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20/02/2019 Jainism - Wikipedia
Jainism
Jainism (/ˈdʒeɪnɪzəm/),[1] traditionally known as Jain Dharma,[2] is an
Jainism
ancient Indian religion.[3] Followers of Jainism are called "Jains", a word
derived from the Sanskrit word jina (victor) and connoting the path of victory
in crossing over life's stream of rebirths through an ethical and spiritual life.[4]
Jains trace their history through a succession of twenty-four victorious
saviours and teachers known as tirthankaras, with the first being
Rishabhanatha, who according to Jain tradition lived millions of years ago,
twenty-third being Parshvanatha in 8th century BC and twenty-fourth being
the Mahāvīra around 500 BCE. Jains believe that Jainism is an eternal dharma The Jain flag in India
with the tirthankaras guiding every cycle of the Jain cosmology. Abbreviation Jain
The main religious premises of Jainism are ahiṃsā (non-violence), Scripture Jain Agamas
anekāntavāda (many-sidedness), aparigraha (non-attachment) and Other name(s) Jain Dharma
asceticism. Devout Jains take five main vows: ahiṃsā (non-violence), satya
(truth), asteya (not stealing), brahmacharya (celibacy or chastity), and aparigraha (non-attachment). These principles
have impacted Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to a predominantly vegetarian lifestyle that avoids harm to
animals and their life cycles. Parasparopagraho Jīvānām (the function of souls is to help one another) is the motto of
Jainism. Ṇamōkāra mantra is the most common and basic prayer in Jainism.[5]
Jainism has two major ancient sub-traditions, Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras; and several smaller sub-traditions that
emerged in the 2nd millennium CE. The Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras have different views on ascetic practices, gender
and which Jain texts can be considered canonical. Jain mendicants are found in all Jain sub-traditions, with laypersons
(śrāvakas) supporting the mendicants' spiritual pursuits with resources.
Jainism has between four and five million followers, with most Jains residing in India.[6] Outside India, some of the
largest Jain communities are present in Canada, Europe, Kenya, the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, Suriname, Fiji, and the
United States. Major Jain festivals include Paryushana and Daslakshana, Mahavir Jayanti, and Diwali.
Contents
Main principles
Non-violence (ahimsa)
Many-sided reality (anekāntavāda)
Non-attachment (aparigraha)
Jain ethics and five vows
Practices
Asceticism
Food and fasting
Meditation
Rituals and worship
Festivals
Monasticism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism 1/49
Supplementary vows and Sallekhana

Traditions and sects
Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras
Other sub-traditions
Gender and spiritual liberation
Beliefs and philosophy
Dravya (Substance)
Tattva (Reality)
Soul and Karma
Saṃsāra
Cosmology
God
Epistemology
Salvation, liberation
Scriptures and texts
Influence on Indian literature
Comparison with Buddhism and Hinduism
Art and architecture
Temples
Pilgrimages
Statues and sculptures
Symbols
History
Origins
Political history
Interaction with other religions
Colonial era
Jains in the modern era
See also
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Main principles
Non-violence (ahimsa)
The principle of ahimsa (non-violence or non-injury) is a fundamental tenet of Jainism.[7] It believes that one must
abandon all violent activity, and without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless.[7] In Jain
theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill any being, and "non-violence
is one's highest religious duty".[7][8]
Jain texts such as Acaranga Sūtra and Tattvarthasūtra state that one must
renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or
immovable.[9][10] Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living
being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or
indirectly.[9][8] Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all
beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought.[9][10] It states that
instead of hate or violence against anyone, "all living creatures must help each
other".[10][note 1] Violence negatively affects and destroys one's soul,
Painting with the message Ahiṃsā
particularly when the violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or
Paramo Dharma (non-violence is
when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non-human the highest virtue or religion)
living being.[10]
The idea of reverence for non-violence (ahiṃsā) is founded in Hindu and

Buddhist canonical texts, and it may have origins in more ancient Brahmanical
Vedic thoughts.[7][12][13] However, no other Indian religion has developed the
non-violence doctrine and its implications on everyday life as has
Jainism.[14][15][16]
The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been
interpreted by some Jain scholars not to "be driven by merit from giving or
compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all creatures", but resulting
from "continual self-discipline", a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own
spiritual development which ultimately affects one's salvation and release from
rebirths.[17] Causing injury to any being in any form creates bad karma which
affects one's rebirth, future well being and suffering.[18][19]
Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined the Ahiṃsā doctrine when one is
faced with external threat or violence. For example, they justified violence by
monks to protect nuns.[20][21] According to Dundas, the Jain scholar Jinadatta
Suri wrote during a time of Muslim destruction of temples and persecution
that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill
somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain
The hand with a wheel on the palm
deliverance".[22] However, such examples in Jain texts that condone fighting symbolizes Ahiṃsā in Jainism. The
and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare.[20][note 2] word in the middle is ahiṃsā. The
wheel represents the
dharmachakra, which stands for the
Many-sided reality (anekāntavāda) resolve to halt the saṃsāra
(transmigration) through relentless
The second main principle of Jainism is anekāntavāda or anekantatva,[24][25]
pursuit of truth and non-violence.
a word derived from anekānta (not one ended, sided", "many-sidedness" or
"manifoldness) and vada (doctrine", "way).[24][25][26]
The anekāntavāda doctrine states that truth and reality is complex and always has multiple aspects. Reality can be
experienced, but it is not possible to totally express it with language. Human attempts to communicate is Naya, explained
as "partial expression of the truth".[24] Language is not Truth, but a means and attempt to express Truth. From Truth,
according to Mahāvīra, language returns and not the other way round.[24][27] One can experience the truth of a taste, but
cannot fully express that taste through language. Any attempts to express the experience is syāt, or valid "in some respect"
but it remains a "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete".[27] In the same way, spiritual truths are complex, they have
multiple aspects, and language cannot express their plurality, yet through effort and appropriate karma they can be
experienced.[24] Since reality is many-sided the great error, according to Jainism, is ekānta (one-sidedness) where some
relative truth is treated as an absolute truth to the exclusion of others.[28]
The anekāntavāda premise of the Jains is ancient, as evidenced by its mention in Buddhist texts such as the
Samaññaphala Sutta. The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahāvīra's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical
questions was a "qualified yes" (syāt).[29][30] These texts identify anekāntavāda doctrine to be one of the key differences
between the teachings of the Mahāvīra and those of the Buddha. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of
the answer "it is" or "it is not" to metaphysical questions. The Mahāvīra, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both "it
is", and "it is not", with "perhaps" qualification and with reconciliation to understand the Absolute Reality.[31] Syādvāda
(predication logic) and nayavāda (perspective epistemology) of Jainism expand on the concept of anekāntavāda.
Syādvāda recommends the expression of anekānta by prefixing the epithet syād to every phrase or expression describing
the "permanent being".[32][33] There is no creator God in Jainism; existence has neither beginning nor end, and the
permanent being is conceptualized as jiva (soul) and ajiva (matter) within a dualistic anekāntavāda framework.[34]
According to Paul Dundas, in contemporary times the anekāntavāda doctrine has been interpreted by some Jains as
intending to "promote a universal religious tolerance", and a teaching of "plurality" and "benign attitude to other [ethical,
religious] positions". Dundas states this is problematic and a misreading of Jain historical texts and Mahāvīra's
teachings.[35] The "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings of the Mahāvīra is a doctrine about the nature of
absolute reality and human existence, and it is sometimes called "non-absolutism" doctrine.[36] However, it is not a
doctrine about tolerating or condoning activities such as sacrificing or killing animals for food, nor violence against
disbelievers or any other living being as "perhaps right".[35] The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict
requirements and there is no "perhaps" or "that is just one perspective" about them.[37] Similarly, since ancient times,
Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism was highly critical of the knowledge
systems and ideologies of its rivals, and vice versa.[38]
Non-attachment (aparigraha)
The third main principle in Jainism is aparigraha which means non-attachment to worldly possessions.[39] For ascetics,
Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property. For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited
possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity.[39] According to Natubhai
Shah, aparigraha applies to both the material and the psychic. Material possessions refer to various forms of property.
Psychic possessions refer to emotions, likes and dislikes, and attachments of any form. Unchecked attachment to
possessions is said to result in direct harm to one's personality.[40]
Jainism views attachments to material or emotional possessions as what leads to passions, which in turn leads to
violence.[7] According to the aparigraha principle, a Jain monk or nun is expected to be homeless and family-less with no
emotional longings or attachments.[41] The ascetic is a wandering mendicant in the Digambara tradition, or a resident
mendicant in the Śvētāmbara tradition.[41]
In addition, Jain texts mention that "attachment to possessions" (parigraha) is of two kinds: attachment to internal
possessions (ābhyantara parigraha), and attachment to external possessions (bāhya parigraha).[42] For internal
possessions, Jainism identifies four key passions of the mind (kashaya): anger, pride (ego), deceitfulness, and greed. In
addition to the four passions of the mind, the remaining ten internal passions are: wrong belief, the three sex-passions
(male sex-passion, female sex-passion, neuter sex-passion), and the six defects (laughter, like, dislike, sorrow, fear,
disgust).[43][44]
Jain ethics and five vows

Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These are called
anuvratas (small vows) for Jain laypersons, and mahavratas (great vows) for
Jain mendicants.[45] For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has
access to a guru (teacher", "counsellor), deva (Jina", "god), doctrine, and that
the individual is free from five offences: doubts about the faith, indecisiveness
about the truths of Jainism, sincere desire for Jain teachings, recognition of
fellow Jains, and admiration for their spiritual pursuits.[46] Such a person
undertakes the following Five vows of Jainism:
1. Ahiṃsā, "intentional non-violence" or "noninjury":[46] The first major vow

taken by Jains is to cause no harm to other human beings, as well as all
living beings (particularly animals).[46] This is the highest ethical duty in
Jainism, and it applies not only to one's actions, but demands that one be
non-violent in one's speech and thoughts.[47][48]
2. Satya, "truth": This vow is to always speak the truth. Neither lie, nor speak
what is not true, and do not encourage others or approve anyone who
speaks an untruth.[47][45]
3. Asteya, "not stealing": A Jain layperson should not take anything that is
not willingly given.[46][49] Additionally, a Jain mendicant should ask for Nishidhi stone, depicting the vow of
permission to take it if something is being given.[50]
sallekhana, 14th century, Karnataka
4. Brahmacharya, "celibacy": Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures is
prescribed for Jain monks and nuns. For laypersons, the vow means
chastity, faithfulness to one's partner.[47][45]
5. Aparigraha, "non-possessiveness": This includes non-attachment to material and psychological possessions, avoiding
craving and greed.[45] Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations, own nothing and are
attached to no one.[39][51]
Practices
Asceticism
Of all the major Indian religions, Jainism has had the strongest austerity-driven ascetic tradition, and it is an essential
part of a mendicant's spiritual pursuits.[52][53][54] Ascetic life may include nakedness symbolizing non-possession of even
clothes, fasting, body mortification, penance, and other austerities, in order to burn away past karma and stop producing
new karma, both of which are believed in Jainism to be essential for reaching siddha and moksha (liberation from
rebirths", and "salvation).[52][55][56]
Jain texts like Tattvartha Sūtra and Uttaradhyayana Sūtra discuss ascetic austerities to great lengths and formulations.
Six outer and six inner practices are most common, and oft-repeated in later Jain texts.[57] According to John Cort, outer
austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods,
mortifying the flesh, and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation).[58] Inner austerities include
expiation, confession, respecting and assisting mendicants, studying, meditation, and ignoring bodily wants in order to
abandon the body.[58]
Lists of internal and external austerities in Jainism varies with the text and tradition.[59][60] Asceticism is viewed as a
means to control desires, and a means to purify the jiva (soul).[54] The tirthankaras of Jainism, such as the Mahāvīra
(Vardhamana) set an example of leading an ascetic life by performing severe austerities for twelve years.[61][62][63]
Food and fasting

The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to Jain culture being vegetarian. Devout Jains practice lacto-
vegetarianism, that is eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production.
Veganism is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare.[64] Jain monks and nuns do not eat root vegetables
such as potatoes, onions and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and because a bulb or
tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being.[65][note 3]
Jains fast on different occasions throughout the year, particularly during festivals.[66] This practice is called upavasa,
tapasya or vrata.[67] According to Singh, this takes on various forms and may be practised based on one's ability.[68]
Some examples include Digambara fasting for Dasa-laksana-parvan where a Jain layperson eats only one or two meals
per day, drinking only boiled water for ten days, or fasting completely on the first and last day of the festival.[69] With
these practices the layperson mimics the practices of a Jain mendicant during the festival.[69] A similar practice is found
among Śvētāmbara Jains on eight day paryusana with samvatsari-pratikramana.[70]
The fasting practice is believed to remove karma from one's soul and allow one to gain merit (punya).[66] A "one day" fast
in Jain tradition lasts about 36 hours, starting at sunset before the day of the fast and ending 48 minutes after the sunrise
the day after.[66] Among laypeople, fasting is more commonly observed by women, where it is believed that this shows her
piety, religious purity, gains her and her family prestige, leads to merit earning and helps ensure future well-being for her
family. Some religious fasts are observed as a group where Jain women bond socially and support each other.[71] Long
fasts are celebrated by friends and families with special ceremonies.[71]
Meditation
Left: Jain nuns meditating, Right: 10th century Gommateshwara statue depicting standing meditation (Kayotsarga
posture)
Jainism considers meditation (dhyana) a necessary practice, but its goals are very different from those in Buddhism and
Hinduism.[72] In Jainism, meditation is concerned more with stopping karmic attachments and activity, not as a means to
transformational insights or self-realization in other Indian religions.[72] Meditation in early Jain literature is a form of
austerity and ascetic practice in Jainism, while in late medieval era the practice adopted ideas from other Indian
traditions. According to Paul Dundas, this lack of meditative practices in early Jain texts may be because substantial
portions of ancient Jain texts were lost.[72]
According to Padmanabh Jaini, Sāmāyika is a practice of "brief periods in meditation" in Jainism that is a part of
siksavrata (ritual restraint).[73] The goal of Sāmāyika is to achieve equanimity, and it is the second siksavrata.[note 4] The
samayika ritual is practiced at least three times a day by mendicants, while a layperson includes it with other ritual
practices such as Puja in a Jain temple and doing charity work.[74][75][76] According to Johnson, as well as Jaini, samayika
connotes more than meditation, and for a Jain householder is the voluntary ritual practice of "assuming temporary ascetic
status".[77][note 5]
The Digambara Jain scholar Kundakunda, in his Pravacanasara states that a Jain mendicant should meditate on "I, the
pure self". Anyone who considers his body or possessions as "I am this, this is mine" is on the wrong road, while one who
meditates, thinking the antithesis and "I am not others, they are not mine, I am one knowledge" is on the right road to
meditating on the "soul, the pure self".[79][note 6]
Rituals and worship

There are many rituals in Jainism's various sects. According to Dundas, the
ritualistic lay path among Śvētāmbara Jains is "heavily imbued with ascetic
values", where the rituals either revere or celebrate the ascetic life of
Tirthankaras, or mendicants, or progressively get closer to psychologically and
physically living ever more like an ascetic.[82][83] The ultimate ritual is
sallekhana, a religious death through ascetic abandonment of food and
drinks.[82] The Digambara Jains follow the same theme, but the details differ
from Śvētāmbaras, and according to Dundas, the life cycle and religious rituals
are closer to the liturgy found among Hindu traditions.[82] The overlap in Jain Praying at the feet of a statue of
and Hindu rituals is largely in the life cycle (rites-of-passage) rituals, according Bahubali
to Padmanabh Jaini, and likely one that developed over time because Jains and
Hindus societies overlapped, and rituals were viewed as necessary and secular
ceremonies.[84][85]
Jains do not believe in a creator god, but do ritually worship numerous deities.[83] The Jinas are prominent and a large
focus of this ritualism, but they are not the only deva in Jainism. A Jina as deva is not an avatar (incarnation) in Jainism,
but the highest state of omniscience that an ascetic tirthankara achieved.[86] Out of the 24 Tirthankaras, Jain devotional
worship is predominantly addressed to four: Mahāvīra, Parshvanatha, Neminatha and Rishabhanatha.[87] Among the
non-tirthankara saints, devotional worship is common for Bahubali among the Digambaras.[88] Some of Jaina rituals
remember the five life events of the tirthankaras, called the Panch Kalyanaka, are rituals such as the Panch Kalyanaka
Pratishtha Mahotsava, Panch Kalyanaka Puja and Snatrapuja.[89][90]
The basic worship ritual practised by Jains is darsana (seeing) of deva, which includes Jina,[92] or other yaksas, gods and
goddesses such as Brahmadeva, 52 Viras, Padmavati, Ambika and 16 Vidyadevis (Sarasvati, Lakshmi, others).[93][94][95]
The Terapanthi sub-tradition of Digambaras do not worship many of the deities popular among mainstream Digambaras,
and they limit their ritual worship to Tirthankaras.[96] The worship ritual is called the devapuja, is found in all Jaina sub
traditions, which share common features.[97] Typically, the Jaina layperson enters the temple inner sanctum in simple
clothing and bare feet, with a plate filled with offerings, bows down, says the namaskara, completes his or her litany and
prayers, sometimes is assisted by the temple priest, leaves the offerings and then departs.[97]
Jain practices include performing abhisheka (ceremonial bath) of the images.[98] Some Jain sects employ a pujari (also
called upadhye) for rituals, who may be a non-Jain (a Hindu), to perform special rituals and other priestly duties at the
temple.[99][100] More elaborate worship includes ritual offerings such as rice, fresh and dry fruits, flowers, coconut, sweets,
and money. Some may light up a lamp with camphor and make auspicious marks with
sandalwood paste. Devotees also recite Jain texts, particularly the life stories of the
tirthankaras.[101][91]
The traditional Jains, like Buddhists and Hindus, believe in the efficacy of mantras
and that certain sounds and words are inherently auspicious, powerful and
spiritual.[102][103] The most famous of the mantras, broadly accepted in various sects
of Jainism, is the "five homage" (panca namaskara) mantra which is believed to be
eternal and existent since the first ford-maker's time.[102] The medieval era Jain
worship practices, according to Ellen Gough, also developed tantric diagrams of the
Rishi-mandala where the tirthankaras are portrayed.[104] The Tantric traditions
within Jainism use mantra and rituals that are believed to accrue merit for rebirth
realms.[105]
Jain worship may include

ritual offerings and Festivals
recitals.[91] Jains celebrate many annual festivals.
Many of the major festivals in Jainism fall
in and around the comasu (Sanskrit:
chaturmasa) period of the calendar. [106] It is the four month monsoon period
when the Jain ascetics are mandated to remain in residence at one place in the
Jain tradition, rather than be traveling or going around Indian villages and
towns and never staying in one place for more than a month. The comasu
period allows the four orders of the Jain community to be together and
participate in the festive remembrances. Celebrating Das Lakshana
(Paryusana), Jain Center of
The most important annual Jain festival is called the Paryushana by America, New York City
Svetambaras and Dasa lakshana parva by the Digambaras. It is celebrated
from the 12th day of waning moon in the traditional luni-solar month of
Bhadrapada in the Indian calendar. This typically falls in August or September of the Gregorian calendar.[107][108] It lasts
eight days for Svetambaras, and ten days among the Digambaras.[107] It is a time when lay people fast and pray. The five
vows are emphasized during this time.[108] Svetambaras recite the Kalpasūtras, while Digambaras read their own texts.
The festival is an occasion where Jains make active effort to stop cruelty towards other life forms, freeing animals in
captivity and preventing slaughter of animals.[107]
The last day involves a focused prayer/meditation session known as

Forgiveness Samvatsari. Jains consider this as a day of atonement, granting
I forgive all living beings, forgiveness to others, seeking forgiveness from all living beings,
may all living beings forgive me. physically or mentally asking for forgiveness and resolving to treat
All in this world are my friends, everyone in the world as friends.[107] Forgiveness is asked by saying
I have no enemies. "Micchami Dukkadam" or "Khamat Khamna" to others. This means,
"If I have offended you in any way, knowingly or unknowingly, in
— Jain festival prayer on the last day[109]
thought, word or action, then I seek your forgiveness." The literal
meaning of Paryushana is "abiding" or "coming together".[110]
Mahavir Jayanti celebrates the birth of Mahāvīra. It is celebrated on the 13th day of the luni-solar month of Chaitra in the
traditional Indian calendar. This typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar.[111][112] The festivities include
visiting Jain temples, pilgrimages to shrines, reading Jain texts and processions of Mahāvīra by the community. At his
legendary birthplace of Kundagrama in Bihar, north of Patna, special events are held by Jains.[111]
Diwali is observed by Jains as the anniversary of Mahāvīra's attainment of moksha.[113] The Hindu festival of Diwali is also
celebrated on the same date (Kartika Amavasya). Jain temples, homes, offices, and shops are decorated with lights and
diyas (small oil lamps). The lights are symbolic of knowledge or removal of ignorance. Sweets are often distributed. On
Diwali morning, Nirvan Ladoo is offered after praying to Mahāvīra in all Jain temples across the world. The Jain new year
starts right after Diwali.[113] Some other festivals celebrated by Jains are Akshaya Tritiya and Raksha Bandhan, similar to
those in the Hindu communities.[114][115]
Monasticism
Jainism monastic organization is a part of Jain society called sangh.[116] A sangh has a
four-fold order, or caturvidh, sakal sangh.[116] This consists of sadhu (male ascetics,
muni), sadhvi (female ascetics, aryika), śrāvaka (laymen), and śrāvikā
(laywoman).[117][118] The latter two support the ascetics and their monastic
organizations called gacch or samuday, in autonomous regional Jain
congregations.[116]
Digambar tradition has two main monastic orders Mula Sangh and the Kashtha Sangh,
both led by Bhattarakas. Other notable monastic orders include the Digambara
Digambara monk
Terapanth which emerged in the 17th century.[119] Śvētāmbaras have their own sanghs,
but unlike Digambaras which have had predominantly sadhu sanghs (male monastic
organizations), they have major sadhu and sadhvi sanghs (monks and nuns).[120]
According to Śvētāmbara Jain texts, from

Kalpasūtras onwards, its monastic
community has had more sadhvis than
sadhus (female than male mendicants).
In Tapa Gacch of the modern era, the
ratio of sadhvis to sadhus (nuns to Śvētāmbara-Deravasi monk
monks) is about 3.5 to 1.[121] In contrast
to Śvētāmbara, the Digambara sect
monastic community has been predominantly male.[122] In the Digambara
tradition, a male human being is considered closest to the apex with the
A Śvētāmbara nun (early 20th-century) potential to achieve his soul's liberation from rebirths through asceticism.
Women must gain karmic merit, to be reborn as man, and only then can
they achieve spiritual liberation in the Digambara sect of Jainism.[123][124]
The Śvētāmbaras disagree with the Digambaras, believing that women can
also achieve liberation from Saṃsāra through ascetic practices.[124][125]
The Jain monastic organization shares many parallels with those found in
Buddhist and Brahmanical-Hindu monasticism.[126][127] They all have
similar rules, hierarchical structure, practices such as not traveling during
the four-month monsoon season and celibacy.[127] According to William
Johnston, this is not likely from mutual borrowing of ideas, but because
A Digambara nun these traditions emerged from the same ancient Indian monastic traditions
that preceded the Buddha and the Mahāvīra.[126] There are some
differences. For example, the Jain and Hindu monastic community has been
traditionally more mobile and had an itinerant lifestyle, while Buddhist monks have favored belonging to a sangha
(monastery) and staying in its premises.[128] Buddhist monastic rules forbid a monk to go outside without wearing the
sangha's distinctive ruddy robe, or to use wooden bowls.[126] In contrast, Jain monastic rules have either required no
clothes (Digambara) or white (Śvētāmbara) and the use of wooden or empty gourd as the begging bowl.[126] The Jain
monastic rules have encouraged the use of mouth cover, as well as a broom to gently remove any insect that comes in their
path.[129][130][131]
Supplementary vows and Sallekhana

Jainism also prescribes seven supplementary vows which include three guņa vratas (merit vows) and four śikşā
vratas.[132][133]
The Sallekhana (or Santhara) vow is a "religious death" ritual vow observed at the end of life, historically by Jain monks
and nuns, but rare in the modern age.[134] In this vow, there is voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake
to end one's life by choice and with dispassion,[135][136] In Jainism this is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a
soul's future rebirths.[137]
Traditions and sects
Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras

The Jain community is divided into two major denominations, Digambara and Śvētāmbara. Monks of the Digambara (sky-
clad) tradition do not wear clothes. Female monastics of the Digambara sect wear unstitched plain white sarees and are
referred to as Aryikas. Śvētāmbara (white-clad) monastics, on the other hand, wear seamless white clothes.[138]
During Chandragupta Maurya's reign, Jain tradition states that Acharya Bhadrabahu predicted a twelve-year-long famine
and moved to Karnataka with his disciples. Sthulabhadra, a pupil of Acharya Bhadrabahu, stayed in Magadha.[139] Later,
when followers of Acharya Bhadrabahu returned, they found those who had remained at Magadha had started wearing
white clothes, which was unacceptable to the others who remained naked.[140] This is how Jains believe the Digambara
and Śvētāmbara schism began, with the former being naked while the latter wore white clothes.[141] Digambara saw this as
being opposed to the Jain tenet of aparigraha which, according to them, required not even possession of clothes, i.e.
complete nudity. In the 5th-century CE, the Council of Valabhi was organized by Śvētāmbara, which Digambara did not
attend. At the council, the Śvētāmbara adopted the texts they had preserved as canonical scriptures, which Digambara
have ever since rejected. This council solidified the historic schism between these two major traditions of Jainism.[142][143]
The earliest record of Digambara beliefs is contained in the Prakrit Suttapahuda of Kundakunda.[144]
Other than rejecting or accepting different ancient Jain texts, Digambaras and Śvētāmbara differ in other significant ways
such as:
Śvētāmbaras trace their practices and dress code to the teachings of Parshvanatha, the 23rd tirthankara, which they
believe taught only Four restraints (a claim, scholars say are confirmed by the ancient Buddhist texts that discuss
Jaina monastic life). Mahāvīra taught Five vows, which Digambara follow.[145][146][147] The Digambara sect disagrees
with the Śvētāmbara interpretations,[148] and reject the theory of difference in Parshvanatha and Mahāvīra's
teachings.[146]
Digambaras believe that both Parshvanatha and Mahāvīra remained unmarried, whereas Śvētāmbara believe the
23rd and 24th did indeed marry. According to the Śvētāmbara version, Parshva married Prabhavati,[149] and
Mahāvīra married Yashoda who bore him a daughter named Priyadarshana.[150][151] The two sects also differ on the
origin of Trishala, Mahāvīra's mother,[150] as well as the details of Tirthankara's biographies such as how many
auspicious dreams their mothers had when they were in the wombs.[152]
Digambara believe Rishabha, Vasupujya and Neminatha were the

three tirthankaras who reached omniscience while in sitting
posture and other tirthankaras were in standing ascetic posture. In
contrast, Śvētāmbaras believe it was Rishabha, Nemi and
Mahāvīra who were the three in sitting posture.[153]
Digambara monasticism rules are more rigid.[154]
Digambara iconography are plain, Śvētāmbara icons are
decorated and colored to be more lifelike.[154]
Excavations at Mathura revealed Jain statues from the time of the
Kushan Empire (c. 1st century CE). Tirthankara represented without
clothes, and monks with cloth wrapped around the left arm, are
identified as the Ardhaphalaka (half-clothed) mentioned in texts. The Digambara Mahāvīra iconography
Yapaniyas, believed to have originated from the Ardhaphalaka,
followed Digambara nudity along with several Śvētāmbara beliefs.[155]
Other sub-traditions
Both of the major Jain traditions evolved into sub-traditions over time.
For example, the devotional worship traditions of Śvētāmbara are
referred to as Murti-pujakas, those who live in and around Jain
temples became Deravasi or Mandira-margi. Those who avoid
temples and pursue their spirituality at a designated monastic meeting Śvētāmbara Simandhar Swami iconography
place came to be known as Sthānakavāsī.[156][157] About the 18th
century, the Śvētāmbara and Digambara traditions saw an emergence
of separate Terapanthi movements.[157][158][159] Some scholars such as Malvaniya state that these ideas entered Jainism
from an influence of Islam, while others such as Dundas state that these ideas, debates and movements can be traced in
more ancient texts than the start of Islam.[160]
In the modern era, according to Flügel, new Jaina religious movements that are a "primarily devotional form of Jainism"
have developed which resemble "Jain Mahayana" style devotionalism.[161]
Gender and spiritual liberation

A male human being is considered closest to the apex with the potential to achieve liberation, particularly through
asceticism. In the Digambara traditional belief, women must gain karmic merit, to be reborn as man, and only then can
they achieve spiritual liberation.[123][124] However, this view has been historically debated within Jainism and different
Jaina sects have expressed different views, particularly the Śvētāmbara sect that believes that women too can achieve
spiritual liberation from rebirths in Saṃsāra.[124][125] The Śvētāmbaras state the 19th Tirthankara Māllīnātha was
female.[162] However, Digambara reject this, and worship Mallinatha as a male.[163]
Beliefs and philosophy
Dravya (Substance)
The dravya in Jainism are fundamental entities, called astikaya (literally, "collection that exists).[164] They are believed to
be eternal, and the ontological building blocks that constitute and explain all existence, whether perceived or not.[164][165]
According to the Śvētāmbara tradition of Jainism, there are five eternal

substances in existence: Soul (jiva), Matter (pudgala), Space (akasha),
motion (Dharma) and rest (Adharma).[166][note 7] To this list of five, the
Digambara Jain tradition adds "Time" (kala) as the sixth eternal
substance.[166][164][168] In both traditions, the substance of space is
conceptualized as "world space" (lokakasha) and "non-world space"
(alokiakasha). Further, both soul and matter are considered as active
ontological substances, while the rest are inactive.[166] Another Chart showing the classification of dravya
categorization found in Jain philosophy is jiva and ajiva, the latter being and astikaya
all dravya that is not jiva.[164][165]
Jīva (Soul), Ajīva (Non-Soul)

Jiva means "soul" in Jainism, and is also called jivatman.[169] It is a core concept and the fundamental focus of the Jain
theology.[164][170] The soul is believed to be eternal, and a substance that undergoes constant modifications, in every life,
after every rebirth of a living being.[164][171] Jiva consists of pure consciousness in the Jain thought, has innate "free will"
that causes it to act but is believed to be intangible and formless.[164] It is the soul that experiences existence and gains
knowledge, not mind nor body both believed to a heap of matter.[172][173] Jain philosophy further believes that the soul is
the mechanism of rebirth, and karma accumulation. It is the same size in all living beings, such as a human being, a tiny
insect and a large elephant. Jiva is everywhere, filling and infused in every minuscule part of the entire loka (realm of
existence), according to Jainism.[172] The soul has the potential to reach omniscience and eternal bliss, and end the cycles
of rebirth and associated suffering, which is the goal of Jain spirituality.[172][174]
The jiva is believed to rely on other dravya to function.[164] The Jain philosophy completely separates body (matter) from
the soul (consciousness).[166] Souls reside in bodies and journey endlessly through saṃsāra (that is, realms of existence
through cycles of rebirths and redeaths).[175]
Jivas are believed to be of two types, stationary and mobile. Illustration of the former are plants, while moving jivas
include examples such as human beings, animals, gods, hell beings and insects.[176] Jivas are further classified in Jain
philosophy by assigned number of senses which range from one sensory organ to five sensory organs.[176] Inert world such
as air, fire or clod of dirt, considered non-sensate in contemporary science, are asserted in historic texts of Jainism to be
living and with sensory powers.[177]
Ajiva consists of everything other than jiva.[178] Life processes such as breath, means of knowledge such as language, all
emotional and biological experiences such as pleasure and pain are all believed in Jainism to be made of pudgala (matter).
These interact with tattva or reality to create, bind, destroy or unbind karma particles to the soul.[179][180]
According to Dundas, Dharma as a metaphysical substance in Jain philosophy may be understood as "that which carries"
instead of the literal sense of ordinary physical motion. Thus, dharma includes all verbal and mental activity, that
contribute to karma and purification of the soul.[176]
Tattva (Reality)
Tattva connotes "Reality, Truth" in Jain philosophy, and is the framework for salvation. According to Digambara Jains,
there are seven tattvas, while Śvētāmbaras believe in nine tattvas:[181][182][179]
The sentient (jiva, soul)

The insentient (ajiva)
The karmic influx (Āsrava) to the soul
Good karma (punya, merits), found in the tattva theory of Śvētāmbara, but
not of Digambaras
Bad karma (papa, negatives), found in the tattva theory of Śvētāmbara,
but not of Digambaras
The bondage (Bandha) of karmic particles to the soul, thereby causing its
change, which cumulatively determines the future rebirths[183][184]
The stoppage (Saṃvara) of karmic influx
The dissociation and wiping away of past karmic particles (Nirjarā) from
the soul The 7 Tattvas of Jain philosophy
The liberation (Moksha)
The true insight in Jain philosophy is considered as "faith in the tattvas".[182]
The spiritual goal in Jainism is to reach moksha for ascetics, but for most Jain laypersons and ascetics it is to accumulate
good karma that leads to better rebirth and a step closer to liberation.[185][186]
Soul and Karma

According to Jainism, the existence of "a bound and ever changing soul" is a self-evident truth, an axiom which does not
need to be proven.[187] There are numerous souls, but every one of them has three qualities (Guṇa): consciousness
(caitanya, most important quality of soul), bliss (sukha) and vibrational energy (virya).[188] The vibration draws karmic
particles to the soul and creates bondages, but is also what adds merit or demerit to the soul.[188]
Karma, like in other Indian religions, connotes in Jainism the universal cause and effect law. However, it is envisioned as a
material substance (subtle matter) that can bind to the soul, travel with the soul substance in bound form between
rebirths, and affect the suffering and happiness experienced by the jiva in the lokas.[189] Karma is also believed to obscure
and obstruct the innate nature and striving of the soul, as well as its spiritual potential in the next rebirth.[190]
The relationship between the soul and karma, states Padmanabh Jaini, can be explained with the analogy of gold. Like
gold is always found mixed with impurities in its original state, Jainism holds that the soul is not pure at its origin but is
always impure and defiled like natural gold. One can exert effort and purify gold, similarly, Jainism states that the defiled
soul can be purified by proper refining methodology.[191] Karma either defiles the soul further, or refines it to a cleaner
state, and this affects future rebirths.[192] Karma is thus an efficient cause (nimitta) in Jain philosophy, but not the
material cause (upadana). The soul is believed to be the material cause.[193]
Tirthankara-nama-karma is a special type of karma, bondage of which raises a soul to the supreme status of a
tirthankara.[194]
Jain texts state that souls exist as "clothed with material bodies", where it
entirely fills up the body.[195] There are five types of bodies in the Jaina
thought: earthly (e.g. most humans, animals and plants), metamorphic (e.g.
gods, hell beings, fine matter, some animals and a few humans who can morph
because of their perfections), transference type (e.g. good and pure substances
realized by ascetics), fiery (e.g. heat that transforms or digests food), and
karmic (the substrate where the karmic particles reside and which make the
Classification of Saṃsāri Jīvas
soul ever changing).[196]
(transmigrating souls) in Jainism
Jain philosophy further divides the earthly body by symmetry, number of

sensory organs, vitalities (ayus), functional capabilities and whether one body
hosts one soul or one body hosts many.[197] Every living being has one to five senses, three balas (power of body, language
and mind), respiration (inhalation and exhalation), and life-duration.[198][199] All living beings, in every realm including
the gods and hell beings, accrue and destroy eight types of karma according to the elaborate theories in Jain texts.[200]
Elaborate descriptions of the shape and function of the physical and metaphysical universe, and its constituents, are also
provided in the Jain texts.[201][202] All of these elaborate theories attempt to illustrate and consistently explain the Jain
karma theory in a deeply moral framework, much like Buddhism and Hinduism but with significant differences in the
details and assumptions.[203]
Saṃsāra
The conceptual framework of the Saṃsāra doctrine differs between the Jainism
traditions and other Indian religions. For instance, in Jaina traditions, soul
(jiva) is accepted as a truth, as is assumed in the Hindu traditions. It is not
assumed in the Buddhist traditions. However, Saṃsāra or the cycle of rebirths,
has a definite beginning and end in Jainism.[204] The Jaina theosophy, unlike
Hindu and Buddhist theosophies, asserts that each soul passes through
8,400,000 birth-situations, as they circle through Saṃsāra.[205][206] As the
soul cycles, states Padmanabh Jaini, Jainism traditions believe that it goes
through five types of bodies: earth bodies, water bodies, fire bodies, air bodies
and vegetable lives.[207] With all human and non-human activities, such as
rainfall, agriculture, eating and even breathing, minuscule living beings are
taking birth or dying, their souls are believed to be constantly changing bodies.
Perturbing, harming or killing any life form, including any human being, is
considered a sin in Jainism, with negative karmic effects.[208][209]
Souls begin their journey in a primordial state, and exist in a state of

Souls are reborn in various realms
consciousness continuum that is constantly evolving through Saṃsāra.[210]
of existence depending on their
Some evolve to a higher state; some regress asserts the Jaina theory, a karmas, according to Jainism.
movement that is driven by the karma.[211] Further, Jaina traditions believe
that there exist Abhavya (incapable), or a class of souls that can never attain
moksha (liberation).[204][212] The Abhavya state of soul is entered after an intentional and shockingly evil act.[213]
Jainism considers souls as pluralistic each in a karma-samsara cycle, and does not subscribe to Advaita-style (not two)
nondualism of Hinduism, or Advaya-style nondualism of Buddhism.[212] A liberated soul in Jainism is one who has gone
beyond Saṃsāra, is at the apex, is omniscient, remains there eternally, and is known as a Siddha.[214]
Cosmology
Jain texts propound that the universe consists of many eternal lokas (realms of
existence). As in Buddhism and Hinduism, Jain cosmology believes both time
and the universe are eternal without beginning and end, and that the universe
is transient (impermanent in attributes) at the same time.[202][169] The
universe, body, matter and time are considered in Jain philosophy as separate
from the soul (jiva or jivatman). Their interaction explains life, living, death
and rebirth.[169]
Rebirth loka (realms of existence) in According to the Jain texts, the universe is divided into three parts, the upper,
Jain cosmology.[215] middle, and lower worlds, called respectively urdhva loka, madhya loka, and
adho loka.[216] As with the realms of existences, Kāla (time) is without
beginning and eternal;[168] the cosmic wheel of time, called kālachakra,
rotates ceaselessly. According to Jain texts, in this part of the universe, there are
six periods of time within two aeons (ara), and in the first aeon the universe
generates, and in the next it degenerates.[217] Thus, the worldly cycle of time is
divided into two parts or half-cycles, utsarpiṇī (ascending) and avasarpiṇī
(descending).[168] Utsarpiṇī is a period of progressive prosperity, where happiness
increases, while avasarpiṇī is a period of increasing sorrow and
immorality.[218][219] According to Jain cosmology, it is currently the fifth ara of
avasarpiṇī (half time cycle of degeneration). The present age is one of sorrow and
Division of time in Jain
misery, of religious decline, where the height and shape of living beings shrink.
cosmology.
Jain thought holds that after the sixth ara, the universe will be reawakened in the
new cycle and the start of utsarpiṇī aras.[220][221][222]
According to Jain texts, sixty-three illustrious beings, called śalākāpuruṣas, are born on this earth in every Dukhama-
sukhamā ara.[223] The Jain universal history is a compilation of the deeds of these illustrious persons.[224] They comprise
twenty-four Tīrthaṅkaras, twelve chakravartins, nine balabhadra, nine narayana, and nine
pratinarayana.[225][226][note 8]
A chakravartī is an emperor of the world and lord of the material realm.[223] Though he possesses worldly power, he often
finds his ambitions dwarfed by the vastness of the cosmos. Jain puranas give a list of twelve chakravartins (universal
monarchs). They are golden in complexion.[227] One of the chakravartins mentioned in Jain scriptures is Bharata
Chakravartin. Jain texts like Harivamsa Purana and Hindu Texts like Vishnu Purana state that Indian subcontinent
came to be known as Bharata varsha in his memory.[228][229]
There are nine sets of balabhadra, narayana, and pratinarayana. The balabhadra and narayana are brothers.[230]
Balabhadra are nonviolent heroes, narayana are violent heroes, and pratinarayana the villains. According to the
legends, the narayana ultimately kill the pratinarayana. Of the nine balabhadra, eight attain liberation and the last goes
to heaven. On death, the narayana go to hell because of their violent exploits, even if these were intended to uphold
righteousness.[231]
Jain cosmology divides the worldly cycle of time into two parts (avasarpiṇī and utsarpiṇī). According to Jain belief, in
every half-cycle of time, twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras are born in the human realm to discover and teach the Jain doctrine
appropriate for that era.[232][233][234] The word tīrthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha, which means a fordable
passage across a sea. The tīrthaṅkaras show the 'fordable path' across the sea of interminable births and deaths.[235]
Rishabhanatha is said to be the first tīrthankara of the present half-cycle (avasarpiṇī). Mahāvīra (6th century BC) is
revered as the twenty fourth tīrthankara of avasarpiṇī.[236][237] Jain texts explain that Jainism has always existed and
will always exist.[224]
In Jainism, perfect souls with the body are called arihant (victors) and perfect souls without the body are called Siddhas
(liberated souls).[214][238][239]
God
According to Jainism, the universe was never created, nor will it ever cease to exist. It is independent and self-sufficient,
does not require a creator nor any superior power to govern it, nor a judge nor destroyer.[169][240] In this belief, it is
distinct from the monotheistic Abrahamic religions; it is similar to Buddhism. It shares premises with the non-theistic
part of the spectrum of diverse beliefs found in different traditions within Hindu philosophy and distinct from theistic
Hindu traditions.[241]
Jain texts reject the idea of a creator, ruler or destroyer god and
postulate an eternal universe. However, Jainism believes in the
world of gods and hell beings who are born, and who die to be
reborn like living beings in the earthly realm of
existence.[242][243] Those souls who live in the body of a god do
so because of their positive karma. They have a metamorphic
body, that is they are believed in Jain thought to be able to
change their body at will. The gods live a life of happiness, fun
and frolic, whose wishes are automatically fulfilled.[244] They also
possess a more transcendent knowledge about material things
and can anticipate events in the human realms.[244] However,
once their past karmic merit is exhausted, the souls leave the Jain miniature painting of 24 tirthankaras, Jaipur,
"god body" and are reborn again as humans, animals or other c. 1850
beings.[244][245]
Epistemology
Jain philosophy accepts three reliable means of knowledge (pramana). It holds that correct knowledge is based on
perception (pratyaksa), inference (anumana) and testimony (sabda or the word of scriptures).[246][247] These ideas are
elaborated in Jain texts such as Tattvarthasūtra, Parvacanasara, Nandi and Anuyogadvarini.[248][247] Some Jain texts
add analogy (upamana) as the fourth reliable means, in a manner similar to epistemological theories found in other
Indian religions.[249]
In Jainism, jnāna (knowledge) is said to be of five kinds – Kevala Jnana (Omniscience), Śrutu Jñāna (Scriptural
Knowledge), Mati Jñāna (Sensory Knowledge), Avadhi Jñāna (Clairvoyance), and Manah prayāya Jñāna
(Telepathy).[250] According to the Jain text Tattvartha sūtra, the first two are indirect knowledge and the remaining three
are direct knowledge.[251]
Salvation, liberation
According to Jainism, purification of soul and liberation can be achieved
through the path of three jewels:[251][252][253]
1. Samyak darśana (Correct View) – Faith in basic tenets of Jainism,

acceptance of the self-evident truth of soul (jīva)[254]
2. Samyak jnana (Correct Knowledge) – Knowledge of the tattvas without
any doubt or misapprehension[255]
3. Samyak charitra (Correct Conduct) – behavior consistent with the Five
vows[255]
Jain texts often add samyak tap (Correct Asceticism) as the fourth jewel, The three shikhar (top) of a Jain
thereby emphasizing their belief in ascetic practices as the means to liberation temple represents Ratnatraya (three
(moksha).[256] The four jewels of orthodox Jain ideology are called moksha jewels)
marg.[252] According to Jain texts, the liberated pure soul (Siddha) goes up to
the summit of universe (Siddhashila) and dwells there in eternal bliss.[257]
Scriptures and texts
Jain scriptures are called Agamas. They are believed to have been verbally
transmitted by the oral tradition from one generation to the next, much like
the ancient Buddhist and Hindu texts.[259] The Jain tradition believes that
their religion is eternal, and the teachings of their first Tirthankara
Rishabhanatha were their scriptures millions of years ago.[260] The mythology
states that the tirthankara taught in a divine preaching hall called
samavasarana, which were heard by the gods, the ascetics and laypersons.
The discourse delivered is called Śhrut Jnāna and comprises eleven angas and
fourteen purvas.[261] The discourse is remembered and transmitted by the
Ganadharas (chief disciples), and is composed of twelve angas (departments).
The Suryaprajnaptisūtra, a 4th or
It is symbolically represented by a tree with twelve branches.[262]
3rd century BCE astronomy text of
According to the Jain tradition, an araha (worthy one) speaks meaning that is Śvētāmbara Jains. Above: its
manuscript from c. 1500 CE.[258]
then converted into sūtra (sutta) by his disciples, and from such sūtras emerge
the doctrine.[263] The creation and transmission of the Agama is the work of
disciples in Jainism. These texts, historically for Jains, have represented the truths
uttered by their tirthankaras, particularly the Mahāvīra.[263] In every cycle of Jain
cosmology, twenty-four tirthankaras appear and so do the Jain scriptures for that
ara.[260] The spoken scriptural language is believed to be Ardhamagadhi by the
Śvētāmbara Jains, and a form of sonic resonance by the Digambara Jains. These
then become coded into duvala samgagani pidaga (twelve limbed baskets by
disciples), but transmitted orally.[259] In the 980th year after Mahāvīra's death
(~5th century CE), the texts were written down for the first time by the Council of
Valabhi.[264]
The Śvētāmbaras believe that they have the original Jain scriptures. The
Śvētāmbara belief is denied by the Digambaras, who instead believe the scriptures
were lost.[263][265] The Śvētāmbaras state that their collection of 45 works represent
a continuous tradition, though they accept that their collection is also incomplete
because of a lost Anga text and four lost Purva texts.[266] The Digambara sect of
Jainism believes that Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic who had partial Stela depicting Śhrut Jnāna, or
knowledge of the original canon. According to them, Digambara Āchāryas recreated complete scriptural knowledge
the oldest-known Digambara Jain texts, including the four anuyoga.[267][268][269]
According to von Glasenapp, the Digambara texts partially agree with the
enumerations and works of older Śvētāmbara texts, but in many cases there are also gross differences between the texts of
the two major Jain traditions.[265]
The Śvētāmbara consider their 45 text collection as canonical.[266] The Digambaras created a secondary canon between
600 and 900 CE, compiling it into four groups: history, cosmography, philosophy and ethics.[270] This four-set collection
is called the "four Vedas" by the Digambaras.[270][note 9]
The most popular and influential texts of Jainism have been its non-canonical literature. Of these, the Kalpa Sūtras are
particularly popular among Śvētāmbaras, which they attribute to Bhadrabahu (c. 300 BCE). This ancient scholar is
revered in the Digambara tradition, and they believe he led their migration into the ancient south Karnataka region, and
created their tradition.[272] Śvētāmbaras disagree, and they believe that Bhadrabahu moved to Nepal, not into peninsular
India.[272] Both traditions, however, consider his Niryuktis and Samhitas as important texts. The earliest surviving
Sanskrit text by Umaswati called the Tattvarthasūtra is considered authoritative Jain philosophy text by all traditions of
Jainism. [273][274][275] His text has the same importance in Jainism as Vedanta Sūtras and Yogasūtras have in
Hinduism.[276][273][277]
In the Digambara tradition, the texts written by Kundakunda are highly revered and have been historically
influential.[278][279][280] Other important Jain texts include: Samayasara, Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra, and
Niyamasara.[281]
Influence on Indian literature

Parts of the Sangam literature in Tamil are attributed to Jaina authors. The
authenticity and interpolations are controversial, because the Sangam
literature presents Hindu ideas.[282] Some scholars state that the Jain portions
of the Sangam literature were added about or after the 8th-century CE, and
they are not the ancient layer.[283]
Tamil Jain texts such as the Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi and Nālaṭiyār are credited to
Digambara Jain authors.[284][285] These texts have seen interpolations and
revisions. For example, it is generally accepted now that the Jain nun Kanti
Mangulam inscription dated 2nd
inserted a 445-verse poem into Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi in the 12th century.[286][287]
century BCE
The Tamil Jain literature, according to Dundas, has been "lovingly studied and
commented upon for centuries by Hindus as well as Jains".[285] The themes of
two of the Tamil epics, including the Silapadikkaram, have an embedded influence of Jainism.[285]
Jain scholars also contributed to Kannada literature.[288] The Digambara Jain texts in Karnataka are unusual, in that they
were written under the patronage of kings and regional aristocrats. These Jain texts describe warrior violence and martial
valor as equivalent to a "fully committed Jain ascetic". They thus set aside the religious premise of absolute non-violence,
possibly reflecting an effort to syncretise various doctrines and beliefs found in Hinduism and Jainism.[289]
Jain manuscript libraries, called bhandaras inside Jain temples, are the oldest surviving in India.[290] Jain libraries,
including the Śvētāmbara collections at Patan, Gujarat and Jaiselmer, Rajasthan, as well as the Digambara collections in
Karnataka temples, have a large number of well-preserved manuscripts.[290][291] The manuscripts in the Jain libraries
include Jaina literature, as well as Hindu and Buddhist texts. Almost all their texts have been dated to about, or after, the
11th century CE.[292] The largest and most valuable libraries are found in the Thar Desert, hidden in the underground
vaults of Jain temples. These collections have witnessed insect damage, and only a small portion of these manuscripts
have been published and studied by scholars.[292]
Comparison with Buddhism and Hinduism

All three religions share concepts and doctrines such as karma and rebirth, and have similar ritual festival grammar,
mythologies and monastic traditions.[293][294][295] They do not believe in eternal heaven or hell or judgment day. Jainism,
like Buddhism and Hinduism, grants the freedom to choose beliefs such as in gods or no-gods, agree or disagree with core
teachings, participate or not participate in prayers, rituals and festivals. They all consider ethical values such as non-
violence to be important,[296] and link suffering to craving, individual's actions, intents and karma, and believe spirituality
is a means to enlightened peace, bliss and eternal liberation (moksha).[297][298]
Jainism differs from both Buddhism and Hinduism in its ontological premises. All of them believe in impermanence, but
Buddhism incorporates, amongst other things, the premise of anatta (non-self", "no eternal self or soul). Hinduism
incorporates the premise of an eternal unchanging atman (self", "soul), while Jainism incorporates the premises of a jiva
(self", "soul) that is both eternal and changing.[299][300][171] In Jaina thought, there are infinite eternal jivas,
predominantly all of which are in their cycles of rebirth, and a few who have liberated themselves through an ascetic life
and become siddhas (a perfect one).[301] In contrast to Jainism, Hindu philosophies express a spectrum of views, ranging
from nondualism where all souls are identical as Brahman and posited as interconnected one, to dualism where souls are
same and have Brahman-nature but are different from Brahman, and to other ideas.[302][303][304] Further, in Hindu
thought, Jainism-style asceticism is not emphasized, rather liberation is achievable through alternate paths such as Jnana
yoga, Karma yoga and Bhakti yoga.[305][306][307]
While both Hinduism and Jainism believe "soul exists" to be a self-evident truth, most Hindu systems consider it to be
eternally present, infinite and constant (vibhu), but some Hindu scholars proposed soul to be atomic. Hindu thought
generally discusses Atman and Brahman through a monistic or dualistic framework. In contrast, Jaina thought denies the
Hindu metaphysical concept of Brahman, and Jain philosophy considers the soul to be ever changing and bound to the
body or matter for each lifetime, thereby having a finite size that infuses the entire body of a living being.[308]
Jainism is similar to Buddhism in epistemically rejecting the Vedas and the Hindu metaphysical concept for Reality called
Brahman. Jainism and Hinduism, however, both believe "soul exists" as a self-evident truth, and in their historic theology
and practice have been more similar than with Buddhism.[309][297] Jains and Hindus have frequently intermarried over
their history, particularly in northern, central and western regions of India.[310][311]
Some early colonial scholars stated that Jainism like Buddhism was, in part, a rejection of the caste system in
Hinduism.[312][313] Later scholars, such as Gombrich state that this notion is an error for which "mainly Western authors
are responsible".[314] A caste system has been a historic part of Jain society.[310][315][316] According to Vilas Adinath
Sangave, "caste system is a universal feature of the Jaina community", and the focus of Jainism has been the spiritual
liberation of the individual rather than social reforms.[317][note 10] According to Padamnath Jaini, the 8th-century
Digambara scholar Jinasena stated that Jain king Bharata, the son of first tirthankara named Rishabhanatha, invented
the caste system by performing the ahiṃsā (non-violence) test, with Jain Brahmins being those who followed the non-
violence precept.[320]
Art and architecture

Jainism has contributed significantly to Indian art and architecture. Jain arts
depict life legends of tirthankara or other important people, particularly with
them in a seated or standing meditative posture. Yakshas and yakshinis,
attendant spirits who guard the tirthankara, are usually shown with them.[321]
The earliest known Jain image is in the Patna museum. It is dated
approximately to the 3rd century BCE.[321] Bronze images of Pārśva can be
seen in the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai, and in the Patna museum;
these are dated to the 2nd century BCE.[322]
Ancient sculpture depicting Ayagapata is a type of votive tablet used in Jainism for donation and worship
Parshvanatha at Thirakoil, Tamil in the early centuries. These tablets are decorated with objects and designs
Nadu
central to Jain worship such as the stupa, dharmacakra and triratna. They
present simultaneous trends or image and symbol worship. Numerous such
stone tablets were discovered during excavations at ancient Jain sites like Kankali Tila near Mathura in Uttar Pradesh,
India. The practice of donating these tablets is documented from 1st century BCE to 3rd century CE.[324][325][326]
Samavasarana, a preaching hall of tirthankaras with various beings

concentrically placed, is an important theme of Jain art.[327]
The Jain tower in Chittor, Rajasthan, is a good example of Jain

architecture.[328] Decorated manuscripts are preserved in Jain libraries,
containing diagrams from Jain cosmology.[329] Most of the paintings and
illustrations depict historical events, known as Panch Kalyanaka, from the life
of the tirthankara. Rishabha, the first tirthankara, is usually depicted in either
the lotus position or kayotsarga, the standing position. He is distinguished
from other tirthankara by the long locks of hair falling to his shoulders. Bull
images also appear in his sculptures.[330] In paintings, incidents from his life,
like his marriage and Indra marking his forehead, are depicted. Other
paintings show him presenting a pottery bowl to his followers; he is also seen Ayagapata, 200 CE, Kankali Tila,
painting a house, weaving, and being visited by his mother Marudevi.[331] Each Mathura, Uttar Pradesh
of the twenty-four tirthankara is associated with distinctive emblems, which
are listed in such texts as Tiloyapannati, Kahavaali and
Pravacanasaarodhara.[332]
Temples
A Jain temple, Derasar or Basadi is a place of worship for Jains.[333] Jain
temples are built with various architectural designs,[334] but there are mainly
two type of Jain temples:
1. Shikar-bandhi Jain temple (one with a dome)

Inscriptions at a Udaygiri-Khandagiri
2. Ghar Jain temple (Jain house temple – one without a dome). 1st-century BCE Jain rock cut cave,
There is always a main deity also known as moolnayak in every Jain temple Odisha.[323]
placed inside a sanctum called "Gambhara" (Garbha Griha). A manastambha
(column of honor) is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples.
There are 26 caves, 200 stone beds, 60 inscriptions, and over 100 sculptures in and around Madurai. This is also the site
where Jain ascetics wrote great epics and books on grammar in Tamil.[335]
Ancient Jain monuments include the Udaigiri Hills near Bhelsa (Vidisha) in Madhya Pradesh, the Ellora in Maharashtra,
the Palitana temples in Gujarat, and the Jain temples at Dilwara Temples near Mount Abu, Rajasthan.[336] Chaumukha
temple in Ranakpur is considered one of the most beautiful Jain temples and is famous for its detailed carvings.[337][338]
According to Jain texts, Shikharji is the place where twenty of the twenty-four Jain Tīrthaṅkaras along with many other
monks attained moksha (died without being reborn, with their soul in Siddhashila). The Shikharji site in northeastern
Jharkhand is therefore a revered pilgrimage site.[339][note 11] The Palitana temples are the holiest shrine for the
Śvētāmbara Murtipujaka sect.[341] Along with Shikharji the two sites are considered the holiest of all pilgrimage sites by
the Jain community.[342]
The Jain complex, Khajuraho and Jain Narayana temple are part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[343][344]
Shravanabelagola, Saavira Kambada Basadi or 1000 pillars and Brahma Jinalaya are important Jain centers in
Karnataka.[345][346][347][348]
The Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves dating back to

the 2nd–1st century BCE are dedicated to Jainism.
They are rich with carvings of Jain tirthanakars and
deities with inscriptions including the Hathigumpha
inscription (Elephant Cave" inscription).[349][350]
Jain cave temples at Badami, Mangi-Tungi and the Hastinapur
Ellora Caves are considered important.[351]
Osian Sonagiri Ayodhya
The Sittanavasal Cave temple is regarded as one of Ranakpur Khajuraho Pawapuri

Varanasi Shikharji
Mount Abu
the finest examples of Jain art. It is the oldest and Kundalpur
Bawangaja
most famous Jain centre in the region. It possesses Girnar
Palitana Ellora Udayagiri
both an early Jain cave shelter, and a medieval rock-
cut temple with excellent fresco paintings Kulpakji
Kumbhoj Guntur
comparable to Ajantha paintings; the steep hill
contains an isolated but spacious cavern. Locally, Pattadakal
this cavern is known as "Eladipattam", a name that Halebidu Shravanabelagola

Tirumalai
is derived from the seven holes cut into the rock that Pudukottai
Mattancherry Madurai
serve as steps leading to the shelter. Within the cave
there are seventeen stone beds aligned in rows; each Chitharal
of these has a raised portion that could have served

as a pillow-loft. The largest stone bed has a distinct
Major pilgrimage and temple sites in Jainism.
Tamil-Brahmi inscription assignable to the 2nd
century BCE, and some inscriptions belonging to the
8th century BCE are also found on the nearby beds. The Sittannavasal cavern continued to be the Holy Sramana Abode
until the 7th and 8th centuries. Inscriptions over the remaining stone beds name mendicants such as Tol kunrattu
Kadavulan, Tirunilan, Tiruppuranan, Tittaicharanan, Sri Purrnacandran, Thiruchatthan, Ilangowthaman, Sri
Ulagathithan, and Nityakaran Pattakali as monks.[352] The 8th century Kazhugumalai temple marks the revival of Jainism
in South India.[353]
Jain temples in India and Abroad
Palitana temples, Ranakpur Jain Temple Dilwara Temples

Shatrunjaya
Saavira Kambada Basadi Brahma Jinalaya, Lakkundi Hutheesing Jain Temple
Parshvanath Girnar Jain temples Jal Mandir, Pawapuri

Temple in
Khajuraho
Jain Narayana temple Lodhruva Jain temple Jain temple,

Panchakuta Basadi, Antwerp, Belgium
Kambadahalli
Pilgrimages
Jain Tirtha (pilgrim) sites are divided into the following categories:[354]
Siddhakshetra – Site of the moksha of an arihant (kevalin) or tirthankara, such as: Ashtapada, Shikharji, Girnar,
Pawapuri, Palitana, Mangi-Tungi, and Champapuri (capital of Anga).
Atishayakshetra – Locations where divine events have occurred, such as: Mahavirji, Rishabhdeo, Kundalpur, Tijara,
and Aharji.
Puranakshetra – Places associated with the lives of great men, such as: Ayodhya, Vidisha, Hastinapur, and Rajgir.
Gyanakshetra – Places associated with famous acharyas, or centers of learning, such as Shravanabelagola.
Outside contemporary India, Jain communities built temples in locations such as Nagarparkar, Sindh (Pakistan).
However, according to a UNESCO tentative world heritage site application, Nagarparkar was not a "major religious centre
or a place of pilgrimage" for Jainism, but it was once an important cultural landscape before "the last remaining Jain
community left the area in 1947 at Partition".[355]
Statues and sculptures

Jain sculptures are mainly images depicting tīrthaṅkaras. A sculpture could depict any of the twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras's
images. Parshvanatha, Rishabhanatha and Mahāvīra are among the more popular. These tīrthaṅkaras usually depicted in
the lotus position or kayotsarga.[356] Sculptures of chaumukha (quadruple) images are also popular in Jainism.
Sculptures of Arihant, Bahubali, and protector deities like Ambika are also found. Tirthanakar idols look similar and are
differentiated by the symbol belonging to each tirthanakar except Parshvanatha. Statues of Parshvanath have a snake
crown on head. There are a few differences between the Digambara and the Śvētāmbara depictions of idols.[357]
Digambara images are naked without any beautification, whereas Śvētāmbara depictions are clothed and decorated with
temporary ornaments.[357]
A monolithic, 18-metre (59-foot) statue of Bahubali, referred to as Gommateshvara, built in 981 CE by the Ganga minister
and commander Chavundaraya, is situated on a hilltop in Shravanabelagola in the Hassan district of Karnataka state. This
statue was voted first in the SMS poll Seven Wonders of India conducted by The Times of India.[358] The Statue of Ahiṃsā
(depicting Rishabhanatha) was erected in the Nashik district in 2015; it is 33 m (108 ft) tall.[359] Idols made from
Ashtadhatu (literally "eight metals), Akota Bronze, brass, gold, silver, stone monoliths, rock cut, and precious stones are
popular in Jainism.[360][361]
A large number of ayagapata, votive tablets for offerings and the worship of tīrthankara, were excavated from Kankali
Tila, Mathura. These sculptures date from the 2nd century BCE to the 12th century CE.[362]
Symbols
Jain icons and arts incorporate symbols such as swastika, om, and the Ashtamangala.
Swastika
The swastika is an important Jain symbol. Its four arms symbolise the four realms of existence in which rebirth occurs
according to Jainism: humans, heavenly beings, hellish beings and non-humans (plants and animals).[363][364] This is
conceptually similar to the six realms of rebirth represented by bhavachakra in Buddhism.[363] It is usually shown with
three dots on the top, which represent the three jewels mentioned in ancient texts such as Tattvartha sūtra and
Uttaradhyayana sūtra: correct faith, correct understanding and correct conduct. These jewels are the means believed in
Jainism to lead one to the state of spiritual perfection, a state that is symbolically represented by a crescent and one dot on
top representing the liberated soul.[365]
Symbol of Ahiṃsā
The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes ahimsā in Jainism with ahiṃsā
written in the middle. The wheel represents the dharmachakra (Wheel of the
Dharma), which stands for the resolve to halt the saṃsāra (wandering) through the
relentless pursuit of ahimsā (compassion).
Om
In Jainism, Om is considered a condensed form of reference to the Pañca-
Parameṣṭhi, by their initials A+A+A+U+M (o3m). According to the Dravyasamgraha
by Acharya Nemicandra, AAAUM (or just Om) is a one syllable short form of the
initials of the five parameshthis: "Arihant, Ashiri, Acharya, Upajjhaya,
Muni".[366][367] The Om symbol is also used in ancient Jain scriptures to represent
the five lines of the Ṇamōkāra Mantra.[368][369]
Jain emblem
In 1974, on the 2500th anniversary of the nirvana of Mahāvīra, the Jain community The Jain emblem
chose one image as an emblem to be the main identifying symbol for Jainism.[370]
The overall shape depicts the three loka (realms of rebirth) of Jain cosmology i.e.,
heaven, human world and hell. The semi-circular topmost portion symbolizes Siddhashila, which is
a zone beyond the three realms. The Jain swastika is present in the top portion, and the symbol of
Ahiṃsā in the lower portion. At the bottom of the emblem is the Jain mantra, Parasparopagraho
Jīvānām. According to Vilas Sangave, the mantra means "all life is bound together by mutual
support and interdependence".[371] According to Anne Vallely, this mantra is from sūtra 5.21 of
Umaswati's Tattvarthasūtra, and it means "souls render service to one another".[372]
Om in Jainism
Jain flag
The five colours of the Jain flag represent the Pañca-Parameṣṭhi and the five
vows, small as well as great:[373]
White – represents the arihants, souls who have conquered all passions
(anger, attachments, aversion) and have attained omniscience and eternal
bliss through self-realisation. It also denotes peace or ahiṃsā (non-
violence ).
Red – represents the Siddha, souls that have attained salvation and truth.
It also denotes satya (truthfulness)
Yellow – represents the acharya the Masters of Adepts. The colour also Jain Flag
stands for achaurva (non-stealing).
Green – represents the upadhyaya (adepts), those who teach scriptures to
monks. It also signifies brahmacharya (chastity).
Black – represents the Jain ascetics. It also signifies aparigraha (non-possession).
Ashtamangala
The Ashtamangala are a set of eight auspicious symbols, which are different in the Digambara and Śvētāmbar
traditions.[374]
In the Digambara tradition, the eight auspicious symbols are Chatra, Dhvaja, Kalasha, Chaamara, Mirror, Chair, Hand
fan and Vessel. In the Śvētāmbar tradition, these are Swastika, Srivatsa, Nandavarta, Vardhmanaka (food vessel),
Bhadrasana (seat), Kalasha (pot), Darpan (mirror) and pair of fish.[374]
History
Origins
The origins of Jainism are obscure.[375][376] The Jains claim their religion to be
eternal, and consider Rishabhanatha to be the founder in the present time-
cycle, the first of 24 Jain tirthankaras in Jain belief, and someone who lived
for 8,400,000 purva years.[377] According to one hypothesis, such as one by
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the first vice president of India, Jainism was in
existence before the Vedas were composed.[378][379] According to historians,
the first 22 of the 24 tirthankaras were mythical figures. These figures were Rishabhdev, believed to have lived
supposed to have lived more than 85,000 years ago. They were five to hundred over a million years ago, is
considered the traditional founder of
times taller than average human beings and lived for thousands of
Jainism.
years.[380][381][382] The 23rd tirthankara, Parshvanatha, is generally accepted
to be based on an ancient historic human being[383][384][385] of uncertain
dates, possibly 8th–7th century BCE.
Some confessional Jain scholars such as Parikh have argued that some images such as those of the bull in Indus Valley
Civilization seal may be related to Jainism, but such claims are highly speculative and a subjective interpretation. This
theory has not been accepted by most scholars because very little is known about the Indus Valley iconography and
script.[386] Jainism, like Buddhism, is one of the Sramana traditions of ancient India, those that rejected the Vedas and
developed their own scriptures.[387][388]
There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of Jain monks in south India by the second or first centuries BC, and
archaeological evidence of Jain monks in Saurashtra in Gujarat by the second century CE.[389] Statues of Jain tirthankara
have been found dating back to second century BC.[390]
Political history
Information regarding the political history of Jainism is uncertain and
fragmentary. Jains consider the king Bimbisara (c. 558–491 BCE), Ajatashatru
(c. 492–460 BCE), and Udayin (c. 460–440 BCE) of the Haryanka dynasty as a
patron of Jainism.[391]
Jain tradition states that Chandragupta Maurya (322–298 BCE), the founder
of the Mauryan Empire and grandfather of Ashoka, became a monk and
disciple of Jain ascetic Bhadrabahu during later part of his life. According to
historians, Chandragupta's story appears in various versions in Buddhist, Jain, Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves
built by King Kharavela of
and Hindu texts.[392] Broadly, Chandragupta was born into a humble family,
Mahameghavahana dynasty in 2nd
abandoned, raised as a son by another family, then with the training and
century BCE
counsel of Chanakya of Arthashastra fame ultimately built one of the largest
empires in ancient India.[393][394][395] According to Jain history, late in his life,
Chandragupta renounced the empire he built and handed over his power to his son, became a Jaina monk, and headed to
meditate and pursue spirituality in the Deccan region, under the Jaina teacher Bhadrabahu at Shravanabelagola.[396]
There state Jain texts, he died by fasting, a Jaina ascetic method of ending one's life by choice (Sallenkana
vrata).[393][397][394] The 3rd century BCE emperor Ashoka, in his pillar edicts, mentions several ancient Indian religious
groups including the Niganthas (Jaina).[398]
According to another Jain legend, King Salivahana of the late 1st century CE was a patron of Jainism, as were many others
in the early centuries of the 1st millennium CE. But von Glasenapp states that the historicity of these stories is difficult to
establish.[399] Archeological evidence suggests that Mathura was an important Jain centre between the 2nd century BCE
and the 5th century CE. Inscriptions from the 1st and 2nd century CE show that the schism between Digambara and
Śvētāmbara had already taken place.[400]
King Harshavardhana of the 7th century grew up in Shaivism, following his family, but he championed Jainism, Buddhism
and all traditions of Hinduism.[401] King Ama of the 8th century converted to Jainism, and the Jaina pilgrimage tradition
was well established in his era.[402] Mularaja, the founder of Chalukya dynasty, constructed a Jain temple, even though he
was not a Jain.[403]
In the second half of the 1st century CE, Hindu kings sponsored and helped build major Jaina cave temples. For example,
the Hindu Rashtrakuta dynasty started the early group of Jain temples,[404] and the Yadava dynasty built many of the
middle and later Jain group of temples at the Ellora Caves between 700 and 1000 CE.[405][406][407]
Interaction with other religions

Mahāvīra and Buddha are generally accepted as contemporaries (circa 5th century
BCE).[408][409] The interaction between Jainism and Buddhism began with the
Buddha. Buddhist texts refer to Mahāvīra as Nigantha Nataputta.[410]
Beyond the times of the Mahāvīra and the Buddha, the two ascetic sramana
(seeker) religions competed for followers as well as the merchant trade networks
that sustained them.[128][411] Their mutual interaction, along with those of Hindu
traditions, have been significant. In some cases the titles of the Buddhist and Jaina
texts are the same or similar but present different doctrines.[412]
Royal patronage has been a key factor in the growth as well as the decline of
Jainism.[413] The Pallava King Mahendravarman I (600–630 CE) converted from
Jainism to Shaivism under the influence of Appar.[414] His work Mattavilasa
Prahasana ridicules certain Shaiva sects and the Buddhists and also expresses Chaumukha Sculpture with Four
contempt towards Jain ascetics.[415] Sambandar converted the contemporary Jinas (Rishabhanatha
Pandya king to Shaivism. During the 11th century, Basava, a minister to the Jain (Adinatha), Parshvanatha,
Neminatha, and Mahavira),
Kalachuri king Bijjala, succeeded in converting numerous Jains to the Lingayat
LACMA, 6th century
Shaivite sect. The Lingayats destroyed various temples belonging to Jains and
adapted them to their use.[416] The Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana (c. 1108–1152
CE) became a follower of the Vaishnava sect under the influence of Ramanuja, after which Vaishnavism grew rapidly in
what is now Karnataka.[417]
Jainism and Hinduism influenced each other. Jain texts declare some of the Hindu gods as blood relatives of legendary
tirthankara. Neminatha, the 22nd tirthankara for example is presented as a cousin of Krishna in Jain Puranas and other
texts.[418][419] However, Jain scholars such as Haribhadra also wrote satires about Hindu gods, mocking them with novel
outrageous stories where the gods misbehave and act unethically.[420][421] The Hindu gods are presented by some Jain
writers as persecuting, tempting, afraid of, or serving a legendary Jina before he gains omniscience. In other stories, one
or more Jinas easily defeat the Hindu deities such as Vishnu, or Rama and Sita who come to pay respect to a Jina at a
major Jain pilgrimage site such as Mount Satrunjaya.[422]
The Jain and Hindu communities have often been very close and mutually
accepting. Some Hindu temples have included a Jain Tirthankara within its
premises in a place of honour.[423][424] Similarly numerous temple complexes
feature both Hindu and Jain monuments, with Badami cave temples and
Khajuraho among some of the most well known.[425][426]
Jainism faced persecution during

and after the Muslim conquests on
The Indra Sabha cave at the Ellora the Indian subcontinent.[428]
Caves, are co-located with Hindu Muslims rulers, such as Mahmud
and Buddhist monuments. Ghazni (1001), Mohammad Ghori
(1175) and Ala-ud-din Muhammed
Shah Khalji (1298) further
oppressed the Jain community.[429] They vandalised idols and destroyed
temples or converted them into mosques. They also burned Jain books and
The ruins of Gori Jain temples in
killed Jains. There were significant exceptions, such as Emperor Akbar (1542–
Nagarparkar, Pakistan, a pilgrimage
1605) whose legendary religious tolerance, out of respect for Jains, ordered the site before 1947.[427]
release of caged birds and banned the killing of animals on the Jain festival of
Paryusan.[430] After Akbar, Jains faced an intense period of Muslim
persecution in the 17th century.[431][432]
The Jain community were the traditional bankers and financiers, and this significantly impacted the Muslim rulers.
However, they rarely were a part of the political power during the Islamic rule period of the Indian subcontinent.[433]
Colonial era
Colonial era reports and Christian missions variously viewed Jainism as either a sect of Hinduism[434] or Buddhism, or as
a distinct religion.[435][436] According to Padmanath Jaini, Christian missionaries expressed extreme frustration at Jain
people without pagan creator gods refusing to convert to Christianity, while colonial era Jain scholars such as Champat
Rai Jain defended Jainism against criticism and misrepresentation by Christian activists.[437] Missionaries of Christianity
and Islam considered Jain traditions as idolatrous and a false religion,[438] characterizing Jain temples and icons, such of
those of Jina, as false idols and superstitious practices. These criticisms, states John Cort, were flawed and also ignored
similar practices within sects of Christianity.[439]
The British colonial government in India, as well as Indian princely states, passed laws that made monks roaming naked
in streets a crime, one that led to arrest. This law particularly impacted the Digambara monks.[440] The Akhil Bharatiya
Jaina Samaj opposed this law, and argued that it interfered with the religious rights of Jains. Acharya Shantisagar entered
Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1927, but was forced to cover his body. He then led an India-wide tour as the naked monk with
his followers, to various Digambara sacred sites, and was welcomed by kings of the Maharashtra provinces.[440]
Shantisagar fasted to oppose the restrictions imposed on Digambara monks by the British Raj and prompted their
discontinuance.[441] The colonial era laws that banned naked monks remained effective through World War II, but they
were abolished by independent India after it gained independence.[442]
Jains in the modern era

Followers of the path practised by the Jinas are known as Jains.[2][218] The majority of Jains currently reside in India.
With four to five million followers worldwide,[6] Jainism is relatively small compared to major world religions. Jains form
0.37% of India's population. Most of them are concentrated in the states of Maharashtra (1.4 million in 2011,[443] 31.46%
of Indian Jains), Rajasthan (13.97%), Gujarat (13.02%) and Madhya Pradesh

(12.74%). Karnataka (9.89%), Uttar Pradesh (4.79%), Delhi (3.73%) and Tamil
Nadu (2.01%) also have significant Jain populations.[443] Outside India, Jain
communities can be found in Europe, the United States, Canada,[444] Australia
and Kenya.[445]
According to the National Family and Health Survey (NFHS-4) conducted in

2015–16, Jains form the wealthiest community in India.[446] Jains have the
highest literacy rate (87%) in India, in the 7-years to oldest age group, Ancient temple of Pakbirra, Purulia
according to its 2011 census. The Jaina community also has the highest
number of college graduates.[447] Excluding the retired senior citizens, Jain
literacy rate in India exceeded 97%. The female to male child sex ratio in the 0–6 year age was second lowest for Jains
(870 girls per 1,000 boys), higher than Sikhs in India. Further, Jain males have the highest work participation rates, while
Jain females have the lowest work participation rates in India.[448]
Major Jain communities:
Jain Bunt are a Jain community from Karnataka, India.[449]

Jain Komati is a small community scattered all over South and Central
India and patrons of many Jain Institutions.[450][451]
Saraks is a community in Jharkhand, Bihar, Bengal, and Orissa. They
have been followers of Jainism since ancient time.[452]
Porwal community that originated in southern Rajasthan, India.[453]
Parwar is a major Jain community from the Bundelkhand region, which is
largely in Madhya Pradesh and Lalitpur District, Jhansi.[454]
Agrawal Jain of Hisar, Haryana.
Bhabra of Punjab is an ancient merchant community from Punjab region
which mainly follows Jainism. Jain Temple complex, Deogarh
Sarawagi or Khandelwali originated from Khandela, a historical town in
northern Rajasthan.[454]
Bagherwal from Baghera (currently known as Ajmer district) a princely state in Rajasthan, a community of Digambar
sect.
Shrimal, originally from Rajasthan, Shrimal town in southern Rajasthan. The Shrimal (Srimal) Jain are part of the
Oswal merchant and minister caste that is found primarily in the north of India.[455]
Oswal are a Jain community with origins in the Marwar region of Rajasthan and Tharparkar district in Sindh.[456]
Jaiswal are mainly located in the Gwalior and Agra region.[457]
Navnat emerged as a result of blending of several smaller Jain communities in East Africa as well as in Gujarat itself
in early 20th century.[458]
Jainism has been praised for some of its practices and beliefs. Mahatma Gandhi, who was greatly influenced by Jainism,
said:[459]
No religion in the World has explained the principle of Ahiṃsā so deeply and systematically as is discussed
with its applicability in every human life in Jainism. As and when the benevolent principle of Ahiṃsā or non-
violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world to achieve their end of life in this world and
beyond, Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status and Mahāvīra is sure to be respected as the greatest
authority on Ahiṃsā.[460]
See also
Criticism of Jainism
Jain law
Jain cosmology
List of Jains
Nonviolence
Notes
1. This view, however, is not shared by all Jain sub-traditions. For example, the Terapanthi Jain tradition, with about
250,000 followers, considers both good karma such as compassionate charity, and bad karma such as sin, as binding
one's soul to worldly morality. It states that any karma leads to a negation of the "absolute non-violence" principle,
given man's limited perspective. It recommends that the monk or nun seeking salvation must avoid hurting or helping
any being in any form.[11]
2. Jain literature, like Buddhist and Hindu literature, has also debated the aspects of violence and non-violence in food
creation.[23]
3. In Jainism, the ahiṃsā precept for a mendicant requires avoidance of touching or disturbing any living being including
plants. It also mandates never swimming in water, nor lighting or fire or extinguish one, nor thrashing arms in the air
as such actions can torment or hurt other beings that live in those states of matter.[18]
4. The first is desavakasika (staying in a restrained surrounding, cutting down worldly activities). The third is
posadhopavasa (fasting on the 8th and 14th days on lunar waxing and waning cycles). The fourth is dana (giving
alms to Jain monks, nuns or spiritual people).[73]
5. According to Dundas, samayika seems to have meant "correct behavior" in early Jainism.[78]
6. This meditative focus contrasts with the anatta focus of Buddhism, and the atman focus in various vedanta schools of
Hinduism such as advaita and vishistadvaita schools.[80][81]
7. The ontological categories and definition of dharma as motion, and adharma as rest, is unique to Jainism among
Indian religions.[167] However, like other Indian religions, dharma also means "moral virtue" in Jainism, while adharma
also means "immorality, unethical behavior".[166]
8. Balabhadra is also referred to as Baladeva, Narayana as Vasudeva or Vishnu, and Pratinarayana as Prativasudeva in
Jain texts.[226]
9. Not to be confused with the four Vedas of Hinduism.[271]
10. According to Richard Gombrich and other scholars, Buddhism too was not a rejection or rebellion against any ancient
caste system and it too was focused on individual's liberation from rebirths and suffering. The caste system in
Buddhist societies and monasteries outside India have been documented. Gombrich states, "Some modernists go so
far as to say that the Buddha was against caste altogether: this is not the case, but is one of the mistakes picked up
from western authors."[318][314][319]
11. Some texts refer to the place as Mount Sammeta.[340]
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Agarwal, M.K. (2012), From Bharata to India (https://books.google.com/books?id=ROePWIBgyv8C) (Volume 1:
Chrysee the Golden ed.), iUniverse, ISBN 978-1-4759-0766-7
Agarwal, M.K. (2013), The Vedic Core of Human History: And Truth will be the Savior (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=zObPAwAAQBAJ), iUniverse, ISBN 978-1-4917-1595-6
Robinson, Thomas Arthur (2006), World Religions (https://books.google.com/books?id=20DBvovDC0QC), Hymns
Ancient and Modern Ltd, ISBN 978-0-334-04014-9
External links
"Jainism" (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jainism). Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Jainism (https://curlie.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Jainism/) at Curlie
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jainism&oldid=883562663"
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20/02/2019 Jainism - Wikipedia

Supplementary vows and Sallekhana

The idea of reverence for non-violence (ahiṃsā) is founded in Hindu and

Jain ethics and five vows

1. Ahiṃsā, "intentional non-violence" or "noninjury":[46] The first major vow

Food and fasting

Rituals and worship

Jain worship may include

The last day involves a focused prayer/meditation session known as

According to Śvētāmbara Jain texts, from

Supplementary vows and Sallekhana

Traditions and sects

Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras

Digambara believe Rishabha, Vasupujya and Neminatha were the

Gender and spiritual liberation

Beliefs and philosophy

According to the Śvētāmbara tradition of Jainism, there are five eternal

Jīva (Soul), Ajīva (Non-Soul)

The sentient (jiva, soul)

Soul and Karma

Jain philosophy further divides the earthly body by symmetry, number of

Souls begin their journey in a primordial state, and exist in a state of

1. Samyak darśana (Correct View) – Faith in basic tenets of Jainism,

Scriptures and texts

Influence on Indian literature

Comparison with Buddhism and Hinduism

Art and architecture

Samavasarana, a preaching hall of tirthankaras with various beings

The Jain tower in Chittor, Rajasthan, is a good example of Jain

1. Shikar-bandhi Jain temple (one with a dome)

The Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves dating back to

The Sittanavasal Cave temple is regarded as one of Ranakpur Khajuraho Pawapuri

this cavern is known as "Eladipattam", a name that Halebidu Shravanabelagola

of these has a raised portion that could have served

Jain temples in India and Abroad

Palitana temples, Ranakpur Jain Temple Dilwara Temples

Saavira Kambada Basadi Brahma Jinalaya, Lakkundi Hutheesing Jain Temple

Parshvanath Girnar Jain temples Jal Mandir, Pawapuri

Jain Narayana temple Lodhruva Jain temple Jain temple,

Statues and sculptures

Interaction with other religions

Jainism faced persecution during

Jains in the modern era

of Indian Jains), Rajasthan (13.97%), Gujarat (13.02%) and Madhya Pradesh

According to the National Family and Health Survey (NFHS-4) conducted in

Major Jain communities:

Jain Bunt are a Jain community from Karnataka, India.[449]

4. Tirthankara: Jainism (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tirthankara) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201708170

37. Long 2009, pp. 98–106.

79. Johnson 1995, pp. 137–143.

160. Dundas 2002, p. 249.

244. von Glasenapp 1925, pp. 262–263.

283. Zvelebil 1992, pp. 13–16.

352. S. S. Kavitha (3 February 2010), "Preserving the past" (http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/preserving-the-p

381. Sangave 2001, pp. 104, 129.

413. Natubhai Shah 2004, pp. 69–70.

442. Flügel 2006, pp. 359–360.

Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1998) [1979], The Jaina Path of Purification (https://books.google.com/books?id=wE6v6ahxHi8

Roy, Ashim Kumar (1984), "9. History of the Digambaras" (http://www.jainworld.com/book/historyofjainism/ch9a.asp),

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jainism&oldid=883562663"

This page was last edited on 16 February 2019, at 04:20 (UTC).

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