory)
Electromagnetic receptors: detect EM energy - light (photoreceptors), electricity,
magnetism
Pain receptors: respond to excess heat, pressure, chemicals
Muscle Contraction:
1. Sarcomere relaxed: actin & myosin overlap
2. Contracting:
Muscle fiber stimulated by motor neuron
Length of sarcomere is reduced
Actin slides over myosin
3. Fully contracted: actin & myosin completely overlap
Sliding-filament model: thick & thin filaments slide past each other to increase overlap (Note:
filaments do NOT shorten!)
PROBLEMS
ALS (Lou Gehrig’s disease): degeneration of motor neurons, muscle fibers atrophy
Botulism: block release of acetylcholine, paralyzes muscles
Myasthenia gravis: autoimmune disorder, produce antibodies to acetylcholine
Calcium deficiency: muscle spasms and cramps
Rigor mortis (after death): no ATP to break actin/myosin bonds; sustained muscle
contraction until breakdown (decomposition)
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NERVOUS SYSTEM
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Brain
Spinal cord
2. Midbrain
Brainstem → Oldest evolutionary part
→ Basic, autonomic survival behaviors
→ Medulla oblongata - breathing, heart & blood vessel activity, digestion, swallowing,
vomiting
→ transfer info between PNS & CNS
3. Hindbrain
Pons
Medulla oblongata
Cerebellum → coordinate movement and balance
→ motor skill learning
Types of Neurons
Sensory neurons: info from body sensors → CNS
Interneurons: connect sensory + motor neurons or local connections between brain +
spinal cord
Motor neurons: CNS → body (effectors = muscles, glands)
* Nerves = bundles of neurons
Contains motor neurons +/or sensory neurons
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Blood pressure
BP = systolic/ diastolic
: Systolic = heart contracts
: Diastolic = heart relaxed
: Normal: 120/70
Pulse: rhythmic bulging of artery walls with each heartbeat
Blood
Plasma (55%) - water, ions, proteins, gases, nutrients, wastes, hormones
Cells (45%) - RBC, WBC, platelets
a. Develop from stem cells in bone marrow
b. RBCs (erythrocytes): O2 transport via hemoglobin
c. WBCs (leukocytes): fight infection
d. Platelets (cell fragments): blood clotting
Cardiovascular Disease
a. Atherosclerosis: buildup of plaque deposits within arteries
b. Heart attack (myocardial infarction): blockage of one or more coronary
arteries
c. Stroke: rupture or blockage of arteries in the head
d. Hypertension: high blood pressure; promotes atherosclerosis and
increases the risk of heart attack and stroke
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Asexual Sexual
MALE FEMALE
FEMALE ANATOMY
Ovaries - produce eggs, sex hormones
Follicles - contain oocyte (egg); release 1/month; produce estrogens
Ovulation - release of egg from follicle
Remaining follicle → corpus luteum (↑ hormones)
Egg → Oviduct (fallopian tube) → Uterus (baby) → Cervix → Vagina
Mammary Glands - secrete milk through nipples in breast
MALE ANATOMY
Testes (inside scrotum) - produce sperm, sex hormones
Seminiferous tubules - make sperm
Seminiferous tubules → epididymis → Vas deferens → Urethra (penis)
Semen - alkaline fluid with nutrients, enzymes
100 - 650 million sperm/ ejaculation
MEIOSIS
SPERMATOGENESIS OOGENESIS
FORMATION OF ZYGOTE
1. Ovulation
2. Fertilization occurs
3. Cleavage starts
4. Cleavage continues
5. The blastocyst implants
Ingestion → Mechanical Digestion → Chemical Digestion → Nutrient molecules enter body cells
→ Elimination of undigested material
DIGESTIVE COMPARTMENTS
Most animals process food in specialized compartments
Intracellular: digestion of food inside cells by food vacuoles
: phagocytosis, pinocytosis, sponges
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IMMUNE SYSTEM
Types of Immunity
1. Innate Immunity
Non-specific
All plants & Animals
Recognition of traits shared by broad ranges of pathogens, using a small set of
receptors
Rapid response
Barrier Defenses: Skin, Mucous membranes, Secretions
Internal defenses:
Phagocytic WBCs:
a. Neutrophils - engulf
b. Macrophage - “big eaters”
c. Eosinophils - parasites
d. Dendritic cells - adaptive response
Natural killer cells
a. Virus-infected and cancer cells
Antimicrobial proteins
a. Interferons - inhibit viral reproduction
b. Complement system - ~30 proteins, membrane attack complex
Inflammatory response
a. Mast cells release histamine
b. Blood vessels dilate, increase permeability (redness, swelling)
c. Deliver clotting agents, phagocytic cells
d. Fever
2. Adaptive Immunity
Pathogen-specific
Only in vertebrates
Involves B and T cells
a. T Cells: mature in thymus
: helper T, cytotoxic T
b. B Cells: stay and mature in bone marrow
: plasma cells → antibodies
Recognition of traits specific to particular pathogens, using a vast array of receptors
Slower response
Humoral response: Antibodies defend against infection in body fluids
Cell-mediated response: Cytotoxic cells defend against against infection in body cells
Plant Defenses
Nonspecific responses
Receptors recognize pathogen molecules and trigger defense responses
a. Thicken cell wall, produce antimicrobial compounds, cell death
Localize effects
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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Pathway of O2
a. Nose/mouth: filtered, warmed, humidified
b. Pharynx
c. Larynx: contains vocal cords
d. Trachea: windpipe, lined with cartilage
e. Bronchi: branches to lungs
f. Bronchioles:
g. Alveoli: air sacs for gas exchange
h. Mucus: traps particles
i. Cilia: sweeps particles up to pharynx
Diaphragm: dome shaped muscle separating thoracic/abdominal cavities
1. Inhalation: Rib cage expands
2. Exhalation: Rib cage gets smaller (contracts)
Respiratory Disorders
a. Asthma: airways constricted
b. Bronchitis: bronchi swollen and clogged
c. Pneumonia: inflammation of lung caused by infection
d. Tuberculosis: infectious disease caused by M. tuberculosis
e. Emphysema: lose elasticity of lung tissue
f. Lung Cancer: abnormal cell growth in lungs