CHAPTER FOUR -Research Design

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

A
fter completing this unit, students will be able to:

 Understand the Meaning of research design

 Identify the features and forms of research design
 Understand sample size determination techniques
 Know more about the characteristics of a good research design
4.1 Basic sampling and statistical terminology
The most common concepts and terminologies in sampling are the following:

 Census: is study of the whole population & it involves complete enumeration of the
whole population.
 Population: the totality of the element to be studied.
 Element: unit about which information is collected & which provides the basis of
analysis.
 Sample: a small proportion of a population selected for observation and analysis from a
population in accordance with specified procedures.
 Sampling frame: the actual list of sampling units from which the sample is selected.
 Sample size: the number of sampling units selected for observation and analysis.
 Statistics: The summary description of a given variable in the population.
 Variable: a set of mutually exclusive characteristics such as sex, age, income, etc.

4.2 Meaning of research design

O
nce the research problem has been formulated in clear terms, the researcher will be
required to prepare a research design, i.e. he will have to state the conceptual structure
within which research can be conducted. “A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research
purpose with economy in procedure.” The research design is:
 A plan that specifies the sources and types of information.
 The arrangement of conditions for the collection and analysis of data in a manner that
aims to combine relevance to the research purpose.
 The conceptual structure, plan, and strategy of investigation within which research is
conducted.

“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.”
The most important features of a research design include:

 It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research
problem
 It is strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analyzing the data
 It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two
constraints.
4.3 Need for research design
The purpose of the research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with
minimal expenditure of efforts, time and money. The design that gives the smallest experimental
error is the best design. If the purpose of the research is exploration, a flexible research design,
which considers different aspects of a problem, is considered to be appropriate. But if the
purpose is to describe accurately (description) of a situation or of an association between
variables the suitable design will be one that minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the
data collected and analyzed.

4.4 Characteristics of a good research design

A
good design is characterized by issues like Flexibility; Appropriateness; Efficiency;
Economy and so on

 Which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and
analyzed, is considered as a good design.
 Which gives the smallest experimental error, is supposed to be the best design?
 That yields maximum information and provides an opportunity for considering many
different aspects of the problem is considered as most appropriate and efficient design.
4.5 Classification of Research Designs
After we could define our research problems clearly, the next step we will do is formulating
research design. This step is ultimately important as research design actually will be our detail
guideline in conducting research project. Research design contains all required procedures in
gaining information needed to answer our problems. If research approach is research guideline in
a brief, thus research design will be our procedures in detail form to answer research problems.
In general, there are two main forms of research design: exploratory research design and
conclusive research design. Conclusive research design is familiar known as quantitative
research approach, while exploratory is known as qualitative research.

…while selecting a sampling procedure, researcher must ensure that the procedure causes a relatively
small sampling error and helps to control the systematic bias in a better way (C.R Kothari)
2
 A. Exploratory Research Design
Exploratory research design is mainly aimed to explore or to gain a new or deeper understanding
about particular problem. It is inappropriate to examine correlation between observed variables,
since the variables in exploratory research commonly have not yet been defined. And, in
exploratory researchers usually use more flexible and using unstructured questions in the
measurement tools.
When should we use exploratory research?
Researchers usually use this research design for several purposes:
 To help define research problems more clearly
Many companies sometimes want to research their products, but they have no idea what should
be measured from their products. They still are unable to cover what problems inherit their
products. However, to be able to get the best solution we must understand what problems we
face, so that they need to conduct a qualitative research in order to figure out any problems they
are facing now. They can hold a focus group discussion or in-depth interview with some
customers to gain all information from their point of view.
 To help identify all possible alternative answers.
Assume that your company is facing two alternative decisions for your promotion and
marketing programs. You need to decide whether the program will be focused on above the line
or below the line events. To choose the right decision you may need to conduct interview with
some experts or your respondents. From that activity you can gain any opinions to be
considered for your decision.
 To help researchers build a deeper hypothesis.
Hypotheses are temporary allegation of the answer for research questions. A good hypothesis
should consider various factors that affect on the observed variables. However, in fact we
sometimes face a condition where the available theoretical framework is not enough to answer
all the questions. As consequence, we need to conduct a prior exploratory research before doing
the actual research to determine the factors that could be expected as the causes of certain event
can happen.
Exploratory Research as a Qualitative Research
When we are talking about the research design we use the term of exploratory research, but when
we discuss research approach you can consider qualitative research to describe any attempts to
explore something. We can consider them as the same method because both of they are aimed to
explore a deeper understanding about particular material by using unstructured questions. In

“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.”
general, there are two procedures for collecting data in this research design, directly and
indirectly. The direct method means that the researcher directly meets the respondents, letting the
respondents know his/her identity as interviewer and collecting data from them. This direct
method includes face-to-face interview and focus group discussion. Then, the indirect method is
conducted by disguising your identity because if the respondents know that you are researchers
who are observing them, some of them may manipulate their answers.
B. Conclusive Research Design
In contrast with exploratory research design, conclusive research uses more formal and
structured questions to test the correlation between variables or to test the truth from
underpinning hypothesis. In conclusive research design we will be required to use some
quantitative calculations.
When should we use conclusive research design?
There are two circumstances when researcher needs to use conclusive research:
 As conclusive research is the best suit research design for research with many statistical
equations and it can provide you a fix number about particular material, so that it is
commonly used in helping you make a decision based on an absolute number, which in this
setting we cannot use exploratory research design because it cannot provide you a fix
number.
 When your research is related to market study (such as to measure market share, market
size, distributor available, and consumers’ profile), sales (e.g, a study to measure the effect
of packaging on the consumers’ intention to buy), and to market test.
What are included in conclusive research designed?
Conclusive research design is divided to causal research and descriptive research.
1. Causal Research
It is used to prove that there is a relationship between observed variables. Commonly, there are
two purposes of causal research. First, it helps researcher to figure out the nature of that
relationship – which factor becomes the cause and the effect. Second, researcher can use this
design to observe respondents even they who have never experienced the phenomena being
researched by conducting an experiment.
For more understanding you can read illustration below.
A manufacturer is intending to launch a new form of mosquito repellent products. This product
has not been available in the market before. To test whether the new form will be preferred by
consumers or not, the manufacturer tested through experimentation. The cause variable
(independent variable) is the new form of repellent. And, the effect variable (dependent variable)
is the ease in use and the level of consumer complaints. Respondents were given samples of both
the old products and the new form products to see how respondents response to the new one.
2. Descriptive Research
Descriptive research is a type of research design which main purpose is to describe phenomena.
Basic assumption in this research design is the researchers have already figured out the problem,
they are able to define the observed variables, and they can classify the population being
measured. Based on how data are collected from respondents, descriptive research is split to:
a. Cross-sectional research
It is a descriptive research design where data is taken only once in a given time. Data can be
taken from a group of respondents (single cross-sectional design), and can also be taken from
several different groups of respondent (multiple cross-sectional design).
b. Longitudinal research

…while selecting a sampling procedure, researcher must ensure that the procedure causes a relatively
small sampling error and helps to control the systematic bias in a better way (C.R Kothari)
4
In this design, data are captured during a certain time interval from the same group of
respondents. This research aims to see whether there are changes in the behavior of the
respondents for a period of time. For example, researchers want to know how consumer of an
airline will behave during the holiday season.
The major limitation of longitudinal research is it is difficult to maintain the level of data
consistency along the time interval because some factors may affect the respondents such as
death, respondents were out of the deal, and the limited ability of the company to provide
research facilities for long periods of time
4.6 Census Versus survey sources of information
There are two methods of study in using primary data for research: Census and Survey
1. Census: is collecting all the necessary data from the whole population under study.
Advantages of census method

 Completeness: data are obtained from each and every unit of population in the study
area.
 Originality: all the target groups are participated in the study.
 Precision (accuracy) & reliability: the results obtained are likely to be more
representative, accurate, & consistent.
 Less sampling error: - there is no subjective judgment in selection of some study units
from the entire population.
 Wide applicability: - the data collected has a wide application in the country as a whole.
Disadvantage of census method

 Huge resources (HR, financial, time resources) requirements

 Time constraints: requires long period of time
 Impossibility of checking biasness,
 Not appropriate for short term study.
2. Survey: is a research design in which information is gathered from a sample of respondents.

Assumptions or rationales for survey:

 Homogeneity: - survey is based on the assumption that groups have certain essential
common traits. There is no basic difference in the nature of the units of the universe.

“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.”
  Representativeness: - Because of the law of statistical regularity the groups chosen
through sampling from the whole population have the likely of the characteristics of the
population.
 Relativity: The results of sampling method may not be 100% accurate but they are
sufficiently accurate
 Adequacy: the size of the sample should be adequate enough, otherwise it may not
represent the characteristics of the universe.
Basic survey designs
Survey may be cross sectional and longitudinal designs
 In cross sectional survey, data are collected at one point in time from a sample selected
to describe some larger population at that time.
 Longitudinal studies are survey of respondents at different points in time. In this
method respondents are asked in different moments of times.
Advantages of survey study design

 The results that the researches find out from the study can be obtained in a short period
of time.
 The area of the study is small.  Practicability
 Administrative convenience  Possibility of checking biasness
Disadvantages of survey study design
 Possibility of bias and prejudices  Need for specific and specialized
 Difficulty in selecting representative knowledge
 Inerrancy- incapable of making a mistake
4.8 Sampling design and procedures
Sampling method can be classified in to two broad categories:
 Probability (random)
 Non probability ( non random) sampling
1. Probability sampling: is a sampling technique in which every member of the population will
have a known none zero probability selection.
Advantages of probability sampling
 It avoids conscious or unconscious biases in the selection of sampling units.
 It permits estimation of sampling error
 It is possible to evaluate relative efficiency
Disadvantages of probability sampling

…while selecting a sampling procedure, researcher must ensure that the procedure causes a relatively
small sampling error and helps to control the systematic bias in a better way (C.R Kothari)
6
 o It requires high level of skill & experience for its use
o It requires time for planning & executing
o Costly as compared to non random sampling.
Types of probability sampling
There are various types of probability sampling techniques: the most well known are the
following:
 Simple random sampling  Systematic sampling
 Stratified sampling  Cluster (multi-stage) sampling.
1. Simple random (unrestricted) sampling: In this method each unit/individual in the
population has an equal or known opportunity of being selected. It is more suitable in
more homogeneous and comparatively large groups.
Advantages of simple random sampling
 Free from subjectivity  More representative
 Simplicity  Easily assess accuracy
Disadvantage of simple random sampling

 It requires complete lists of the universe

 It is not suitable for respondents (dispersed) over a large geographic area.
 For a given degree of accuracy, this method requires larger sample as compared to
stratified sampling.
 Lack of control of the investigator.
2. Stratified sampling: If the population is heterogeneous with respect to the variable or
characteristics under study then the techniques of stratified sampling is used. It involves
dividing the target population in to smaller homogeneous subgroups & then taking a
sample random sample in each sub group.
Assume N is the heterogeneous population divide the population none over lapping groups (
strata) N, N2, N3 ……….Ni) Using certain classification criteria such as religion, age…… group,
in come, geography, race, language and such forth ( thus, N1 + N2 + N3+ ……….+Ni=N). tends
a sample of F=n/N in each strata.

Example: suppose that we want a sample of size n=30 to be drawn from a population of size N=
8000 and the population includes Ethiopians, Eritreans, & Sudan’s. Assume again N
(Ethiopians) =4000 N2 (Eritreans) = 2400 and N3 (Eritreans) = 1600, by adopting proportional
allocation we shall get the sample size as follows:

For strata with N1 (Ethiopians) = 4000, we have p1=4000/8000

n1=n.p1=30 (4000/8000)=15

“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.”
 For strata with N2(Eritreans) =2400

n 2=n.p2=30(2400/8000)=9

For strata with N3 = (Sudan’s) =1600

n3=n.p3=30 (1600/8000)=6

Then by using simple random we can select the sample size as 15 from Ethiopians, 9 Eritreans,
& 6 from Sudan’s. N.B. repeats the above example using this formula.

Strata sample sizes are determined by the following equation:

nh = ( Nh / N ) * n; where nh is the sample size for stratum h, Nh is the population size for
stratum h, N is total population size, and n is total sample size.

Advantages of stratified sampling method

 If a correct stratification has been made, eve a small number of units will from a
representative sample
 It is more accurate and avoids bias to great extent
 It enables to achieve different degree of accuracy for different segment of the
population
 Replacement of case is easy if the original case is not accessible to study.
 It enables different research methods & procedures to be used in different strata.
 Greater control of the investigator.
Disadvantages of stratified sampling
 It is very difficult to divide the universe in to homogeneous strata
 If the strata are over-lapping or disproportionate, the selection of samples may not be
representative.
3. Systematic sampling: Under this method a sampling is taken from a list prepared on a
systematic arrangement either on the basis of alphabetic order, geographical, numerical or on
house number or any other method. In this method only the first sample unit is selected at
random & the remaining units are automatically selected in a definite sequence at equal spacing
from one another.
Steps in systematic sampling
1. arrange population in serial number from 1 to n & determine sample size

…while selecting a sampling procedure, researcher must ensure that the procedure causes a relatively
small sampling error and helps to control the systematic bias in a better way (C.R Kothari)
8
 2. determine the sample interval by dividing the population by sample size as follows:
N/n=k where k=sample interval
N= population size
n= sample size
3. Select any number at random from the first sampling interval
Example: Assume total population = (N) =100
Samples size (n) =20 (but this should representative and calculation based)
Then K=N/n=100/20 =5
Now select randomly number from the first interval that is 1 to 5, assume we chose 4
then to select the sample start with 4th unit in the list & take every kth unit (every 5th,
because k=5). That is 4, 9, 14, 19……. and so on to 100 & you wind up with 20 units.

Advantages of systematic sampling

 It is very easy to operate & checking can also be & done quickly.
 It results in representative sample because of its randomness and probability
features.
Disadvantages of systematic sampling

 it works well only it the completed & up-to date frame is available & if the units are
randomly arranged
 Any hidden periodicity in the list will adversely affect the representative of the sample.
4. Cluster (multi-stage) sampling: In this method to select the sample the population is divided
in to groups (clusters) with some group randomly selected for study.
The difference between stratified and cluster sampling is that, in stratified all elements in a
group have the same characteristics (homogenous), where as in cluster each element in cluster
has different or heterogonous characteristic.
Advantages of cluster sampling
 it is more flexible  it gives significant cost gain
 it is easier & more practical method, which facilitates the field work
Disadvantage of cluster sampling
 Less accurate and it is difficult if units in a cluster are very heterogonous.
B. Non probability sampling

“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.”
Non probability sampling is the process of sample selection based on personal judgment and
knowledge. Under this method a desired number of sample units are selected deliberately or
purposely depending up on the object of the inquiry so that only the important items
representing the true characteristics of the population are including in the sample.
Advantages of non- probability sampling
 requires lower cost  requires less time
 Acceptable if level of accuracy of the research results is not utmost importance.
Disadvantages of none—probability sampling
 The research results can’t be projected generalized to the total population.
 The researcher doesn’t know the degree to which the sample is representative of the
population from which is drawn.
 Sampling error can’t be estimated.
Types of non-probability sampling
 Judgment  Quota
 Convenience  Purposive
1. Quota sampling method: quotas are setup according to some specified characteristics/
principles criteria such as age, occupation, political, gender, religion , education, race,
etc, proportionally or non proportionally.
2. Convenience sampling method: in this method a sample is selected according to the
convenience of the investigator. This convenience of the investigator depends up on the
availability of the sources list, accessibility to the unit resources at the command of the
investigator.
The selection is unsystematic careless, accidental, thus this method applied under the
following circumstances
 Lack of clarity about the universe.
 No clarity about sampling
 Non-availability of source list.
3. Snowball sampling method: This method begins with a few people and then gradually
increases the sample size as new contacts are mentioned by the people you stated out
with.
4. Purposive sampling method: in this method the investigator purposively selects certain
units for study. It is characterized by

…while selecting a sampling procedure, researcher must ensure that the procedure causes a relatively
small sampling error and helps to control the systematic bias in a better way (C.R Kothari)
10
  Representative character  Freedom from bias
 Specific objective
 Complete idea of the nature of the universe & various measurements.
4.7 Sample size determinations:
After you’ve decided what and whom you’re going to study and the design to be used, you
must decide how many ‘subjects’ to sample. The first step in developing any sample design is
to clearly define the set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied. The universe
can be finite or infinite. In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case of an infinite
universe the number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about the total number of
items. The population of a city, the number of workers in a factory and the like are examples of
finite universes, whereas the number of stars in the sky, listeners of a specific radio programme
are examples of infinite universes.
Sample size refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute a sample..
The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum. An optimum
sample is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility.
While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the desired precision as also an acceptable
confidence level for the estimate.

A
s you know from statistics for management, reliability of the statistics also indicates
the reliability of sample this can be estimated by using statistical method: method is
standard error of mean-The means of randomly selected samples, which are normally
distributed, have their own standard deviation, known as the standard deviation, or standard
error, of the mean.
Although the scientific formulas of sample size determination are different as to the nature of the
research and nature of the population, to calculate the sample size based on the sample required to
estimate a proportion with an approximate 90% confidence level, you can use the following formula:
Formula for sample size determination Yamane (1967:886) provides a simplified formula to

calculate sample sizes. Where:-

 n= sample size
 N= total population
 e= sampling error (let say 10%= 0.1)
“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.”
For example: if the total population of the case study is 557, the researcher will select 85 samples
as to the above formula. And, if it could be proportionally from different stratum:
n=557/ 1+557(0.1)2 n= 557/ 1+5.57 n= 557/6.57 n= 85
Characteristics of good sample design

 It must be result in truly representative sample

 It must be result in small sampling error
 It must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study.
 It must be a systematic bias can be controlled in a better way.
Characteristics of Good sample size
 The large the size of the universes, the bigger should the samples size
 If the resources available are vast a lager sample size could be taken.
 The greater the degree of accuracy desired the larger should be the samples size.
 If universe consists of homogeneous units a small sample may serve the purpose & Vic
verse.
 For intensive & continuous study a small sample may be suitable.
Summery Questions

1. If the sample size from a finite or infinite population could affect the
accuracy of the conclusion and generalization of a given research, explain the
sample size determination methods of different characteristics of target
population. (use different but accurate statistical formulas)

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…while selecting a sampling procedure, researcher must ensure that the procedure causes a relatively
small sampling error and helps to control the systematic bias in a better way (C.R Kothari)
12
 Summary of sample size determinations statistical formulas …

The sample size formula for the infinite population is given as:

The sample size formula for the finite population is given as

Solved Examples
Question 1: Find the Sample size for finite and infinite population, when percentage of
4300 population is 5, confidence level 95 and confidence interval is 0.04?
Solution:

From the given data:

Z = 3.8416 ( from the z table, we the value of confidence level, that is 1.96)
by applying given data in the formula

SS=600 (after rounding to nearest whole numbers)

Now lets calculate the sample size for the finite population.

“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.”