DEAD BEAT CONTROL ALGORITHM IMPACT ON

EMERGING SMART ELECTRIC POWER GRIDS

CENTRALIZED CONTROL

Thesis Number: ________

Submitted By:

Khalid Mehmood
CU-614-2013

Supervised By:

Dr. Zahid Ullah

Department of Electrical Engineering

Faculty of Engineering

CECOS University of Information Technology and Emerging Sciences

Peshawar, Pakistan

November 2017
DEAD BEAT CONTROL ALGORITHM IMPACT ON
EMERGING SMART ELECTRIC POWER GRIDS
CENTRALIZED CONTROL

Thesis Number: _______

Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master
of Science in Electrical Engineering

Submitted By:
Khaid Mehmood
CU-614-2013

Supervised By:
Dr. Zahid Ullah

Department of Electrical Engineering

Faculty of Engineering
CECOS University of Information Technology and Emerging Sciences
Peshawar, Pakistan

November 2017
 Approval Certificate

This is to certify that the work contained in this thesis entitled “Dead Beat Control
algorithm Impact on Smart Electric power Grids Centralized control” by “Khalid-
Mehmood” was carried out under my supervision and in my opinion is fully adequate in
scope and quality for the degree of Master of Sciences in Electrical Engineering.

_______________________
Supervisor: Dr. Zahid Ullah
November 2017

ii
iii
 Dedication

I want to dedicate this thesis to my parents. It was never possible without your prayers
and support. The tireless prayers of my mother and unprecedented support of my father
enabled me to reach this landmark. I also want to thanks my friends for their support
and prayers.

Engr. Khalid Mehmood

November 2017

iv
 Acknowledgement

Primarily, I would like to thank God, the Almighty, for nothing is possible without His
will. (My success (in my task) can only come from Allah (God). In Him, I trust, and
unto Him, I look). [Quran 11:88].

I am bound to show gratitude to ALLAH for strengthening me to do this research work.

I am grateful to the invaluable assistance and guidance of my advisor Professor Dr.
Zahid Ullah. Your professionalism and vast technical knowledge has always been a
source of encouragement for me. You have been an outstanding and a caring advisor.
Thank you, Dr. Zahid Ullah, for all your support.
People from my organization at work and repeated encouragement by my course
teachers will always be in my heart and memories. It would be unfair not to mention
the name of my dear father Mr. Abdul Khaliq, as he has been my mentor, guide and the
driving force behind this whole research work. He deserves appreciation beyond the
words.

Engr. Khalid Mehmood

November 2017

V
 Abstract

The voltage source converters (VSC) are commonly used in the renewable energy systems
due to their high efficiency and fast and flexible control, which are the primary
requirements in the energy systems where fast power reversal and DC voltage control are
needed.

In recent research studies the primary focus was on the converter control strategies, which
usually involves the cascade control including the inner loop and outer loop controls. The
inner loop control normally adopts the current control, which is much faster than the outer
power loop control. Therefore, the current control loop (inner control loop) plays a
significant role in improving the overall performance of the control system. However, the
conventional synchronous frame PI current control method, which is mostly adopted in
the inner current control loop is often limited by the bandwidth of the controller.

Comparably, the predictive current control (i.e. Dead-beat control), which theoretically
has a very high bandwidth and it offers a better sinusoidal signals tracking performance.
Therefore, it also improves the transient response time. The working principle of DB
control is to increase the step response speed of a system by manipulating input signal
into two parts. In such control scheme, a proportionally larger step signal (positive) drives
the system response fast to reach the original constant value, which is followed by a
delayed smaller step signal (negative) to cancel the remainder transient response of the
former step.

Since the DB control itself is allowed to reach its reference value at the end of next
switching period, consequently one sample time delay is introduced in this method of
control. In addition, DB control can be divided into two groups depending on whether or
not the computational delay time being taken into consideration.

The deadbeat controller that is designed in this research shows high stability as shown
from the experimental results where total harmonic distortions is reduced to 0.88%.

vi
VII
 Table of contents

Approval Certificate.............................................................................................................. i
Antiplagirasim certificate ............................................................................................................ iii
Dedication ........................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgement...........................................................................................................................v
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... vi
Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... vii
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... ix
List of tables .................................................................................................................................. xi
List of Symbols and Abbreviations ..................................................................................... XII
Chapter 1-Introduction ................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Problem Statement................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Motivation ............................................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Contributions ........................................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Research Objectives ................................................................................................................ 5
1.6 Closed Loop System ................................................................................................................ 6
1.7 Digital Controller..................................................................................................................... 6
1.8 Features of Digital Controller .................................................................................................. 7
1.9 Requirements of Digital Controller ......................................................................................... 7
1.10 Methodology.......................................................................................................................... 7
1.11 Thesis Organization ............................................................................................................... 8
Chapter 2-Brief Review of VSI ............................................................................................. 9
2.1 Need of Three-Phase Inverter .................................................................................................. 9
2.2 Three-Phase Inverter Design and Working ........................................................................... 10
2.3 Sinusoidal PWM Conditions and performance in Three-Phase VSI ..................................... 13
Chapter 3-Space Vector Modulation of Three-Phase Inverter............................................ 19
3.1 Topologies of Modulation ..................................................................................................... 19
3.2 Space Vector Modulation for Three-Phase DC/AC Inverter ................................................. 20
3.3 Modulation ............................................................................................................................ 25

VII
3.3.1 PWM Approach for Three-Phase Inverter with Multicarrier Modulation Technique ............ 26
3.4 Selective Harmonic Elimination............................................................................................ 34
Chapter 4-Implementaion of PI Controller on Three-Phase VSI ........................................ 37
4.1 PID Controller ....................................................................................................................... 37
4.2 Proportional Controller .......................................................................................................... 39
4.3 Integral Term ......................................................................................................................... 40
4.4 Derivative Term..................................................................................................................... 40
4.5 PI Controller .......................................................................................................................... 41
4.6 Modeling of Closed Loop Three-Phase Voltage Source Inverter via PI Controller .............. 42
4.6.1 Single Loop Control of Three-Phase VSI............................................................................... 42
4.6.2 Double Loop Control of Three-Phase VSI ............................................................................. 46
Chapter 5-Dead Beat Control of Three-Phase VSI ...................................................... … …52
5.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................... 52
5.2 System Model for Dead Beat Control ................................................................................... 56
Chapter 6-Simulation and Results ...................................................................................... 68
6.1 Simulation Overview ............................................................................................................. 68
6.2 Dead Beat Controller Block .................................................................................................. 69
6.3 Simulation Results ................................................................................................................. 72
References .....................................................................................................................................78

VIII
 List of Figures

Figure 1.1 closed loop system with a Controller ..............................................................................6

Figure 2.1-Three Phase half bridge Inverter ...................................................................................10
Figure 2.2-Three phase Full-Bridge Inverter ..................................................................................11
Figure 2.3 -Sine and Saw-tooth waves to produce PWM ...............................................................13
Figure 2.4-The resultant PWM produced from fig 2.3 ...................................................................14
Figure 2.5-abc to dq coordinates conversion ..................................................................................15
Figure 3.1 Classification of modulation strategies .........................................................................20
Figure 3.2-Space Vector PWM sectors of three phase inverters ....................................................21
Figure 3.3-Full bridge Three Phase VSI .........................................................................................21
Figure 3.4-Switching Sequences of the space vector modulation ..................................................23
Figure 3.5-Single sector switching paradigm Diagram ..................................................................23
Figure 3.6-Overmodulation in space vector PWM .........................................................................26
Figure 3.7 Three-phase PWM inverter driving for multicarrier modulation technique .................27
Figure 3.8 Space vector diagram of a three Phase Inverter ............................................................29
Figure 3.9 Time of voltage sector 1................................................................................................31
Figure 3.10 Three-Level SHE ........................................................................................................35
Figure 4.1 PID Controller ...............................................................................................................39
Figure 4.2 Proportion Integrator PI controller Block Diagram ......................................................41
Figure 4.3 Model for controlling three phase VSI with PI controller.............................................42
Figure 4.4 General system model for calculation of PI controller..................................................44
Figure 4.5 functioning of PI Controller in a system .......................................................................44
Figure 4.6 Root Locus and Bode Plot response for single loop PI Controller for three-phase VSI in
SISO tool ........................................................................................................................................46
Figure 4.7 Model of double loop P & PI control ............................................................................46
Figure 4.8 Three Phase Inverter with LC Filter ..............................................................................47
Figure 4.9 Decoupling of D & Q coordinates ................................................................................48
Figure 4.10 Step_1 (a) for mathematical modeling of Double loop P & PI Controller ..................49
Figure 4.11 Step_1 (b) for mathematical modeling of Double loop P & PI Controller .................49
Figure 4.12 Step_2 for mathematical modeling of Double loop P & PI Controller .......................49

IX
Figure 4.13 Step_3 for mathematical modeling of Double loop P & PI Controller .......................50
Figure 4.14 Step_4 for mathematical modeling of Double loop P & PI Controller .......................50
Figure 4.15 Step_5 for mathematical modeling of Double loop P & PI Controller .......................51
Figure 4.16 Bode plot response of PI controller using P Controller ..............................................51
Figure 5.1 Deadbeat open loop Control system..............................................................................52
Figure 5.2-Digital open loop deadbeat control system ...................................................................54
Figure 5.3-Closed loop digital deadbeat controller ........................................................................55
Figure 5.4 Model of closed loop deadbeat Control with three phase inverter ................................56
Figure 5.5 Inner inductor current feedback, state feedback decoupling and the load current
decoupling control structure ...........................................................................................................60
Figure 5.6 Mathematical model diagram for inner loop response of the system............................64
Figure 5.7 Bode plot of Inner loop response of the system ............................................................64
Figure 5.8 Close loop response of Outer voltage loop of a system ................................................65
Figure 5.9 Mathematical model for the outer voltage loop open loop bode-plot response of the
system .............................................................................................................................................65
Figure 5.10 Open loop bode-plot response for outer voltage loop .................................................67
Figure 6.1 Simulation Layout .........................................................................................................68
Figure 6.2 Controller Design ..........................................................................................................70
Figure 6.2a Outer Voltage Control loop .........................................................................................71
Figure 6.2b Inner Current Control Loop ........................................................................................71
Figure 6.3 Controller Input and Output ..........................................................................................71
Figure 6.4 Dead time block combined with the controller .............................................................72
Figure 6.5 Overall Simulation Results ...........................................................................................73
Figure 6.6 𝐕𝐃𝐂 tracking with reference voltage ............................................................................73
Figure 6.7 Power tracking ..............................................................................................................74
Figure 6.8 Total Harmonic Distortion ............................................................................................75
Figure 6.9 Modulation Index ..........................................................................................................75
Figure 6.10 Phase Voltages ............................................................................................................76
Figure 6.11 Phase Currents.............................................................................................................76
Figure 6.12 FFT Analysis of the System ........................................................................................77

X
 List of Tables

Table 2.1 shows the switching states as shown below ...................................................................11

Table 2.2 shows the values of the controllers .................................................................................17
Table 3.1 Switching time of periods ...............................................................................................25
Table 3.2 Switching States and Voltage .........................................................................................28
Table 3.3 Time Calculation for 𝐕𝐫𝐞𝐟 in sector I ............................................................................33
Table 3.4 Seven segments of all regions ........................................................................................34
Table 5.1 Mapping methods and equations for Z-transform ..........................................................56
Table 6.1 Dead Beat Controller performance analysis ...................................................................77

XI
 List of Symbols and Abbreviation

AC Alternating Current
DC Direct Current
PI Proportional Integral
PD Proportional Derivative
PID Proportional Integral Derivative
VSI Voltage Source Inverter
CSI Current source Inverter
DBC Dead Beat Controller
SVPWM Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation
ADC Analogue to Digital Converter
DAC Digital to Analogue Converter
UPS Uninterrupted Power Supply
SPWM Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation
SHE Selective Harmonic Elimination
𝑒 Error
Kd Derivative Gain
Ki Integral Gain
Kp Proportional Gain
SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
K Positive Constant Gain
G(s) Power System
H(s) Transfer Function
ZOH Zero Order Hold
THD Total Harmonic Distortion

XII
 Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Overview

Ever since electricity has been utilized for benefit of humankind, it has proved to be the
most stanch, efficient and reliable mode for devices to be operated properly [1].
Electricity can be generated via wind, heat, hydropower, solar panels, recycling of
garbage material and lot of other ways and it can be transmitted over long distances and
transformed from one form to another according to the fundamental essentiality.
In semiconductor technology, initiation and evolution has impelled the use of power
converters and the proclivity of energy routed by them is escalating. In electrical and
electronics appliances, industrial units and utility sector, power converters have vast
applications for driving different types of both linear and non-linear loads like electronic
ballasts and chargers. Naturally, these are nonlinear power converters and hence current
drawn by them is nonlinear or is distorted and composed of harmonics and inter-
harmonics components.
Due to ubiquitous use of nonlinear loads causes deterioration in power quality at
transmission and distribution system, bringing in problem in the form of losses,
overheating, overloading and malfunctioning of electrical and electronic equipment
attached with electrical supply network [1].This has led to significant concern and
research on the power quality problems, faster response time for switching, more stability
and accuracy along with enhancement on obtainable solutions and new advancements to
deal with them. The conventional solutions like three phase inverters with simple digital
control, PI, PID, fuzzy and repetitive control is suitable but one technique of classic
control i.e. deadbeat control is more appropriate for getting the desired response of the
system.
A large number of utilization of these inverters recently in industry shows that its
popularity is increasing rapidly in megawatt industrial devices for driving them.
Improvement in harmonic quality and high voltage sharing among different devices

1
connected in series are two major factors for preferring it on a two-level inverter. Later
on advancement and innovation leaded to replacement of GTO by IGBTs due to their fast
execution in current, voltage ratings, and higher switching frequency. In three phase
inverters, the advantage of using space-vector pulse width modulation (SVPWM), the
factor of modulation expands from 78 % to 90.7% [2].
Likewise, in progression and expansion of modern evolution and mechanization, control
systems have a progressively more significant role [3]. It is scrutinized that some control
systems affect every aspect directly or indirectly on our daily practical life. Largely, there
are plenty of control systems that have been found in industrial sectors such as
mechanical tool control, automatic assembly line, quality control of manufactured
products, electrical and electronics systematic [4]. In present days, controllers usually
used are computer executed, means digital controllers [5].
Deadbeat controller has eminence of offering the most fastest settling time and stability.
Consequently, deadbeat controller has assured the removal of error sequence in sampling
instants after a finite time. For control design process, a theory for discrete time non-
linear system is very imperative in particular, as computer, executed controllers have a
standard configuration and the most typical non-linearity is saturation, furthermore, most
plants and processors are non-linear. Certainly, linear control theory cannot be
implemented in the cases where saturation is caused by small actuators, the procedure is
implementing nearer to all its limits and probability of large dynamic range of process
variables [6]. A controller is a plant, which is a single device or consists of many devices.
The components arranged in such manner, which will control, express, or regulate itself
or any other system associated with it, is called control system [7].

1.2 Problem Statement

Synchronization of renewable energy sources with the utility grid is a difficult yet
important aspect of modern power control systems. By synchronizing theses renewable
sources with the grid, the current load demands can be fulfilled and other power
generating systems that work on fossil fuels can be avoided.

2
The voltage source converters (VSC) are commonly used in the renewable energy
systems due to their high efficiency and fast and flexible control, which are the primary
requirements in the energy systems where fast power reversal and DC voltage control are
needed. A preliminary literature review shows that in recent researches carried out on
such systems, the primary focus was on the converter control strategies, which usually
involves the cascade control including the inner loop and outer loop controls. The inner
loop control normally adopts the current control, which is much faster than the outer
power loop control.

Therefore, the current control loop (inner control loop) plays a significant role in
improving the overall performance of the control system. However, the conventional
synchronous frame PI current control method, which is mostly adopted in the inner
current control loop, is often limited by the bandwidth of the controller. Comparably, the
predictive current control (i.e. Dead-beat control), which theoretically has a very high
bandwidth and it offers a better sinusoidal signals tracking performance. Therefore, it
also improves the transient response time.

The working principle of Dead Beat control is to increase the step response speed of a
system by manipulating input signal into two parts. In such control scheme, a
proportionally larger step signal (positive) drives the system response fast to reach the
original constant value, which is followed by a delayed smaller step signal (negative) to
cancel the remainder transient response of the former step. Since the DB control itself is
allowed to reach its reference value at the end of next switching period, consequently one
sample time delay is introduced in this method of control. In addition, DB control can be
divided into two groups depending on whether or not the computational delay time being
taken into consideration. Therefore, the problem of these conventional PI controllers is
that their response is limited and higher level of synchronization can be achieved by
using the proposed deadbeat controller with grid connected renewable energy systems.

This enhanced synchronization would enable the system to respond to changes taking
place in a power system in minimal time. The deadbeat controller being a discrete
controller can replace the currently used PI controllers, which makes it a good option for
future with reduced cost and higher efficiency. Therefore, the primary aim of this

3
research is to design a deadbeat controller, which has the ability to follow the reference
signal in one sample time and be able to control the power system in an efficient way.

1.3 Motivation

The power generation and utilization has been one the very important and highly
addressed issue since the past couple of years. The ever-increasing demand of electrical
power has compelled the engineers and scientists around the world to find new sources to
generate electricity or to enhance the already existing ones. One of the key features is to
manage and control the generated electrical power in order to utilize it properly.

Most of the times the power created is wasted due mismanagement and other factors that
need to be controlled. This research focuses on the deadbeat controller design, which is
used with grid connected renewable energy sources in order for them to be properly
controlled and synchronized with each other. Conventionally, the controller that is
usually used with such system is a proportional-integral controller or PI controller. PI
controllers have been working well so far but the primary issue, which they face, is the
response time. Deadbeat controller is capable of reducing the response time and controls
the system in an efficient way.

By introducing a controller like this in power systems, the synchronization can be aligned
in order for the proper and maximum utilization of the generated power. Usually, the
power generated by renewable energy sources such as wind or solar is DC whereas the
grid works with AC power. In order for the two systems to be interlinked with each other,
the DC has to converted to AC. For this, different PWM controllers are used. The
deadbeat controller controls the sinusoidal pulses generated by the pulse generator to
follow the reference signal. The controller introduces a dead time into the system, which
makes sure that the one gate is properly turned off before the other one is turned on.

The use of deadbeat controller in a power system enables the system to perform faster.
The devices used in power systems, such as IGBTs, are slow and may require a controller
like the one proposed in this research to control the system and react faster to the
misalignments in the system. Moreover, such a controller can also be implemented in
other systems where faster response and low error margin is required. By implementing
4
deadbeat controller in power systems, the power utilization can be increased and it might
be possible to fulfils the power needs by reducing the losses in currently available power
systems rather than fabricating new ones.

1.4 Contributions

It is a known fact that technology has evolved very rapidly in the past few decades.
However, some of the under developed countries are still trying to overcome the basic
electricity needs which must be addressed because a country or a nation cannot keep up
with the current era of science and technology when it lacks the very basic requirement
for that which is electrical power. Therefore, this research is an attempt to contribute to
the power issue, which still is a major matter in most parts of the world. Following points
are the major contributions of this research.

 Provides a better synchronization solution of renewable energy systems

with utility grid.
 Provides higher accuracy and low margin of error, thus managing the
power with higher precision.
 Provides a low cost solution by simply upgrading the currently used
controllers.

1.5 Research Objective

The research on three-phase voltage source inverter by using deadbeat control technique
has gained much attention as matched up to its single-phase counterpart due to its
limited application. The research will try to concentrate on all the gimmicks like, design,
modeling, control, implementation and analysis of three-phase inverter by implementing
deadbeat control strategy on it. The endeavor is to examine in detail the different aspects
affecting the performance with foremost prominence on control techniques applied to
three-phase inverter. The current extraction technique, DC side voltage control,
SVPWM, coordinates conversion system and AC voltage waves are thoroughly studied
to identify performance related issues and approach to address them. The project and the

5
thesis will be also in acquiescence with the discrete implementation of signal processing
and control algorithms.

1.6 Closed Loop System

In case of a closed loop at feedback a sensor is installed to control the output and feeding
the data to a computer, this computer keeps on changing the control output of the system
as required for minimizing the error. It is shown in figure 1.1. This sensor controls the
output of the system with respect to its dynamic response, accuracy and stability of that
system. Feedback system consents the controller to balance all the disturbances
dynamically. In a perfect feedback system, all the errors have been cancelled,
successfully extenuating the effect of all the forces that perhaps arise or not in the system
during an operation and perfectly matches the desired consequences.

Figure 1.1.Closed loop system with a Controller

In real time, it is impossible to achieve it because of the measurement of inaccuracy in

the sensors, flaw in the control input and postponement in the controller. The concept of
the feedback loop: the error is created by subtraction of sense value from the desired
value, through which control signal has been produced and this control signal is directed
by a controller, via which desired outcome can be attained [8].

1.7 Digital Controller

A control is said to be digital if it uses digital computers. It can be a microcontroller, DSP
kit, FPGA kit, standard desktop computer and so on. For discrete type system like digital
computer, the Laplace transform has been replaced with Z-transform. Because of finite

6
precision of digital computer care is required to make certain that error in coefficients;
ADC and DAC will not create unintentional possessions. For any DC, output is a
weighted sum of existing and previous inputs, and previous outputs, this can be achieved
to store appropriate values in the digital controller [4].

1.8 Features of a Digital Controller

 Economical
 Flexible
 Scalable
 Compliant
 Static Operation [9].

1.9 Requirements of Digital Controller

 A/D Converter: Changes Analog Input to Digital

 D/A Converter: Converts Digital to Analog
 Software program: Carries out communication between input and output

1.10 Methodology

The circuit and control parameters are designed, based on the problem and the
specification. An intricate simulation is carried out in MATLAB to authenticate the
planned parameters are in concurrence with the required specification. Then some
different criterion affecting the performance of deadbeat control technique on three-phase
voltage source inverter is confabbed out and appropriate elucidations are used to augment
the compensation performance.

A tentative model is developed in laboratory for testing the performance of designed

system. By using this prototype, the response of deadbeat control on a three phase VSI is
taken under deliberation. A signal processing and control algorithm is executed in
MWC6713 DSP control board.

7
Finally, the research work is concluded by analyzing the results obtained and its
comparison with simulation results.

1.11 Thesis Organization

The structure of thesis is divided into 5 chapters excluding the introductory chapter:
Chapter 2 presents a brief literary review related to issues of three phase inverter,
possible solutions and calculations along with control loop structure. The classification of
three-phase inverter based on IGBTs and open/closed loop criteria is presented. A short
review of some popular reference-signal extraction techniques and control methodologies
applied to three-phase voltage source inverters are introduced.
Chapter 3 starts with specification of problem, develops a three-phase VSI, and
coordinates transformation for said application. The technical specifications are specified
based on circuit parameters are designed. The modeling of the three phase VSI is carried
out.
Chapter 4 discusses in detail about issues and design of the various control subsystem
present in three phase VSI. The reference current extraction procedure, software Phase
Locked Loop, Current Control system and discrete time voltage controller are
investigated and analyzed. The issues related to different control subtasks but specially to
PI controller are presented and design of control subsystem is accomplished.
Chapter 5 deals with deadbeat control, hardware and software development required for
experimental prototype construction and operation. The different subsystems of
experimental platform like, driver board, main circuit, transformation board and control
board are briefly discussed. The program structure used in MWC6713 DSP is presented
along with a brief discussion on various functional blocks realizing signal processing and
control algorithm required from three phase VSI. It provides the analysis and comparison
of simulation, signal processing and tentative results. A short description on Simulation
environment development is presented.
Chapter 6 summarizes the achievement of the research and project work. The
recommendation regarding possible research direction for future work is stated.

8
 Chapter 2
A Brief Review of VSI

2.1 Need of Three-Phase Inverter

Currently, a substantial advancement in power electronics is experiential. The progression
of latest procedures inspires pioneering visions that prompt the research of new
configuration, new approach of modeling, control and modulation. An escalating
utilization of energy in the various sectors of worldwide electricity plants and
consumption segments has been observed especially the larger demand is in for electrical
loads, or nonlinear loads, as for example: TV, videos, computer set, fax, electronic ballast,
and others. DC-AC converters or inverters offer a different number of applications in
renewed energy systems and driving electrical machinery, but mainly in uninterrupted
sources of energy (UPS).
For critical loads, power can be supplied via uninterruptable power supply devices in
emergency conditions. Even the slightest electricity breakdown, yet if for tiny proportion
of a moment, can become the reason for losing the information or impinge on very
important processes in different areas. Communication systems, data processing centers of
industries, computer systems of different airlines, various airports, or even in the
treatment environs of the hospitals. Some perception throw in for the distortions in the
output voltages of inverters, like: Uncontrolled diodes rectifiers with capacitive filter
causes high crest factor in the load current (inherent non linearity of the PWM inverter),
DC link bar class, semiconductors voltage drop and transformer’s impedance, which are
used for galvanic padding and nonlinear loads. As in UPS the DC-AC converter is key
device, it is desirable that it will have the as utmost features as achievable.
The abnormal supply of electric power can have disturbing effect on industrial and
commercial loads resulting in economic loss and malfunction of equipment. The interest
and research in figuring out the solution for power quality problems stems from the
economic impacts it has on utilities and their customers. Therefore, three-phase system
has been invented for dealing with heavy loads and for providing better phase voltages to
the loads for their swift operating.

9
2.2 Three Phase Inverter design and working
Depending on supply of a source and other interrelated topologies of circuit, inverters are
categorized as VSI and CSI. Three-phase corresponding part of the single phase half and
full bridge voltage source inverters are revealed in Fig: 2.1 and 2.2.Voltage source
inverters of Single-phase are used in low range and voltage source inverters of three phase
are used in high range applications. The key principle is providing a three-phase voltage
source so that to direct the three main parameters of voltage like amplitude, phase and
frequency.
The three-phase DC & AC VSI are broadly used in active filters, combined power flow
controllers and in UPS to produce convenient frequency and magnitudes of AC voltage by
means of a variety of PWM strategies. The standard three-phase inverter shown in figure
4.5 the three-phase inverter, which has total 6, switches, the switching of each switch is
dependent on the modulation scheme. By using a single-phase or three-phase utility
power supply (UPS),a DC input is received through a rectifier of diode-bridge r and LC
filter [10].

S11 S21
C + Van -
a

VDC b + Vbn -
n
c
C + Vcn -

S12 S22

Figure 2.1 Three Phase half bridge Inverter

The key principle is providing a three-phase voltage source so that to direct the three main
parameters of voltage like amplitude, phase and frequency. For a circuit to satisfy
Kirchhoff’s voltage law and the Kirchhoff’s current law the switches which are on same
leg should not be switched ON at the same time.

10
 S11 S21 S31

+ Van -
a

VDC b + Vbn -
n
c
+ Vcn -

S12 S22 S32

Figure 2.2 Three phase Full-Bridge Inverter

There are inverter total eight switching states shown in Table 2.1.Eq (2.1) ,Eq (2.2) and
Eq (2.3) shows that for a circuit to satisfy Kirchhoff’s voltage law and the Kirchhoff’s
current law the switches which are on same leg should not be switched ON at the same
time, Because input voltage will get short thus will violate Kirchhoff’s voltage law. Thus,
two switches on same leg are complementary. In Figure 2.2, it is shown that:

S11  S12  1 (2.1)

S 21  S 22  1 (2.2)
S 31  S 32  1 (2.3)
Table 2.1 shows the switching states as shown below

S11 S21 S31 𝐕𝐚𝐛 𝐕𝐛𝐜 𝐕𝐜𝐚

0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 - VDC VDC
0 1 0 - VDC VDC 0
0 1 1 - VDC 0 - VDC
1 0 0 VDC 0 - VDC
1 0 1 VDC - VDC 0
1 1 0 0 VDC - VDC
1 1 1 0 0 0

11
There are total eight switching states as shown in Table 2.1 Two switching states gives
zero ac VL. In such situation, the ac line currents glide either at upper or lower
components. All other states give no zero ac output VL. In order to produce voltage
waveform, the inverter switches from one state to another state. Thus, the resulting ac
output VL consists of discrete values of voltages, which are -VDC, zero and VDC.
To produce desired waveform, states are selected in such manner which will ensures the
use of valid states only.
Vdc
( S11  S12 )  Van  Vno (2.4)
2
Vdc
( S 21  S 22 )  Vbn  Vno (2.5)
2
Vdc
( S 31  S 32 )  Vcn  Vno (2.6)
2
Add equations (2.4), (2.5) and (2.6) and making use of conditions from (2.1), (2.2) and
(2.3) gives:
Vdc
( M 11 )  Van  Vno (2.7)
2
Vdc
( M 21 )  Vbn  Vno (2.8)
2
Vdc
( M 31 )  Vcn  Vno (2.9)
2

Adding equations (2.4), (2.5) and (2.6) gives:

Vdc
( S11  S 21  S 31  S12  S 22  S 32 )  Van  Vbn  Vcn  3Vno (2.10)
2

In the case of Van  Vbn  Vcn  0 , Equation 4.19 becomes it will give:

Vdc
(2S11  2S 21  2S 31  3)  Vno (2.11)
2

12
By putting Vno in equations (2.4), (2.5) and (2.6) will give:

Vdc
(2S11  S 21  S 31 )  Van (2.12)
3
Vdc
( 2 S11  S11  S 31 )  Vbn (2.13)
3
Vdc
(2S 31  S11  S 31 )  Vcn (2.14)
3

2.3 Sinusoidal PWM conditions and performance in three phase

VSI
Pulse width modulation method is used in three-phase inverters, where 3 sine wave phases
are shifted by a degree of 120 so that the frequency of the output voltage is compared with
high frequency carrier triangle. In a comparator, these two signals are mixed where high
output is obtained when the sine wave is larger than the triangle and the output of
comparator is obtained low when the wave is smaller than triangle. This phenomenon
shown in Figure 2.3 and 2.4. This output voltage is not smooth but consists of harmonics;
it weakens the performance of the load.

Figure 2.3 Sine and Saw-tooth waves to produce PWM

Whereas by this saw-tooth and sine waves intermixing a new wave is generated
which is dependent on the intermixing amplitude of the saw-tooth and sine waves, and the

13
width of the wave as decides the on and off period of the switch therefore it is known as
Pulse width modulated wave. As shown in the figure below:

Figure 2.4 The resultant PWM produced from figure 2.3

The modulation signals thus used to eliminate harmonics. The 𝑉𝑃 can be obtained from
the VL

Vab  Van  Vbn 

V   V  V 
 bc   bn cn  (2.15)
Vca  Vcn  Van 

Equation (2.15) is written as a function of Van Vbn Vcn  as:

T

Vab   1  1 0  Van 
V    0 1  1 V  (2.16)
 bc     bn 
Vca   1 0 1  Vcn 

Equation 2.16 shows a linear system where the unidentified quantity is a vector, since the
phase voltages add to 0, the phase load voltages is written as:

Vab  1  1 0  Van 
V   0 1  1 V  (2.17)
 bc     bn 
 0  1 1 1  Vcn 

Equation (2.17) implies:

14
 Van  1  1 0  Vab  2 1 1 Vab 
V   0 1  1 V    1 1 1 V 
1
(2.18)
 bn     bc  3    bc 
Vcn  1 1 1   0   1  2 1  0 

Equation (2.18) gives the 𝑉𝑝 in terms as:

1
Van  (2Vab  Vbc ) (2.19)
3

1
Vbn  (Vbc  Vab ) (2.20)
3

1
Vcn   (2Vbc  Vab ) (2.21)
3

The phase voltages can be used further for designing of several control systems for
stabilization of these converters. Those will be discussed in the upcoming chapters.

abc αβ dq

Figure 2.5 abc to 𝐝𝐪 coordinates conversion

General equation for this is rotation frame is:

f a  f b f c  0 (2.22)

 1 1  f 
 f   2 1 2  f 
a
2
f   3

 3  b 
(2.23)
   3 0 f 
 2 2   c 

Whereas 𝒅𝒒 coordinates will be converted as:

 f d   Cos Sin   f  
f   
cos    f  
(2.24)
 q   sin 

For converting directly from 𝑎𝑏𝑐to𝑑𝑞 coordinates it will take the form:

15
  fa 
 f d  2  Cos Cos(   ) Cos(   )   
f   (2.25)
 sin(    )  sin(    )  
fb
 q  3  Sin  f c 

Whereas for  coordinates it will be stated as:

 f  Cos  Sin   f d 
f    (2.26)
    Sin cos    f q 

Then for 𝑎𝑏𝑐 coordinates for  and for 𝑑𝑞 are given as:

 
 0 
 fa   1
 f    1 3   f 
  (2.27)
 b  2 2  f  
 f c    1  3
 
2 2 

Then for 𝑑𝑞 coordinates

 f a   cos   Sin 
 f   cos(   )  Sin (   )  f d 
 fq 
(2.28)
 b 
 f c  cos(   )  Sin (   )  

2
Where  
3
Where  = angle between dq and αβ reference frames.
Particularly, in requisites of Space vectors and rotating matrix:
  f    fd  Cos  Sin 
f o    And f k    also here M ( )  
 f   fq   Sin cos  
A matter of scale 3 into 2 or 2 into 3-phase transformation is given as
 fa 
 fd   Cos Cos(   ) Cos(   )   
 f   k (2.29)
 sin(    )  sin(    )  
fb
 q  Sin  f c 

f dq  kTfabc (2.30)

21 2
Then f abc  kiT f dq Where k i 
t
and TT t  U 2
3k 3

16
Quadratic form conversion: f a  f b  f c  k p ( f d  f q )
2 2 2 2 2

2 1
Where k p 
3 k2
2
Magnitude conversion: f  k m f a Where k m  k
3
Furthermore, the common conversions are given as:

Table 2.2 values of the controller

a b c d

2 1
𝑲 2 2
3 3 3

1
𝑲𝒊 2 2 2
3 3

3 1 2 3
𝑲𝒑
2 3

1 3 1
𝑲𝒎 3
2 2 2

Where:
2 1
kp 
3 k2
21
ki 
3k
a: Equal magnitude of 2- and 3-phase balanced sinusoidal signals
b: Equal 2- and 3-phase power (power invariant)

17
c: 2-phase amplitude equals 3/2 3-phase amplitude: 2-phase amplitude equals RMS of 3-
phase signal.
Also, for magnitude conversion
f  k m f a

Where,
2
km  k
3

18
 Chapter 3
Space Vector Modulation of Three-Phase Inverter

Since last decade, control methods and modulation of multilevel converters have
fascinated lot of researchers and developers. The motives for this fascination are the
confrontation to broaden the variety of modulation methods to multilevel stage and to take
benefit of the possibility to take benefit of the additional freedom states available due to
comparatively more switching states available along with the inbuilt complex capability
of controlling more power electronics mechanisms.
Due to this, a vast number of diverse algorithms for modulation techniques have been
formed, each one of them have different characteristics and discrepancies in it, confiding
in the relevance of the purpose, it should be used for. For multilevel converters, pulse
width modulation (PWM) strategy for a conventional convertor has been customized
accordingly. According to the frequency of switching, Pulse width modulation techniques
have been categorized as shown in figure 3.1.
The signal, which is obtained at the output of the converter, connects with grid it will be
synchronized with it [13]. These inverters are available from the Pulse width modulation
switching information. From calculations given to it the inverters will obtain information
via C-programming practically and in MATLAB Simulink. There are many types of
modulation strategy.

3.1 Topologies of Modulation

The fundamental configuration of a multilevel power converter is made by small discrete
DC voltage sources [14]. Generally, there are two kinds of modulation strategies to be
used these are fundamental switching frequency and high switching frequency Pulse
width modulation. High switching frequency PWM is used for dealing with high
frequency switching devices. For this purpose, different modulation techniques have been
implemented and these techniques are described as follow:

19
 Multilevel
modulation strategies

Fundamental Higher switching

switching frequency frequency PWM

-Sinusoidal
Space vector Selective Harmonics -Trapezoidal
Elimination -Staircase
control -stepped SVPWM
third harmonic
elimination

Figure 3.1 Classification of modulation strategies

3.2 Space Vector Modulation for Three-Phase DC/AC Inverter

As it shows the major idea described in [15], [16] for SVPWM is the division of a2-
dimensional plane into six areas known as sectors. As described in figure 3.2, there are
four vectors in a single sector, which are𝑉𝑖 , 𝑉𝑖 +1 where 𝑖∈ {1...5}.The voltage at output
of module is greater than 0 when vectors are interconnected with module as shown in
figure 3.3, as one of the switches among the 3 will not be off, so these vectors are known
as active vectors.
However, the other two vectors i.e. 𝑉0 and 𝑉7 are the inactive vectors, as all the switches
in it would be on or off. These two vectors are apportioned in the center of the circle C in
figure 3.2. The preferred output 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 will rotate with equal angular velocity as desired for
output AC voltage frequency.
As 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 rotates, it will keep on scanning the sectors with time and with the passage of
time, it will examine all the sectors. Time interval for each vector of sector can be
calculated and the sector containing 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 can be determined for every sample time. This
SVPWM has been implemented in MATLAB Simulink using [17] and [18] and it has
been more easy and uncomplicated way to implement such model in this environment.
20
MATLAB has been used as it has an extra ability to stimulate power module such as in
case of an inverter.

010
 110
V3 V2

Sector 2

Sector 3
Sector 1

011
V4
 Vref 100 
V1
V0 & V7
Sector 6
Sector 4

Sector 5

001 101
V5 V6

Figure 3.2 Space Vector PWM sectors of three phase inverters

Each vector related to particular switching sequence as shown in figure 3.3 S a , S b ,S c [19].
The sequence will then become [20].
S a S b S c  010 (3.1)

S a' S b' S c'  101 (3.2)

These two above equations corresponds to vector three.

Sa Sb Sc
+ Va -

VDC b + Vb -
n
c
+ Vc -

S a' Sb' Sc'

Figure 3.3 Full bridge Three Phase VSI

21
As it is stated that:
 U dc  U dc  U dc
Van  ,Vbn  ,Vcn  (3.3)
3 3 3

Using the following matrix equation, three-phase output voltage should be changed from
switch sequence to zero.

S a 
V   U dc 2  1  1   
V   0 3  3   
Sb (3.4)
  3   S c 

For𝑉3, it is given as:

0
V   U dc 2  1  1   
V  
3 0 3  3   
1 (3.5)
   010 0

 1 
V   
V   U dc  3  (3.6)
1
   010  
 3 
From equation 3.6, it is stated that:
V  2
  tan 1    (3.7)
V  ( 010) 3

2U dc
Vref  V2  V2  (3.8)
3
The vector associated with the sequence 010 is Vector 𝑉3. Likewise, in [21], further
switching sequences can be found out, as shown in figure 3.4.
Switching on or switching off time slot for each switch can be found out in each sector
which are given as sector 1,sector 2,sector 3,sector 4,sector 5 and sector 6.
Switching sequences for space vector modulation is shown in figure (3.4).
The two vectors, each for specific time slot, identify this sector like 𝑉𝑎 for time 𝑡𝑎 and 𝑉𝑏
for period𝑡𝑏 . Whereas inactive vectors 𝑉0 to 𝑉7 are applied during the time 2 to.
Therefore, Space vector 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 can be described as shown in Eq (3.9)

22
 010
 110
V3 V2

Sector 2

Sector 3 Sector 1

011
V4
 Vref 100 
V1
V0 & V7
Sector 6
Sector 4

R
Sector 5

001 101
V6
V5

Figure 3.4 Switching Sequences of the space vector modulation

Switching on or switching off time slot for each switch can be found out in each sector.
For paradigm, the sector one is considered in Figure 3.5. The two vectors, each for
specific time slot, identify this sector like 𝑉𝑎 for time 𝑡𝑎 and 𝑉𝑏 for period𝑡𝑏 . Whereas
inactive vectors 𝑉0 to 𝑉7 are applied during the time 2 to. Therefore, Space vector 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 can
be described as:

Tch ta t a  tb t a  tb  t o
Tch
V
0
ref dt   V1dt 
0
V dt  
ta
2
t z  tb
Vo dt  
t a  tb  t o
V7 dt (3.9)

110 V2

tb
( )V2
Tch
Vref

 
100 V1
t
( a )V2
Tch

Figure 3.5 Single sector switching paradigm Diagram

23
Using  0 coordination and from the above equation, it has been found that:

 
3Vref sin    
t a  Tch 3  (3.10)
 
2U dcsin  
3

3Vref sin  
t b  Tch (3.11)
 
2U dcsin  
3
Tch t a t b
t0  t7  (3.12)
2
For any sector K the above set of equations will be generalized as:
 
3Vref sin  k   
t a  Tch 3  (3.13)
 
2U dcsin  
3

3Vref sin  
t b  Tch (3.14)
  
2U dcsin   (k  1) 
 3 
Tch t a t b
t0  t7  (3.15)
2
ON/OFF switching time period can be calculated for each switch via switching state and
the sector that contains it. It is elaborated in table 3.1.
The two vectors, each for specific time slot, identify this sector like 𝑉𝑎 for time 𝑡𝑎 and 𝑉𝑏
for period𝑡𝑏 .
Whereas inactive vectors 𝑉0 to 𝑉7are applied during the time 2.
Switching ON or switching OFF time slot for each switch can be found out in each sector.
For paradigm, the sector one is considered in Figure 3.5.The two vectors, each for specific
time slot, identify this sector like 𝑉𝑎 for time 𝑡𝑎 and 𝑉𝑏 for period𝑡𝑏
There are total eight switching states which are divided into six sectors, from sector 1 to
sector 6.
Each sector is responsible for its switching state. All these switching states are shown in
figure 3.4.

24
 Table 3.1 Switching time of periods

Sector State Time Period of 𝑇𝑐ℎ

𝑆𝑎 = 0 𝑡𝑎 + 𝑡𝑏 + 𝑡0
1 𝑆𝑏 = 0 𝑡𝑏 + 𝑡0
𝑆𝑐 = 1 𝑡0
𝑆𝑎 = 0 𝑡𝑎 + 𝑡0
2 𝑆𝑏 = 1 𝑡𝑎 + 𝑡𝑏 + 𝑡0
𝑆𝑐 = 1 𝑡0
𝑆𝑎 = 0 𝑡0
3 𝑆𝑏 = 1 𝑡𝑎 + 𝑡𝑏 + 𝑡0
𝑆𝑐 = 0 𝑡𝑏 + 𝑡0
𝑆𝑎 = 1 𝑡0
4 𝑆𝑏 = 1 𝑡𝑎 + 𝑡0
𝑆𝑐 = 0 𝑡𝑎 + 𝑡𝑏 + 𝑡0
𝑆𝑎 = 1 𝑡𝑏 + 𝑡0
5 𝑆𝑏 = 0 𝑡0
𝑆𝑐 = 0 𝑡𝑎 + 𝑡𝑏 + 𝑡0
𝑆𝑎 = 1 𝑡𝑎 + 𝑡𝑏 + 𝑡0
6 𝑆𝑏 = 0 𝑡0
𝑆𝑐 = 1 𝑡𝑎 + 𝑡0

3.3 Modulation
Whenever a researcher or user tries to get comparatively more magnitude of output
voltage as allocated in the cotangent circle of hexagon, over modulation occurs [22], as it
is depicted by active vectors, as shown in fig. 3.6.on over-modulation techniques
calculation and implementation yields positive outcome as in high-quality performance
[23], but it is very complicated technique to realize.

25
The most preferred method for industrial applications is SPWM. In this technique, two
carriers Vtr1 and Vtr2 are compared with sinusoidal reference signal, as shown in figure
3.7.

010
 110
V3 V2 OVER
MODULATION

Sector 2

Vmax

Sector 3 Sector 1

011
V4
Vref

30
100 
V1
V0 & V7
Sector 6
Sector 4

Sector 5

001 101
V5 V6

Figure 3.6 Over modulation in space vector PWM

3.3.1 PWM Approach for Three-Phase Inverter with Multicarrier Modulation

Technique
Several techniques in a multilevel converter for two-level multilevel carrier-based PWM
are modified to control active devices. Modulation, signal per phase or using some
triangle carrier signals and single orientation are most trendy and uncomplicated
techniques to be used.
The most preferred method for industrial applications is SPWM. In this technique, two
carriers Vtr1 and Vtr2 are compared with sinusoidal reference signal, as shown in figure
3.7. Switch S1 and S3 are paired and S2 and S4 are corresponding switches. PWMA1 and
PWMA2 are two PWM signals, each representing its corresponding set of switches, as
PWMA1 is driving pair of S1 and S3 switches and PWMA2 is driving the counter part of
S2 and S4. In the case, reference value gets lower than zero, S2 and S4 starts to drive by

26
PWMA2 signal whereas in case when reference value is higher than zero, pair of switches
S1 and S3 has been used to switch on in each control period.

Figure 3.7 Three-phase PWM inverter driving for multicarrier modulation technique

In inverters and rectifiers, SVPWM method is utilized on a large scale to control their
functionality and to make them more stable, accurate and fast to response.
SVPWM is comparatively more apposite and appropriate for implementation in discrete
time domain than sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM), as it enhances the
accessible max output voltage along max VL by 70% of the DC linked voltage as
compare to SPWM’s 61% in linear modulation range.
Furthermore, improved harmonics distortion factor is attained [24].
For voltage source inverters (VSIs) SVPWM is one of the most extensively used
modulation technique.
As compared to SPWM, magnitude of fundamental components gets much higher if
SVPWM has been used as modulation strategy.
Although in case of three phase inverters, SVPWM algorithm becomes much complex as
there are large number of switching states available.
Number of switching states obtained in a three phase inverter are 23=27 and these
switching states are specified in Table 3.3.1.1.

27
Whereas in figure 3.3.1.2 SVPWM is shown, in which there are four regions in each
sector and there are six sectors available.

Table 3.2 Switching States and Voltage

Space Vector Switching State Vector Classification Vector

Magnitude
[111][000][-1-1-1]
𝑉0
P-Type N-Type
𝑉1 𝑉1𝑃 [1 0 0]
Zero Vector 0
𝑉1𝑁 [0 -1 -1]
𝑉2 𝑉2𝑃 [1 1 0]
𝑉2𝑁 [0 0 -1]
𝑉3 𝑉3𝑃 [0 1 0]
𝑉3𝑁 [-1 0 -1]
𝑉4 𝑉4𝑃 [0 1 1]
𝑉4𝑁 [-1 0 0] 1
Small Vector 𝑉
𝑉5 𝑉5𝑃 [0 0 1] 3 𝑑𝑐
𝑉5𝑁 [-1 -1 0]
𝑉6 𝑉6𝑃 [1 0 1]
𝑉6𝑁 [0 -1 0]
𝑉7 [1 0 -1]
𝑉8 [0 1 -1]
𝑉9 [-1 1 0] √3
Medium Vector 𝑉
𝑉10 [-1 0 1] 3 𝑑𝑐
𝑉11 [0 -1 1]
𝑉12 [1 -1 0]
𝑉13 [1 -1 -1] 2
Large Vector 𝑉
𝑉14 [1 1 -1] 3 𝑑𝑐

28
 𝑉15 [-1 1 -1]
𝑉16 [-1 1 1]
𝑉17 [-1 -1 1]
𝑉18 [1 -1 1]

SECTOR II
-1 1 -1 0 1 -1 1 1 -1

SECTOR III SECTOR I

4
-1 1 0 010 110 1 0 -1
-1 0 -1 0 0-1
2
1 3
-1 1 1
011 111  100
0-1-1 1 -1 -1
-1 0 0 -1-1-1 000

001 101
-1 0 1 -1-1 0 0-1 0 1 -1 -1

SECTOR VI
SECTOR IV

-1 -1 1 0 -1 1 1 -1 1
SECTOR V

Figure 3.8 Space vector diagram of a three Phase Inverter

The possibility of three phase switching states of inverter phase A, phase B and phase C
are represented in table 3.3.1.1 with square brackets. There are four groups of voltage,
which are represented below:

 Zero vector (V0), in which the magnitude of V0is Zero, is demonstrated by three
switching states [1 1 1], [0 0 0] and [-1 -1 -1].
 Comprising of degree of Vd /3 and two switching states containing (-1) in one and
(1) in other, which are categorized into N or P-type small vector. This small vector
is shown from V1 to V6.

 Medium vectors of magnitude 3 𝑉𝑑 , are shown from (V7 toV12).

3
 Large vectors having a magnitude of 2 𝑉𝑑 ,are shown from (V13 to V18).
3
 Zero vector (V0), in which the magnitude of V0is Zero, is demonstrated by three
switching states [1 1 1], [0 0 0] and [-1 -1 -1].

29
 As illustrated in table 3.3.1.1, small vectors have several extra switching states that
can be consumed for voltage balancing in capacitors. Realization of SVPWM in a
three-phase inverter is classified into four steps:

Step1: The sectors can be determined as following:

 1 1 
   Van 
 
Vd 1 2 2  
Vq   0  Vbn (3.16)
   3 3 
  Vcn 
2 2 

Vref  Vd 2  Vq 2 (3.17)

Vref  Vd 2  Vq 2 (3.18)

Here fs is the fundamental frequency, will give the sector. Once sector is found out, region
can be determined by doing simple mathematics as mentioned in [25].
In the above equations,𝜃is used for giving the sector and fs is the fundamental frequency.
If a sector is determined, regions can also be located through the mathematical formulas
mentioned in [26].
If θ lies in range of 0°  θ<60° V will locate in sector I.
If θ lies in range of 60°  θ<120° V will locate in sector II.
If θ lies in range of 120°  θ<180° V will locate in sector III.
If θ lies in range of 180°  θ<240° V will locate in sector IV.
If θ lies in range of 240°  θ<300° V will locate in sector V.
If θ lies in range of 300°  θ<360° V will locate in sector VI.

Step II: Calculation of time in each voltage vector:

In case of two-level pulse width modulation, tracking of a reference voltage is done by
choosing one zero vector along with two most adjacent voltage vectors and by the time
calculation, which is required for it at one of these three vectors in the way the reference
vector is obtained by their summation. On the other hand, reference voltage in case of
multilevel PWM can be found out by the selection of nearest three triangular vertices for

30
minimizing the harmonics in output line-to-line voltage [27]. Assuming that in second
region of sector 1, the reference voltage is spotted out, and then each voltage vector is
solved for finding time duration by the calculations as shown below:

V1Ta  V7Tb  V2Tc  Vref Ts (3.19)

Ta  Tb  Tc  Ts (3.20)

𝑇𝑠 Describes the sampling or modulation period, Vref is the reference voltage and Ta is for
V1, Tb is for V7 and Tc is for V2. Voltage vectors V1, V2 and V7 that in which triangular
region it is situated determine the location of𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 .
V14 1 1 -1
Ta

4
110 V7 1 0 -1
V2 0 0 -1
Tc Tb
Vref
1 3
2
Tb  Ta
100 Tc
1-1-1

0 -1 -1 V13
V0 V1

Figure 3.9 Time of voltage sector 1

Voltage sectors V1, V2, and V7are illustrated from figure 3.9 as under:
 1
V1  3 Vd
 j
 1
V2  3 Vd e
3

 j
(3.21)
V  1 V e 6
 7 3 d

V  1 V e
 ref 3 ref
Replacement of equation (3.16) into (3.15) concludes
1 3   1  
Vd Ta  Vd (cos  j sin )Tb  Vd (cos  j sin )Tc  Vref (cos   j sin  )Ts (3.22)
3 3 6 6 3 3 3

31
Real part and imaginary part of equation (3.17) can be realized by the equations as
following:
Also Voltage sectors V1, V2, and V7are illustrated from figure 3.9
 1 1 Vref
Ta  Tb  Tc  3 (cos  )Ts
 2 2 Vd
 (3.23)
 3 T  3 T  3 Vref (sin  )T
2 b 2 c s
 Vd

Equation for total time Ts =Ta +Tb +Tc modifies equation (3.18) as:


Ta  Ts [1  2ma sin  ]

  
Tb  Ts [2ma sin(  )  1] 0   (3.24)
 3 3
 
Tc  Ts [1  2ma sin(  )]
 3
Where,
Vref
ma  3 (3.25)
Vd
At medium vector voltage, the max value for 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 is consequential as:
Vref ,max
ma ,max  3 1 (3.26)
Vd
In sector I,𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 can be derived with help of equations as in table 3.3

Times for sectors (II, III, IV, V & VI), can be deliberated by means of equations given in
table 3.4, this is done by subtracting multiple from the actual angular displacement𝜃, in
the way that adapted angle.
The progression of these vectors while toggling has been sequenced in the form that only
one leg gets affected in each step; for maintaining the effective switching frequency at a
least value.
The purpose of using the different modulation schemes is to maximize the bus utilization,
lowering the harmonic contents, achieving the precise control to reduce switching losses.

32
 In table 3.3 time is calculated for reference voltage in sector I which is illustrated
as Ta, Tb and Tc.

Table 3.3 Time Calculation for 𝐕𝐫𝐞𝐟 in sector I

Are
Ta Tb Tc
a
 
1 V1 Ts [2ma sin(   )] V0 Ts [1  2ma sin(   )] V2 Ts [2ma sin  ]
3 3
 
2 V1 Ts [1  2ma sin( )] V7 Ts [2ma sin(   )  1] V2 Ts [1  2ma sin(   )]
3 3

 Ts [2ma sin(   )  1]
3 V1 Ts [2  2ma sin(   )] V7 Ts [2ma sin  ] V13 3
3

 
Ts [2ma sin   1]
Ts [1  2ma sin(   )] Ts [2  2ma sin(   )]
4 V14 V7 3 V2 3

Step III: Analyzing each transistor for determining the switching time
Inverter or rectifier can be modulated via different algorithms using SVPWM technique.
Several SVPWM techniques have been comprehensively examined in literatures of [28]
and [29].The purpose of using the different modulation schemes is to maximize the bus
utilization, lowering the harmonic contents, achieving the precise control to reduce
switching losses.
In each switching cycle, estimation of the rotating reference vector in multilevel inverter
can be done via switching among the three triangle vertices, which are adjacent to a
reference point 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 . The progression of these vectors while toggling has been sequenced
in the form that only one leg gets affected in each step; for maintaining the effective
switching frequency at a least value.

33
At each one time when the switching transition of only one device is taken under
consideration, in Table 3.4 is based on 7-segment technique switching sequence is
mentioned as:
In each switching cycle, estimation of the rotating reference vector in multilevel inverter
can be done via switching among the three triangle vertices, which are adjacent to a
reference point𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
Table 3.4 Seven segments of all regions

Sector Region Switching Segments

1 100 000 00-1 0-1-1 00-1 000 100
2 100 10-1 00-1 0-1-1 00-1 10-1 100
I
3 100 10-1 1-1-1 0-1-1 1-1-1 101 100
4 110 11-1 10-1 00-1 10-1 11-1 110
1 110 010 000 00-1 000 010 110

2 110 010 01-1 00-1 01-1 010 110

II
3 110 11-1 01-1 00-1 01-1 11-1 110
4 010 01-1 -11-1 -10-1 -11-1 01-1 010

1 010 000 -100 -10-1 -100 000 010

2 010 -110 -100 -10-1 -100 -110 010

III
3 010 -110 -11-1 -10-1 -11-1 -110 010
4 011 -111 -110 -100 -110 -111 011

1 011 001 000 -100 000 001 011

2 011 001 -101 -100 -101 001 011

IV
3 011 -111 -101 -100 -101 -111 011
4 001 -101 -1-11 -1-10 -1-11 -101 001

1 001 000 0-10 -1-10 0-10 000 001

2 001 0-11 0-10 -1-10 0-10 0-11 001

V
3 001 0-11 -1-11 -1-10 -1-11 0-11 001
4 101 1-11 0-11 0-10 0-11 1-11 101

1 101 100 000 0-10 000 100 101

2 101 100 1-10 0-10 1-10 100 101

VI
3 101 1-11 1-10 0-10 1-10 1-11 101
4 100 1-10 1-1-1 0-1-1 1-1-1 1-10 100

34
3.4 Selective Harmonics Elimination
In SHE, there is a substantial diminution in the switching losses for the reason that
devices have to be controlled on low frequency so that semiconductor-switching losses
can be minimized and consequently this scheme has been comprehensively extended up to
the high-level power applications, those are concerned with multilevel inverters.
In this schematic, the low frequency harmonics are usually detached from the signals via
proper selection of angles amongst the multilevel inverters whereas for supplementary
purpose, a filter is used for eliminating the higher frequency components. Supposing the
quarter wave symmetric waveform of height𝑉𝑑𝑐 , as shown in figure 3.10, the nth order
harmonic have its magnitude deliberated as in [30].
M
4
an 
n
  1
k 1
k 1
cos n k (3.27)


As: 0   1   2  .....   M 
2

1  2  3

Vdc

0 1  2  3

-Vdc
  3 2
2 2
Figure 3.10 Three-Level SHE

In the above equation, number of switching angles are represented by m, 𝛼𝑘 is the kth
switching angle and harmonic order is shown by n. In figure 3.10, the three level SHE has
been shown and these three switching angles 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 are used to control the three
harmonics on the 90-degree symmetrical angel as:

35
 3
4
M 

  1
i 1
i 1
cos( i ) (3.28)

4Vdc 3
0 
5 i 1
 1 i 1 cos(5 i) (3.29)

4Vdc 3
0   1 i 1 cos(7 i)
7 i 1
(3.30)

Major discrepancy in this method i.e. SHE is the complex computation and numerical
analysis procedure which give rise to make the designing and implementing procedures
more complex because of the reason that there are several switching angles present and
used in calculations making them more complex for a researcher.

36
 Chapter 4
Implementation of PI Controller on Three-Phase VSI

4.1 PID Controller

It is a control loop feedback technique mostly used in SCADA systems, RTU and PLC)
to control them for making them stable, accurate and fast in response is known as
Proportional-integral-derivative system (PID system). Generally, PID controller
calculates the error, which is obtained by subtracting the reference value from the system
output. This PID controller usually processes the inputs of the system to diminish the
error in the system [31].
The algorithm of PID controller includes the three constant separate parameters. This
controller due to these three parameters is often known as three-term controller i.e. the
proportional P, the integral derivative values D. and I In requisites of time. It is generally
shown that P is the proportional error and it is locating the current error, I is accrual the
previous errors and D is prophecy of future errors, these three interpreted values are
dependent on rate of current change [32]. The slanted summation of these three values
adjusts the whole procedure by means of controlling the elements, such as by varying the
different quantities to get a proper response of the system as desired for a stable system.

If there is no proper knowledge of the fundamental functioning of a system then in this

condition a PID controller has been known as traditionally the most accurate and
responsive controller [33]. Frequently, the control action designed for requirements of
specific process has been provided by the controller, which tunes these three parameters
for getting preferred response. The sensitivity of error to occur in the controller, the
degree of oscillation and the set point until it overshoots illustrates the response of the
controller in conditions of its sensitivity. The use of PID algorithm to control the system
does not assure the finest control of the system or stability and accuracy of the system.

Elmer Sperry has firstly used a kind of PID control system in 1911; Nicholas Minorsky
(1885-1970) has specified the control law under consumption these days in linkage with

37
modern PID loop control. He noticed a helmsman who was trying to control the ship and
meanwhile he thought an idea of proportional, integral and derivate control algorithm, as
known in the present day:
Proportional control is usually used to guide the direction of the ship, as par allocated
destination of the ship. Integral is used for correction of the error by resetting the inputs
of the system. If the ship has slightly wrong direction and to correct it in appropriate
direction, turning of the wheel fully to left is unsuitable so for this purpose slender
regulation of the steering wheel to left can turn it as mandatory. Derivative is the
endeavor to check how far a process variable is from the set point in the past, and
anticipate where the course correction is needed in future [34].
Different systems have different requirements and so among these three actions, only two
can work in those systems and even only one can work in the systems, according to the
essentialities and response of the system. it is normally meet by keeping the other
parameters equal to 0. In general, the PID controller is known as P, I, PD or PI controller
as relevant actions of the control executed on the system. Among these controllers, most
commonly used controller is PI controller; it is due to the reason that derivative action is
responsive more to the measurement noise on the other hand nonexistence of integral
action leads to the system prevention from attaining the set point value because of control
action.
Different systems have different requirements and so among these three actions, only two
can work in those systems and even only one can work in the systems, according to the
essentialities and response of the system
As there are three correcting terms proportional, integral, and derivative terms, whose
values when summed up forms the manipulated variable (MV).
Therefore, when these three terms have been summed up, their combined response gives
the output of PID controller. If taken Y (t ) as output of the system, then PID algorithm
will be like this:

t
d
Y (t )  Mv(t )  K p e(t )  K i  e( )  K d e(t ) (4.1)
0
dt

38
 P  K p * e(t )

SV OUTPUT
∑ I  K i  e ( ) d ∑ PROCESS

MV
de(t )
D  Kd
dt

Figure 4.1 PID Controller

Where:

 K p is proportional gain

 K i is integral gain

 K d is derivative gain

  Integration variable, takes value from 0 to t

 e Error  SV  MV
 t Time

4.2 Proportional Controller

The output value, proportional to the current error value, has been described by means of
proportional term. Response of proportional controller is attuned as required by
multiplying K p , a constant known as proportional gain constant with the error of the

system. The proportional term is mathematically given as:

Pout  K p e(t ) (4.2)

Meanwhile the proportional controller has been affected with its larger and smaller
values, as if proportional gain is high, then it will affect the high change in the output, if
tuned due to an error, whereas the system can be unstable due to this high proportional
gain. On the other hand, a small output response has been concluded if a small gain has
been given to it, also the controller will be less responsive controller. In case when
proportional gain has low value then there would be small control action, when retorting

39
the system disturbances. The industrial performance and tuning conjecture signify that
proportional terms ought to be a factor in the bulk of the change in output of the system.

4.3 Integral Term

The integral term is an important factor and it affects the magnitude of error and interval
of the error. The sum of the instantaneous error over time defines integral part in PID
controller and it offers the accrued offset that should have been made proper formerly.
The integral gain Ki is multiplied to the accumulated error and then it is added into the
output of controller. The integral term is given:

t
I out  K i  e( )d (4.3)
0

The elimination of the enduring steady-state error which crops up with a wholesome
proportional controller and acceleration in the movement of a process towards the set
point has been done by the integral term.

4.4 Derivative Term

The error over time slop, when determined and multiplied with the derivative gain 𝐾𝑑 ,
give rise to calculation of the derivative term in a process. The involvement of the
enormity of derivative term in general affect the system is known as derivative gain𝐾𝑑 . It
is shown as:
d
Dout  K d e(t ) (4.4)
dt
The settling time and stability of the system has been maintained and advanced by the
derivative action[35] [36]. In case of the implementation, derivative control part is not
fundamental one, so it includes the supplementary low pass filtering for derivative term
for limiting noise and large frequency gain. This kind of control action is not much
frequently used practically, almost it is used about 20% in controllers of the
organizations, as par estimated and the reason for its diminish usage is its capricious
effect on the system when used in real world applications [37].

40
4.5 PI Controller
It is particular case of PID controller where derivative part of error is not used, or equal to
zero and only proportional and integral parts works is known as a PI controller. The
proportional integral action is given mathematically as:

K p   K I  dt
(4.5)
Where,
  SP  MV (4.6)

In this case, PI controller has been modeled by using SISO tool in MATLAB, which will
be described later on in the modeling section of the thesis. The controller function is
represented as:
G (1  s )
C (4.7)
s

Where:
G  K p  Proportional gain

G
 K i  Integral gain


P  K p * e(t )

SV
∑ ∑ PROCESS

MV
I  K i  e( ) d

Figure 4.2 Proportion Integrator PI controller Block Diagram

Because derivative term is not include and considered zero in this case, so system will be
steadier, and there will be noise in data. It is due to derivative term, which is more
responsive to noise, and higher frequency terms from its input.

41
Exclusive of derivative control action, a system controlled via PI controller is much less
responsive to noise and alterations in the system are comparatively easier and faster to
make but this system will not be as rapid to attain the set point value and responding to
the disturbance and perturbations as a properly tuned PID system can be there.

4.6 Modeling of Closed-loop Three-Phase Voltage Source

Inverter via PI Controller

4.6.1 Single Loop Control of Three-phase VSI

To control the three phase Inverter by closed loop path, the different models have been
taken under observation but the basic model that was the most appropriate and feasible is
the one given below after the detailed literature review for single loop voltage control of
three phase inverter.
U

V
DC 3-Phase VSI
Vdc W

Vd_ref
Vac=
Sqrt2 Vac_ref* m(t)
PI (Vd_ref, 1.414/Vdc SVPWM
Vq_ref
Vq_ref)
0

UW TO DQ
TRANSFORM

Figure 4.3 Model for controlling three phase VSI with PI controller

In this model, a three-phase inverter has been controlled by using the single loop closed
control system. In this model, a DC supply has been given to three-phase inverter, having
IGBTs as the switch controllers and receiver of driver SVPWM signals. Whereas the
working of PI controller is in DQO coordinates. The system has been converted by
rotating into its frame into DQ coordinates from UVW coordinates. The 2 lines of
inverter i.e. U and W has been taken as feedback into the closed loop, which are then
converted into the DQ coordinates and a reference voltage 𝑉𝑑 has been given to get the
desired output whereas the other coordinate value i.e. 𝑉𝑞 has been taken as zero. After the

42
reference value, a proportional integrator controller has been installed to check the value
of the error and to overcome it. This PI controller has been mathematically modeled in
DQ frame, where SISO TOOL confirms its values, after mathematical modeling, in
MATLAB SIMULINK software. The two next blocks are for taking the magnitude of
DQ coordinates after being calculated used for finding modulation index, for appropriate
SVPWM process.
In last few decades, the engineers and researchers for regulating the mechanism of
control system of plants in apposite manners, but the most serviceable have developed
several classes of controllers and proper are hysteresis controllers, linear PI controllers
and predictive deadbeat controllers [38].Various high performance controllers have been
designed and implemented but they are not overcoming the coupling problems i.e. they
are not decoupling the active and reactive components properly. It means they are not
permitting the independent working of the both active and reactive components [39]. DQ
reference frame has been divided into 2 further categories i.e. stationary and synchronous
DQ frames, when they are applied with ac rotating machine field theory on them [40].

The correlation of stationary and synchronous DQ frames has been illustrated in [41]. A
brief analysis of the different current control schematics has been represented in [42]. In
case of rectifiers and inverters, synchronous DQ frame controller is the customary
elucidation, when current control technique has been executed on them [43]. A real time
control schematic of the decoupling of both active and reactive line current components
which allows separate control for each type of components has been proposed in [44] for
the non-linear state variables feedback approach. The decoupling control schematic has
also affected the large speed mechanism of asynchronous motors, where it is dependent
on leakage factor and accurateness of the stator inductance as demonstrated in [45]. So
the PI controller has been implemented for the desired results.

In figure 4.3 the three-phase inverter has been controlled via applying the digital PI
controller, which is when modeled mathematically, Figure 4.5.1 takes the form of the
figure 4.4, as described below

43
 Vref Math
PI K pwm
CONTROLLER relation

Figure 4.4 General system model for calculation of PI controller

There it will the math’s relation for finding the overall transfer function, which is
described as:
Ki
C  Kp  (4.8)
s

When this function is applied on the system then it will function as follow:

VI* error Vout

PI
VI

Figure 4.5 functioning of PI Controller in a system

This circuit shown in the figure is represented mathematically as:

 K 
Vout (k )   K p  i error (k ) (4.9)
 s 

In figure 4.4, the math relation has been described mathematically as:
1
Vi .
MR  SC (4.10)
1
SL 
SC

Solving this equation for LC filter used in the three phase VSI, the following expression
is derived:
Vi .
MR  (4.11)
S LC  1
2

44
Then using equations (4.8) and (4.11) the overall transfer function of the system has been
derived. Implementing these mathematical calculations in SISO tool and finding the
values of Kp and Ki. For finding the values of these two parameters, the open and closed
loop response of bode plot is taken and that response is accurate, the values of Kp and Ki
to be driven out were:
K p  0.1646 and K i  0.24335

When these values of Kp and Ki have been placed in the simulation for getting the results,
it was giving the output result as desired. The values of all three-line voltages, i.e. U, V
and W were exactly as needed, likewise there were suitable results for Vd and Vq.
Then in this case, this simulation as giving accurate results, have been implemented with
the C coding and when implemented for doing the experiment, it was giving the results,
mentioned in chapter 6.
A graphical technique for examining the changes in the roots of the system with deviation
in the system parameter, generally it is a gain within the feedback system.
This technique was developed by Walter R.E vans, the purpose of this technique was to
check the stability of the system in the field of control systems, and therefore, it is a
stability criterion for the systems. The root locus method is used for plotting the poles as
a function of gain parameter in the closed loop systems [46].
A linear time invariant system when plotted against frequency in a transfer function,
forms a graph, which is known as, bode plot. Bode plot is a general amalgamation of
abode phase plot which expresses the phase shift as frequency response and bode
magnitude plot in which magnitude of the frequency response gain has been expressed
[47].
When these values of Kp and Ki have been placed in the simulation for getting the results,
it was giving the output result as desired. The values of all three-line voltages, i.e. U, V
and W were exactly as needed, likewise there were suitable results for Vd and Vq.
Then in this case, this simulation as giving accurate results, have been implemented with
the C coding and when implemented for doing the experiment, it was giving the results,
mentioned in chapter 6.

45
 4
x 10 Root Locus Editor for Open Loop 1(OL1)5e+04 Open-Loop Bode Editor for Open Loop 1(OL1)
5
0.4 0.28 0.2 4e+04
0.14 0.09 0.04
3e+04
0.56
2e+04
0
0.8 1e+04
0

0.8 1e+04 -50

2e+04
0.56
3e+04
0.28 0.2 0.14 0.09 0.04 G.M.: 11.1 dB
0.4 4e+04
-100 Freq: 6.23e+03 rad/s
-5
-20000 -15000 -10000 -5000 5e+040 5000
Stable loop
Bode Editor for Closed Loop 1(CL1)
100
-90
0

-100 -135

-200
0
-180
-180 P.M.: 60 deg
Freq: 2.65e+03 rad/s
-360 -225
2 3 4 5 6 2 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/s) Frequency (rad/s)

Figure 4.6 Root Locus and Bode Plot response for single loop PI Controller for three-phase VSI
in SISO tool

4.6.2 Double Loop Control of Three-phase VSI

In this technique, a current controlled inner loop exists along with an outer voltage loop
and this system is controlled by two kinds of regulators. As it is elaborated in the figure
given below:

DC V
3-Phase VSI
Vdc
W

m(t)

Vd_ref
Vac=
PI Sqrt2 Vac_ref*
SVPWM
(Vd_ref, 1.414/Vdc
Vq_ref CONTROLLER
Vq_ref)
0

Vu
Vq
UW TO DQ
Vd Vw
Id TRANSFORM Iu
PROPORTIONAL
CONTROLLER Iw
Iq

Figure 4.7 Model of double loop P & PI control

46
When current is transformed into DQ the proportional controller, as described in this
chapter above has controlled coordinates. This controller is just to contain the amount of
current and the voltage has been controlled via proportional integrator controller. The
mathematical modeling of the system has been demonstrated as:

S11 S21 S31

Ura RL
a

VDC b
Urb Uoa RL
c

Urc Uob RL

Uoc
S12 S22 S32

Figure 4.8 Three Phase Inverter with LC Filter

The current in the inductors of the plant are expressed mathematically as following:
The current across the inductors is given as:
dia
L  U ra  U oa (4.12)
dt
dib
L  U rb  U ob (4.13)
dt
dia
L  U rc  U oc (4.14)
dt
Taking L as common term, equation (4.12), (4.13) and (4.14) will take the matrix form
as:
 dia 
 dt  U
 di   ra  U oa 
L  b   U rb   U ob  (4.15)
 dt 
 dic  U rc  U oc 
 dt 

Then as represented in equations (2.23) and (2.24), the process will further take the form
of equations as:

47
 dI d* U V
 I q  rd  od (4.16)
dt L L
dI q* U rq Voq
 I d   (4.17)
dt L L
dVod* I V
 Voq  d  od (4.18)
dt C CR
dVoq* Iq Voq
 Vod   (4.19)
dt C CR

The above equations (4.16) to (4.19) shows that there is a strong decoupling between D
and Q axis coordinates. This coupling there shows that the system is balanced after it has
been transformed into DQ coordinates, therefore, this strong decoupling if described in
the diagram, then it will take the form as:

1/R
Urd Vod
Id
1/SL 1/SC

WC
WL

WL WC
Urq Voq
1/SL 1/SC
Iq

1/R

Figure 4.9 Decoupling of D & Q coordinates

Now splitting this decoupling into the two forms: i.e. 1 is for 𝑈𝑜𝑑 ∗ and the other one is
for𝑈𝑜𝑞 ∗, as described below:
This coupling there shows that the system is balanced after it has been transformed into
DQ coordinates, therefore, this strong decoupling if described in the diagram.
The above equations (4.16) to (4.19) shows that there is a strong decoupling between D
and Q axis coordinates.

48
 Vod

Id* Urd Uod

Uod*
PI PI *
G(S)

Uod
WcVoq Id WLIq

Figure 4.10 Step_1 (a) for mathematical modeling of Double loop P & PI Controller

Then for 𝑈𝑜𝑞 ∗ the formation is as below:

Voq

Uoq* Iq* Urq* Uoq

PI PI G(S)

Uoq
Iq
WcVod WLId

Figure 4.11 Step_1 (b) for mathematical modeling of Double loop P & PI Controller

*
Solving it further for U oq it will take the form as in the form of loops by implementing

G(S).

1
R

Uoq* 1 1 Vod
PI PI sL sC

Figure 4.12 Step_2 for mathematical modeling of Double loop P & PI Controller

In this case, the upper loop on right hand side, if changed for a transfer function block,
then mathematical calculations would be as:
1
R
Giu ( s)  sC  (4.20)
1 sCR  1
1
sCR

49
Now changing the inner loop PI controller to its values as a function of 𝐾𝑃 into loops, it
will give rise to the following model:
1
Kp

Uoq* R
Vod
1
PI Kp
sL sCR  1

Figure 4.13 Step_3 for mathematical modeling of Double loop P & PI Controller

Now working for the lower inner loop, it will conclude the following mathematical
expression:
1
Kp
Gil ( s )  sL  K p (4.21)
1 sL  K p
1 K p
sL
Afterwards, the figure then takes the form:
1
Kp

Uoq* Kp R Vod
PI
sL  K p sCR  1

Figure 4.14 Step_4 for mathematical modeling of Double loop P & PI Controller

Then for the upper loop elimination for transfer function, the transfer function will
become:
KpR
G( s)  (4.22)
s LCR  sL  s
2

50
 Uoq* K pR Vod
PI G( s) 
s LCR  sL  s
2

Figure 4.15 Step_5 for mathematical modeling of Double loop P & PI Controller

From, equation 4.22, it is shown that 𝐾𝑃 exists in the transfer function and it must have to
be assigned a value for designing the PI controller for controlling the outer voltage loop.
From equation 4.2 and 4.22, it is concluded that for the value X of PI controller there
must be a considerable value for𝐾𝑃 .
Therefore, when system has been designed for the specific value of𝐾𝑃 , the outer voltage
loop control the results of the simulation were appropriate. When the bode plot and root
locus had been designed, they give rise to the following plots

Figure 4.16 Bode plot response of PI controller using P Controller

The implementation of the parameters in MATLAB Simulink is shown in chapter 6 and

details of the parameters are given in appendix B.

51
 Chapter5
Proposed work on Deadbeat Control of Three-Phase VSI

5.1 Overview
This system is usually premeditated, which have enough faster response so that it can
meet the requirements of the system properly. A specification to be taken under
consideration is also to keep its oscillations unavoidable for keeping their size to be
minimized and their duration to be smaller. In case of a linear system, it is managed to
have exponential time constant and its form should remain identical, no matter, how
much the size of step input is there.
In more elaborative form, it can be believed that the system can be forced to counter an
input quickly by motivating the system by a proportionally larger step. Then afterwards
with sequence of the delayed steps, in which all parameters size, number and interval of
the system are dependent on the requirement of the dynamic response and order of the
system. A method known as deadbeat algorithm has been introduced to control the
systems by means of digital controllers in open loop manners, as elaborated in [48].
m(t)
Dead Beat Plant
r(t) c(t)
Controller

Figure 5.1 Deadbeat open loop Control system

Where 𝑟(𝑡)step is input and 𝑚(𝑡) is controlled input to plant and it is controlled by
deadbeat controller and 𝑐(𝑡) is the output of the plant.
Primarily, analogue components have a vital role for controlling switch mode power
supplies by their implementation. Whereas as the economical and strengthen digital
signal processor have been introduced, they are becoming highly captivating devices for
the users [49]-[52]. Conversely, digital controller has less bandwidth as compared to
analogue components, as they possess inherited characteristic of time delays. Thus,
digital control technology must have to be improved for its beneficial usage for the
industry.
52
For this purpose several techniques have been introduced and used in the industry like
smith predictor and the internal model control, and these control various applications of
digital control [53][54]. Although they improve the performances of the systems clearly,
but still they require large resources of computational devices as the switching circuits to
control the fast processors and these computational resources are often unavailable.

Moreover, due to model uncertainties, loss of robustness occurs in model based

controllers. For this purpose, another technique known as Zero Order Holder, ZOH has
been introduced and it has been presented in [55]. In this technique, a pole or zero has
been added into the existing controller by the compensator. The benefit of this method is
it is very simple to implement on a system but it only execute the delay on some part of
the overall delay.
To analyze the response of a system, therefore a technique called deadbeat algorithm has
been introduced for the appropriate and desirable response of the system. In this
schematic, control variable has been calculated in such a way that it remains a head of
time and in the manners, that it cancels the effect of error. In this case, while doing
simulation and experiment, the modeling of the project has been especially undertaken.

Furthermore, this deadbeat algorithm always requires extensive processor resources, as

they are computationally demanding. No matter, these deadbeat controllers always offer a
very fast dynamic response as compared to conventional controllers and these are applied
to switching circuitry. Also on PWM, work is done in [56] and [57].
The deadbeat control structure contains the of analysis the system that which system
input can be executed on the system to fetch the output to steady state in short duration of
time.
In case of linear system having order N, if this system is null controllable as an applied
input can bring it to 0, in this case least number of steps will solely be N, which is
dependent on the initial condition of the system. In deadbeat scheme, closed feedback
system has all the poles on the origin of the z-plane. Because of which it is easy to solve
linear system.

53
Furthermore, in case of closed loop transfer function if all poles are located at origin then
it is sometimes known as a deadbeat transfer function [58].The deadbeat control system
allows the exact tracking of the input at sampling points after few sampling points [59].
Although in case of nonlinear system, deadbeat control is open research problem [60].
Due to good dynamic properties, deadbeat controllers are so often used in the control
systems. More-over deadbeat response of a system has these characteristics:
I Zero steady-state error

II Min rise time

III Min settling time

IV Overshoot and undershoot is less

V signal output control is very high

In order to realize the digital control technique, deadbeat control algorithm is logically
the most appropriate system. It is due to the reason that deadbeat control algorithm has
been prepared for the most flawless step response of the system. Usually its input and
output are sum of the functions with unusual time delays. Whereas when digital systems
are taken under consideration then its sampled reference input is the summation of the
function of its step input with unusual time delays along with the zero order hold (ZOH)
block and its output is the sum of step functions too. For exploiting the widespread use of
digital schematics in technology and calculation fields offered by the microprocessors,
digital signal processing and computers, the essentiality is to transform the deadbeat
algorithm into discrete domain signaling from continuous domain.

r(k) DEADBEAT m(k) Computation m(k-1) m(t) c(t)

CONTROLLER delay ZOH PLANT

GZOHGp (z)
G(z)

Figure 5.2 Digital open loop deadbeat control system

54
In Figure 5.2,𝑟(𝑘) is the input to deadbeat controller whereas 𝑚(𝑘) is the output of the
controller. Furthermore, 𝑚(𝑡) shows the plant input whereas𝑐(𝑡) is the output of a plant.
Introducing an extra time delay of single sampling period in the digital control of
deadbeat algorithm is due to the reason that it is anticipated to the 𝐾 𝑡ℎ sample and then
calculated and implemented at (𝐾 + 1)𝑡ℎ sample too.
Close loop feedback control generally delivers the control system that is insensate to the
changes in parameters of the different components in the plant and therefore capitulates
to the more rapid response and more stable operation. Due to this reason, for controlling
the system performance, a feedback is executed in control system.
In figure 5.3, a block diagram shows blocks of computational delay, ZOH and the plant
are same as in figure 5.2 whereas accumulation of a GF (z) block in the feedback path and
Gc (z ) in the forward path has been added. So that the generally the discrete time T/F of

given system remains unchanged like previously described open loop deadbeat system.

Although in the condition when both open and closed loop digital deadbeat controllers
have same transfer functions but they still vary in their behaviors when the parameters of
the system varies. The system has the ability to regain itself back to its original state by
clearing the disturbances via means of the control used in the closed loop system.

r(k) m(k) Computation m(k-1) m(t) c(t)

Gc (z) ZOH Gp (z)
delay

G2 (z)

GF (z)

Figure 5.3 Closed loop digital deadbeat controller

Close loop feedback control generally delivers the control system that is insensate to the
changes in parameters of the different components in the plant and therefore capitulates
to the more rapid response and more stable operation

There are several methods for conversion of Laplace transform from s-domain to z-
domain. There transfer functions are given as:

55
 Table 5.1-Mapping methods and equations for Z-transform

Mapping Method Mapping Equation

1  z 1
Backward Method s
T
1  z 1
Forward Method s
Tz 1
2 1  z 1
Bilinear Method s
T 1  z 1
2 1  z 1
s
Bilinear Method with Frequency pre- T 1  z 1
wrapping 2  T
 A  tan D
T 2
Impulse Variance Method s  T[G ( s )]
1  e Ts 
Step Invariance Method (ZOH) s   G( s)
 s 

5.2 System Model for Dead Beat Control

3-Phase 3 phase
Inverter load

Vd Vac_ref
Vac=
DQ to αβ DEADBEAT Sqrt2
*
(Vα ,Vβ )
1.414/ SVPWM
conversion CONTROLLER
Vq Vdc
GENERATOR

UW TO DQ
TRANSFORM

Figure 5.4 Model of closed loop deadbeat Control with three phase inverter

56
In this case, a three-phase inverter generally with LC filter is controlled by a method of
Deadbeat controller. 𝑉𝑑 has been given as the reference input and then by coordinate’s
conversion, this three-phase inverter has been controlled in closed loop by deadbeat
controller. The equations for voltage and currents are:
dI L
L  Vc  U r (5.1)
dt
dVc U o
C   IL (5.2)
dt R
Then from equations (5.1) and (5.2), it can be extracted out:
dI L
L  U r  Vc (5.3)
dt

dVc U
C  IL  o (5.4)
dt R
Giving it the form of state space equations, in which it is stated as:

X  I L Vc 
T
(5.5)
Therefore, elaborating equation (5.5) with the equation (5.4), it is concluded that:

X  Ax  Bu (5.6)

Y  CX (5.7)

But from equation (5.5), (5.6) and (5.7)

I L 
V  X  Ax  Bu (5.8)
 c

Then, equations (5.3) and (5.4) will take the form:

57
 dI L U r Vc
  (5.9)
dt L L

dVc I L U o
  (5.10)
dt C RC
However, as𝑈0 = 𝑉𝑐 , Therefore equation (5.10) will become:

dVc V
 IL  c (5.11)
dt R
Therefore, from equations (5.6), (5.7) and (5.8), it is extracted that:

 1 
0  1
I L 
  L   I L    U
V  X 1 1  Vc   L  r
(5.12)
 c    0
C RC 

Likewise, for equation (5.7):

I 
Y  CX  0 1 L  (5.13)
Vc 
Now for discretization of the equations by using the state space equations from (5.6) and
(5.7) it will take the form as:

SX  Ax  Bu (5.14)

Whereas equation (5.7) will remain the same as:

Y  CX

Then equation (5.14) becomes:

X  (SI  A) 1 BU (5.15)

58
In addition, equation (5.7) will become:
Y  C ( SI  A) 1 BU (5.16)

Therefore, from (5.16) the value of G(s) becomes:

G(s)  y  C (SI  A) 1 BU (5.17)

So, equation (5.12) becomes:

1
 1 
 s  1
G ( s )  X  0 1 L L
1 
(5.18)

1
s  0
 
 C RC 

Then it can also be written in the form described as:

 1 1
s  RC   1 
G( s)  X  0 1 L  
 L (5.19)
s   0 
1

 C 

From equation (5.19) let the middle 2x2 matrix as Q, then:

 1 1
s  RC  
L
Q  (5.20)
1
 s 
 C 

Further process of its inverse lead to:

S 1
Q  S2   (5.21)
RC LC
As

59
 AdjQ
Q 1  (5.22)
Q

Therefore, after taking the inverse of Q, the expression becomes:

1
Q 1  LC (5.23)
s 1
s2  
RC LC

As in digital control systems, the most necessary condition is to meet the stability of the
system, to analyze the system stability; most important content analysis is to measure the
system stability. For linear time-invariant system, the system has an inherited
characteristic of taking itself to equilibrium.
In case of  coordinates, the system will take the form as shown in figure 5.5. For the
implementation of a deadbeat controller, there are two loops, voltage and current loop
[61] [62].

Id
Vc
Vc* + +
Kc 1/SL
Kv 1/SC
- + IL
-

1
R

Figure 5.5 Inner inductor current feedback, state feedback decoupling and the load current
decoupling control structure

Therefore using the model given above and implementing the zero order holders for
getting the preferred results, the value of 𝐾𝑝 and𝐾𝑣 , the system will be analyzed as:
For inner loop, 𝐺𝑐 the system becomes:

60
 1
G (c )  K c (5.24)
sL

Discretization of the equation by ZOH leads to:

1  e Ts 
G( z )  z  G(c) (5.25)
 s 
Placing the value of G(c), equation takes the form:

1  e Ts K c 
G( z )  z   (5.26)
 s sL 

Rearrangement of the equation will give rise to:

K 
G ( z )  z  2 c (1  e Ts ) (5.27)
s L 
Solving it further, it will become:

 TK z 
G( z )  z  c c 2 (1  z 1 ) (5.28)
 L( z  1) 

Then final expression for open loop transfer function for inner current loop will become:

 TK 
G( z)  z  c c  (5.29)
 L( z  1) 
Now considering the closed loop transfer function for inner loop:

 Tc K c 
G( z )    (5.30)
 K cTc  L( z  1) 

Then from the above equation for solving the system for inner closed loop considering
the denominator firstly, the equation will become:

61
 K cTc  L( z  1) (5.31)
Here putting the value of Z in the above expression, the equation will be contracted for
finding out the value of𝐾𝑐 :

L
Kc  (5.32)
Tc

Now considering the voltage loop and considering the function of current loop as 1 for
finding out the value of 𝐾𝑣 for open loop, the value of 𝐺(𝑣)is given as:

1
G (v )  K v (5.33)
SC
Applying Zero order Hold method on it:

1  e Ts 
G( z )  z  G(v) (5.34)
 s 
Then placing the value of 𝐺(𝑣) into the above equation:

1  e Ts K v 
G( z )  z 
SC 
(5.35)
 s

Now, solving it further by rearranging, it will take the form:

K 
G ( z )  z  2 v (1  e Ts ) (5.36)
 s C 

Then discretizing this equation will generate the equation as:

 TK z 
G ( z )  z  v s 2 (1  z 1 ) (5.37)
 C ( z  1) 

Thus, the final expression after solving it becomes:

62
  TK 
G( z)  z  v s  (5.38)
 C ( z  1) 

Then for outer closed loop transfer function, the expression will become:

 Tv K s 
G( z )    (5.39)
 K sTv  L( z  1) 

Considering the expression in denominator i.e:

K sTv  L( z  1)  0 (5.40)

Considering the value of z=0, then this equation will take the form:

C
Kv  (5.41)
Ts

The values of 𝐾𝑉 and 𝐾𝐶 have been found by putting the parameters and it has been
found out as 0.15 and 54 respectively. Where 20 kHz is frequency of the inner current
loop and 10 kHz is taken for outer voltage loop. It is due to the reason that outer voltage
loop time𝑇𝑉 will be equal to 100µsec and for inner current loop, the time Tc will be equal
to 50µsec. For synchronizing the response of the system as current is having high rate of
completing its cycles.
Therefore by Zero Order Hold method delay has been induced in it for approximating the
dynamic process by ignoring the inner loop, as it is the case of voltage source inverter
VSI, therefore, voltage loop design is the premise that the electricity transfers to the
system.
The next step is to check the response of the system via bode-plots for different open and
closed loops of the system, which is elaborated below in detail. For inner loop response
of the system, the figure 5.5 will be transformed as:

63
 1
Kc

Id
+ Vc
Vc* +
Kv Kc 1/SL 1/SC
- IL
-

1
R

Figure 5.6 Mathematical model diagram for inner loop response of the system

When bode-plot has response has been found out in MATLAB by implementing this
model in Simulink and find its response by coding in MATLAB for linearization check,
then the response of the system via bode-plot has been given as:

Figure 5.7 Bode plot of Inner loop response of the system

The Bode plot of inner loop response of the system shows magnitude in (db) where as the
phase in (deg).
Similarly figure 5.8 shows Bode plot for close loop response of a system via outer
voltage loop which is given as:

64
 Figure 5.8 Close loop response of Outer voltage loop of a system

For finding the response of the open loop T/F of an outer voltage loop, figures 5.5 and 5.6
has been mathematically simplified to find the outer loop open T/F, then in such case the
figure 5.5 will take the form as:

+
Vc* + Kc R Vc
Kv
- sL  Kc sCR  1
-

1
Kc

Figure 5.9 Mathematical model for the outer voltage loop open loop bode-plot response of the system
By considering figure 5.5, the inner small loop at right side was converted to find its open
loop T/F that has been shown as:
1
Gr ( s )  sC (5.42)
1 1
1 ( )
sC R

R
Gr ( s )  (5.43)
sCR  1

65
Also for inner current loop, it will take the form as illustrated in figure 5.2.6 and then it
will be converted as:
1
K c.
Gc ( s )  sL (5.44)
1
1  ( )Kc
sL
Simplifying it to get the final transfer function, which has been concluded as:

Kc
Gc ( s )  (5.45)
sL  K c

Now for the case of open loop response of the system for outer voltage loop, the
mathematical calculations are shown as from equations (5.43) and (5.45):
Kc R
.
sL  K c sCR  1
Gv ( s)  (5.46)
Kc R
1 .
sL  K c sCR  1

Further solving equation (5.46) to get simplified expression as:

Kc R
Gv ( s )  (5.47)
( sL  K c )( sCR  1)  K c R

Simplifying denominator of equation (5.47) further to get the basic expression:

Gvd ( s )  s 2 LCR  s ( L  K c CR)  K c  K c R (5.48)

So final expression of Gv(s) after replacing the denominator of equation (5.47) with
equation (5.48) will become:

Kc R
Gv ( s )  (5.49)
s LCR  s ( L  K c CR)  K c  K c R
2

66
This expression is then programmed in MATLAB software to find the bode response of
the system and it has been given as:

Figure 5.10 Open loop bode-plot response for outer voltage loop

The overall system response of both outer voltage and inner current loop has shown well
system stability; having accurate errorless static and dynamic response and it is showing
rapid response as compared to other digital PI controllers, described in chapter 4. The
system response via simulations, experimental and simulation results are described in
sixth chapter.

67
 Chapter 6
Simulation and Results

In order to evaluate the performance of a deadbeat controller, a detailed simulation of an

AC system synchronized with a renewable energy source is being carried out in
MATLAB Simulink. Due to the highly resembling real time results, Simulink provides a
tremendous platform to test the designed system and evaluate its performance based on
the simulated results.
6.1 Simulation Overview
The basic blocks of the simulation contain a DC source capable of generating DC voltage
(Solar or Wind), an AC source, an inverter to change DC to AC and control block that
controls the pulses provided to the inverter. Figure 1 shows the basic layout of the
simulation.

Figure 6.1 Simulation Layout

Figure 6.1 shows how all the blocks are connected to each other. The output of the DC
voltage source is given to the inverter to convert that DC voltage into a three-phase AC

68
voltage. The buses B1 and B2 are used to measure the parameters, such as voltage, current
and power. A group of capacitances, inductances and resistances can also be seen in the
figure which are used to introduces their effect in the transmission lines. The value of
inductance for each phase is set to be 0.8mH whereas the capacitance is set out to be
0.03mF.
The resistance connected with the inductances is about 0.04 Ohms, which is almost
negligible, and those connected to the capacitances are about 1 Ohm to reduce the
harmonics introduced in the system. The blue block on the top of figure one contains the
controller design connected with another block called the dead time.
The pulses produced by the controller go through the dead time block before reaching the
inverter. This dead time block is the major block that is used to introduce the effect of a
deadbeat controller, which will be explained later. At the bottom, the result block contains
the scopes to evaluate the performance of the controller and a power GUI block that is
used to simulate the design according to required specifications.

6.2 Deadbeat controller Block

Chapter 4 gives a brief derivation of the transfer function for a deadbeat controller.
However, there are two ways to implement such a controller. One of the ways to
implement the controller is to modify the transfer function of the controller and
implement it within the control block. By deriving the transfer function for the controller
and then taking into account the zero order hold (ZOH), the transfer function can be
transformed into a deadbeat controller.
In this scenario, a different approach has been adopted. By adding a ZOH block with the
transfer function of the controller, the same deadbeat controller can be implemented in an
easy yet more descriptive way. In our simulation, we have implemented the design using
the same method. Aside from that, a dead time block, connected at the output of the
controller, provides a time delay for the pulses to reach the gate terminal of the IGBT
converter. The dead time block along with ZOH block inside the controller perfectly
replicates the performance of a deadbeat controller. The ZOH delay for the system is set
to be 50 uSec. Figure 6.2 shows the internal blocks of the deadbeat controller.

69
 Figure 6.2 Controller Design

This block consists of several other blocks necessary to implement the controller. The
yellow blocks are the phase locked loop (PLL) and abc to dq0 converter blocks. The two
main blocks that are the outer voltage control loop and inner current control loop are
responsible for automatically tuning the controller according to the provided input. The
working principal of the controller is that it takes the reference signal and the actual signal
as its input and then generates the output according to that provided reference.
The DC voltage and the DC reference signal are provided to the voltage control loop
block that further evaluates the reference DC current. The output from the voltage control
loop along with the reference reactive current is provided to the inner current control loop
as one of its input. Thus the reference active and reactive current are provided as one
input of the inner loop and the other one is the actual signal that is the output of the abc to
dq0 block.
It should be noted that the abc to dq0 block can be thought of as providing the DC
equivalent of the AC. Thus by providing the actual and reference signal to the current
loop, the output voltage of from the IGBT converter can be controlled. Figure 6.2.2(a) and
6.2.2(b) show the internal structure of the voltage and current loops respectively.

70
 Figure 6.2 (a) Outer voltage control loop

Figure 6.2 (b) Inner Current Control Loop

The inputs provided to the controller overall are the AC current, Voltage and the DC
voltage. By processing these three signals, the controller is able to control the AC
produced by the converter. Figure 6.3 shows the controller input and output whereas
figure 6.4 shows the dead time combined with the controller.

Figure 6.3 Controller Input and Output

71
 Figure 6.4 Dead time block combined with the controller

By combining the dead time block with the controller. It is made sure that the inverter
on/off time is implemented properly to avoid short circuit. This dead time can be changed
by simply opening the block and changing its value.
Currently in figure 5, the dead time is set to be 0.01 seconds. From a technical point of
view, this time is quite large. Although, providing a higher dead time can smoothen the
output signal but can reduce the performance of the system significantly by increasing the
THD percentage. The results obtained from the simulation are based on different values of
dead time.
6.3 Simulation Results
The simulation results are based on the controller performance and THD introduced in to
the system. The SPWM generator is set to generate pluses at a frequency of 15 kHz. The
reference DC voltage is set to be at 900 volts whereas the reactive current reference is set
to be zero for unity power factor. The AC source produces 600 volts, which is connected
to a 1MW load, and a transformer that steps the voltage down to 480 volts.
The results obtained by setting the dead time 1 micro second are shown in figure 6.5 This
figure shows the overall results obtained including the THD, modulation index, AC
voltage, output of the inverter and power. It should be noted that power demand is set to
be 50W so the controller follows the 50KW power and tries to settle itself at that point.

72
 Figure 6.5 Overall Simulation Results
Having a closer look at the power and Vdc reference voltage tracking, the performance of
the controller can be measured. Figure 6.6 shows how Vdc tracks the reference voltage
provided to the controller.
The figure shows that the overshoot is a bit more than expected but controller manages to
settle the Vdc according to the reference value in a short span of time with almost zero
steady state error. It should be noted that the overshoot can be reduced by tuning the
values of the gains Kv and Kc as mentioned in chapter 4.

Figure 6.6 𝐕𝐃𝐂 tracking with reference voltage

73
The red plot shows the 𝑉𝐷𝐶 tracking whereas the blue line shows the reference voltage.
The same results can be seen in figure 6.7 for power tracking which is 50W.

Figure 6.7 Power tracking

Aside from the controller results, the THD and modulation index graphs give a good
estimation of system performance. In figure 6.9, the total harmonic distortion percentage
is being displayed via a plot.
It can be seen that with these settings the THD can be maintained below 1 percent and in
figure 6.10, modulation index being slightly above 0.9 shows assures that the modulation
is according to the standards and that the system is not undergoing over or under
modulation.

74
Figure 6.8 Total Harmonic Distortion

Figure 6.9 Modulation Index

75
It should be noted that since the dead time (1uSec) is set less than the sampling time (5
uSec) the system performs well. As mentioned earlier, if this is further increased, the
would undergo over modulation with drastic increase in THD.
The phase voltages and currents are shown in figure 6.11 and 6.12. The slight
disorientation in the plots are due to the response of the controller when it tries to track
the reference values.

Figure 6.10 Phase Voltages

Figure 6.11 Phase Currents

76
At the end, the FFT analysis of the system shows the harmonics and THD produced in the
system. It can be seen that the harmonics are generated at the multiples of the SPWM
frequency that is 15 kHz.

Figure 6.12 FFT Analysis of the System

The overall THD of 0.88% is an acceptable value by IEEE standards. By increasing the
dead time, these harmonics and THD would increase. The overall performance of the
system for different time delays has been shown in table 6.1 below

Table 6.1 Dead Beat Controller performance analysis

Total Harmonic Settling Time

Sample Time Dead Time
Distortion (THD %) (ms)
5e-7 9e-6 4.20 86.385
5e-7 7e-6 3.28 85.043
5e-7 5e-6 2.45 80.058
5e-7 3e-6 1.58 75.24
5e-7 1e-6 0.88 66.058

77
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