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Because of apie advances in the medical scien a patil, indepen tt vetifiation of Wiagncses and dug desages shouldbe made Fira edition 2005 Reprinted 2008 ‘Brish Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue econ is asallable fom the Bris Library. ‘Library of Congress Cataloging in Peblication Data ‘Acatalog records evailablo fromthe Litary of Congress, ISBN: 0 08 044568 3 (Volume 1) ISBN, 005 084559 1 (Voteme IT) ISBN: 008 044381 § (Set) “Working together to grow libraries in developing countries © The paper wed in tis publicton mes the resrements of ANSUNISO 23948-1992 (Permanence of ape Printed in The Netherlands. ‘ ee i i | | PREFACE Due to the rapid growth of the offshore ficld, particularly in the exploration and develop- ment of offshore oil and gas fields in deep waters of the oceans, the science and engineering in this area is seeing a phenomenal advancement. This advanced knowledge is not readily available for use by the practitioners in the field in a single reference. ‘Tremendous strides have been made in the last decades in the advancement of offshore exploration and production of minerals. This has given rise to developments of new concepts and structures and material for application in the deep oceans. This has generated aan obvious need of @ reference book providing the state-of-the art in offshore engineering. ‘This handbook is an attempt to fil this gap. It covers the important aspects of offshore structure design, installation and operation, The book covers the basic background material and its application in offshore engineering. Particular emphasis is placed in the application of the theory to practical problems. It includes the practical aspects of the offshore structures with handy design guides, simple description of the various components, of the offshore engineering and their funetions. (One of the unique strengths of the book is the impressive and encompassing presentation of current fimetional and operational offshore development for all those involved with offshore structures. It is tailored as a reference book for the practicing engineers, and should serve as a handy reference book for the design engineers and consultant involved with offshore engineering and the design of offshore structures. This book emphasizes the practical aspeets rather than the theoretical treatments needed in the research in the field of offshore engineering. In particular, it describes the dos and don'ts of all aspects of offshore structures, Much hands-on experience has been incorporated in the write up and contents of the book. Simple formulas and guidelines are provided throughout the book. Detailed design calculations, discussion of software development, ‘and the background mathematics has been purposely left out. The book is not intended to provide detailed design methods, which should be used in conjunction with the ‘knowledge and guidelines included in the book. This does not mean that they are not necessary for the design of offshore structures. Typically, the advanced formulations are handled by specialized software, The primary purpose of the book is to provide the important practical aspects of offshore engineering without going into the nitty gritty of the actual detailed design. Long derivations or mathematical treatments are avoided, Where necessary, formulas are stated in simple terms for easy calculations. Iustrations are provided in these cases. Information is provided in handy reference tables and design charts, Examples are provided to show how the theory outlined in the book is applied in the design of structures. Many examples are borrowed from the deep-water offshore structures of interest today including their components, and material that completes the system.Contents of the handbook include the following chapters: Historical Development of Offshore Structures Novel and Marginal Field Offshore Structures Ocean Environment Loads and Responses Probabilistic Design of Offshore Structure Fixed Offshore Platform Design Floating OfTshore Platform Design Mooring Systems Diilling and Production Risers ‘Topside Facilities Layout Development Design and Construction of Offshore Pipelines Design for Reliability: Human and Organisational Factors Physical Modelling of Offshore Structures, Offshore Installation Materials for Offshore Applications Geophiysical and Geotechnical Design The book is a collective effort of many technical specialists. Each chapter is written by fone or more invited world-renowned experts on the basis of their long-time practical experience in the offshore field, The sixteen chapters, contributed by internationally recognized oflshore experts provide invaluable insights on the recent advances and present state-of-knowledge on offshore developments. Attempts were made to choose the people, who have been in the trenches, to write these chapters. They know what it takes to get 4 structure from the drawing board to the site doing its job for which itis designed. They work everyday on these structures with the design engineers, operations engineers and construction people and make sure that the job is done right. Chapter 1 introduces the historical development of offshore structures in the exploration and production of petroleum reservoirs below the seafloor. It covers both the earlier offshore structures that have been installed in shallow and intermediate water depths as ‘well as those for deep-water development and proposed as ultra-deep water structures. A short description of these structures and their applications are discussed, Chapter 2 describes novel structures and their process of development to meet certain requirements of an offshore field. Several examples given for these structures are operating, in offshore fields today. A few others are concep in various stages of their developments The main purpose of this chapter is to lay down a logical step that one should follow in developing a structural concept for a particular need and a set of prescribed requirements. ‘The ovean environment is the subject of chapter 3, It describes the envisonment that may be expected in various parts of the world and their properties. Formulas in describing their magnitudes ate provided where appropriate so thatthe effect of these environments on the structure may be evaluated. The magnitudes of environment in various parts of the world are discussed. They should help the designer in choosing the appropriate metocean, conditions that should be used for the structure development. Chapter 4 provides a generic description of how to compute loads on an offshore struc- ture and how the structure responds to these loads. Basic formulas have been stated for ‘easy references whenever specific needs arise throughout this handbook. Therefore, this ‘chapter may be consilted during the review of specific structures covered in the handbook. References are made regarding the design puidelines of various certifying agencies. Chapter 5 deals with a statistical design approach incorporating the random nature of cavironment, Three design approaches are described that inciude the design wave, design storm and long-term design. Several examples have been given to explain these approaches. ‘The design of fixed offshore structures is described in Chapter 6. The procedure follows a design cycle forthe fixed structure and include different (ypes of structure design including tubular joints and fatigue design. Chapter 7 discusses the design of floating structures, in pacticular those used in offshore oil drilling and production, Both permanent and mobile platforms have been discussed. ‘The design areas of floaters include weight control and stability and dynamic Toads on as well as fatigue for equipment, risers, mooring and the hull itself. The effect of large currents in the deepwater Gull of Mexico, high seas and strong curreats in the North Atlantic, and long period swells in West Africa are considered in the design development. Installation of the platforms, mooring and decks in deep water present new challenges, Floating offshore vessels have fit-for-purpose mooring systems. The mooring system selection, and design are the subject of Chapter 8. The mooring system consists of freely hhanging lines connecting the susface platform to anchors, or piles, on the seabed, positioned some distance from the platform. Chapter 9 provides a description of the analysis procedures used to support the operation of drilling and production risers in floating vessels. The offshore industry depends on these procedures to assure the integrity of drilling and production risers. The description, selection and design of these risers are described in the chapter. ‘The specific considerations that should be given in the design of deck structure is described in Chapter 10, The areas and equipment required for deck and the spac are discussed. The effect of the environment on the deck design is addressed. The control and safety requirements, including fuel and ignition sources, fiewall and fire equipment are given ‘The objective of chapter 11 is to guide the offshore pipeline engineer during the design, process. The aspects of offshoze pipeline design that are discussed include a design basis, route selection, sizing the pipe diameter, and wall thickness, on-bottom pipeline stability, bottom roughness analysis, external corrosion protoetion, crossing design and construction feasibility Chapter 12 is focused on people and their organizations and how to design offshore structures to achieve desirable reliability in these aspects, The objective of this chapter is to provide engineers design-oriented guidelines to help develop success in design of offshore structures. Application ofthese guidelines are illustrated with a couple of practical examples. The scale model testing is the subject of Chapter 13. This chapter describes the need, the modeling background and the method of physical testing of offshore structures in asmall-scale model. The physical modeling involves design and construction of scale model, generation of environment in an appropriate facility, measuring responses of the medel subjected to the scaled environment and scaling up of the measured responses to the design values. These aspects are discussed here, Installation, foundation, load-out and transportation are covered in Chapter 14, Install tion methods of the following substructures are covered: Jackets; Jack-ups; Compliant towers and Gravity base structures, Different types of foundations and their unique methods of installation are discussed. The phase of transferring the completed structure onto the deck of a cargo vessel and its joumey to the site, referred to as the load-out and transportation operation, and their types are described. Chapter 15 reviews the important materials for offshore application and theit corrosion issues, It discusses the key factors that affect materials selection and design, The chapter includes performance data and specifications for materials commonly used for offshore developments. These materials include carbon steel, corrosion resistant alloys, elastomers and composites. In addition the cheptor discusses key design issues such a8 fracture, fatigue, corrosion control and welding, ‘Chapter 16 provides an overview of the geophysical and geotechnical techniques and solutions available for investigating the soils and rocks that lay beneath the seabed. A project’s successful outcome depends on securing the services of highly competent contractors and technical advisors. What is achievable is governed by a combination of factors, such as geology, wator depth, environment and vessel capabilities. The discussions are transcribed without recourse to complex science, mathematics or lengthy descriptions ‘of complicated procedures. Because of the practical nature of the examples used in the handbook, many of which eame from past experiences in different offshore locations of the world, it was not possible to use a consistent set of engineering units, Therefore, the English and metric units are interchangeably used throughout the book. Dual units are included as far as practical, ‘especially in the beginning chapters. A conversion table is included in the handbook for ‘those who are more familiar with and prefer to use one or the other unit system, ‘This laudbook should have wide upplications in offshore engineering, People in the fotlow- ing disciplines will be benefited from this book: Offshore Structure designers and fabricators; Offshore Field Engineers; Operators of rigs and offshore structures; Consulting Engineers; Undergraduate & Graduate Students; Faculty Members in Qcean/Omshore Eng, & Naval Architectural Depts; University libraries; Offshore industry personnel; Design firm personnel Subrata Chakerabartt Technical Editor 7 ABBREVIATIONS. List of Acronyms ABS American Bureau of Shipping ABL ‘Above Base Line APL American Petroleum Institute BoP Blowout Preventor cED ‘Computational Fluid Dynamics ca Center of Gravity CRA Corrasion Resistant Alloys CVAR Compliant Vertical Access Riser DDCV Deep Draft Caisson Vessel DNV Det Norske Veritas Dru Dry Tree Unit EP Equivalent Pipe FE Finite Element FEA Finite Element Analysis, FPDSO Floating Production, Drilling, Storage and OMloading System FPS Floating Production System FPSO Floating Production Storage and Otfloading FSO Floating Storage and Offloading Fr Froude number GoM Gulf of Mexico HLV Heavy Lift Vessel 1acs International Association of Classification Societies IMO International Maritime Organization IRM Inspection, Repair and Maintenance Issc International Ship Structures Congress Pp Joint Industry Project JONSWAP Joint North Sea Wave Project KC Keulogan-Carpenter Number ksi Kips per Square Inch LF Low Frequency LRED Load and Resistance Factor Design MODU Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit MPa MegaPascals (N/mm?) NDP ‘Norwegian Deepwater Programme NDT Non-Destructive Testing PDF Probability Density FunctionPIP Psi Qajge Re RFC SCF SCR sic SPM sscv st SW. ‘DP Dz TP 1s uUKcS UOE, uTG viv Pipe-In-Pipe Piorson-Moskowitz Pounds per Square Inch Quality Assurance/Quality Control Reynolds Number Rainflow Counting Stress Concentration Factor Steel Catenary Riser Sustained Load Cracking ‘Single Point Mooring ‘Semi-Submersible Crane Vessel Strouhal Number Still Water Level ‘Touch-Down Point Touch-Down Zone ‘Tension-Leg Platform, ‘Tapered Stress Joint ‘Top Tensioned Riser United Kingdom Continental Shelf Pipe formed from plate, via a U-shape, then an O-shape, then Expanded Upstream Technology Group Vortex-Induced Vibration | | | CONVERSION FACTORS English Metric Length Tin 254mm if 0.3048m Tbe 4408N bm 0.4536kg Tknot 0.5144 mys Tile 1.609km, [Area if? 0.09290 ‘Volume in 0.0283 m" gallon 0.003785" Velocity i 30.48m/s Imilejhe 1.609 km/hr ‘Acceleration Litis? 30.48 cm/s Mass/Force ‘ton (long) 1.016m, ton Density Litt 16.0185 kai Pressure psi (6894.76 pascals Moment Tielb 1.3558 Nem [Mass Moment of Inertia Lbm-it 20.0421 kgLIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Chapter 1 Historical Development of Offshore Structures Sabrata Chakrabarti, Offshore Structure Analysis, Inc., Plainfield, IL, USA, Cuneyt Capanogl, LD.E.A.S, Inc., San Francisco, CA, USA, and John Halkyard, Technip Offshore, Inc., Houston, TX, USA Chapter 2 Novel and Marginal Offshore Structures Cuneyt Capanoglu, LD.E.A.S., Inc., San Francisco, CA, USA ‘Chapter 3 ‘Ocean Environment Subrata Chakrabarti, Offshore Structure Analysis, Inc., Plainfield, IL, USA. Chapter 4 Loads and Responses Subrata Chakrabarti, Offshore Structure Analysis, Inc., Plainfield, IL, USA Chapter 5 Probabilistic Design of Ofishore Steucture ‘Arvid Naess and Torgeir Moan, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, NORWAY Chapter 6 Fixed Offshore Platform Design Demir Karsan, Paragon Engineering Services Ine.. Houston, TX, USA. Vissa Rammohan, Stress Offshore, Inc., Houston, TX, USA (Contributed to the Jackup section) Chapter 7 Floating Offshore Platform Design John Halkyatd, Technip Offshore, Inc., Houston, TX, USA ‘John Filson, Consultant, Gig Harbor, WA, USA (Contributed to the Semi, TLP and Hull ‘Structure sections {assisted by Krish Thiagarajan, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia on Stavio Stability) Chapter 8 Mooring, Cables and Anchoring David T, Brown, BPP Technical Services Ltd., London, UK, and Houston, TX, USAChapter 9 Drilling and Production Risers James Brekke, GlobalSantaFe Corporation, Houston, TX, USA (Drilling section) Subrata Chakrabarti, Offshore Structure Analysis, Inc., Plainfield, IL, USA (Production section) John Halkyard, Technip Offshore, Inc., Houston, TX, USA (Contributed to the Top Tension Risers) Thanos Moros, Howard Cook, BP America, Houston, TX, USA (Conwributed to the Steel Catenary Risers) and David Rypien, Technip Offshore, Inc., Houston, TX, USA (Contributed to the Materials Selection) Chapter 10 ‘Topside Facilities Layout Kenneth E. Arnold and Demir Karsan, Paragon Engineering Services Ine., Houston, TX, USA Subrata Chakrabarti, Offshore Structure Analysis, Inc, Plainfield, TL, USA. Chapter 11 Pipeline Design Andre C. Nogueira and Dave 8. MeKeehan, INTEC Engineering, Houston, TX, USA Chapter 12 Design for Reliability: Human and Organizational Factors Robert G. Bea, University of Celifornia, Berkeley, CA, USA Chapter 13 Physical Modeling of Offshore Structures Subrata Chakrabarti, Offshore Structure Analysis, Inc, Plainfield, 1L, USA (Chapter 14 Offshore Installation Bader Diah and Naji Tahan, Noble Denton Consultants, Ine., Houston, TX, USA Chaptor 15 Materials for Offshore Applications ‘Mamdouh M. Salama, ConocoPhillips Inc.; Houston, TX, USA Chapter 16 Geophysical and Geotechnical Design Jean MLE, Audibert and J. Huang, Fugro-McClelland Marine Geosciences, Inc., Houston, TX, USA Preface, ‘ABLE OF CONTENTS, Abbreviations Fel alcatel Conversion Factors... List of Contributors... Chapter 1. Historical Development of Offshore Structures. uu 12 13 4 1s Introduction. 7 Ld. Definition of Offshore Structures, 12. Historial Development. 13. Seletion of Deepwater Production Concepts. L14 Offshore Disasters 7 Deepwater Challenges Functions of Offshore Structures 13.1 Exploratory Deiling Structures. 132. Production Structures. 133. Storage Structures 134. Export Systems. (Offshore Structure Configurations 141 Bottom Supported Structures 142. Floating Offshore Structure... 143. Floating vs. Fixed Offshore Structures, . 7 Boltom-Supported Fixed Structures. 19 1.5.1 Minimal Platforms . 9 152 Jacket Structures. a vac 2D US3. Gravity Base Structures. 2 154 Jackupe a 155. Subsos Templaies 2 156. Subsea Pipelines. 2 ‘Compliant Structures 4 m 16.41 Antcalsted Platforms: 162 Compliant Tower _ . m 163 Guyed Tower i Floating Structures A 2% 1.71. Floating Platorm Types. 7 % 1.72. Drilling Units %6 1.73. Production Units (FPSO. und FPS). 2 1.74 Drilling and Production Units 28 1-75. Platform Configurations. 7 28Ls (Chapter 2. Novel and Small Field Offshore Structures .. 24 22 23 24 2s 26 28 Chapter 3. Ocean Environment «.. 31 32 33 Casein Soci and Tndstry Standard Groups ae Introduction ‘Overviw of Ol and Gas Fisk Developmsnts anes 221 Field Development Parameters 222 Structure Typ, a et 22.3. Selection of Feld Development Option. ‘Technical Bass for Developing Nove! Offshore Stroctures 23.1 Overview of Histosical Innovations. : 23.2 Basic Technical Principles... Other Considerations for Developing Novel Ofshoe Structures. 24.1 Financially.Driven Developments 242. Regulatory-Driven Developments ‘Novel Field Development Systems. 25.1 Bottom-Supported Systems| 252. Nevtsally-Buoyant Floating Systems... 25.3. Positively-Buoyant Floating Systems. a Diseusson of Selected Innovative Field Development Conc. 26.1. Overview 7 a 262. Feld Development Concept... af Discussion of Selected Innovative Strvstres 27.1. Structures Selected for Jo-Depth Discussion... 27.2 Construction and Construction Schedule, 21.3 Transportation and Installation... i 274 Inservice Response and Utilisation mls 275. Post-service Utilisation ere 2.7.6 Capital and Operating Fxpenditues.on : 27.7 Residvel Value and Risk Factors : 27.8 Summary Discussion. 7 Foture Field Development Opin 28:1 Technological imovatons aod ther Impact 28.2 Innovations Affecting Cost Fiiiencies 283. Mos Likely Pld Development Tanovations/Covceps IntF9dAEL00 een sents ‘Ocean Water Propertis. peel ad 32.1 Density, Viscosity, Salinity and Temperature 7 Wave Thea one eee 3.3.1 Linear Wave Theory. “ 332. Second-Order Stokes Wave Theory. c 333. Finh-Order Stokes Wave Theory 334 Stream Function Theory as a BURBASERESSS 34 35 36 31 38 39 3:10 al Chapter 4. Loads and Responses wn.nun 4a 42 43 44 45 435° Stietching Formulas for Waves at SWE. 3.35 Applicability of Wave Theory aanse 33.7 Wave Group 338. Series Representation of Long-Ceested Wave. Breaking Waves. ct Toternal Waves. ana Sea Spectrum a 3.6. Spectrum Mode... : 362. Applicability of Spectrum Model... 3.53. Simulation of Two-dimensional Sea, 3.64 Directional Spectrum. Fi 3465. Simulation of Directional $28 wy Sea States Wavedriven Cuzront. 38.1 Steady Uniform Current, : 382. Steady Shear Current. 38.3 Combined Current and Waves... [Loop Current ‘Wind and Wind Speetrum.. 3.10.1, Wind Spee. - 3.10.2 Wind Spectrum = ‘Offshore Eavitonmant by Location Introdvetion Gravity Loads... Hydrostatic Loads... ee Resistance Loads. (Current Loads om Structures. 451 Current Diag and Lift Force 452. Blockage Factor in Current Steady and Dynamie Wind Loads on Structures ‘Wave Loads on Structures ee 47.1 Morison Equation. 4.72 Forces on Osilaing Structures 47.3. Wave Plus Current Loads... 474 Design Values for Hydrodynamic Coeisints. 47.5. Froude Krylov Force on Structure 41.6 Wave Diffrsction Force on Strutt nn 4.7. Added Mass and Damping Coeffcent smn 478 Haskind Relationship for Accuracy Cheek... 4.19 Linear Diffraetion/Radiation Theory Software. Applicability of Moron Force vs. Direction Force, Steady Wave Drift Pore 49.1. Steady Deft Potntal Fore. 49.2. Visous Drift Force ~ a 01 103 103 108 105 106 105 10 13 us 116 17 us 118 ug 119 a 13 mB 123 ps 13 133 135 136 136 at 2 ut M3 13 aa as 150 12 158 160 61 1a 1a 164 166 67 170ee 440. Sow-Den Wave Foe a 585 Phat Catan of Contin Lt Vaning Wind Lond, nnn i tm Sino br tend : 2st Cia pa nde ts 59 smn Raat ae 9 EDI" Ware famningLood oscnca 6 Sor omer ae fare as 3. Brating Wee Lowe : i" $53 eae c's oman oa noo aa Sia3. Wore Reap Lond am : 7 10 ebay Upateg re ae AAS Response of StrCtAEE nn a 178 : 5.10.1 Genera. = 26s [SDI Snr Motion On Depo is Sin calinaon of Fugu Dasgn Gri ee {132 Iunden Reon of Seooue nn : 1% eg ee eee eee ce {133 Foal liner Duapel Sytem oo 8 4134 Noniery Damped Stare Response a i Chapter 6. Fixed OffhorePlatfora Design. m ois of ing Ste CEE rune ow stag Beton 61. Pid Devopment and Comep: Sesion Actin. ve 8 IR? Slow Vuning Repome Geer Si Tiroucton. 2 Sina Simplied Coupon of Gwe Ondlaion vo C13. Bin Spal ad i Deon Tia 51. Applitn of Suit n OihoreEaieng : of 63 Speen 3 52 Wawa IRISAEERSRROROOAREESEN 900s oor yobs Comutons : bet 5.21 The Gaussian Distribution. reser vn 201 632 Deep Water Jackets and Compliant Tower Platforms. 390 5.2.2 ‘The Rayleigh Distribution sevens 202 6.3.3 Structural Design of Jack Up Rig Platforms 53, RepoweSatiaoe eee | Raa ia Pion Sco OtioreEagieating Ie) nn 4 54. Dol Appa Tete : ae Dat” Dean Wa ines 210) Chapter 7. Fong Ofshore Platform Deslenw nme « $42. ShorcTem Delgo ioe a me) - $43, ete Dean : ae papeesretpeaisieetiat : id oases urnpn eae er a 12 Hoes Putra Tas : Pon 5.5.1 Combination of First- and Second-order Responses... mez} 7.21 General = A2L 6. broabiods Dog of Ofston Sourtren- oe ae 123 Ros = oe Sat Inodteion : : a tors . Tia 562 Limit States and Failure Criteria. 2 ae De nama ren - rrr i 31 Urosulaty Moore a nf te io ee ry Me — “a | Oe 7 S13. Sgatcon of Ula cS 122 Gatien Peon Se $13. btlnie Dagon af Raote a Ga es Cans ‘Structures. = = seul sbeet tame ‘ ‘734° Stability (Krish Thiagarajan, University of Wentern Australia, Pert, 58 Structural Reliability Analysis. L H 240 f WA, Australia) .. ceo one 440 panne oo se qi tee ace 7 Gamrlastin of katy Asia : Hoeeeeett 14 a tonne Oto Se a on Fatigue Refabilty oat i TAAL FPSO Bull Desens ve a Design Values and Calibration of Patiel Factors. 253 : TA2 Holl Structure a |15 16 1 18 9 143 Beample FPSO Design 14d Deck Stmcture : 74S Turret Design and Selection... 146 Marine Systems 7 Semi-submersibles (John Filson, Consultant, Gig Harbor, Washington) 751 History of the Semi-Submersible. 752 Distinctions between a MODU Semi-submersible and an FPS, 7.53. Somisubmersible Design even 134 Funetions and Configurations of Sem-submersiles. 155. Sting of Semi-submersibes 1.56 Initial Design Process 7187 Closei-form Heave RAO Caleulation, = : 75.8 Weight and Buoyancy Bstimates. 7539. Somi-submersble Hall Strcture.. ‘Tension Leg Piatforms, seseesunise 1.6.1 Introduction 7.62. Fanetions and Configurations of TEP 163 TLE Mechanics nee 1.64. Sizing of TLP. 765. Weight Estimates of TLPs. 7165 TLP Hull Structure. 7 Spar Design SE lll TIA History of Spars aoe - 1.22. Spar Descipion. 4.13 Spar Riser Systems 14. Spar Mooring TIS. Spar Sizing 1.18 Drilling from a Spar. 117 Spar Construction and Inatalintion Fill Siratare (John Halkyard and John Filson) TBA Hull and Deck Definit0m ceeeeenen 182 Applicable Code a = 78.3 Structural Design Consiaerations 784 Hull Structure Design, : 185 Local Strength Design 78.6 Hydrostatic Loading ad 787 Plate Thickness El 188. Stifener Sizing. cid ie s 189. Framing 78.10 Global Strength TEAL Buckling os 78.12 Fatigue... ats (Construction and TRS een = 79.1 Fabrication c 19.2. Transporation. ti 7 193 Derick Barges. aie : 432 454 454 462 464 469 470 ant 418 487 5 308 S08 S07 S14 58 536 536 32 345 55 563 563 Handbook of Ofthore Engmerag t S.Chakrabar (E2) 15 S008 Elvis Lid A sights ere Chapter 1 Historical Development of Offshore Structures Subrata Chakrabarti Offshore Structure Analysis, Inc, Plainfield, IL, USA John Halkyard Tecknip, Houston, TX, USA Cuneyt Capanogla ED.E.AS., Ine., San Francisco, CA, USA 1.1 Introduction The offshore industry requires continued development of new technologies in order to produce oil in regions, which are inaccessible to exploit with the existing technologies Sometimes, the cost of production with the existing know-how makes it unattractive. With the depletion of onshore and offshore shallow water reserves, the exploration and production of oil in deep water has become a challenge to the offshore industry. Offshore exploration and production of minerals is advancing into deeper waters at a fast pace. ‘Many deepwater structures have wlreudy beet installed wosldwide. New oil/gas fields are being discovered in ultra-deep water. Many of these fieids are small and their eco- nomic development is @ challenge today to the offshore engineers. This has initiated the development of new structures and concepts. Many of these structures are unique ia many respects and their efficient and economic design and installation are a challenge to the offshore community. This will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 2. In order to meet the need for offshore exploration and production of oil/gas, a new generation of bottom supported and floating structures is being developed. ‘The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the historical development of offshore structures in the exploration of petroleum reservoirs below the seafloor. ‘The chapter covers both the earlier offshore structures that have been installed in shallow and intermediate water depths and the various concepts suitable for deep-water dev- lopment as well as those proposed as ultra-deep water structures, A short description of these structures is given and their applications are discussed.2 hapert LLL Definition of Offshore Structures, ‘An offshore structure has no fixed access to dry land and may be required to stay in position in all weather conditions. Offshore structures may be fixed to the seabed or may bbe floating. Floating structures may be moored to the seabed, dynamically positioned by thrusters or may be allowed to drift freely. The engineering of structures that are mainly used for the transportation of goods and people, or for construction, such as marine and ‘commercial ships, multi-service vessels (MSVs) and heavy-lift crane vessels (HLCVs) used to support field development operations as well as barges and tugs are not discussed in detail in this book, While the majority of offshore structures support the exploration and production of oil and gus, other major structures, eg. for hamessing power from the sea, ‘offshore bases, offshore airports are also coming into existence. The design of these struc- tures uses the same principles as covered in this book, however they are not explicitly included herein. We focus primarily on the structures used for the production, storage and offloading of hydrocarbons and to a lesser extent on those used for exploration, 1.1.2 Historical Development ‘The offshore exploration of oil and gas dates back to the nineteenth century. The Fist offshore oil wells were drilled from extended piers into the waters of Pacific Ovean, offshore Summerlands, California in the 1890s (and offshore Baku, Azerbaijan in the Caspian Sea). However, the birth of the offshore industry is commonly considered as in 1947 when Kerr-MeGee completed the first successful offshore well in the Gulf of Mexico in 15 ft 4.6 m) of water off Louisiana [Burleson, 1999], The drilling derrick and draw ‘works were supported on a 38 ft by 71 ft (11.6 m by 21.6 m) wooden decked platform built on 16 24hin, (61-cin) pilings driven to a depth of 104 ft (31.7 m). Since the instalation of this first platform in the Gulf of Mexico over 50 years ago, the offshore industry has seen ‘many innovative structures, fixed and floating, placed in progressively deeper waters and jn more challenging and hostile environmenis, By 1975, the water depth extended to 475 ft (144m), Within the next three years the water depth dramatically leapt twofold with the installation of COGNAC platform that was made up of three separate structures, one set ‘on top of another, ia 1025 fe (312 m). COGNAC held the world record for water depth for fa fixed structure from 1978 until 1991, Five fixed structures were built in water depths greater than 1000 ft (328 m) in the 1990s. The deepest one of these is the Shell Bullwinkle platform in 1353 &t (412 m) installed in 1991. The progression of fixed structures into deeper waters upto 1988 is shown ia fig. 1.1 Since 1947, more than 10,000 offshore platforms of various types and sizes have been constructed and installed worldwide. As of 1995, 30% of the world’s production of orade ‘came from offshore, Recently, new discoveries have been made in increasingly deeper ‘waters. In 2003, 3% of the world’s oil and ges supply came from deepwater (>1000 fe ff 305 m) offshore production (Westwood, 2003], This is projected to grow to 10% in the next fifteen years [Jbid] The bulk of the new oil will come from deep and ultra- deepwater production from three offshore areas, known as the “Golden Triangle”: the Gulf of Mexico, West Africa and Brazil. Figure 1.2 illustrates the recent growth in nltra-deepwater drilling in the Gulf of Mexico. Drilling activity is indicative of future production © ie go 5 as i ey Fwd, 1 4 o toez 090 T08e 1998 100 1997 1609 1000 2000 2001 vos igre 12 Ursa (> 10 fo 1524) wl fd in he Gf of Me ade from ‘MS, 202 ‘The importance of deepwater production to the US is illustrated in fig. 1.3. US oil pro- duction is on the decline, dropping from about 7.5 MM BPD in 1989 to 5.9 MM BPD in 2001. The current US oil consumption is about 20 MM BPD. Experts de not believe there are significant new resources onshore in the US, Deepwater production has grown from 9.5% of US production in 1989 to 26.4% in 2001 (from 750,000 to 1,500,000 BRD). The rilling activity shown in fig, 1.2 suggests that this percentage will continue to grow. Fixed structures became increasingly expensive and difficult to install as the water depths increased. Aa innovative and cheaper alternative to the fixed structure, namely, the Lena ‘guyed tower was introduced in 1983. The platform was builtin such a way that the upper truss structure could deflect with the wave and wind forees. Pies extending above the sea floor could bend, and horizontal mooring lines attached midway up the platform could resist the largest hurricane loads. The Lena platform was installed in 1000 ft (30$ m) of water. Tivo more “compliant” towers were installed in the Gulf of Mexico in 1998: Amerada Hess Baldpate in 1648 ft (502 m) and ChevronTexaco Petzonius in 1754 ft (635 m), Petronius is the world’s tallest free-standing structure,4 Chapter 1 Produetion 000 BPO Bfee8 28 PEEP EPELSELESS Figure 1.3 US crude oll production trends: importance of decpmater (Source: Westwood (wwlv-1.<0m) and OGJ Database (yw.og).com) Although nearly all of these platforms aze of stee! construction, around two dozen large concrete structures have been installed in the very hostile waters of the North Sea in the 1980s and carly 1990s and several others offshore Brazil, Canada and the Philippines Among these, the Troll A (fig. 14) gas platform isthe tallest concrete structure in existence. was installed offshore Norway jn 1996. Its total height is 1210 ft (369 m), and it contains 249,000 m’ of concrete, equivalent to 215,000 home foundations, Gravity structures differ from other fixed structures in that they are held in place strictly by the weight contained in their base structures, The Troll platform, for example, penetrates 118 fi (36 m) into the seabed under its own weight. ‘The fist floating production system, a converted semi-submersible, was installed on the ‘Argyle field by Haailton in the UK North Sea in 1975. The first ship-shaped floating pro- duction and storage system was installed in 1977 by Shell Intemational for the Castellon field, offshore Spain. There were 40 semi-submersile floating production systems (FPS) and 91 ship-shaped floating production and storage systems (FPSOs) in operation or under construction for deepwaters as of 2002 [Offshore, 2002}. Petrobras has been a pioneer in pushing floating production to increasingly deeper waters in their Campos Basin fields, offshore Brazil. Table 1.1 lists the progression of fisld development offshore Brazil in everincreasing water depths. Some of the unique features of innovation and records are included in the last column. soca naan Rann ERma isonet Development af Offtare Stractares Figure 14 Troll A gas platform, word's tllst concrete structare ‘Table L1 Field development in offshore Brazil Field Welt [Water Depth [Year Remarks fem) Marimba’ [RIS-284D [1355 (413) [1987 | Wet Christmas tree Marlim —[MRL-3 [2365 (721)__[1991_[Monobuoy & FPS Mariim [MRL —_[3369.1027) [1994 [Subsea completion ‘Marlin Sul [MLS-3 [5607 (1709) _/1997 | Decpest moored production unit [Roncador [RIS-436 [6079 01853)__|1998_ [FPSO depth record 2000 BC |RIS-543— [9111 @778) [2000 [Drilling depth record 200 Block | at that time 1.1.3 Selection of Deepwater Production Concepts, ‘The types of production concepts available for deepwater production are illustrated in fig. 15, Most floating production systems, and virtually all of the semi-submersible, FPSs and FPSOs, produce oil and gus from wolls on the seabed, called “subsea wells". Unlike wellsDeepwater system Types igure 1.5 Deepwater system types [Offiore Magazine, 2002] Chaprer 1 ‘wore Developmont of Ofiore Sactues on fixed platforms and on land, subsea wells do not allow operators to have direct access to the wells for maintenance, or for re-completion (drilling into new reservoirs from an existing well. ‘The well consists of a wellhead, which supports the well easing in the ground, and a pod, ‘which contains valves to control the Now and to shutoff the flow in the case of an emer- gency or a leak in the riser. This pod is called a “submerged Christmas tree”, or simply a wet tree", Subsea wells are expensive, but not as expensive in deepwater as placing a plat~ form at the site, If subsea well ceases to produce, or i its rate of production falls below economic limits, it is necessary to bring in a mobile drilling unit to remove the tree and perform the workover. This can be an extremely expensive operation and if the outcome of the workover isin doubt, the operator may choose (o abandon the well instead. Because of this, much of the oil and gas in reservoirs produced through subsea trees may be left behind, Subsea wells may also result in lower reservoir recovery simply because of the physics of their operation. The chokes and valves placed in a subsea tree result in a pressure drop ia the flow of oil or gas. When the weil formation drops below a certain threshold, production ceases to flow. The difference in cut-off pressure between a subsea well and a surface well ccan be as much as 1000 psi vs. 100 psi [OTRC, 2002}. "These facts motivated operators to seek floating platforms, which could support Christmas ‘trees at the surface, “dry trees”. Fixed and compliant platforms were safe for this kind of production because they could protect the well casings from the environment. Floating platforms generally had too much motion to protect the wells during extreme storms. A ‘group of engineers in California invented a floating system in the early 1970s, which could be tethered to the sea floor, effectively making it a tethered compliant platform (Horton, ct al 1976}, This gave rise to what is called the Tension Leg Platform (TLP) {tiorton, 1987] ‘The first commercial application of this technology, and the first dry tree completion from 4 floating platform, was the Conoco Hutton TLP installed in the UK sector of the North ‘Sea in 1984 (Mercier, et al 1980}. Dry trees are possible on a TLP because the platform is heave-testrained by vertical tendons, or tethers. This restraint limits the relative motion between the risers and the hull, which allows for flowlines to remain connected in extreme ‘weather conditions. ‘The deep diaft Spar platform is not heave-ceatrained, but ite motions are sufficiently benign that risers can be supported by independent buoyancy cans, which are guided in the centerwell of the Spar. Both the Spar and the TLP designs are discussed in more detail in Chapter 7. Today, many deepwater fields in the Gulf of Mexico are being developed by « combination of surface and subsea wells. Operators are able to develop « number of smaller marginal fields by combining subsea production with hub facilities (Schneider, 2000; Thibodeaux, et el 2002], There is a growing trend towards third party ownership of the floating facilites, ‘which opens the possibilities of several operators sharing production through one facility [Anonymous, 2003]. A consequence of this is that floaters may be designed with excess ‘capacity for a given reservoir, in effect adding an “option cost" into the facility investment banking on future tebacks from additional reser ‘Deepwater floating production systems are generally concentrated in the “Golden Triangle” of the Gulf of Mexico, offshore West Africa and Brazil (fig. 1.6). As of this writing,s Chapier 1 | WoridwideDstibuen of Despwate Syste tlie ewies igure 1.6 Worlwie distribution of floating production platforms (Offshore, 2002] production Spars have only been installed in the Gulf of Mexico. TLPs have been installed in the Gulf of Mexico, West Africa, the North Sea and in Indonesia. FPSOs have boen installed in virtually all of the offshore oil producing areas of the world with the exception of the Gulf of Mexico. Semi-submersible FPSs are prolific in the North Sea and Brazil According to industry sources (Westwood), the floating production systems will be growing ata rate of almost 30 per year through 2006, mostly in deepwater. ‘There is no simple answer to the question of which concept is “right” for a particular pro- |ject. Selection of a concept for deepwater production is often a multi-year effort involving ‘mumerous studies and analyses. The primary drivers are reservoir characteristics and infrastructure, which will dictate the facility size, number of wells their location, and whether wet or dry trees are called for. Drilling often represents over 50% of the value of deepwater projects, so that the method of drilling often dictates the type of surface facility required, eg. whether the facility needs to support a drilling rig or whether a leased Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit (MODU) will be used Farther discussion on concept selection is included in Chapter 7 1.14 Offshore Disasters Although most of the offshore structures constructed to date have withstood the test of time, there have been several catastrophic failures of offshore structures as well. Weather, Sinn io aoa emenns nc igure 1.7 Accident of P-36 converted seml-submerile after flooding in oe column [Baresc, 2002] blowout, capsizing and fruman errors have resulted in the loss of « substantial aumber of fixed and floating structures. Between 1955 and 1968, nearly two dozen mobile drilling units have been destroyed. Within the two-year period between 1957 and 1959 alone, hrurricanes Hilda and Betsy inflicted losses of hundreds of millions of dollars to drilling, production and pipeline facilities, Two semi-submersibles capsized and sank in the 1980s: ‘Alexander Keilland, an accommodation vessel in the Norwegian north sea (1980), and ‘Ocean Ranger offshore Hibernia, Canada (1982), resulted in the loss of hundreds of lives, ‘The worst offshore disaster occurred when the Piper Alpha oil and gas platform caught fire in 1988, One hundred and sixty-seven lives were lost. In March, 2001, the world’s largest floating production system, the Petrobras P-36, sank in Campos basin (Gig. 1.7) cost 10 lives [Barusco, 2002] 1.2 Deepwater Challenges TThe progression of platforms placed in deeper waters worldwide through the years is ilhustrated in fig. 1.8 ‘This figure also shows the progression of drilling and subsea completions. Iti interesting to note from this figure, the gap between drilling and production. For example, the first drilling in 2000 ft of water took place in [975. However, the first production from this ‘water depth did not ovcur until 1993, ie. 18 years later. This gap appears (o be narrowing fas recent advances in floating production systems and moorings have allowed rapid extension of this technology to deeper and deeper water depth. In the sixties, production platforms designed for installation in less than a hundred meters of water were considered deep-water structures. In the seventies, platforms were installed