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Sacred architecture
Sacred architecture (also known as religious architecture) is a
religious architectural practice concerned with the design and
construction of places of worship or sacred or intentional space, such
as churches, mosques, stupas, synagogues, and temples. Many
cultures devoted considerable resources to their sacred architecture
and places of worship. Religious and sacred spaces are amongst the
most impressive and permanent monolithic buildings created by
humanity. Conversely, sacred architecture as a locale for meta-
intimacy may also be non-monolithic, ephemeral and intensely
private, personal and non-public.

Sacred, religious and holy structures often evolved over centuries and
were the largest buildings in the world, prior to the modern
skyscraper. While the various styles employed in sacred architecture
sometimes reflected trends in other structures, these styles also
remained unique from the contemporary architecture used in other
structures. With the rise of Abrahamic monotheisms (particularly
Christianity and Islam), religious buildings increasingly became
centres of worship, prayer and meditation.

The Western scholarly discipline of the history of architecture itself

closely follows the history of religious architecture from ancient times
until the Baroque period, at least. Sacred geometry, iconography, and
Ornate details on the entrance tower of Sri
the use of sophisticated semiotics such as signs, symbols and religious
Mariamman Hindu Temple, Singapore.
motifs are endemic to sacred architecture.

Contents
Spiritual aspects of religious architecture
Ancient architecture
Classical architecture
Indian architecture
Buddhism
Hinduism
Byzantine architecture Larger-than-life structures remain at the
ancient Egyptian Luxor Temple
Islam
approximately 3400 years after it was built.
Medieval architecture
Gothic architecture
Renaissance architecture
Baroque architecture
Mormon temples
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Modern and post-modern architectures

Shaker communities
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links

Spiritual aspects of religious architecture

Sacred or religious architecture is sometimes called sacred space.

An illustrated layout of the traditional
interior of a Christian Orthodox
church.
on minimized scale to enhance intimacy and participation in worship.
Architect Norman L. Koonce has suggested that the goal of sacred architecture
is to make "transparent the boundary between matter and mind, flesh and the
spirit." In discussing sacred architecture, Protestant minister Robert Schuller
suggested that "to be psychologically healthy, human beings need to experience
their natural setting—the setting we were designed for, which is the garden."
Meanwhile, Richard Kieckhefer suggests that entering into a religious building
is a metaphor for entering into spiritual relationship. Kieckhefer suggests that
sacred space can be analyzed by three factors affecting spiritual process:
longitudinal space emphasizes the procession and return of sacramental acts,
auditorium space is suggestive of proclamation and response, and new forms
of communal space designed for gathering and return depend to a great degree

Ancient architecture
Sacred architecture spans a number of ancient architectural styles including
Neolithic architecture, ancient Egyptian architecture and Sumerian
architecture. Ancient religious buildings, particularly temples, were often
viewed as the dwelling place, the temenos, of the gods and were used as the site
of various kinds of sacrifice. Ancient tombs and burial structures are also
examples of architectural structures reflecting religious beliefs of their various
societies. The Temple of Karnak at Thebes, Egypt was constructed across a
period of 1300 years and its numerous temples comprise what may be the
largest religious structure ever built. Ancient Egyptian religious architecture
The interior of the ancient Egyptian
has fascinated archaeologists and captured the public imagination for
Karnak Temple.
millennia.

Classical architecture
Around 600 BCE the wooden columns of the Temple of Hera at Olympia were replaced by stone columns. With the spread
of this process to other sanctuary structures a few stone buildings have survived through the ages. Greek architecture
preceded Hellenistic and Roman periods (Roman architecture heavily copied Greek). Since temples are the only buildings

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which survive in numbers, most of our concept of classical architecture is

based on religious structures. The Parthenon which served as a treasury
building as well as a place for veneration of deity, is widely regarded as the
greatest example of classical architecture.

Indian architecture
Indian architecture is related to the history and religions of the time periods as
well as to the geography and geology of the Indian subcontinent. India was
The Parthenon in Athens, Greece.
crisscrossed by trading routes of merchants from as far away as Siraf and
China as well as weathering invasions by foreigners, resulting in multiple
influences of foreign elements on native styles. The diversity of Indian culture is
represented in its architecture. Indian architecture comprises a blend of ancient and
varied native traditions, with building types, forms and technologies from West, Central
Asia, and Europe.

Buddhism
Buddhist architecture developed in South Asia beginning in the third century BCE. Two
types of structures are associated with early Buddhism: viharas and stupas. Originally,
Viharas were temporary shelters used by wandering monks during the rainy season, but
these structures later developed to accommodate the growing and increasingly
formalized Buddhist monasticism. An existing example is at Nalanda (Bihar).
Vishvakarman, Divine
The initial function of the stupa was the veneration and safe-guarding of the relics of Architect of Vedas in a
modern Hindu
the Buddha. The earliest existing example of a stupa is in Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh). In
representation: note
accordance with changes in religious practice, stupas were gradually incorporated into Chhatra.
chaitya-grihas (stupa halls). These reached their highpoint in the first century BCE,
exemplified by the cave complexes of Ajanta and Ellora (Maharashtra).

The pagoda is an evolution of the Indian stupa that is marked by a tiered tower with multiple eaves common in China,
Japan, Korea, Nepal and other parts of Asia. Buddhist temples were developed rather later and outside South Asia, where
Buddhism gradually declined from the early centuries CE onwards, though an early example is that of the Mahabodhi
Temple at Bodh Gaya in Bihar. The architectural structure of the stupa spread across Asia, taking on many diverse forms
as details specific to different regions were incorporated into the overall design. It was spread to China and the Asian
region by Araniko, a Nepali architect in the early 13th century for Kublai Khan.

Hinduism
Hindu temple architecture is based on Sthapatya Veda and many other ancient religious texts like the Brihat Samhita,
Vastu Shastra and Shilpa Shastras in accordance to the design principles and guidelines believed to have been laid by the
divine architect Vishvakarma. It evolved over a period of more than 2000 years. The Hindu architecture conforms to strict
religious models that incorporate elements of astronomy and sacred geometry. In Hindu belief, the temple represents the
macrocosm of the universe as well as the microcosm of inner space. While the underlying form of Hindu temple
architecture follows strict traditions, considerable variation occurs with the often intense decorative embellishments and
ornamentation.

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A basic Hindu temple consists of an inner sanctum,

the garbhagriha or womb-chamber, a congregation
hall, and possibly an antechamber and porch. The
sanctum is crowned by a tower-like shikhara. The
Hindu temple represents Mount Meru, the axis of
the universe. There are strict rules which describe
the themes and sculptures on the outer walls of the
temple buildings.

The two primary styles that have developed are the

Nagara style of Northern India and the Dravida style
of Southern India. A prominent difference between
the two styles are the elaborate gateways employed
The Shikhara of the
in the South. They are also easily distinguishable by The Brihadeeswarar
Raghunath Temple at
the shape and decoration of their shikharas. The Temple, Tanjavur, built in
Jammu, India is built in the
Nagara style of temple Nagara style is beehive-shaped while the Dravida the Dravida style
architecture. style is pyramid-shaped.

Byzantine architecture
Byzantine architecture evolved from Roman
architecture. Eventually, a style emerged
incorporating Near East influences and the
Greek cross plan for church design. In
addition, brick replaced stone, classical
order was less strictly observed, mosaics
replaced carved decoration, and complex
domes were erected. One of the great
Hagia Sophia, the Church of Holy breakthroughs in the history of Western
Wisdom
architecture occurred when Justinian's
architects invented a complex system
providing for a smooth transition from a square plan of the church to a circular dome
(or domes) by means of squinches or pendentives. The prime example of early The 6th-century Kariye
Camii, Istanbul, is now a
Byzantine religious architecture is the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul.
museum.

Islam
Byzantine architecture had a great influence on early Islamic architecture with its characteristic round arches, vaults and
domes. Many forms of mosques have evolved in different regions of the Islamic world. Notable mosque types include the
early Abbasid mosques, T-type mosques, and the central-dome mosques of Anatolia.

The earliest styles in Islamic architecture produced Arab-plan or hypostyle mosques during the Umayyad Dynasty. These
mosques follow a square or rectangular plan with enclosed courtyard and covered prayer hall. Most early hypostyle
mosques had flat prayer hall roofs, which required numerous columns and supports.[1] The Mezquita in Córdoba, Spain
was constructed as a hypostyle mosque supported by over 850 columns.[2] Arab-plan mosques continued under the
Abbasid dynasty.

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The Ottomans introduced central dome

mosques in the 15th century that have a
large dome centered over the prayer hall. In
addition to having one large dome at the
center, there are often smaller domes that
exist off-center over the prayer hall or
throughout the rest of the mosque, in areas
where prayer is not performed.[3] The Dome Interior of the Mezquita, a hypostyle
of the Rock mosque in Jerusalem is perhaps mosque with columns arranged in
grid pattern, in Córdoba, Spain
the best known example of a central dome
mosque.

Iwan mosques are most notable for their domed chambers and iwans, which are
The ruins of Menüçehr vaulted spaces open out on one end. In iwan mosques, one or more iwans face a central
Camii near Kars, Turkey, courtyard that serves as the prayer hall. The style represents a borrowing from pre-
believed to be the oldest
Islamic Iranian architecture and has been used almost exclusively for mosques in Iran.
Seljuk mosque in Anatolia
Many iwan mosques are converted Zoroastrian fire temples where the courtyard was
used to house the sacred fire.[1] Today, iwan mosques are no longer built.[3] The Shah
Mosque in Isfahan, Iran is a classic example of an iwan mosque.

A common feature in mosques is the minaret, the tall, slender tower that
usually is situated at one of the corners of the mosque structure. The top of the
minaret is always the highest point in mosques that have one, and often the
highest point in the immediate area. The first mosques had no minarets, and
even nowadays the most conservative Islamic movements, like Wahhabis,
avoid building minarets, seeing them as ostentatious and unnecessary. The
first minaret was constructed in 665 in Basra during the reign of the Umayyad
caliph Muawiyah I. Muawiyah encouraged the construction of minarets, as
View of the square three-tiered
they were supposed to bring mosques on par with Christian churches with
minaret of the Mosque of Uqba
their bell towers. Consequently, mosque architects borrowed the shape of the
(Great Mosque of Kairouan); this
bell tower for their minarets, which were used for essentially the same purpose mosque, founded in 670, is one of
— calling the faithful to prayer.[4] the most impressive mosques in
North Africa, situated in Kairouan,
Domes have been a hallmark of Islamic architecture since the 7th century. As Tunisia
time progressed, the sizes of mosque domes grew, from occupying only a small
part of the roof near the mihrab to encompassing all of the roof above the
prayer hall. Although domes normally took on the shape of a hemisphere, the Mughals in India popularized onion-shaped
domes in South Asia and Persia.[5]

The prayer hall, also known as the musalla, has no furniture; chairs and pews are absent from the prayer hall.[6] Prayer
halls contain no images of people, animals, and spiritual figures although they may be decorated with Arabic calligraphy
and verses from the Qur'an on the walls.

Usually opposite the entrance to the prayer hall is the qibla wall, which is the visually emphasized area inside the prayer
hall. The qibla wall is normally set perpendicular to a line leading to Mecca.[7] Congregants pray in rows parallel to the
qibla wall and thus arrange themselves so they face Mecca. In the qibla wall, usually at its center, is the mihrab, a niche or
depression indicating the qibla wall. Usually the mihrab is not occupied by furniture either. Sometimes, especially during
Friday prayers, a raised minbar or pulpit is located to the side of the mihrab for a khatib or some other speaker to offer a

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sermon (khutbah). The mihrab serves as the

location where the imam leads the five daily
prayers on a regular basis.[8]

Mosques often have ablution fountains or

other facilities for washing in their
entryways or courtyards. However,
worshippers at much smaller mosques often
have to use restrooms to perform their
ablutions. In traditional mosques, this People washing before prayer at the
function is often elaborated into a Badshahi mosque in Lahore,
Pakistan
The prayer hall, or musalla, freestanding building in the center of a
in a Turkish mosque, with a courtyard.[2] Modern mosques may have a
minbar variety of amenities available to their congregants and the community, such as health
clinics, libraries and gymnasiums.

Medieval architecture
The religious architecture of Christian churches in the Middle Ages featured
the Latin cross plan, which takes the Roman Basilica as its primary model with
subsequent developments. It consists of a nave, transepts, and the altar stands
at the east end (see Cathedral diagram). Also, cathedrals influenced or
commissioned by Justinian employed the Byzantine style of domes and a
Greek cross (resembling a plus sign), centering attention on the altar at the
center of the church. The Church of the Intercession on the Nerl is an excellent
Norwegian stave church
example of Russian orthodox architecture in the Middle Ages. The Urnes stave
church (Urnes stavkyrkje) in Norway is a superb example of a medieval stave
church.

Gothic architecture
Gothic architecture was particularly associated with cathedrals and other churches,
which flourished in Europe during the high and late medieval period. Beginning in 12th
century France, it was known as "the French Style" during the period. The style
originated at the abbey church of Saint-Denis in Saint-Denis, near Paris.[9] Other
notable gothic religious structures include Notre Dame de Paris, the Cathedral of Our
Lady of Amiens, and the Chartres Cathedral.

Renaissance architecture
The Renaissance brought a return of classical influence and a new emphasis on rational
clarity. Renaissance architecture represents a conscious revival of Roman Architecture
with its symmetry, mathematical proportions, and geometric order. Filippo
Chartres Cathedral
Brunelleschi's plan for the Santa Maria del Fiore as the dome of the Florence Cathedral
in 1418 was one of the first important religious architectural designs of the Italian
renaissance.

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Baroque architecture
Evolving from the renaissance style, the
baroque style was most notably experienced
in religious art and architecture. Most
architectural historians regard
Michelangelo's design of St. Peter's Basilica
in Rome as a precursor to the Baroque style.
Baroque style can be recognized by broader
The Basilica of Saint Peter, Rome
interior spaces (replacing long narrow
naves), more playful attention to light and
shadow, extensive ornamentation, large frescoes, focus on interior art, and frequently, a
dramatic central exterior projection. The most important early example of the baroque
period was the Santa Susanna by Carlo Maderno. Saint Paul's Cathedral in London by Baroque façade of Santa
Christopher Wren is regarded as the prime example of the rather late influence of the Susanna, by Carlo Maderno

Baroque style in England.

Mormon temples
Temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints offer a unique look
at design as it has changed from the simple church like structure of the
Kirtland Temple built in the 1830s, to the castellated Gothic styles of the early
Utah temples, to the dozens of modern temples built today. Early temples, and
some modern temples, have a priesthood assembly room with two sets of
pulpits at each end of the room, with chairs or benches that can be altered to
face either way. Most, but not all temples have the recognizable statue of the
Angel Moroni atop a spire. The Nauvoo Temple and the Salt Lake Temple are
adorned with symbolic stonework, representing various aspects of the faith.
Salt Lake Temple

Modern and post-modern

architectures
Modern architecture spans several styles with similar characteristics resulting in simplification of form and the
elimination of ornament. The most influential modernist architects in the early to mid 20th century include Dominikus
Böhm, Rudolf Schwarz, and Auguste Perret.[10] While secular structures clearly had the greater influence on the
development of modern architecture, several excellent examples of modern architecture can be found in religious
buildings of the 20th century. For example, Unity Temple in Chicago is a Unitarian Universalist congregation designed by
Frank Lloyd Wright. The United States Air Force Academy Cadet Chapel, started in 1954 and completed in 1962, was
designed by Walter Netsch and is an excellent example of modern religious architecture. It has been described as a
"phalanx of fighters" turned on their tails and pointing heavenward. In 1967, Architect Pietro Belluschi designed the
strikingly modern Cathedral of St. Mary of the Assumption (San Francisco), the first Catholic cathedral in the United
States intended to conform to Vatican II.

Post-modern architecture may be described by unapologetically diverse aesthetics where styles collide, form exists for its
own sake, and new ways of viewing familiar styles and space abound. The Temple at Independence, Missouri was
conceived by Japanese architect Gyo Obata after the concept of the chambered nautilus. The Catholic Cathedral of Our

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Lady of the Angels (Los Angeles) was designed in 1998 by Jose Rafael Moneo in a post-
modern style. The structure evokes the area's Hispanic heritage through the use of
adobe coloring while combining stark modern form with some traditional elements.
The Basilica of Our Lady of Licheń on the other hand is a much more traditional edifice.
Designed by Barbara Bielecka and built between 1994 and 2004, its form includes
references to a number of Polish structures. The columns possess a slenderness and
delicacy inspired by those of the Renaissance court of Wawel Castle in Kraków, while
the huge 420-foot spire that will be erected next to the basilica bears more than an
accidental resemblance to the Baroque spire that adorns the Jasna Gora monastery of
Czestochowa, home of the Black Madonna.

Shaker communities
Community of Christ Shaker communities were semiotically architectured upon the crux of the compass rose.
Temple in Independence,
Missouri, USA is
postmodern in design. See also
Chapel
Ġgantija
Karnak
Mandir
Hierotopy

Notes
1. Hillenbrand, R. "Masdjid. I. In the central Islamic lands". In P.J. Bearman; The Temple of All Religions in
Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs. Kazan, Russia, combining various
Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573- forms of religious architecture
3912 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1573-3912).
2. "Religious Architecture and Islamic Cultures" (http://web.mit.edu/4.614/ww
w/handout02.html). Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved 2006-04-09.
3. "Vocabulary of Islamic Architecture" (https://web.archive.org/web/20051124083425/http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Archit
ecture/4-614Religious-Architecture-and-Islamic-CulturesFall2002/LectureNotes/detail/vocab-islam.htm#islam6).
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from the original (http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Architecture/4-614Reli
gious-Architecture-and-Islamic-CulturesFall2002/LectureNotes/detail/vocab-islam.htm#islam6) on 2005-11-24.
Retrieved 2006-04-09.
4. Hillenbrand, R. "Manara, Manar". In P.J. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs.
Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers.
5. Asher, Catherine B. (1992-09-24). "Aurangzeb and the Islamization of the Mughal style". Architecture of Mughal India.
Cambridge University Press. p. 256.
6. "Mosque FAQ" (https://web.archive.org/web/20041230180348/http://www.utulsa.edu/iss/mosque/MosqueFAQ.html).
The University of Tulsa. Archived from the original (http://www.utulsa.edu/iss/Mosque/MosqueFAQ.html) on
December 30, 2004. Retrieved 2006-04-09.
7. Bierman, Irene A. (1998-12-16). Writing Signs: Fatimid Public Text. University of California Press. p. 150.
8. "Terms 1: Mosque" (http://www.ioc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~islamarc/WebPage1/htm_eng/index/keyword1_e.htm). University of
Tokyo Institute of Oriental Culture. Retrieved 2006-04-09.
9. Andrzej Piotrowski (2011), Architecture of Thought, U of Minnesota Press, p. 23 (https://books.google.com/books?id=
sHrUQclzjlIC&pg=PA23&dq=gothic+originated+saint+denis&hl=fr&ei=dD7aTqOVBs2ZhQedteHPDg&sa=X&oi=book_

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result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CFsQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=gothic%20originated%20saint%20denis&f=false)
10. Steven J. Schloeder, Architecture in Communion: Implementing the Second Vatican Council through Liturgy and
Architecture. (Ignatius Press: 1998): 23-24 and 234-38. ISBN 0-89870-631-9.

References
Jeanne Halgren Kilde, When Church Became Theatre: The Transformation of Evangelical Church Architecture and
Worship in Nineteenth-Century America. (Oxford University Press:2002). ISBN
Michael E. DeSanctis, Building from Belief: Advance, Retreat, and Compromise in the Remaking of Catholic Church
Architecture.. (Liturgical Press:2002). ISBN
Richard Kieckhefer, Theology in Stone: Church Architecture from Byzantium to Berkeley. (Oxford University Press,
USA: 2004). ISBN
Anne C. Loveland and Otis B. Wheeler, From Meetinghouse to Megachurch: A Material and Cultural History.
(University of Missouri Press:2003). ISBN
Michael S. Rose, Ugly as Sin: Why They Changed Our Churches from Sacred Places to Meeting Spaces -- and How
We Can Change Them Back Again. (Sophia Institute Press: 2001). ISBN
Steven J. Schloeder, Architecture in Communion: Implementing the Second Vatican Council through Liturgy and
Architecture. (Ignatius Press: 1998). ISBN 0-89870-631-9.
R. Kevin Seasoltz, A Sense Of The Sacred: Theological Foundations Of Christian Architecture And Art. (Continuum
International Publishing Group: 2005) ISBN

Further reading
Bain, George. Celtic Art: The Methods of Construction. Dover, 1973. ISBN 0-486-22923-8.
Bamford, Christopher, Homage to Pythagoras: Rediscovering Sacred Science, Lindisfarne Press, 1994, ISBN 0-
940262-63-0
Critchlow, Keith (1970). Order In Space: A Design Source Book. Viking.
Critchlow, Keith (1976). Islamic Patterns: An Analytical and Cosmological Approach. Schocken Books. ISBN 0-8052-
3627-9.
Hill, Marsha (2007). Gifts for the gods: images from Egyptian temples (http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/colle
ction/p15324coll10/id/74020). New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9781588392312.
Iamblichus; Waterfield, Robin; Critchlow, Keith; Translated by Robin Waterfield (1988). The Theology of Arithmetic:
On the Mystical, Mathematical and Cosmological Symbolism of the First Ten Numbers. Phanes Press. ISBN 0-
933999-72-0.
Johnson, Anthony: Solving Stonehenge, the New Key to an Ancient Enigma. Thames & Hudson 2008 ISBN 978-0-
500-05155-9
Lawlor, Robert: Sacred Geometry: Philosophy and practice (Art and Imagination). Thames & Hudson, 1989 (1st
edition 1979, 1980, or 1982). ISBN 0-500-81030-3.
Lesser, George (1957–1964). Gothic cathedrals and sacred geometry. London: A. Tiranti.
Lippard, Lucy R.: Overlay: Contemporary Art and the Art of Prehistory. Pantheon Books New York 1983 ISBN 0-394-
51812-8.
Michell, John. City of Revelation. Abacus, 1972. ISBN 0-349-12320-9.
Schloeder, Steven J., Architecture in Communion: Implementing the Second Vatican Council through Liturgy and
Architecture. (Ignatius Press: 1998). ISBN 0-89870-631-9.
Steiner, Rudolf; Catherine Creeger (2001). The Fourth Dimension : Sacred Geometry, Alchemy, and Mathematics.
Anthroposophic Press. ISBN 0-88010-472-4.
Schneider, Michael S.: A Beginner's Guide to Constructing the Universe: Mathematical Archetypes of Nature, Art, and
Science. Harper Paperbacks, 1995. ISBN 0-06-092671-6
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Pennick, Nigel: Beginnings: Geomancy, Builders' Rites and Electional Astrology in the European Tradition
Pennick, Nigel: Sacred Geometry: Symbolism and Purpose in Religious Structures
Pennick, Nigel: The Ancient Science of Geomancy: Living in Harmony with the Earth
Pennick, Nigel: The Sacred Art of Geometry: Temples of the Phoenix
Pennick, Nigel: The Oracle of Geomancy
Pennick, Nigel: The Ancient Science of Geomancy: Man in Harmony with the Earth
West, John Anthony, Inaugural Lines: Sacred geometry at St. John the Divine, Parabola magazine, v.8, n.1, Spring
1983

External links
Interfaith Forum on Religion, Art and Architecture (http://www.aia.org/ifraa_default) American Institute of Architects
Architecture, Culture & Spirituality (http://www.acsforum.org/)
Sacred Architecture (http://www.sacredarchitecture.org/) online journal

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