New Religious Movement

02/03/2019 New religious movement - Wikipedia
New religious movement

A new religious movement (NRM), also known as a new religion or
alternative spirituality, is a religious or spiritual group that has
modern origins and is peripheral to its society's dominant religious
culture. NRMs can be novel in origin or part of a wider religion, in which
case they are distinct from pre-existing denominations. Some NRMs deal
with the challenges posed by the modernizing world by embracing
individualism, whereas others seek tightly knit collective means.[1]
Scholars have estimated that NRMs now number in the tens of thousands
worldwide, with most of their members living in Asia and Africa. Most
A member of the International Society for
have only a few members, some have thousands, and a few have more
Krishna Consciousness proselytising on
than a million members.[2]
the streets of Moscow, Russia
New religions have often faced a hostile reception from established

religious organisations and various secular institutions. In Western
nations, a secular anti-cult movement and a Christian countercult movement emerged during the 1970s and 1980s to
oppose emergent groups. In the 1970s, the distinct field of new religions studies developed within the academic study of
religion. There are now several scholarly organisations and peer-reviewed journals devoted to the subject. Religious
studies scholars contextualize the rise of NRMs in modernity, relating it as a product of and answer to modern processes
of secularization, globalization, detraditionalization, fragmentation, reflexivity, and individualization.[1]
Scholars continue to try to reach definitions and define boundaries.[3] There is no single, agreed-upon criterion for
defining a "new religious movement",[4] but the term usually suggests that the group is of recent origin and is different
from existing religions.[3] There is debate as to how the term "new" should be interpreted in this context.[5] One
perspective is that it should designate a religion that is more recent in its origins than large, well-established religions like
Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, and Buddhism.[5] An alternate perspective is that "new" should mean that a religion is
more recent in its formation.[5] Some scholars view the 1950s or the end of the Second World War in 1945 as the defining
time, while others look as far back as the founding of the Latter Day Saint movement in 1830.[6][5][7]
Contents
History
Beliefs and practices
Scriptures
Celibacy
Violence
Leadership and succession
Membership
Demographics
Joining
Leaving
Reception
Academic scholarship
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_religious_movement 1/16
Definitions and terminology

Opposition
Christian countercult movement
Anti-cult movement
Popular culture and news media
See also
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
External links
History
In 1830 the Latter Day Saint movement including The Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-day Saints was founded by Joseph Smith. It is now one of
the most successful NRMs in terms of membership. In Japan, 1838 marks
the beginning of Tenrikyo.[8] In 1844 Bábism was established in Iran
from which the Bahá'í Faith was founded by Bahá'u'lláh in 1863. In 1860
Donghak, later Cheondoism, was founded by Choi Jae-Woo in Korea. It
later ignited the Donghak Peasant Revolution in 1894.[9] In 1889,
Ahmadiyya an Islamic sect was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. In
1891, the Unity Church, the first New Thought denomination, was
founded in the United States.[7][10] 1893 Parliament of the World's Religions
In 1893, the first Parliament of the World's Religions was held in

Chicago.[11] The conference included NRMs of the time such as spiritualism and Christian Science. The latter was
represented by its founder Mary Baker Eddy. Henry Harris Jessup addressing the meeting was the first to mention the
Bahá'í Faith in the United States.[12] Also attending were Soyen Shaku, the "First American Ancestor" of Zen,[13] the
Buddhist preacher Anagarika Dharmapala, and the Jain preacher Virchand Gandhi.[14] This conference gave Asian
religious teachers their first wide American audience.[7]
In 1911, the Nazareth Baptist Church, the first and one of the largest modern African initiated churches, was founded by
Isaiah Shembe in South Africa.[7][15] The early 20th Century also saw a rise in interest in Asatru. The 1930s saw the rise of
the Nation of Islam and the Jehovah's Witnesses in the United States; the Rastafari movement in Jamaica; Cao Đài and
Hòa Hảo in Vietnam; Soka Gakkai in Japan; and Yiguandao in China. In the 1940s, Gerald Gardner began to outline the
Neo-Pagan religion of Wicca.
New religious movements expanded in many nations in the 1950s and 1960s. Japanese new religions became very popular
after the Shinto Directive (1945) forced a separation of the Japanese government and Shinto, which had been the state
religion, bringing about greater freedom of religion. In 1954 Scientology was founded in the United States and the
Unification Church in South Korea.[7] In 1955 the Aetherius Society was founded in England. It and some other NRMs,
have been called UFO religions since they combine belief in extraterrestrial life with traditional religious
principles.[16][17][18] In 1965, Paul Twitchell founded Eckankar, an NRM derived partially from Sant Mat. In 1966 the
International Society for Krishna Consciousness was founded in the United States by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami
Prabhupada[19] and Anton LaVey founded the Church of Satan. In 1967, The Beatles' visit to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in
India brought public attention to the Transcendental Meditation movement.[20][21]
In the late 1980s and the 1990s, the decline of communism and the revolutions
of 1989 opened up new opportunities for NRMs. Falun Gong was first taught
publicly in Northeast China in 1992 by Li Hongzhi. At first it was accepted by
the Chinese government and by 1999 there were 70 million practitioners in
China.[22]
In the 21st century, many NRMs are using the Internet to give out information,
Practitioners of Falun Dafa perform to recruit members, and sometimes to hold online meetings and rituals.[7] That
spiritual exercises in Guangzhou, is sometimes referred to as cybersectarianism.[23][24] Sabina Magliocco,
China.
professor of Anthropology and Folklore at California State University,
Northridge, has discussed joining NRMs in terms of its growing popularity due
to reading, social and political interests, and most importantly, the Internet. With more than 20,000 websites and chat
rooms devoted to Pagan topics, young people are increasingly using the Internet to form communities around NRMs
rather than meeting in person.[25]
In 2006 J. Gordon Melton, executive director of the Institute for the Study of American Religions at the University of
California, Santa Barbara, told The New York Times that 40 to 45 new religious movements emerge each year in the
United States.[26] In 2007, religious scholar Elijah Siegler said that, though no NRM had become the dominant faith in
any country, many of the concepts they first introduced (often referred to as "New Age" ideas) have become part of
worldwide mainstream culture.[7]
Beliefs and practices

As noted by Barker, NRMs cannot all be "lumped together" and differ from one
another on many issues.[27] Virtually no generalisation can be made about
NRMs that applies to every single group,[28] with Barrett noting that
"generalizations tend not to be very helpful" when studying NRMs.[29] Melton
expressed the view that there is "no single characteristic or set of
characteristics" that all new religions share, "not even their newness."[30]
Bryan Wilson wrote, "Chief among the miss-directed assertions has been the
tendency to speak of new religious movements as if they differed very little, if
at all, one from another. The tendency has been to lump them altogether and
indiscriminately to attribute to all of them characteristics which are, in fact,
valid for only one or two."[31] NRMs themselves often claim that they exist at a
A Rasta man wearing symbols of his
crucial place in time and space.[32] religious identity in Barbados
Scriptures
Some NRMs have their own unique scriptures, while others reinterpret existing texts,[33] utilizing a range of older
elements.[34] They frequently claim that these are not new, but rather had been forgotten truths that are only now being
revived.[35] NRM scriptures often incorporate modern scientific knowledge, sometimes with the claim that they are
bringing unity to science and religion.[36] Some NRMs believe that their scriptures are received through the process of
mediumship.[37] The Urantia Book, the core scripture of the Urantia Movement, was published in 1955 and is said to be
the product of a continuous process of revelation from "celestial beings" which began in 1911.[38] Some NRMs, particularly
those that are forms of occultism, have a prescribed system of courses and grades through which members can
progress.[39]
Celibacy
Many NRMs promote celibacy, the state of voluntarily being unmarried, sexually abstinent, or both. Some, including the
Shakers and more recent NRMs inspired by Hindu traditions, see it as a lifelong commitment. Others, including the
Unification Church, as a stage in spiritual development.[40] In some Buddhist NRMs celibacy is practiced mostly by older
women who become nuns.[41] Some people join NRMs and practice celibacy as a rite of passage in order to move beyond
previous sexual problems or bad experiences.[42] Groups that promote celibacy require a strong recruitment drive to
survive; the Shakers established orphanages to bring new individuals into their community.[43]
Violence
Violent incidents involving NRMs are extremely rare and unusual. In those cases where large number of casualties
resulted, the new religion in question was led by a charismatic leader.[44] Beginning in 1978 with the deaths of 913
members of the Peoples Temple in Jonestown, Guyana by both murder and suicide an image of "killer cults" came to
public attention. A number of subsequent events contributed to this. In 1994, a members of the Order of the Solar Temple
committed suicide in Canada and Switzerland. In 1995 members of the Japanese new religion Aum Shinrikyo murdered a
number of people, including through a sarin attack on the Tokyo subway. In 1997, 39 members of the Heaven's Gate group
committed suicide in the belief that their spirits would leave the Earth and join a passing comet.[45] There have also been
cases where members of NRMs have been killed because they engaged in dangerous actions while believing themselves to
be invincible; in Uganda several hundred members of the Holy Spirit Movement were killed as they approached gunfire
because its leader, Alice Lakwena, told them that they would be protected from bullets by the oil of the shea tree.[46]
Leadership and succession

Many NRMs are founded and led by a charismatic leader.[47] The death of any
religion's founder represents a significant moment in its history. Over the months and
years following its leader's death, the movement can die out, fragment into multiple
groups, consolidate its position, or change its nature to become something quite
different that what its founder intended. In some cases a NRM moves closer to the
religious mainstream after the death of its founder.[48]
A number of founders of new religions established plans for succession to prevent

confusion after their deaths. Mary Baker Eddy, the American founder of Christian
Science, spent fifteen years working on her book The Manual of the Mother Church,
which laid out how the group should be run by her successors.[49] L. Ron Hubbard,
the founder of Scientology, promoted his follower David Miscavige to be in a position
Mary Baker Eddy to take over leadership of the Scientology organization at his death.[50][51]
The leadership of the Bahá'í Faith passed through a succession of individuals until
1963 when it was assumed by the Universal House of Justice, members of which are elected by the worldwide
congregation.[52][53] A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, the founder of the International Society for Krishna
Consciousness, appointed 11 “Western Gurus” to act as initiating gurus and to continue to direct the
organisation.[54][55][56] However, according to British scholar of religion Gavin Flood, "many problems followed from
their appointment and the movement has since veered away from investing absolute authority in a few, fallible, human
teachers.”[57]
Membership
Demographics
NRMs typically consist largely of first-generation believers,[58] and thus often have a younger average membership than
mainstream religious congregations.[59] Some NRMS have been formed by groups who have split from a pre-existing
religious group.[47] As these members grow older, many have children who are then brought up within the NRM.[60]
In the Third World, NRMs most often appeal to the poor and oppressed sectors of society.[61] Within Western countries,
they are more likely to appeal to members of the middle and upper-middle classes,[61] with Barrett stating that new
religions in the UK and US largely attract "white, middle-class late teens and twenties."[62] There are exceptions, such as
the Rastafari movement and the Nation of Islam, which have primarily attracted disadvantaged black youth in Western
countries.[61]
A popular conception, unsupported by evidence, holds that those who convert to new religions are either mentally ill or
become so through their involvement with them.[63] Dick Anthony, a forensic psychologist noted for his writings on the
brainwashing controversy,[64][65] has defended NRMs, and in 1988 argued that involvement in such movements may
often be beneficial: "There's a large research literature published in mainstream journals on the mental health effects of
new religions. For the most part the effects seem to be positive in any way that's measurable."[66]
Joining
Those who convert to a NRM typically believe that in doing so they are gaining
some benefit in their life. This can come in many forms, from an increasing
sense of freedom, to a release from drug dependency, and a feeling of self-
respect and direction. Many of those who have left NRMs report that they have
gained from their experience. There are various reasons as to why an
individual would join and then remain part of an NRM, including both push
and pull factors.[67] According to Marc Galanter, Professor of Psychiatry at
NYU,[68] typical reasons why people join NRMs include a search for
community and a spiritual quest. Sociologists Stark and Bainbridge, in Jehovah's Witnesses evangelising
discussing the process by which people join new religious groups, have from house to house
questioned the utility of the concept of conversion, suggesting that affiliation
is a more useful concept.[69]
A popular explanation for why people join new religious movements is that they have been "brainwashed" or subject to
"mind control" by the NRM itself.[70] This explanation provides a rationale for 'deprogramming', a process in which
members of NRMs are illegally kidnapped by individuals who then attempt to convince them to reject their beliefs.[70]
Professional deprogrammers therefore have a financial interest in promoting the 'brainwashing' explanation.[71] Academic
research however has demonstrated that these brainwashing techniques "simply do not exist".[72]
Leaving
Many members of NRMs leave these groups of their own free will.[73] Some of those who do so retain friends within the
movement.[74] Some of those who leave a religious community are unhappy with the time that they spent as part of it.[74]
Leaving a NRM can pose a number of difficulties.[75] It may result in them having to abandon a daily framework that they
had previously adhered to.[76] It may also generate mixed emotions as ex-members lose the feelings of absolute certainty
that they had held while in the group.[75]
Reception
Academic scholarship
The academic study of new religious movements is known
"Three basic questions have been paramount in
as 'new religions studies' (NRS).[78] The study draws from orienting theory and research on NRMs: what are
the disciplines of anthropology, psychiatry, history, the identifying markers of NRMs that distinguish
psychology, sociology, religious studies, and theology.[79] them from other types of religious groups?; what are
the different types of NRMs and how do these
Barker noted that there are five sources of information on
different types relate to the established institutional
NRMs: the information provided by such groups order of the host society?; and what are the most
themselves, that provided by ex-members as well as the important ways that NRMs respond to the
sociocultural dislocation that leads to their
friends and relatives of members, organisations that collect
formation?"
information on NRMs, the mainstream media, and
— Sociologist of religion David G. Bromley[77]
academics studying such phenomena.[80]
The study of new religions is unified by its topic of interest,

rather than by its methodology, and is therefore interdisciplinary in nature.[81] A sizeable body of scholarly literature on
new religions has been published, most of it produced by social scientists.[82] Among the disciplines that NRS utilises are
anthropology, history, psychology, religious studies, and sociology.[83] Of these approaches, sociology played a particularly
prominent role in the development of the field,[83] resulting in it being initially confined largely to a narrow array of
sociological questions.[84] This came to change in later scholarship, which began to apply theories and methods initially
developed for examining more mainstream religions to the study of new ones.[84]
Most research has been directed toward those new religions that attract public controversy. Less controversial NRMs tend
to be the subject of less scholarly research.[85] It has also been noted that scholars of new religions often avoid researching
certain movements that scholars from other backgrounds study. The feminist spirituality movement is usually examined
by scholars of women's studies, African-American new religions by scholars of Africana studies, and Native American new
religions by scholars of Native American studies.[86]
Definitions and terminology

J. Gordon Melton argued that, "new religious movements" should be
defined by the way dominant religious and secular forces within a given
society treat them. According to him, NRMs constituted "those religious
groups that have been found, from the perspective of the dominant
religious community (and in the West that is almost always a form of
Christianity), to be not just different, but unacceptably different."[87]
Barker cautioned against Melton's approach, arguing that negating the
"newness" of "new religious movements" raises problems, for it is "the
very fact that NRMs are new that explains many of the key characteristics
they display".[88]
A New Age Rainbow Gathering in
Bosnia, 2007
Scholars of religion Olav Hammer and Mikael Rothstein argued that "new
religions are just young religions" and "not inherently different" from
mainstream and established religious movements, with the differences between the two having been greatly exaggerated
by the media and popular perceptions.[72] Melton has stated that those NRMs that "were offshoots of older religious
groups... tended to resemble their parent group far more than each other."[30] One question that faces scholars of religion
is when a new religious movement ceases to be "new."[89] As noted by Barker, "In the first century, Christianity was new,
in the seventh century Islam was new, in the eighteenth century Methodism was new, in the nineteenth century the
Seventh-day Adventists, Christadelphians and Jehovah's Witnesses were new; in the twenty-first century the Unification
Church, ISKCON and Scientology are beginning to look old."[89]
Some NRMs are strongly counter-cultural and 'alternative' in the society they appear in, while others are far more similar
to a society's established traditional religions.[90] Generally, Christian denominations are not seen as new religious
movements; nevertheless, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Jehovah's Witnesses, Christian Science,
and the Shakers have been studied as NRMs.[91][92]
There are also problems in the use of "religion" within the term "new religious movements".[93] This is because various
groups, particularly active within the New Age milieu, have many traits in common with different NRMs but emphasise
personal development and humanistic psychology, and are not clearly "religious" in nature.[94]
Since at least the early 2000s, most sociologists of religion have

used the term "new religious movement" to avoid the pejorative
undertones of terms like "cult" and "sect".[95] These are words that
have been used in different ways by different groups.[96] For
instance, from the nineteenth century onward a number of
sociologists used the terms "cult" and "sect" in very specific
ways.[97] The sociologist Ernst Troeltsch for instance differentiated
"churches" from "sect" by claiming that the former term should
apply to groups that stretch across social strata while "sects"
typically contain converts from socially disadvantaged sectors of
society.[97]
A procession of Heathens, members of a
The term "cult" is used in reference to devotion or dedication to a modern Pagan new religion, in Iceland
particular person or place.[98] For instance, within the Roman
Catholic Church devotion to Mary, mother of Jesus is usually
termed the "Cult of Mary".[99] It is also used in non-religious contexts to refer to fandoms devoted to television shows like
The Prisoner, The X-Files, and Buffy the Vampire Slayer.[100] In the United States, people began to use "cult" in a
pejorative manner, to refer to Spiritualism and Christian Science during the 1890s.[101] As commonly used, for instance in
sensationalist tabloid articles, the term "cult" continues to have pejorative associations.[102]
The term "new religions" is a calque of shinshūkyō (新宗教), a Japanese term developed to describe the proliferation of
Japanese new religions in the years following the Second World War.[103] From Japan this term was translated and used
by several American authors, including Jacob Needleman, to describe the range of groups that appeared in the San
Francisco Bay Area during the 1960s.[104] This term, amongst others, was adopted by Western scholars as an alternative to
"cult".[105] However, "new religious movements" has failed to gain widespread public usage in the manner that "cult"
has.[106] Other terms that has been employed for many NRMs is "alternative religion" and "alternative spirituality",
something used to convey the difference between these groups and established or mainstream religious movements while
at the same time evading the problem posed by groups that are not particularly new.[107]
The 1970s was the era of the so-called "cult wars," led by "cult-watching groups."[108] The efforts of the anti-cult
movement condensed a moral panic around the concept of cults. Public fears around Satanism, in particular, came to be
known as a distinct phenomenon, the "Satanic Panic."[109] Consequently, scholars such as Eileen Barker, James T.
Richardson, Timothy Miller and Catherine Wessinger argued that the term "cult" had become too laden with negative
connotations, and "advocated dropping its use in academia." A number of alternatives to the term "new religious
movement" are used by some scholars. These include "alternative religious movements" (Miller), "emergent religions"
(Ellwood) and "marginal religious movements" (Harper and Le Beau).[110]
Opposition
There has been opposition to NRMs throughout their history.[111] Some historical events have been: Anti-Mormonism,[112]
the persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses,[113] the persecution of Bahá'ís,[114] and the persecution of Falun Gong.[115] There
are also instances in which violence has been directed at new religions.[116] In the United States the founder of the Latter
Day Saint movement, Joseph Smith, was killed by a lynch mob in 1844.[117] In India there have been mob killings of
members of the Ananda Marga group.[116] Such violence can also be administered by the state.[116] In Iran, the Baha'i have
faced persecution, while the Ahmadiyya have faced similar violence in Pakistan.[118] Since 1999, the persecution of Falun
Gong in China has been severe.[115][119] Ethan Gutmann interviewed over 100 witnesses and estimated that 65,000 Falun
Gong practitioners were killed for their organs from 2000 to 2008.[120][121][122][123]
Christian countercult movement

In the 1930s, Christian critics of NRMs began referring to them as "cults". The 1938 book The Chaos of Cults by Jan Karel
van Baalen (1890–1968), an ordained minister in the Christian Reformed Church in North America, was especially
influential.[7][124] In the US, the Christian Research Institute was founded in 1960 by Walter Martin to counter opposition
to evangelical Christianity and has come to focus on criticisms of NRMs.[125] Presently the Christian countercult
movement opposes most NRMs because of theological differences. It is closely associated with evangelical
Christianity.[126] The UK-based Reachout Trust was initially established to oppose the Jehovah's Witnesses and what it
regarded as "counterfeit Christian groups", but it came to wider attention in the late 1980s and 1990s for its role in
promoting claims about Satanic ritual abuse.
Anti-cult movement
In the 1970s and 1980s some NRMs, as well as some non-
"The 1960s and 1970s saw the emergence of a
religious groups, came under opposition by the newly number of highly visible new religious movements...
organized anti-cult movement, which mainly charged them [These] seemed so outlandish that many people saw
with psychological abuse of their own members.[7] It them as evil cults, fraudulent organizations or scams
that recruited unaware people by means of mind-
actively seeks to discourage people from joining new
control techniques. Real or serious religions, it was
religions (which it refers to as "cults"). It also encourages felt, should appear in recognizable institutionalized
members of these groups to leave them, and at times forms, be suitably ancient, and – above all –
advocate relatively familiar theological notions and
seeking to restrict their freedom of movement.[126]
modes of conduct. Most new religions failed to
comply with such standards."
Family members are often distressed when a relative of
— Religious studies scholars Olav Hammer and Mikael
theirs joins a new religion.[128] Although children break
Rothstein[127]
away from their parents for all manner of reasons, in cases
where NRMS are involved it is often the latter that are
blamed for the break.[129] Some anti-cultist groups
emphasise the idea that "cults" always use deceit and trickery to recruit members.[130] The anti-cult movement adopted
the term brainwashing, which had been developed by the journalist Edward Hunter and then used by Robert J. Lifton to
apply to the methods employed by Chinese to convert captured U.S. soldiers to their cause in the Korean War. Lifton
himself had doubts about the applicability of his 'brainwashing' hypothesis to the techniques used by NRMs to convert
recruits.[131] A number of ex-members of various new religions have made false allegations about their experiences in such
groups. For instance, in the late 1980s a man in Dublin, Ireland was given a three-year suspended sentence for falsely
claiming that he had been drugged, kidnapped, and held captive by members of ISKCON.[132]
Scholars of religion have often critiqued anti-cult groups of un-critically believing anecdotal stories provided by the ex-
members of new religions, of encouraging ex-members to think that they are the victims of manipulation and abuse, and
of irresponsibly scare-mongering about NRMs.[133] Of the "well over a thousand groups that have been or might be called
cults" listed in the files of INFORM, says Eileen Barker, the "vast majority" have not engaged in criminal activities.[134]
Popular culture and news media

New religious movements and cults have appeared as themes or subjects in literature and popular culture, while notable
representatives of such groups have produced a large body of literary works. Beginning in the 1700s authors in the
English-speaking world began introducing members of "cults" as antagonists. In the Twentieth century concern for the
rights and feelings of religious minorities led authors to most often invent fictional cults for their villains to be members
of.[135] Fictional cults continue to be popular in film, television, and gaming in the same way; while some popular works
treat new religious movements in a serious manner.
An article on the categorization of new religious movements in U.S. print media published by The Association for the
Sociology of Religion (formerly the American Catholic Sociological Society), criticizes the print media for failing to
recognize social-scientific efforts in the area of new religious movements, and its tendency to use popular or anti-cultist
definitions rather than social-scientific insight, and asserts that "The failure of the print media to recognize social-
scientific efforts in the area of religious movement organizations impels us to add yet another failing mark to the media
report card Weiss (1985) has constructed to assess the media's reporting of the social sciences."[136]
See also
List of new religious movements
New Age movement
Religious pluralism
Sociological classifications of religious movements
Greco-Roman mysteries
Secret society
History of religion
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Further reading
Barrett, David B., George T. Kurian, and Todd M. Arweck, Elisabeth and Peter B. Clarke (https://www.we
Johnson, World Christian Encyclopedia: A bcitation.org/query?url=http://uk.geocities.com/peterber
Comparative Survey of Churches and Religions in the nardclarke&date=2009-10-25+04:25:13), New
Modern World, 2 vols. 2nd edition, Oxford & New York: Religious Movements in Western Europe: An
Oxford University Press, 2001. Annotated Bibliography, Westport & London:
Clarke, Peter B. (2000). Japanese New Religions: In Greenwood Press, 1997.
Global Perspective. Richmond : Curzon. ISBN 978-0- Barker, Eileen and Margit Warburg (eds) New
7007-1185-7 Religions and New Religiosity, Aarhus, Denmark:
Hexham, Irving and Karla Poewe, New Religions as Aargus University Press, 1998.
Global Cultures, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, Beck, Hubert F. How to Respond to the Cults, in The
1997. Response Series. St. Louis, Mo.: Concordia Publishing
Hexham, Irving, Stephen Rost & John W. Morehead House, 1977. 40 p. N.B.: Written from a Confessional
(eds) Encountering New Religious Movements: A Lutheran perspective. ISBN 0-570-07682-X
Holistic Evangelical Approach, Grand Rapids: Kregel Beckford, James A. (ed) New Religious Movements
Publications, 2004. and Rapid Social Change, Paris: UNESCO/London,
Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) Een nieuw Beverly Hills & New Delhi: SAGE Publications, 1986.
licht op de kerk?: Bijdragen van nieuwe religieuze Chryssides, George D., Exploring New Religions,
bewegingen voor de kerk van vandaag/A new London & New York: Cassell, 1999.
perspective on the church: Contributions by NRMs for Clarke, Peter B. (https://www.webcitation.org/query?url
today's church Published by het Boekencentrum (http =http://uk.geocities.com/peterbernardclarke&date=200
s://web.archive.org/web/20050512182518/http://www.b 9-10-25+04:25:13) (ed.), Encyclopedia of New
oekencentrum.nl/info_english.tpl?cart=1107936699330 Religious Movements, London & New York: Routledge,
6), (a Christian publishing house), the Hague, 1984. 2006.
ISBN 90-239-0809-0.
Stark, Rodney (ed) Religious Movements: Genesis,
Exodus, Numbers, New York: Paragon House, 1985.
Davis, Derek H., and Barry Hankins (eds) New Possamai, Adam, Religion and Popular Culture: A
Religious Movements and Religious Liberty in America, Hyper-Real Testament, Brussels: P.I.E. – Peter Lang,
Waco: J. M. Dawson Institute of Church-State Studies 2005.
and Baylor University Press, 2002. Saliba, John A., Understanding New Religious
Enroth, Ronald M., and J. Gordon Melton. Why Cults Movements, 2nd edition, Walnut Creek, Lanham: Alta
Succeed Where the Church Fails. Elgin, Ill.: Brethren Mira Press, 2003.
Press, 1985. v, 133 p. ISBN 0-87178-932-9 Staemmler, Birgit, Dehn, Ulrich (ed.): Establishing the
Jenkins, Philip, Mystics and Messiahs: Cults and New Revolutionary: An Introduction to New Religions in
Religions in American History, New York: Oxford Japan. LIT, Münster, 2011. ISBN 978-3-643-90152-1
University Press, 2000. Thursby, Gene. "Siddha Yoga: Swami Muktanada and
Kohn, Rachael, The New Believers: Re-Imagining God, the Seat of Power." When Prophets Die: The
Sydney: Harper Collins, 2003. Postcharismatic Fate Of New Religious Movements.
Loeliger, Carl and Garry Trompf (eds) New Religious Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991
Movements in Melanesia, Suva, Fiji: University of the pp. 165–182.
South Pacific & University of Papua New Guinea, Toch, Hans. The Social Psychology of Social
1985. Movements, Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Company,
Meldgaard, Helle and Johannes Aagaard (eds) New 1965.
Religious Movements in Europe, Aarhus, Denmark: Towler, Robert (ed) New Religions and the New
Aarhus University Press, 1997. Europe, Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press,
Needleman, Jacob and George Baker (eds) 1995.
Understanding the New Religions, New York: Seabury Trompf, G.W. (ed) Cargo Cults and Millenarian
Press, 1981. Movements: Transoceanic Comparisons of New
Partridge, Christopher (ed) Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements, Berlin & New York: Mouton de
Religions: New Religious Movements, Sects and Gruyter, 1990.
Alternative Spiritualities, Oxford: Lion, 2004. Wilson, Bryan and Jamie Cresswell (eds) New
Religious Movements: Challenge and Response,
London & New York: Routledge, 1999.
External links
Hartford Institute of Religious Research: New religious movements (http://hirr.hartsem.edu/denom/new_religious_mov
ements.html)
Skepsis – Online texts about NRMs (http://www.skepsis.nl/onlinetexts.html)
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31. Bryan Wilson. "Why the Bruderhof is not a cult" (https://www.scribd.com/document/115621228/Why-the-Bruderhof-is-

63. Barker 1989, pp. 55–56.

99. Barrett 2001, pp. 21–22.

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