Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
in RESEARCH 2
(QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH)
Compiled by:
EVELYN C. BIAY,Ed.D.
SHIAHARI I. CORTEZ,R.N., M.Ed.
Introduction
As a researcher and a human being we have always asked ourselves questions, as much
about the phenomena we observe on a daily basis as the deepest mysteries of nature. When curiosity
and intuition are applied in a systematic approach to find the answers to questions like these, when
we draw on experience and the knowledge we‘ve already acquired, then we‘re doing research. All
of us in our daily lives explore, investigate, invent, solving problems at work, trying out new recipes
in the kitchen, finding the best way to prune a plant, or simply playing with the kids. Dedicating our
lives to research means making study and experiment our profession, and leads these activities to
the acquisition of new knowledge.
In this module, all the information was gathered through the use of the different internet
websites including different books in order to get the information needed to give an essential
knowledge and skills of the young researcher like you!
Unlock your imaginations and creativity, spread your eyes around you, and make research as
your baseline in making decision. You can change the world by your own simple discovery. Come
on! Join us in this adventure and let us see the treasure that we discover.
Acknowledgment
The researcher wishes to express profound gratitude and sincere on the following persons
who were behind the realization to made this compilation of this module made possible.
To their beloved Parents, for undying love they have given them, also for the full support
and guidance. They never left them; they were always there to encourage and never stop believing
in them.
To Dr. Evelyn Corpuz-Biay, thank Prof. for all the support and sharing your expertise
regarding research and being one of the best contributor of this compiled module.
To all the students serves as inspirations of this module, thank you so much!
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Introduction…………………………………………………………. i
Acknowledgment……………………………………………………. ii
Inquiry-Based Learning…………………….. 2
Characteristics of Quantitative
Research……………………………………. 2
Variables…………………………………… 5
Types of Variables…………………………. 6
Quantitative vs Qualitative…………………. 15
Lesson 4: Hypothesis…………………………………… 19
Lesson 6: Referencing…………………………………. 28
Usability…………………………………… 57
Validity……………………………………. 58
Reliability…………………………………. 58
Sampling…………………………………… 68
Statistical Methodologies………………….. 74
Measure of Correlations………………….. 76
Sampling techniques……………………... 97
Sample size………………………………. 97
Under-sized samples……………………… 99
v
Module
1 NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH
Introduction
An inquiry and research are two terms are almost the same in meaning. Both of them
involved investigative work and any process that has the aim of augmenting knowledge, resolving
doubt, or solving a problem. A theory of inquiry is an account of the various types of inquiry and a
treatment of the ways that each type of inquiry achieves its aim while research is to discover truths
by investigating on your chosen topic scientifically.
Intended Learning Outcomes
After this lesson, you should be able to:
1. describes characteristics, strengths, weaknesses, and kinds of quantitative research;
2. use some new terms you have learned in expressing their world views freely;
3. understanding the kinds of quantitative research;
4. infer about the strengths and weaknesses of quantitative research;
5. illustrate the importance of quantitative research across fields; and
6. differentiates kinds of variables and their uses.
PERFORMANCE STANDARD
The learner is able to;
decide on suitable quantitative research in different areas of interest.
INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING
What is Inquiry?
Inquiry is a learning process that motivates you to obtain knowledge or information about
people, things, places, or events. (Baraceros 2016) It requires you to collect data, meaning, facts,
and information about the object of your inquiry, and examine such data carefully. On other hand,
in your analysis, you execute varied thinking strategies that range from lower-order to higher-order
thinking skills such as inferential, critical, integrative, creative thinking.
Furthermore, according to Badke cited by Baraceros, solving a problem, especially social
issues, does not only involved yourself but other members of the society too. Whatever knowledge
you have about world bears the influence of your cultural, sociological, institutional, or ideological
understanding of the world. (Badke 2012)
The research process is, for many of us, just the way we do things. We research the best
buys in cars and appliances, we research book reviews before shopping for books, we research the
best schools for our children and ourselves, and we probably perform some kind of research in our
jobs. Our search for information may lead us to interview friends or other knowledgeable people;
read articles in magazines, journals, or newspapers; listen to the radio; search an encyclopedia on
CD-ROM; and even explore the Internet and World Wide Web for information. We use our local
public libraries and our school libraries.
Research can be a way of life; it is the basis for many of the important decisions in our lives.
Without it, we are deluged with information, subjected to the claims of advertisers, or influenced by
hearsay in making sense of the world around us. This informal, experiential research helps us
decipher the flood of information we encounter daily.
Formal academic research differs from experiential research and may be more investigative
in nature. For example, it may require us to learn about an area in which we have little knowledge
or inclination to learn. It may be library-oriented or field-oriented, depending on the nature of the
research.
Your goal in conducting quantitative research study is to determine the relationship between
one thing (an independent variable) and another (a dependent or outcome variable) within a
population. Quantitative research designs are either descriptive (subjects usually measured once)
or experimental (subjects measured before and after a treatment). A descriptive study establishes
only associations between variables; an experimental study establishes causality.
Quantitative research deals in numbers, logic, and an objective stance. Quantitative research
focuses on numeric and unchanging data and detailed, convergent reasoning rather than divergent
2
reasoning (i.e., the generation of a variety of ideas about a research problem in a spontaneous, free-
flowing manner).
The overarching aim of a quantitative research study is to classify features, count them, and
construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.
Things to keep in mind when reporting the results of a study using Quantitative methods:
Explain the data collected and their statistical treatment as well as all relevant results in
relation to the research problem you are investigating. Interpretation of results is not
appropriate in this section.
Report unanticipated events that occurred during your data collection. Explain how the
actual analysis differs from the planned analysis. Explain your handling of missing data and
why any missing data does not undermine the validity of your analysis.
Explain the techniques you used to "clean" your data set.
Choose a minimally sufficient statistical procedure; provide a rationale for its use and a
reference for it. Specify any computer programs used.
Describe the assumptions for each procedure and the steps you took to ensure that they
were not violated.
3
When using inferential statistics, provide the descriptive statistics, confidence intervals,
and sample sizes for each variable as well as the value of the test statistic, its direction, the
degrees of freedom, and the significance level [report the actual p value].
Avoid inferring causality, particularly in nonrandomized designs or without further
experimentation.
Use tables to provide exact values; use figures to convey global effects. Keep figures small
in size; include graphic representations of confidence intervals whenever possible.
Always tell the reader what to look for in tables and figures.
Quantitative data are pieces of information that can be counted and which are usually
gathered by surveys from large numbers of respondents randomly selected for inclusion. Secondary
data such as census data, government statistics, health system metrics, etc. are often included in
quantitative research. Quantitative data is analyzed using statistical methods. Quantitative
approaches are best used to answer what, when and who questions and are not well suited to how
and why questions.
Strengths Weaknesses
Findings can be generalized if selection process Related secondary data is sometimes not
is well-designed and sample is representative of available or accessing available data is
study population difficult/impossible
Relatively easy to analyze Difficult to understand context of a
phenomenon
Data can be very consistent, precise and reliable Data may not be robust enough to explain
complex issues
4
5. Looks at relationships between variables and can establish cause and effect in highly
controlled circumstances
6. Tests theories or hypotheses
7. Assumes sample is representative of the population
8. Subjectivity of researcher in methodology is recognized less
9. Less detailed than qualitative data and may miss a desired response from the participant
10.
LESSON
11.
THE NATURE OF VARIABLES
2
All experiments examine some kind of variable(s). A variable is not only something that we
measure, but also something that we can manipulate and something we can control for. To
understand the characteristics of variables and how we use them in research, this guide is divided
into three main sections. First, we illustrate the role of dependent and independent variables.
Second, we discuss the difference between experimental and non-experimental research. Finally, we
explain how variables can be characterized as either categorical or continuous.
VARIABLES
– A variable is a label of name that represents a concept or characteristic that varies
(e.g., gender, weight, achievement, attitudes toward inclusion, etc.)
– Conceptual and operational definitions of variables
Conceptual and operational definitions of variables
– Conceptual (i.e., constitutive) definition: the use of words or concepts to define a
variable
Achievement: what one has learned from formal instruction
Aptitude: one‘s capability for performing a particular task or skill
– Operational definition: an indication of the meaning of a variable through the
specification of the manner by which it is measured, categorized, or controlled
A test score
Income levels above and below $45,000 per year
The use of holistic or phonetic language instruction
5
TYPES OF VARIABLE
Imagine that a tutor asks 100 students to complete a math test. The tutor wants to know why
some students perform better than others. Whilst the tutor does not know the answer to this, she
thinks that it might be because of two reasons: (1) some students spend more time revising for their
test; and (2) some students are naturally more intelligent than others. As such, the tutor decides to
investigate the effect of revision time and intelligence on the test performance of the 100 students.
The dependent and independent variables for the study are:
Independent Variables: Revision time (measured in hours) Intelligence (measured using IQ score)
Therefore, the aim of the tutor's investigation is to examine whether these independent
variables - revision time and IQ - result in a change in the dependent variable, the students' test
scores. However, it is also worth noting that whilst this is the main aim of the experiment, the tutor
may also be interested to know if the independent variables - revision time and IQ - are also
connected in some way.
In the section on experimental and non-experimental research that follows, we find out a
little more about the nature of independent and dependent variables.
6
Three types of variables defined by the context within which the variable is discussed
– Independent and dependent variables
– Extraneous and confounding variables
– Continuous and categorical variables
1. Independent and dependent (i.e., cause and effect)
– Independent variables act as the ―cause‖ in that they precede, influence, and predict
the dependent variable
– Dependent variables act as the effect in that they change as a result of being
influenced by an independent variable
– Examples
The effect of two instructional approaches (independent variable) on student
achievement (dependent variable)
The use of SAT scores (independent variable) to predict freshman grade point
averages (dependent variable)
2. Extraneous and confounding variables
– Extraneous variables are those that affect the dependent variable but are not
controlled adequately by the researcher
Not controlling for the key-boarding skills of students in a study of computer-
assisted instruction
– Confounding variables are those that vary systematically with the independent
variable and exert influence of the dependent variable
Not using counselors with similar levels of experience in a study comparing
the effectiveness of two counseling approaches
3. Continuous and categorical variables
– Continuous variables are measured on a scale that theoretically can take on an
infinite number of values
Test scores range from a low of 0 to a high of 100
Attitude scales that range from very negative at 0 to very positive at 5
Students‘ ages
– Categorical variables are measured and assigned to groups on the basis of specific
characteristics
Examples
Gender: male and female
7
Socio-economic status: low middle, and high
The term level is used to discuss the groups or categories
Gender has two levels - male and female
Socio-economic status has three levels - low, middle, and high.
– Continuous variables can be converted to categorical variables, but categorical
variables cannot be converted to continuous variables
IQ is a continuous variable, but the researcher can choose to group students
into three levels based on IQ scores - low is below a score of 84, middle is
between 85 and 115, and high is above 116
Test scores are continuous, but teachers typically assign letter grades on a ten point scale
(i.e., at or below 59 is an F, 60 to 69 is a D, 70 to 79 is a C, 80-89 is a B, and 90 to 100 is an A
Categorical variables are also known as discrete or qualitative variables. Categorical variables can
be further categorized as nominal, ordinal or dichotomous.
1. Nominal variables are variables that have two or more categories, but which do not have an
intrinsic order. For example, a real estate agent could classify their types of property into
distinct categories such as houses, condos, co-ops or bungalows. So "type of property" is a
nominal variable with 4 categories called houses, condos, co-ops and bungalows. Of note,
the different categories of a nominal variable can also be referred to as groups or levels of
the nominal variable. Another example of a nominal variable would be classifying where
people live in the USA by state. In this case there will be many more levels of the nominal
variable (50 in fact).
2. Dichotomous variables are nominal variables which have only two categories or levels. For
example, if we were looking at gender, we would most probably categorize somebody as
either "male" or "female". This is an example of a dichotomous variable (and also a nominal
variable). Another example might be if we asked a person if they owned a mobile phone.
Here, we may categorize mobile phone ownership as either "Yes" or "No". In the real estate
agent example, if type of property had been classified as either residential or commercial
then "type of property" would be a dichotomous variable.
8
3. Ordinal variables are variables that have two or more categories just like nominal variables
only the categories can also be ordered or ranked. So if you asked someone if they liked the
policies of the Democratic Party and they could answer either "Not very much", "They are
OK" or "Yes, a lot" then you have an ordinal variable. Why? Because you have 3 categories,
namely "Not very much", "They are OK" and "Yes, a lot" and you can rank them from the
most positive (Yes, a lot), to the middle response (They are OK), to the least positive (Not
very much). However, whilst we can rank the levels, we cannot place a "value" to them; we
cannot say that "They are OK" is twice as positive as "Not very much" for example.
Continuous variables are also known as quantitative variables. Continuous variables can be
further categorized as either interval or ratio variables.
o Interval variables are variables for which their central characteristic is that they can be
measured along a continuum and they have a numerical value (for example, temperature
measured in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit). So the difference between 20C and 30C is the
same as 30C to 40C. However, temperature measured in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit is
NOT a ratio variable.
o Ratio variables are interval variables, but with the added condition that 0 (zero) of the
measurement indicates that there is none of that variable. So, temperature measured in
degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit is not a ratio variable because 0C does not mean there is no
temperature. However, temperature measured in Kelvin is a ratio variable as 0 Kelvin (often
called absolute zero) indicates that there is no temperature whatsoever. Other examples of
ratio variables include height, mass, distance and many more. The name "ratio" reflects the
fact that you can use the ratio of measurements. So, for example, a distance of ten meters is
twice the distance of 5 meters.
In some cases, the measurement scale for data is ordinal, but the variable is treated as
continuous. For example, a Likert scale that contains five values - strongly agree, agree, neither
agree nor disagree, disagree, and strongly disagree - is ordinal. However, where a Likert scale
contains seven or more value - strongly agree, moderately agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree,
disagree, moderately disagree, and strongly disagree - the underlying scale is sometimes treated as
continuous (although where you should do this is a cause of great dispute).
9
Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________
(2 POINTS EACH)
DIRECTIONS: Read the question carefully. Write your answer on the space provided.
10
Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________
Strand/Section/Grade: ______________________ Date: ______________
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Complete the concept map by writing words associated with the
middle word. Be guided by the clues in the sentence below each graph.
INQUIRE
CRUCIAL
GUARANTEEE
11
The continuous presence of your name on the Dean‘s list guarantee a good future for you.
https://coursedev.umuc.edu/WRTG999A/chapter4/ch4-01.html
http://betterthesis.dk/research-methods/lesson-1different-approaches-to-research/strengths-and-
limitations
Baraceros, Esther L., PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1,First Edition 2016, Rex Book Store, 856
Nicanor, Sr. St., Manila, Philippines.
12
Module IDENTIFYING THE INQUIRY AND
2 STATING THE PROBLEM
Introduction
This module discusses the topics that will help the learners to develop the ability to
formulate a research problem and find answers towards these inquiries or questions.
PERFORMANCE standard
13
LESSON QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PROBLEM
3
RESEARCH IN OUR DAILY LIFE
1. One or more sentences indicating the goal, purpose, or overall direction of the study
2. General characteristics
– Provides focus
Research problems: typically a rather general overview of the problem with just
enough information about the scope and purpose of the study to provide an initial
understanding of the research
Research statements and/or questions: more specific, focused statements and
questions that communicate in greater detail the nature of the study
4. A general research problem
(e.g.) The purpose of this study is to investigate the attitudes of high school students
to mandated drug testing programs
5. Specific statements and questions
(e.g.) This study examines the differences between males‘ and females‘ attitudes
toward mandated high school drug testing programs.
(e.g.) What are the differences between freshmen, sophomore, junior, and senior
students‘ attitudes toward mandated high school drug testing programs?
6. Researchable and non-researchable problems
Researchable problems imply the possibility of empirical investigation
14
What are the achievement and social skill differences between children
attending an academically or socially oriented pre-school program?
What is the relationship between teachers‘ knowledge of assessment methods
and their use of them?
7. Researchable and non-researchable problems
Non-researchable problems include explanations of how to do something, vague
propositions, and value-based concerns
- Is democracy a good form of government?
- Should values clarification be taught in public schools?
- Can crime be prevented?
- Should physical education classes be dropped from the high school
curriculum?
QUANTITATIVE VS QUALITATIVE
– Specific - General
– Closed - Open
– Static - Evolving
– Outcome oriented - Process oriented
– Use of specific variables
(Copyright, Allyn & Bacon 2008)
SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS
– Personal interests and experiences
The use of formative tests in a statistics class
The use of technology in a research class
– Deductions from theory
The effectiveness of math manipulative
The effectiveness of a mastery approach to learning research
– Replication of studies
Checking the findings of a major study
Checking the validity of research findings with different subjects
Checking trends or changes over time
15
Checking important findings using different methodologies
Clarification of contradictory results
Quantitative Research Problems
Identifies three specific elements
– The type of research design
– The variables of interest and the relationships between or among these variables
– The subjects involved in the study
Guidelines in Choosing a Research Topic
1. Interest in the Subject Matter
2. Availability of information
3. Timeliness and relevance of the topic
4. Limitation on the subject
5. Personal resources
Research Topics to be avoided
1. Controversial topics
- These are topics that depend greatly on the writer‘s opinion, which tend to be biased or
prejudicial. Facts cannot support topics like these.
2. Highly technical subjects
- For a beginner, researching on topics that require an advance study, technical
knowledge, and vast experience is a very difficult.
3. Hard-to-investigate subjects
- A topic or a subject is hard to investigate if there is no available data or reading materials
about it and if such materials are not-up-date or obsolete.
4. Too broad subjects
- A subject or a topic that are too broad will prevent the researcher from giving a
concentrated or in –depth analysis of the subject matter of the research paper.
5. Too narrow subjects
- The subjects are so limited or specific that an extensive or thorough searching or reading
for information about the subject is necessary.
6. Vague subjects
- Choosing topics like these will prevent you from having a clear insights or focus on your
study. For instance, titles beginning with indefinite adjectives such as several, many,
some, etc., as in ―Some Remarkable Traits of a Ilocano‖ Several People‘s Comments on
16
the Extra Judicial Killings,‖ are vague enough to decrease the readers‘ interest and
curiosity.
WRITING A RESEARCH TITLE
When writing a research paper title, authors should realize that despite being repeatedly
warned against it, most people do indeed fall prey to ―judging a book by its cover.‖ This cognitive
bias tends to make readers considerably susceptible to allowing the research paper title to function
as the sole factor influencing their decision of whether to read or skip a particular paper. Although
seeking the professional assistance of a research paper writing service could help the cause, the
author of the paper stands as the best judge for setting the right tone of his/her research paper.
Readers come across research paper titles in searches through databases and reference
sections of research papers. They deduce what a paper is about and its relevance to them based on
the title. Considering this, it is clear that the title of your paper is the most important determinant of
how many people will read it.
o Keep it simple, brief and attractive: The primary function of a title is to provide a precise
summary of the paper‘s content. So keep the title brief and clear. Use active verbs instead of
complex noun-based phrases, and avoid unnecessary details. Moreover, a good title for a
research paper is typically around 10 to 12 words long. A lengthy title may seem unfocused
and take the readers‘ attention away from an important point.
Avoid: Drug XYZ has an effect of muscular contraction for an hour in snails of Achatina
fulcia species
17
o Use appropriate descriptive words: A good research paper title should contain key words
used in the manuscript and should define the nature of the study. Think about terms people
would use to search for your study and include them in your title.
o Avoid abbreviations and jargon: Known abbreviations such as AIDS, NATO, and so on
can be used in the title. However, other lesser-known or specific abbreviations and jargon
that would not be immediately familiar to the readers should be left out.
Avoid: MMP expression profiles cannot distinguish between normal and early osteoarthritic
synovial fluid
Always write down the hypothesis and then take into consideration these simple tips. This would
help you in composing the best title for your research paper.
It is important to narrow down your thesis topic and limit the scope of your study. The
researcher should inform the reader about limits or coverage of the study. The scope identifies the
boundaries of the study in term of subjects, objectives, facilities, area, time frame, and the issues to
which the research is focused.
18
The delimitation of the study is delimiting a study by geographic location, age, sex,
population traits, population size, or other similar considerations. Delimitation is used to make
study better and more feasible and not just for the interest of the researcher. It also identifies the
constraints or weaknesses of your study which are not within the control of the researcher.
LESSON HYPOTHESES
4
A hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete (rather than
theoretical) terms what you expect will happen in your study. Not all studies have hypotheses.
Sometimes a study is designed to be exploratory. There is no formal hypothesis, and perhaps the
purpose of the study is to explore some area more thoroughly in order to develop some specific
hypothesis or prediction that can be tested in future research. A single study may have one or many
hypotheses.
Actually, whenever the researcher talks about hypothesis, the researcher really thinking
simultaneously about two hypotheses. Let's say that you predict that there will be a relationship
between two variables in your study. The way we would formally set up the hypothesis test is to
formulate two hypothesis statements, one that describes your prediction and one that describes all
the other possible outcomes with respect to the hypothesized relationship. Your prediction is that
variable A and variable B will be related (you don't care whether it's a positive or negative
relationship). Then the only other possible outcome would be that variable A and variable B
are not related. Usually, we call the hypothesis that you support (your prediction)
the alternative hypothesis, and we call the hypothesis that describes the remaining possible
outcomes the null hypothesis. Sometimes we use a notation like HA or H1 to represent the
alternative hypothesis or your prediction, and HO or H0 to represent the null case. You have to be
careful here, though. In some studies, your prediction might very well be that there will be no
19
difference or change. In this case, you are essentially trying to find support for the null hypothesis
and you are opposed to the alternative.
If your prediction specifies a direction, and the null therefore is the no difference prediction
and the prediction of the opposite direction, we call this a one-tailed hypothesis. For instance, let's
imagine that you are investigating the effects of a new employee training program and that you
believe one of the outcomes will be that there will be less employee absenteeism. Your two
hypotheses might be stated something like this:
HO: As a result of the XYZ company employee training program, there will either be no significant
difference in employee absenteeism or there will be a significant increase.
HA: As a result of the XYZ company employee training program, there will be a
significant decrease in employee absenteeism.
When your prediction does not specify a direction, we say you have a two-tailed hypothesis. For
instance, let's assume you are studying a new drug treatment for depression. The drug has gone
through some initial animal trials, but has not yet been tested on humans. You believe (based on
theory and the previous research) that the drug will have an effect, but you are not confident enough
to hypothesize a direction and say the drug will reduce depression (after all, you've seen more than
enough promising drug treatments come along that eventually were shown to have severe side
effects that actually worsened symptoms). In this case, you might state the two hypotheses like this:
20
HO: As a result of 300mg./day of the ABC drug, there will be no significant difference in
depression.
HA: As a result of 300mg./day of the ABC drug, there will be a significant difference in depression.
the formulation of two mutually exclusive hypothesis statements that, together, exhaust all possible
outcomes the testing of these so that one is necessarily accepted and the other rejected
(https://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/hypothes.php)
21
Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________
Strand/Section/Grade: ______________________ Date: ______________
DIRECTIONS: Read the question carefully. Write your answer on the space provided.
_______________________1.
_______________________2.
_______________________3.
_______________________4.
22
Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________
Strand/Section/Grade: ______________________ Date: ______________
GROUP WORK
List down at least three major problems and with the statement of the problems.
(Discus it within the group)
Write down the reason behind why you choose that research topic.
What immediately comes to your mind the moment you hear these two words: PROBLEM
and QUESTION? How would you compare and contrast the two? In the space below, make an
appropriate diagram to show their similarities and differences.
23
http://universalteacher.com/1/criteria-for-selecting-a-research-problem/
https://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/hypothes.php
http://www.editage.com/insights/3-basic-tips-on-writing-a-good-research-paper-title
http://betterthesis.dk/research-methods/lesson-1different-approaches-to-research/strengths-and-
limitations
Baraceros, Esther L., PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1,First Edition 2016, Rex Book Store, 856
Nicanor, Sr. St., Manila, Philippines.
24
Module LEARNING FROM OTHERS AND
3 REVIEWING THE LITERATURE
Introduction
A literature review is more than the search for information, and goes beyond being a
descriptive annotated bibliography. All works included in the review must be read, evaluated and
analyzed (which you would do for an annotated bibliography), but relationships between the
literature must also be identified and articulated, in relation to your field of research.
"In writing the literature review, the purpose is to convey to the reader what knowledge and ideas
have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. The literature review
must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g. your research objective, the problem or issue you are
discussing or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a
set of summaries.
25
PERFORMANCE STANDARD
1. Select, cite, and synthesize judiciously related literature and use sources according to ethical
standards.
2. Formulate clearly conceptual framework, research hypotheses (if appropriate), and define
terms used in study.
3. Present objectively written review of related literature and conceptual framework.
4.
LESSON
5.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE (RRL)
6.
5
While the research problem is still being conceptualized, the researcher must already start
reviewing literature. In identifying and defining the research problem, the researcher must be able to
show evidences that the problem really exists and is worth investigating. It is important that the
researcher knows what is already known about the problem or what earlier researchers have found
about it and what questions still need to be answered before the research questions or objectives are
finalized.
Theories which the researchers use to explain the existence of a research problem and used
as bases in analyzing relationships between variables can be generated from reference books on
theories or from related studies. The researcher therefore, must have already read adequate literature
at the start of the research activity.
26
Styles or Approaches of RRL or Review of Related Literature
Systematic reviews aim to find as much as possible of the research relevant to the particular
research questions, and use explicit methods to identify what can reliably be said on the basis of
these studies. Methods should not only be explicit but systematic with the aim of producing
varied and reliable results. Such reviews then go on to synthesize research findings in a form
which is easily accessible to those who have to make policy or practice decisions. In this way,
systematic reviews reduce the bias which can occur in other approaches to reviewing research
evidence.
The following table shows the way several books on RRL. Compare and contrast the two
styles of RRL.
Standards Traditional Review Systematic Review
Purpose To have a thorough and clear To meet a certain objective based on
understanding of the field specific research questions
Scope Comprehensive, wide picture Restricted focus
Review Design Indefinite plan, permits creative and Viewable process and paper trail
exploratory plan
Choice of studies Purposeful selection by the reviewer Prepared standards for studies selection
27
Standards Traditional Review Systematic Review
Nature of studies Inquiry-based techniques involving Wide and thorough search for all
several studies studies
Quality appraisal Reviewers views Assessment checklists
Summary Narrative Graphical and short summary
answers
LESSON REFERENCING
6
Referencing is important
1. It shows where you got information from (you are not making up)
2. It acknowledges the contribution of other people.
3. It helps other people find source you found if they want more detail.
4. It stops you being accused of plagiarism
5. It allows people to check the accuracy of your interpretation of other people‘s work
It is not just referencing that is important it is also the accuracy of the referencing and the
consistent use of a style. There are two places in research chapter where referencing is placed: as
cited in Chapter I and in the Reference List or Bibliography.
28
References Cited or Reference List
29
30
31
32
Reference List: Basic Rules
Your references should begin on a new page separate from the text of the essay; label this
page References (with no quotation marks, underlining, etc.), centered at the top of the page. It
should be double-spaced just like the rest of your essay.
Basic Rules
1. All lines after the first line of each entry in your reference list should be indented or
make hanging 0.5 inch from the left margin.
2. Authors' names are inverted (last name first); give the last name and initials for all
authors of a particular work unless the work has more than six authors. If the work has
more than six authors, list the first six authors and then use et al. after the sixth author's
name to indicate the rest of the authors.
3. Reference list entries should be alphabetized by the last name of the first author of each
work.
4. If you have more than one article by the same author, single- author references or
multiple-author references with the exact same authors in the exact same order are listed in
order by the year of publication, starting with the earliest.
5. When referring to any work that is NOT a journal, such as a book, article, or Web
page, capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a title and subtitle, the first word after
a colon or a dash in the title, and proper nouns. Do not capitalize the first letter
of the second word in a hyphenated compound word.
6. Capitalize all major words in journal titles.
7. Italicize titles of longer works such as books and journals.
8. Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter works, such as
journal articles or essays in edited collections.
The following rules for handling works by a single author or multiple authors apply to all APA-
style references in your reference list, regardless of the type of work (book, article, electronic
resource, etc.)
Single Author
33
Two Authors
List by their last names and initials. Use the ampersand instead of "and."
List by last names and initials; commas separate author names, while the last author name is
preceded again by ampersand.
Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., Sun, C. R., Berry, A., & Harlow, T. (1993).
There's more to self-esteem than whether it is high or low: The importance of stability of
self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1190-1204.
If there are more than six authors, list the first six as above and then "et al.," which stands for "and
others." Remember not to place a period after "et" in "et al."
Harris, M., Karper, E., Stacks, G., Hoffman, D., DeNiro, R., Cruz, P., et al.
(2001). Writing labs and the Hollywood connection. Journal of Film
and Writing, 44(3), 213-245.
If you are using more than one reference by the same author (or the same group of authors listed in
the same order) published in the same year, organize them in the reference list alphabetically by the
title of the article or chapter. Then assign letter suffixes to the year. Refer to these sources in your
essay as they appear in your reference list, e.g.: "Berdnt (1981a) makes similar claims...―
Berndt, T. J. (1981a). Age changes and changes over time in prosocial intentions
and behavior between friends. Developmental Psychology, 17, 408-416.
Basic Form
APA style dictates that authors are named last name followed by initials; publication year goes
between parentheses, followed by a period. The title of the article is in sentence-case, meaning only
34
the first word and proper nouns in the title are capitalized. The periodical title is run in title case,
and is followed by the volume number which, with the title, is also italicized or underlined.
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. Title of
Periodical, volume number (issue number), pages.
Journals that are paginated by volume begin with page one in issue one, and continue numbering
issue two where issue one ended, etc.
Journals paginated by issue begin with page one every issue; therefore, the issue number gets
indicated in parentheses after the volume. The parentheses and issue number are not italicized or
underlined.
Scruton, R. (1996). The eclipse of listening. The New Criterion, 15(30), 5-13.
Article in a Magazine
Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time,
135, 28-31.
Article in a Newspaper
Unlike other periodicals, p. or pp. precedes page numbers for a newspaper reference in APA style.
Single pages take p., e.g., p. B2; multiple pages take pp., e.g., pp. B2, B4 or pp. C1, C3-C4.
Schultz, S. (2005, December 28). Calls made to strengthen state energy policies.
The Country Today, pp. 1A, 2A.
Review
Baumeister, R. F. (1993). Exposing the self-knowledge myth [Review of the book The self-
knower: A hero under control ]. Contemporary Psychology, 38, 466-467.
35
Multivolume Work
Wiener, P. (Ed.). (1973). Dictionary of the history of ideas (Vols. 1-4). New
York: Scribner's.
Government Document
Conference Proceedings
Schnase, J.L., & Cunnius, E.L. (Eds.). (1995). Proceedings from CSCL '95: The
First International Conference on Computer Support for Collaborative
Learning. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Online articles follow the same guidelines for printed articles. Include all information the
online host makes available, including an issue number in parentheses.
36
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of
Online Periodical, volume number(issue number if available). Retrieved month day, year,
from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
Bernstein, M. (2002). 10 tips on writing the living Web. A List Apart: For People
Who Make Websites, 149. Retrieved May 2, 2006, from
http://www.alistapart.com/articles/writeliving
No personal communication is included in your reference list; instead, parenthetically cite the
communicators name, the fact that it was personal communication, and the date of the
communication in your main text only.
(E. Robbins, pers. comm., January 4, 2001).
A. P. Smith also claimed that many of her students had difficulties with APA style (pers. comm.,
November 3, 2002).
Motion Picture
Note: If a movie or video tape is not available in wide distribution, add the following to your
citation after the country of origin: (Available from Distributor name, full address and zip code).
Smith, J.D. (Producer) & Smithee, A.F. (Director). (2001). Really big disaster
movie [Motion picture]. United States: Paramount Pictures.
37
A Motion Picture or Video Tape with Limited Availability
A Television Series
Bellisario, D.L. (Producer). (1992). Exciting action show [Television series].
Hollywood: American Broadcasting Company.
Music Recording
38
1.
LESSON RESEARCH ETHICS
7
Introduction
Research Ethics is the highest ethical standards shall be applied to basic education research.
Whether or not human subjects are involved, researchers must ensure that the study will not cause
people harm. Research participants should have informed consent, must be cognizant about the
general purpose of the study and should not be exposed to unusual risk. Consistent with the
principle of excellence, integrity also requires honesty and accuracy in the collection, analysis and
reporting of data.
Meaning: Participants in a research study are protected from physical or psychological harm,
discomfort, or danger that may arise
Logic: Any sort of study that is likely to cause lasting, or even serious harm or discomfort to any
participant should not be conducted unless it has great benefits
Tip: Obtain the consent of the participants if they may be exposed to any risk through a form
Role of DO: ‗Almost all educational research involves activities that are within the customary, usual
procedures of schools or other agencies and as such involve little or no risk‘
Meaning: Researchers should make sure that no one else (other than perhaps a few key research
assistants) has access to the data
39
Logic: All subjects should be assured that any data collected from or about them will be held in
confidence
Tips:
(a) Whenever possible, remove all names from all data collection forms. How? Assign numbers
to forms, or answer anonymously.
(b) Do not use the names of the participants from any publications that describe the research.
(c) Allow the participants to withdraw, or information about them not be used.
Warning: ‗Sometimes, however, it is important for a study to identify individual subjects.‘ Role of
DO: ‗Almost all educational research involves activities that are within the customary, usual
procedures of schools or other agencies and as such involve little or no risk‘
Logic: It is often difficult to find naturalistic situations in which certain behaviors occur frequently
Warning: Many studies cannot be carried out unless some deception of subjects take place; but it
would bring questions on the reputation of the scientific community, or to the researcher himself.
Tip:
2. Failing to inform your collaborator that your are filing a patent of the research
40
3. Writing the name of your colleague as one of the writers even though he did not participate
in any part of the conduct of the research
4. Discussing with your colleagues data from the paper that you are reviewing for a journal
7. Making the results of a study publicly known without first giving the peers the opportunity
to review the work
9. Making derogatory comments and personal attacks in your review of author‘s submission
10.
LESSON CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
8
• Present a schematic diagram of the paradigm of the research and discuss the relationships of
the elements/variables therein
• The conceptual framework serves as basis for the research paradigm and objectives of the
project
41
In other words, the conceptual framework is the researcher‘s understanding of how the
particular variables in his study connect with each other. Thus, it identifies the variables required in
the research investigation. It is the researcher‘s ―map‖ in pursuing the investigation.
As McGaghie et al. (2001) put it: The conceptual framework ―sets the stage‖ for the
presentation of the particular research question that drives the investigation being reported based on
the problem statement. The problem statement of a thesis presents the context and the issues that
caused the researcher to conduct the study.
The conceptual framework lies within a much broader framework called theoretical
framework. The latter draws support from time-tested theories that embody the findings of many
researchers on why and how a particular phenomenon occurs.
Before you prepare your conceptual framework, you need to do the following things:
1. Choose your topic. Decide on what will be your research topic. The topic should be within
your field of specialization.
42
2. Do a literature review. Review relevant and updated research on the theme that you decide
to work on after scrutiny of the issue at hand. Preferably use peer-reviewed and well-known
scientific journals as these are reliable sources of information.
3. Isolate the important variables. Identify the specific variables described in the literature
and figure out how these are related. Some abstracts contain the variables and the salient
findings thus may serve the purpose. If these are not available, find the research paper‘s
summary. If the variables are not explicit in the summary, get back to the methodology or
the results and discussion section and quickly identify the variables of the study and the
significant findings. Read the TSPU Technique on how to skim efficiently articles and get to
the important points without much fuss.
4. Generate the conceptual framework. Build your conceptual framework using your mix of
the variables from the scientific articles you have read. Your problem statement serves as a
reference in constructing the conceptual framework. In effect, your study will attempt to
answer a question that other researchers have not explained yet. Your research should
address a knowledge gap.
Example
Notice that the variables of the study are explicit in the paradigm presented in Figure 1. In the
illustration, the two variables are 1) number of hours devoted in front of the computer, and 2)
43
number of hours slept at night. The former is the independent variable while the latter is the
dependent variable. Both of these variables are easy to measure. It is just counting the number of
hours spent in front of the computer and the number of hours slept by the subjects of the study.
Assuming that other things are constant during the performance of the study, it will be
possible to relate these two variables and confirm that indeed, blue light emanated from computer
screens can affect one‘s sleeping patterns. (Please read the article titled ―Do you know that the
computer can disturb your sleeping patterns?‖ To find out more about this phenomenon) A
correlation analysis will show whether the relationship is significant or not.
Again, review the abstracts carefully. Keep careful notes so that you may track you‘re thought
processes during the research process.
44
Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________
Strand/Section/Grade: ______________________ Date: ______________
DIRECTIONS: Read the question carefully. Write your answer on the space provided.
_______________________1. A literature review is more than the search for information, and
goes beyond being a descriptive _____________.
_______________________2. review provides an overview of the research findings on
particular topics.
_______________________3. analysis of concepts or ideas to give meaning to some national
or world issues.
_______________________4. focuses on theories or hypotheses and examines meanings and
results of their application to situation.
_______________________5. makes the researcher deal with the latest research studies on the
subject.
_______________________6. encourages a well-known expert to do the RRL because of the
influence of certain ideology, paradigm, or belief on him/her.
_______________________7. prepares a situation for a future research work in the form of
project making about community development, government
policies, and health services, among others.
_______________________8. It aim to find as much as possible of the research relevant to
the particular research questions, and use explicit methods to
identify what can reliably be said on the basis of these studies.
_______________________9. The highest ethical standards shall be applied to basic
education research.
_______________________10. Research participants should have informed _______, must be
cognizant about the general _______, of the study and should
not be exposed to unusual _______.
45
Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________
Strand/Section/Grade: ______________________ Date: ______________
Directions : If you are unfamiliar with APA citation styles, you may find it helpful to review the
material inside the "Citing sources using APA citation style" folder before beginning this
assessment.
Question 1
Choose the citation that is in proper APA citation format for a book.
a. Jenkins, Henry. Fans, bloggers, and gamers: exploring participatory cultures. New
York: New York University Press, 2006.
b. Jenkins, H. Fans, bloggers, and gamers: exploring participatory cultures. New York
University Press, New York. 2006.
c. Jenkins, H. (2006). Fans, bloggers, and gamers: exploring participatory culture.
New York: New York University Press.
d. Jenkins, Henry. (2006). Fans, Bloggers, and Gamers: Exploring Participatory Culture.
New York UP: New York.
Question 2
Choose the citation that is in proper APA citation for a chapter from a book (no named author of
chapter).
46
Question 3
a. Yonke, D. (2008, September 13). Monks on the road for peace: Tibetan Buddhists bring
message that 'happiness is an internal event'. The Blade (Toledo, OH), p. B7.
b. Yonke, David. (2008). "Monks on the road for peace: Tibetan Buddhists bring message that
'happiness is an internal event'." The Blade (Toledo, OH), pp. B7.
c. Yonke, David. Monks on the road for peace: Tibetan Buddhists bring message that
'happiness is an internal event'. The Blade, September 13, 2008. p. B7.
d. Yonke, David. "Monks on the road for peace: Tibetan Buddhists bring message that
'happiness is an internal event'." The Blade 13 Sept. 2008: B7.
Question 4
Choose the correct APA citation for an article from a library research database.
a. Weickgenannt, Nicole. (2008). The Nation's Monstrous Women: Wives, Widows and
Witches in Salman Rushdie's Midnight's Children. In Journal of Commonwealth
Literature. 43.2, pp. 65-83. Retrieved October 31, 2008, from Humanities
International Complete http:// 0-search.ebscohost.com.maurice.bgsu.edu/
login.aspx?direct=true&db=hlh&AN=32541323&loginpage=login.asp&site=ehost-
live&scope=site
b. Weickgenannt, Nicole. "The nation's monstrous women: Wives, widows and witches in
Salman Rushdie's Midnight's Children." Journal of Commonwealth Literature 43.2
(June 2008): 65-83. Humanities International Complete. EBSCO. Bowling Green
State University Libraries, Bowling Green, Oh.. 31 Oct. 2008 <http://
0-search.ebscohost.com.maurice.bgsu.edu/
login.aspx?direct=true&db=hlh&AN=32541323&loginpage=login.asp&site=ehost-
live&scope=site>.
c. Weickgenannt, N. The Nation's Monstrous Women: Wives, Widows and Witches in Salman
Rushdie's Midnight's Children. Journal of Commonwealth Literature. 43.2: pp.65-
83. Retrieved October 31, 2008, from Humanities International Complete. (2008,
June).
d. Weickgenannt, N. (2008, June). The nation's monstrous women: Wives, widows and
witches in Salman Rushdie's Midnight's Children. Journal of Commonwealth
Literature, 43(2), 65-83. Retrieved October 31, 2008, from Humanities International
Complete.
47
Question 5
Publication: Advocate
Pages: 76-77
hyperlink: <http://0-search.ebscohost.com.maurice.bgsu.edu/
login.aspx?direct=true&db=fmh&AN=GSD0048
Developed by Amy Fyn, Bowling Green State University Libraries, 2008, for LIB225: Information Seeking and Management in Contemporary Society
48
http://libguides.uwf.edu/c.php?g=215199&p=1420520
http://simplyeducate.me/2015/01/05/conceptual-framework-guide/
http://universalteacher.com/1/criteria-for-selecting-a-research-problem/
https://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/hypothes.php
http://www.editage.com/insights/3-basic-tips-on-writing-a-good-research-paper-title
Baraceros, Esther L., PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1,First Edition 2016, Rex Book Store, 856
Nicanor, Sr. St., Manila, Philippines.
Teaching ACRL‘s 5th Information Literacy Competency Standard: APA Citation Practice Activity
http://libguides.bgsu.edu/c.php?g=227185&p=1507882
49
Module UNDERSTANDING DATA AND WAYS TO
4 SYSTEMATICALLY COLLECT DATA
Introduction
These information‘s are a compiled, resources gathered from an extensive literature review;
much of the information is verbatim from the various web sites. The objective is to familiarize the
readers in terms with the data collection tools, methodology, and sampling. It is important to note
that while quantitative and qualitative data collection methods are different (cost, time, sample size,
etc.), each has value. Most often uses deductive logic, in which researchers start with hypotheses
and then collect data which can be used to determine whether empirical evidence to support that
hypothesis exists.
50
7.
LESSON
8.
QUANTITATIVE DATA RESEARCH DESIGN
9.
9
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
If the researcher views quantitative design as a continuum, one end of the range represents a
design where the variables are not controlled at all and only observed. Connections amongst
variable are only described. At the other end of the spectrum, however, are designs which include a
very close control of variables, and relationships amongst those variables are clearly established. In
the middle, with experiment design moving from one type to the other, is a range which blends
those two extremes together.
51
Types of Non-Experimental Research
1. Survey Research
Survey research uses interviews, questionnaires, and sampling polls to get a sense
of behavior with intense precision. It allows researchers to judge behavior and then present
the findings in an accurate way. This is usually expressed in a percentage. Survey research
can be conducted around one group specifically or used to compare several groups. When
conducting survey research it is important that the people questioned are sampled at
random. This allows for more accurate findings across a greater spectrum of respondents.
Remember!
It is very important when conducting survey research that you work with
statisticians and field service agents who are reputable. Since there is a high level
of personal interaction in survey scenarios as well as a greater chance for
unexpected circumstances to occur, it is possible for the data to be affected. This
can heavily influence the outcome of the survey.
There are several ways to conduct survey research. They can be done in person,
over the phone, or through mail or email. In the last instance they can be self-
administered. When conducted on a single group survey research is its own
category.
2. Correlational Research
Correlational research tests for the relationships between two variables. Performing
correlational research is done to establish what the effect of one on the other might be and
how that affects the relationship.
Remember!
Correlation does not always mean causation. For example, just because two data
points sync doesn‘t mean that there is a direct cause and effect relationship.
Typically, you should not make assumptions from correlational research alone.
3. Descriptive
As stated by Good and Scates as cited by Sevilla (1998), the descriptive method is
oftentimes as a survey or a normative approach to study prevailing conditions.
Remember!
4. Comparative
53
5. Ex Post Facto
Remember!
A true experiment and ex post facto both are attempting to say: this independent variable is
causing changes in a dependent variable. This is the basis of any experiment - one variable is
hypothesized to be influencing another. This is done by having an experimental group and a
control group. So if you're testing a new type of medication, the experimental group gets the
new medication, while the control group gets the old medication. This allows you to test the
efficacy of the new medication. . (Kowalczyk 2015)
Experimental Research
Though questions may be posed in the other forms of research, experimental research is
guided specifically by a hypothesis. Sometimes experimental research can have several
hypotheses. A hypothesis is a statement to be proven or disproved. Once that statement is made
experiments are begun to find out whether the statement is true or not. This type of research is the
bedrock of most sciences, in particular the natural sciences. Quantitative research can be exciting
and highly informative. It can be used to help explain all sorts of phenomena. The best
quantitative research gathers precise empirical data and can be applied to gain a better
understanding of several fields of study. (Williams 2015)
1. Quasi-experimental Research
Design involves selecting groups, upon which a variable is tested without any
random pre-selection process. For example, to perform an educational experiment, a class
might be arbitrarily divided by alphabetical selection or by seating arrangement. The
division is often convenient especially in an educational situations cause a little disruption
as possible.
54
2. True Experimental Design
Before the researchers collect any data from the respondents, the young researchers will need to
design or devised new research instruments or they may adopt it into the other researches (the tools
they will use to collect the data).
If the researcher/s is planning to carry out interviews or focus groups, the young researchers will
need to plan an interview schedule or topic guide. This is a list of questions or topic areas that all
the interviewers will use. Asking everyone the same questions means that the data you collect will
be much more focused and easier to analyze.
If the group wants to carry out a survey, the young researchers will need to design a questionnaire.
This could be on paper or online (using free software such as Survey Monkey). Both approaches
have advantages and disadvantages.
If the group is collecting data from more than one ‗type‘ of person (such as young people and
teachers, for example), it may well need to design more than one interview schedule or
55
questionnaire. This should not be too difficult as the young researchers can adapt additional
schedules or questionnaires from the original.
REMEMBER!
Any questionnaires ask people for any relevant information about themselves, such as their
gender or age, if relevant. Don‘t ask for so much detail that it would be possible to identify
individuals though, if you have said that the survey will be anonymous.
The Instrument
Instrument is the generic term that researchers use for a measurement device (survey, test,
questionnaire, etc.). To help distinguish between instrument and instrumentation, consider that
the instrument is the device and instrumentation is the course of action (the process of developing,
testing, and using the device).
56
Interview schedules/guides Self-checklists
Usability
Usability refers to the ease with which an instrument can be administered, interpreted by the
participant, and scored/interpreted by the researcher. Example usability problems include:
Students are asked to rate a lesson immediately after class, but there are only a few minutes before
the next class begins (problem with administration).
Students are asked to keep self-checklists of their after school activities, but the directions are
complicated and the item descriptions confusing (problem with interpretation).
Teachers are asked about their attitudes regarding school policy, but some questions are worded
poorly which results in low completion rates (problem with scoring/interpretation).
Validity and reliability concerns (discussed below) will help alleviate usability issues. For now, we
can identify five usability considerations:
57
Validity
Validity is the extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure and performs
as it is designed to perform. It is rare, if nearly impossible, that an instrument be 100% valid, so
validity is generally measured in degrees. As a process, validation involves collecting and analyzing
data to assess the accuracy of an instrument. There are numerous statistical tests and measures to
assess the validity of quantitative instruments, which generally involves pilot testing. The remainder
of this discussion focuses on external validity and content validity.
External validity is the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized from a sample to a
population. Establishing eternal validity for an instrument, then, follows directly from sampling.
Recall that a sample should be an accurate representation of a population, because the total
population may not be available. An instrument that is externally valid helps obtain population
generalizability, or the degree to which a sample represents the population.
Content validity refers to the appropriateness of the content of an instrument. In other words, do the
measures (questions, observation logs, etc.) accurately assess what you want to know? This is
particularly important with achievement tests. Consider that a test developer wants to maximize the
validity of a unit test for 7th grade mathematics. This would involve taking representative questions
from each of the sections of the unit and evaluating them against the desired outcomes.
Reliability
Reliability can be thought of as consistency. Does the instrument consistently measure what it is
intended to measure? It is not possible to calculate reliability; however, there are four general
estimators that you may encounter in reading research:
Parallel-Forms Reliability: The reliability of two tests constructed the same way, from the same
content.
Internal Consistency Reliability: The consistency of results across items, often measured with
Cronbach‘s Alpha.
58
1.
LESSON
2. GUIDELINES IN WRITING RESEARCH
11 METHODOLOGY
Methodology section is one of the parts of a research paper. This part is the core of your
paper as it is a proof that you use the scientific method. Through this section, your study‘s validity
is judged. So, it is very important. Your methodology answers two main questions:
While writing this section, be direct and precise. Write it in the past tense. Include enough
information so that others could repeat the experiment and evaluate whether the results are
reproducible the audience can judge whether the results and conclusions are valid.
The explanation of the collection and the analysis of your data are very important because;
Readers need to know the reasons why you chose a particular method or procedure instead
of others.
Readers need to know that the collection or the generation of the data is valid in the field of
study.
Discuss the anticipated problems in the process of the data collection and the steps you took
to prevent them.
Present the rationale for why you chose specific experimental procedures.
Provide sufficient information of the whole process so that others could replicate your study.
You can do this by: giving a completely accurate description of the data collection equipment
and the techniques. Explaining how you collected the data and analyzed them.
59
Specifically;
Present the basic demographic profile of the sample population like age, gender, and the
racial composition of the sample. When animals are the subjects of a study, you list their
species, weight, strain, sex, and age.
Explain how you gathered the samples/ subjects by answering these questions:
- Did you use any randomization techniques?
- How did you prepare the samples?
Explain how you made the measurements by answering this question.
What calculations did you make?
Describe the materials and equipment that you used in the research.
Describe the statistical techniques that you used upon the data.
60
Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________
Strand/Section/Grade: ______________________ Date: ______________
DIRECTIONS: Read the question carefully. Write your answer on the space provided.
_______________________1. there is a predictor variable or group of subjects that cannot be
manipulated by the experimenter.
_______________________2. the research focuses on verifiable observation as opposed to
theory or logic.
_______________________3. uses interviews, questionnaires, and sampling polls to get a
sense of behavior with intense precision.
_______________________4. tests for the relationships between two variables. Performing
correlational research is done to establish what the effect of
one on the other might be and how that affects the
relationship.
_______________________5. It is conducted in order to explain a noticed occurrence. In
correlational research the survey is conducted on a minimum
of two groups.
_______________________6. This research method involves the discretion, recognition,
analysis and interpretation of condition that currently exist.
_______________________7. This research examine patterns of similarities and differences
across a moderate number of cases
_______________________8. Though questions may be posed in the other forms of
research, experimental research is guided specifically by a
hypothesis. Sometimes experimental research can have
several hypotheses.
_______________________9. It is a statement to be proven or disproved. Once that
statement is made experiments are begun to find out whether
the statement is true or not.
_______________________10. This research can be exciting and highly informative.
_______________________11. This research design that can establish cause and effect
relationships.
_______________________12. the extent to which an instrument measures what it is
supposed to measure and performs as it is designed to
perform.
_______________________13. refers to the appropriateness of the content of an instrument.
61
Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________
Strand/Section/Grade: ______________________ Date: ______________
DIRECTIONS: Make a reflection Relating Reliability and Validity at least 250 words. (25 poits)
Reliability is directly related to the validity of the measure. There are several important
principles. First, a test can be considered reliable, but not valid. Consider the SAT, used as a
predictor of success in college. It is a reliable test (high scores relate to high GPA), though only a
moderately valid indicator of success (due to the lack of structured environment – class attendance,
parent-regulated study, and sleeping habits – each holistically related to success).
Second, validity is more important than reliability. Using the above example, college
admissions may consider the SAT a reliable test, but not necessarily a valid measure of other
quantities colleges seek, such as leadership capability, altruism, and civic involvement. The
combination of these aspects, alongside the SAT, is a more valid measure of the applicant‘s
potential for graduation, later social involvement, and generosity (alumni giving) toward the alma
mater.
Finally, the most useful instrument is both valid and reliable. Proponents of the SAT argue that it is
both. It is a moderately reliable predictor of future success and a moderately valid measure of a
student‘s knowledge in Mathematics, Critical Reading, and Writing.
62
RUBRIC
63
Evidence and Response shows strong Response shows Response shows little Response shows no
Practice evidence of synthesis of evidence of synthesis of evidence of synthesis evidence of synthesis
ideas presented and ideas presented and of ideas presented of ideas presented and
insights gained insights gained and insights gained insights gained
throughout the entire throughout the entire throughout the entire throughout the entire
course. The course. The implications course. Few course. No
(25% of TTL
implications of these of these insights for the implications of these implications for the
Points) insights for the respondent's overall insights for the respondent's overall
respondent's overall teaching practice are respondent's overall teaching practice are
teaching practice are presented, as applicable. teaching practice are presented, as
thoroughly detailed, as presented, as applicable.
___/15 applicable. applicable.
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Yadipe University Writing Center School of Foreign Languages
https://yuwritingcenter.wikispaces.com/How+to+Write+the+Methodology+of+a+Research+
Paper
http://people.uwec.edu/piercech/researchmethods/data%20collection%20methods/data%20collectio
n%20methods.htm
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/sampprob.php
http://www.stat.ncsu.edu/info/srms/survpamphlet.html
http://www.statcan.ca/english/edu/power/ch2/methods/methods.htm
http://www.statisticssolutions.com/quantitative-research-approach/
http://study.com/academy/lesson/true-experiment-definition-examples.html
http://study.com/academy/lesson/non-experimental-and-experimental-research-differences-
advantages-disadvantages.html
65
Module FINDING ANSWERS THROUGH DATA
5 COLLECTION
Introduction
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest,
in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test
hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. The data collection component of research is common to all
fields of study including physical and social sciences, humanities, business, etc. While methods
vary by discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest collection remains the same.
Craddick et.al (2003)
Gather and analyze data with intellectual honesty, using suitable techniques.
3.
LESSON QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
12
Quantitative Data Analysis
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situation or event; answering the 'what' and 'how many' questions you may have about something.
This is research which involves measuring or counting attributes (i.e. quantities)
You could then go on to explain why a particular answer is expected - you put forward
a theory.
We can gather quantitative data in a variety of ways and from a number of different sources.
Many of these are similar to sources of qualitative data, for example:
Questionnaires - a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering
information from respondents
Interviews - a conversation between two or more people (the interviewer and the
interviewee) where questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain information from the
interviewee - a more structured approach would be used to gather quantitative data
Observation - a group or single participants are manipulated by the researcher, for example,
asked to perform a specific task or action. Observations are then made of their user behavior,
user processes, workflows etc, either in a controlled situation (e.g. lab based) or in a real-
world situation (e.g. the workplace)
Transaction logs - recordings or logs of system or website activity
Documentary research - analysis of documents belonging to an organization
Once you have collected your data you need to make sense of the responses you have got
back. Quantitative data analysis enables you to make sense of data by:
organizing them
summarizing them
doing exploratory analysis
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tables
graphical displays
summary statistics
where responses are similar , for example, we might find that the majority of students all go
to the university library twice a week
if there are differences between the things we have studied, for example, 1st year students
might go once a week to the library, 2 nd year students twice a week and 3 rd year students
three times a week
if there is a relationship between the things we have studied. So, is there a relationship
between the number of times a student goes to the library and their year of study?
Before we look at types of analysis and tools we need to be familiar with a few concepts first:
Population - the whole units of analysis that might be investigated, this could be students,
cats, house prices etc.
Sample - the actual set of units selected for investigation and who participate in the research
Variable - characteristics of the units/participants
Value - the score/label/value of a variable, not the frequency of occurrence. For example, if
age is a characteristic of a participant then the value label would be the actual age, eg. 21,
22, 25, 30, 18, not how many participants are 21, 22, 25, 30, 18.
Case/subject - the individual unit/participant of the study/research.
Sampling
Sampling is complex and can be done in many ways dependent on 1) what you want to
achieve from your research, 2) practical considerations of who is available to participate!
The type of statistical analysis you do will depend on the sample type you have. Most
importantly, you cannot generalize your findings to the population as a whole if you do not have
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a random sample. You can still undertake some inferential statistical analysis but you should
report these as results of your sample, not as applicable to the population at large.
Random sampling
Stratified sampling
Cluster sampling
Convenience sampling
Accidental sampling
According to Baraceros (2016), she identified the different steps in Quantitative data
analysis and she quoted that no ―data organization means no sound data analysis‖.
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Total Sample size: 24
Gender Male: 11 (46%)
Female: 13 (54%)
Program Fine Arts: 9 (37%)
Architecture: 6(25%)
Journalism: 4 (17%)
Com. Arts: 5 (20%)
School FEU: 3 (12%)
MLQU: 4 (17%)
UCU: 3 (12%)
PUNP: 5 (20%)
LNL: 4 (17%)
PSU: (5 %)
Attending in 2017 Summer Arts Yes: 18 (75%)
Seminar-Workshop on Arts No: 6 (25%)
Role in the 2017 Seminar-Workshop on Speaker: 2 (17%)
Arts Organizer: 3 (12%)
Demonstrator: 5 (20%)
Participant: 12 (50%)
Satisfaction with the demonstration and Strongly agree: 11 (46%)
practice exercises Agree: 3 (12%)
Neutral: 2 (8%)
Disagree: 4 (14%)
Strongly disagree: 2 (8%)
Source: Baraceros 2016 Practical Research 2, RexBookstore pp-110
Data coding and tabulation are both essential in preparing the data analysis. Before you interpret
every component of the data, the researcher decides first what kind of quantitative analysis to
use whether to use a simple descriptive statistical technique or an advance analytical method.
The first one that college students often use tells some aspects of categories of data such as:
frequency of distribution, measure of central tendency (mean, median and mode), and standard
70
deviation. However, this does not give information about population from where the sample
came. The second one, on the other hand, fits graduate-level studies because this involves
complex statistical analysis requiring a good foundation and thorough knowledge the data-
gathering instrument used. The results of the analysis reveal the following aspects of an item in
a set of data (Mogan 2014; Punch 2014; Walsh 2010) cited by Baraceros (2016):
Frequency distribution – gives you the frequency of distribution and
percentage of the occurrence of an item in asset of data. In other words, it
gives you the number of responses given repeatedly for one question.
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Standard Deviation – shows the extent of the difference of the data from the mean. An
examination of this gap between the mean and the data gives you an idea about the extent of
the similarities and differences between the respondents. There are mathematical operations
that you have to determine the standard deviation.
Step 1: Compute the Mean.
Step 2: Compute the deviation (difference) between each respondent‘s answer (data item) and
the mean. The positive sign (+) appears before the number if the difference is higher; negative
sign (-), if the difference is lower.
Step 3: Compute the square of each deviation.
Step 4: Compute the sum of squares by adding the squared figures.
Step 5: Divide the sum of squares by the number of data items to get the variance.
Step 6: Compute the square root of variance figure to get standard deviation.
Example:
2. Advanced Quantitative Analytical Methods – An analysis of quantitative data that involves the
use of more complex statistical methods needing computer software like the SPSS, STATA, or
MINITAB, among others, occurs graduate-level students taking their MA or PhD degrees.
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Some of the advanced method of quantitative data analysis are the following (Argyous 2011;
Levin & Fox 2014; Godwin 2014; as cited by Baraceros 2016)
a) Correlation – uses statistical analysis to yield results that describes
the relationship of two variables. The results, however are incapable
of establishing casual relationships.
b) Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) - is a statistical method used to test
differences between two or more means. It may seem odd that the
technique is called "Analysis of Variance" rather than "Analysis of
Means." As you will see, the name is appropriate because inferences
about means are made by analyzing variance.
c) Regression - In statistical modeling, regression analysis is a statistical
process for estimating the relationships among variables. It includes many
techniques for modeling and analyzing several variables, when the focus is
on the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more
independent variables (or 'predictors').
Statistics is a form of mathematical analysis that uses quantified models, representations and
synopses for a given set of experimental data or real-life studies. Statistics studies methodologies to
gather, review, analyze and draw conclusions from data. Statistical methods analyze large volumes
of data and their properties. Statistics is used in various disciplines such as psychology, business,
physical and social sciences, humanities, government and manufacturing. Statistical data is gathered
using a sample procedure or other method. Two types of statistical methods are used in analyzing
data: descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics are used to synopsize data
from a sample exercising the mean or standard deviation. Inferential statistics are used when data is
viewed as a subclass of a specific population.
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Statistical Methodologies
2. Inferential Statistics - Now, suppose you need to collect data on a very large population.
For example, suppose you want to know the average height of all the men in a city with a
population of so many million residents. It isn't very practical to try and get the height of
each man. This is where inferential statistics comes into play. Inferential statistics makes
inferences about populations using data drawn from the population. Instead of using the
entire population to gather the data, the statistician will collect a sample or samples from
the millions of residents and make inferences about the entire population using the sample.
The sample is a set of data taken from the population to represent the population.
Probability distributions, hypothesis testing, correlation testing and regression analysis are
all fall under the category of inferential statistics.
According to the book of Baraceros (2016) bivariate analysis happens by means of the
following methods (Argyrous 2011; Babbie 2013; Punch 2014)
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Covariance is the statistical term to measure the extent of the change in the relationship of
two random variables. Random variables are data with varied values like those ones in the
interval level or scale (Strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree) whose
values depend on the arbitrariness of the respondents.
2. Cross Tabulation – is also called ―crosstab or students-contingency table‖ that follows the
format of a matrix that is made up of lines of numbers, symbols, and other expressions.
Similar to one type of graph called table, matrix arranges data in rows and columns. If the
table compares data on only two variables, such table is called Bivariate Table.
Example:
Secondary School Participants who attend the 1st UCNHS Research Conference
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Measure of Correlations
Correlation is a bivariate analysis that measures the strengths of association between two variables
and the direction of the relationship. In terms of the strength of relationship, the value of the
correlation coefficient varies between +1 and -1. When the value of the correlation coefficient lies
around ± 1, then it is said to be a perfect degree of association between the two variables. As the
correlation coefficient value goes towards 0, the relationship between the two variables will be
weaker. The direction of the relationship is simply the + (indicating a positive relationship between
the variables) or - (indicating a negative relationship between the variables) sign of the
correlation. Usually, in statistics, we measure four types of correlations: Pearson correlation,
Kendall rank correlation, Spearman correlation, and the Point-Biserial
PEARSON R CORRELATION
Pearson r correlation is the most widely used correlation statistic to measure the degree of the
relationship between linearly related variables. For example, in the stock market, if we want to
measure how two stocks are related to each other, Pearson rcorrelation is used to measure the
degree of relationship between the two. The Point-biserial correlation is conducted with the
Pearson correlation formula except that one of the variables is dichotomous. The following
formula is used to calculate the Pearson r correlation:
Is there a statistically significant relationship between age, as measured in years, and height,
measured in inches?
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Is there a relationship between temperature, measure in degree Fahrenheit, and ice cream sales,
measured by income?
Is there a relationship among job satisfaction, as measured by the JSS, and income, measured in
dollars?
Assumptions
For the Pearson r correlation, both variables should be normally distributed (normally distributed
variables have a bell-shaped curve). Other assumptions include linearity and
homoscedasticity. Linearity assumes a straight line relationship between each of the variables in the
analysis and homoscedasticity assumes that data is normally distributed about the regression line.
KEY TERMS
Effect size: Cohen‘s standard will be used to evaluate the correlation coefficient to determine the
strength of the relationship, or the effect size, where correlation coefficients between .10 and .29
represent a small association, coefficients between .30 and .49 represent a medium association, and
coefficients of .50 and above represent a large association or relationship.
Continuous data: Data that is interval or ratio level. This type of data possesses the properties of
magnitude and equal interval between adjacent units. Equal intervals between adjacent units‘
means that there are equal amounts of the variable being measured between adjacent units on the
scale. An example would be age. An increase in age from 21 to 22 would be the same as an
increase in age from 60 to 61.
Kendall rank correlation is a non-parametric test that measures the strength of dependence
between two variables. If we consider two samples, a and b, where each sample size is n, we know
that the total number of pairings with a b is n(n-1)/2. The following formula is used to calculate the
value of Kendall rank correlation:
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CONDUCT AND INTERPRET A KENDALL CORRELATION
KEY TERMS
Spearman rank correlation: Spearman rank correlation is a non-parametric test that is used to
measure the degree of association between two variables. It was developed by Spearman, thus it is
called the Spearman rank correlation. Spearman rank correlation test does not assume any
assumptions about the distribution of the data and is the appropriate correlation analysis when the
variables are measured on a scale that is at least ordinal.
Is there a statistically significant relationship between participants' responses to two Likert scales
questions?
Is there a statistically significant relationship between how the horses rank in the race and the
horses‘ ages?
Assumptions
Spearman rank correlation test does not make any assumptions about the distribution. The
assumptions of Spearman rho correlation are that data must be at least ordinal and scores on one
variable must be montonically related to the other variable.
KEY TERMS
Effect size: Cohen‘s standard will be used to evaluate the correlation coefficient to determine the
strength of the relationship, or the effect size, where coefficients between .10 and .29 represent a
small association; coefficients between .30 and .49 represent a medium association; and coefficients
of .50 and above represent a large association or relationship.
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Ordinal data: Ordinal scales rank order the items that are being measured to indicate if they possess
more, less, or the same amount of the variable being measured. An ordinal scale allows us to
determine if X > Y, Y > X, or if X = Y. An example would be rank ordering the participants in a
dance contest. The dancer who was ranked one was a better dancer than the dancer who was ranked
two. The dancer ranked two was a better dancer than the dancer who was ranked three, and so
on. Although this scale allows us to determine greater than, less than, or equal to, it still does not
define the magnitude of the relationship between units.
Chi-square
is the statistical test for bivariate analysis of nominal variables, specifically, to test the null
hypothesis. It tests whether or not a relationship exists between or among variables and tells
the probability that the relationship is caused by chance. This cannot in any way show extent
of the association between two variables.
Types of Data:
There are basically two types of random variables and they yield two types of data:
numerical and categorical. A chi square (X2) statistic is used to investigate whether distributions of
categorical variables differ from one another. Basically categorical variable yield data in the
categories and numerical variables yield data in numerical form. Responses to such questions as
"What is your major?" or Do you own a car?" are categorical because they yield data such as
"biology" or "no." In contrast, responses to such questions as "How tall are you?" or "What is your
G.P.A.?" are numerical. Numerical data can be either discrete or continuous. The table below may
help you see the differences between these two variables.
Possible
Data Type Question Type
Responses
Categorical What is your sex? male or female
Discrete- How many cars do you
Numerical two or three
own?
Numerical Continuous - How tall are you? 72 inches
Notice that discrete data arise from a counting process, while continuous data arise from a
measuring process.
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The Chi Square statistic compares the tallies or counts of categorical responses between two (or
more) independent groups. (Note: Chi square tests can only be used on actual numbers and not on
percentages, proportions, means, etc.)
2 x 2 Contingency Table
There are several types of chi square tests depending on the way the data was collected and the
hypothesis being tested. We'll begin with the simplest case: a 2 x 2 contingency table. If we set the 2
x 2 table to the general notation shown below in Table 1, using the letters a, b, c, and d to denote the
contents of the cells, then we would have the following table:
Variable 1
For a 2 x 2 contingency table the Chi Square statistic is calculated by the formula:
Note: notice that the four components of the denominator are the four totals from the table columns
and rows.
Suppose you conducted a drug trial on a group of animals and you hypothesized that the animals
receiving the drug would show increased heart rates compared to those that did not receive the drug.
You conduct the study and collect the following data:
Ho: The proportion of animals whose heart rate increased is independent of drug treatment.
Ha: The proportion of animals whose heart rate increased is associated with drug treatment.
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Table 2. Hypothetical drug trial results.
Chi square = 105 [ (36) (25) - (14) (30) ]2 / (50) (55) (39) (66) = 3.418
Before we can proceed we need to know how many degrees of freedom we have. When a
comparison is made between one sample and another, a simple rule is that the degrees of freedom
equal (number of columns minus one) x (number of rows minus one) not counting the totals for
rows or columns. For our data this gives (2-1) x (2-1) = 1.
We now have our chi square statistic (x2 = 3.418), our predetermined alpha level of
significance (0.05), and our degrees of freedom (df = 1). Entering the Chi square distribution table
with 1 degree of freedom and reading along the row we find our value of x 2 (3.418) lies between
2.706 and 3.841. The corresponding probability is between the 0.10 and 0.05 probability levels.
That means that the p-value is above 0.05 (it is actually 0.065). Since a p-value of 0.65 is greater
than the conventionally accepted significance level of 0.05 (i.e. p > 0.05) we fail to reject the null
hypothesis. In other words, there is no statistically significant difference in the proportion of
animals whose heart rate increased.
What would happen if the number of control animals whose heart rate increased dropped to
29 instead of 30 and, consequently, the number of controls whose hear rate did not increase changed
from 25 to 26? Try it. Notice that the new x2 value is 4.125 and this value exceeds the table value of
3.841 (at 1 degree of freedom and an alpha level of 0.05). This means that p < 0.05 (it is now0.04)
and we reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative hypothesis - the heart rate of animals is
different between the treatment groups. When p < 0.05 we generally refer to this as a significant
difference.
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Table 3. Chi Square distribution table.
To make the chi square calculations a bit easier, plug you‘re observed and expected values into the
following applet. Click on the cell and then enter the value. Click the compute button on the lower
right corner to see the chi square value printed in the lower left hand corner.
This test allows us to compare a collection of categorical data with some theoretical expected
distribution. This test is often used in genetics to compare the results of a cross with the theoretical
distribution based on genetic theory. Suppose you preformed a simpe monohybrid cross between
two individuals that were heterozygous for the trait of interest.
Aa x Aa
Table 4. Results of a monohybrid cross between two heterozygotes for the 'a' gene.
A a Totals
A 10 42 52
A 33 15 48
Totals 43 57 100
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The phenotypic ratio 85 of the ―A‖ type and 15 of the a-type (homozygous recessive). In a
monohybrid cross between two heterozygotes, however, we would have predicted a 3:1 ratio of
phenotypes. In other words, we would have expected to get 75 A-type and 25 a-type. Are or results
different?
1. For each observed number in the table subtract the corresponding expected number (O — E).
2. Square the difference [ (O —E)2 ].
3. Divide the squares obtained for each cell in the table by the expected number for that cell [
(O - E)2 / E ].
4. Sum all the values for (O - E)2 / E. This is the chi square statistic.
We now have our chi square statistic (x2 = 5.33), our predetermined alpha level of
significance (0.05), and our degrees of freedom (df =1). Entering the Chi square distribution table
with 1 degree of freedom and reading along the row we find our value of x 2 5.33) lies between
3.841 and 5.412. The corresponding probability is 0.05<P<0.02. This is smaller than the
conventionally accepted significance level of 0.05 or 5%, so the null hypothesis that the two
distributions are the same is rejected. In other words, when the computed x2 statistic exceeds the
critical value in the table for a 0.05 probability level, then we can reject the null hypothesis of equal
distributions. Since our x2statistic (5.33) exceeded the critical value for 0.05 probability level
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(3.841) we can reject the null hypothesis that the observed values of our cross are the same as the
theoretical distribution of a 3:1 ratio.
To put this into context, it means that we do not have a 3:1 ratio of A_ to aa offspring.
To make the chi square calculations a bit easier, plug your observed and expected values into the
following java applet.
Click on the cell and then enter the value. Click the compute button on the lower right corner to see
the chi square value printed in the lower left hand coner.
For a contingency table that has r rows and c columns, the chi square test can be thought of as a test
of independence. In a test of independence the null and alternative hypotheses are:
fo - fe)2 / fe
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Here fo denotes the frequency of the observed data and fe is the frequency of the expected values.
The general table would look something like the one below:
Now we need to calculate the expected values for each cell in the table and we can do that using the
the row total times the column total divided by the grand total (N). For example, for cell a the
expected value would be (a+b+c)(a+d+g)/N.
Once the expected values have been calculated for each cell, we can use the same procedure are
before for a simple 2 x 2 table.
South
Asia Africa Totals
America
Malaria A 31 14 45 90
Malaria B 2 5 53 60
Malaria C 53 45 2 100
Totals 86 64 100 250
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We could now set up the following table:
Thus, we would reject the null hypothesis that there is no relationship between location and type of
malaria. Our data tell us there is a relationship between type of malaria and location, but that's all it
says.
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The T-Test
The t-test assesses whether the means of two groups are statistically different from each
other. This analysis is appropriate whenever you want to compare the means of two groups, and
especially appropriate as the analysis for the posttest-only two-group randomized experimental
design.
Figure 1 shows the distributions for the treated (blue) and control (green) groups in a study.
Actually, the figure shows the idealized distribution -- the actual distribution would usually be
depicted with a histogram or bar graph. The figure indicates where the control and treatment group
means are located. The question the t-test addresses is whether the means are statistically different.
What does it mean to say that the averages for two groups are statistically different?
Consider the three situations shown in Figure 2. The first thing to notice about the three situations is
that the difference between the means is the same in all three. But, you should also notice that the
three situations don't look the same -- they tell very different stories. The top example shows a case
with moderate variability of scores within each group. The second situation shows the high
variability case. the third shows the case with low variability. Clearly, we would conclude that the
two groups appear most different or distinct in the bottom or low-variability case. Why? because,
there is relatively little overlap between the two bell-shaped curves. In the high variability case, the
group difference appears least striking because the two bell-shaped distributions overlap so much.
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This leads us to a very important conclusion: when we are looking at the differences between scores
for two groups, we have to judge the difference between their means relative to the spread or
variability of their scores. The t-test does just this.
The formula for the t-test is a ratio. The top part of the ratio is just the difference between the two
means or averages. The bottom part is a measure of the variability or dispersion of the scores. This
formula is essentially another example of the signal-to-noise metaphor in research: the difference
between the means is the signal that, in this case, we think our program or treatment introduced into
the data; the bottom part of the formula is a measure of variability that is essentially noise that may
make it harder to see the group difference. Figure 3 shows the formula for the t-test and how the
numerator and denominator are related to the distributions.
The top part of the formula is easy to compute -- just find the difference between the means. The
bottom part is called the standard error of the difference. To compute it, we take the variance for
each group and divide it by the number of people in that group. We add these two values and then
take their square root. The specific formula is given in Figure 4:
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Figure 4. Formula for the Standard error of the difference between the means.
Remember, that the variance is simply the square of the standard deviation.
The t-value will be positive if the first mean is larger than the second and negative if it is
smaller. Once you compute the t-value you have to look it up in a table of significance to test
whether the ratio is large enough to say that the difference between the groups is not likely to have
been a chance finding. To test the significance, you need to set a risk level (called the alpha level).
In most social research, the "rule of thumb" is to set the alpha level at .05. This means that five
times out of a hundred you would find a statistically significant difference between the means even
if there was none (i.e., by "chance"). You also need to determine the degrees of freedom (df) for the
test. In the t-test, the degree of freedom is the sum of the persons in both groups minus 2. Given the
alpha level, the df, and the t-value, you can look the t-value up in a standard table of significance
(available as an appendix in the back of most statistics texts) to determine whether the t-value is
large enough to be significant. If it is, you can conclude that the difference between the means for
the two groups is different (even given the variability). Fortunately, statistical computer programs
routinely print the significance test results and save you the trouble of looking them up in a table.
The t-test, one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and a form of regression analysis are
mathematically equivalent (see the statistical analysis of the posttest-only randomized experimental
design) and would yield identical results.
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ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA)
Analysis of Variance
One Way (one factor, fixed effects)
Two Way (two factors, randomized blocks)
Two Way with Repeated Observations (two factors, randomized block)
Fully Nested (hierarchical factors)
Latin Square (one primary and two secondary factors)
Crossover (two factors, fixed effects, treatment crossover)
Kruskal-Wallis (nonparametric one way)
Friedman (nonparametric two way)
Related:
Homogeneity of Variance (examine the ANOVA assumption of equal variance)
Normality (examine the ANOVA assumption of normality)
Agreement (examine agreement of two or more samples)
Basics Concepts
ANOVA is a set of statistical methods used mainly to compare the means of two or more
samples. Estimates of variance are the key intermediate statistics calculated, hence the reference to
variance in the title ANOVA. The different types of ANOVA reflect the different experimental
designs and situations for which they have been developed.
Excellent accounts of ANOVA are given by Armitage & Berry (1994) and Kleinbaum et. al
(1998). Nonparametric alternatives to ANOVA are discussed by Conover (1999) and Hollander and
Wolfe (1999).
ANOVA can be treated as a special case of general linear regression where independent/predicator
variables are the nominal categories or factors. Each value that can be taken by a factor is referred
to as a level. k different levels (e.g. three different types of diet in a study of diet on weight gain) are
coded not as a single column (e.g. of diet 1 to 3) but as k-1 dummy variables. The
dependent/outcome variable in the regression consists of the study observations.
General linear regression can be used in this way to build more complex ANOVA models
than those described in this section; this is best done under expert statistical guidance.
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Fixed vs. random effects
A fixed factor has only the levels used in the analysis (e.g. sex, age, blood group). A random
factor has many possible levels and some are used in the analysis (e.g. time periods, subjects,
observers). Some factors that are usually treated as fixed may also be treated as random if the study
is looking at them as part of a larger group (e.g. treatments, locations, tests).
Most general statistical texts arrange data for ANOVA into tables where columns represent fixed
factors and the one and two way analyses described are fixed factor methods.
Multiple comparisons
ANOVA gives an overall test for the difference between the means of k groups. StatsDirect
enables you to compare all k(k-1)/2 possible pairs of means using methods that are designed to
avoid the type I error that would be seen if you used two sample methods such as t test for these
comparisons. The multiple comparison/contrast methods offered by StatsDirect are Tukey(-
Kramer), Scheffé, Newman-Keuls, Dunnett and Bonferroni (Armitage and Berry, 1994;
Wallenstein, 1980; Liddell, 1983; Miller, 1981; Hsu, 1996; Kleinbaum et al., 1998). See multiple
comparisons for more information.
Further methods
There are many possible ANOVA designs. StatsDirect covers the common designs in its
ANOVA section and provides general tools (see general linear regression and dummy variables) for
building more complex designs.
Other software such as SAS and Genstat provide further specific ANOVA designs. For example,
balanced incomplete block design:
- with complete missing blocks you should consider a balanced incomplete block design provided
the number of missing blocks does not exceed the number of treatments.
Treatments
1 2 3 4
A X X x
B X X X
Blocks:
C X x X
D X x X
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Complex ANOVA should not be attempted without expert statistical guidance. Beware situations
where over complex analysis is used in order to compensate for poor experimental design. There is
no substitute for good experimental design.
Regression
Regression is a statistical measure used in finance, investing and other disciplines that attempts
to determine the strength of the relationship between one dependent variable (usually denoted
by Y) and a series of other changing variables (known as independent variables). Regression
helps investment and financial managers to value assets and understand the relationships
between variables, such as commodity prices and the stocks of businesses dealing in those
commodities.
The two basic types of regression are linear regression and multiple linear regression, although
there are non-linear regression methods for more complicated data and analysis. Linear
regression uses one independent variable to explain or predict the outcome of the dependent
variable Y, while multiple regressions use two or more independent variables to predict the
outcome.
Regression can help finance and investment professionals as well as professionals in other
businesses. Regression can help predict sales for a company based on weather, previous sales,
GDP growth or other conditions. The capital asset pricing model (CAPM) is an often-used
regression model in finance for pricing assets and discovering costs of capital. The general
form of each type of regression is:
Linear Regression: Y = a + bX + u
Multiple Regression: Y = a + b1X1 + b2X2 + b3X3 + ... + btXt + u
Where:
Y = the variable that you are trying to predict (dependent variable)
X = the variable that you are using to predict Y (independent variable)
a = the intercept
b = the slope
u = the regression residual
Regression takes a group of random variables, thought to be predicting Y, and tries to find a
mathematical relationship between them. This relationship is typically in the form of a straight
line (linear regression) that best approximates all the individual data points. In multiple
regression, the separate variables are differentiated by using numbers with subscript.
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Regression in Investing
Regression is often used to determine how many specific factors such as the price of a
commodity, interest rates, particular industries or sectors influence the price movement of an asset.
The aforementioned CAPM is based on regression, and it is utilized to project the expected returns
for stocks and to generate costs of capital. A stock's returns are regressed against the returns of a
broader index, such as the S&P 500, to generate a beta for the particular stock. Beta is the stock's
risk in relation to the market or index and is reflected as the slope in the CAPM model. The
expected return for the stock in question would be the dependent variable Y, while the independent
variable X would be the market risk premium.
Additional variables such as the market capitalization of a stock, valuation ratios and recent
returns can be added to the CAPM model to get better estimates for returns. These additional factors
are known as the Fama-French factors, named after the professors who developed the multiple
linear regression model to better explain asset returns.
4.
LESSON SAMPLING PROCEDURE
14
Sampling Procedures
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Simple Random Sampling Procedure
Simple random sampling provides the base from which the other more complex sampling
methodologies are derived. To conduct a simple random sample, the researcher must first prepare
an exhaustive list (sampling frame) of all members of the population of interest. From this list, the
sample is drawn so that each person or item has an equal chance of being drawn during each
selection round (Kanupriya, 2012).
A researcher may choose to conduct a systematic sample instead of a simple random sample
for several reasons. Firstly, systematic samples tend to be easier to draw and execute, secondly, the
researcher does not have to go back and forth through the sampling frame to draw the members to
be sampled, thirdly, a systematic sample may spread the members selected for measurement more
evenly across the entire population than simple random sampling. Therefore, in some cases,
systematic sampling may be more representative of the population and more precise (Groves et al.,
2006).
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Stratified Sampling Procedure
Stratified sampling procedure is the most effective method of sampling when a researcher
wants to get a representative sample of a population. It involves categorizing the members of the
population into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive groups. An independent simple
random sample is then drawn from each group. Stratified sampling techniques can provide more
precise estimates if the population is surveyed is more heterogeneous than the categorized groups.
This technique can enable the researcher to determine desired levels of sampling precision for each
group, and can provide administrative efficiency. The main advantage of the approach is that it‘s
able to give the most representative sample of a population (Hunt & Tyrrell, 2001).
In cluster sampling, a cluster (a group of population elements), constitutes the sampling unit,
instead of a single element of the population. The sampling in this technique is mainly
geographically driven. The main reason for cluster sampling is cost efficiency (economy and
feasibility). The sampling frame is also often readily available at cluster level and takes short time
for listing and implementation. The technique is also suitable for survey of institutions (Ahmed,
2009) or households within a given geographical area.
But the design is not without disadvantages, some of the challenges that stand out are: it may
not reflect the diversity of the community; other elements in the same cluster may share similar
characteristics; provides less information per observation than an SRS of the same size (redundant
information: similar information from the others in the cluster); standard errors of the estimates are
high, compared to other sampling designs with the same sample size.
Non probability sampling is used in some situations, where the population may not be well
defined. In other situations, there may not be great interest in drawing inferences from the sample to
the population. The most common reason for using non probability sampling procedure is that it is
less expensive than probability sampling procedure and can often be implemented more quickly
(Michael, 2011). It includes purposive, convenience and quota sampling procedures.
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Purposive/Judgmental Sampling Procedure
In purposive sampling procedure, the researcher chooses the sample based on who he/she
thinks would be appropriate for the study. The main objective of purposive sampling is to arrive as
at a sample that can adequately answer the research objectives. The selection of a purposive sample
is often accomplished by applying expert knowledge of the target population to select in a non-
random manner a sample that represents a cross-section of the population (Henry, 1990).
Convenience sampling differs from purposive sampling in that expert judgment is not used
to select a representative sample. The primary selection criterion relates to the ease of obtaining a
sample. Ease of obtaining the sample relates to the cost of locating elements of the population, the
geographic distribution of the sample, and obtaining the interview data from the selected elements
(de Leeuw, Hox & Huisman, 2003).
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Sampling Techniques
When sampling, you need to decide what units (i.e., what people, organizations, data, etc.)
to include in your sample and which ones to exclude. As you'll know by now, sampling techniques
act as a guide to help you select these units, and you will have chosen a
specific probability or non-probability sampling technique:
If you are following a probability sampling technique, you'll know that you require a list
of the population from which you select units for your sample. This raises potential data
protection and confidentiality issues because units in the list (i.e., when people are your
units) will not necessarily have given you permission to access the list with their details.
Therefore, you need to check that you have the right to access the list in the first place.
If using a non-probability sampling technique, you need to ask yourself whether you are
including or excluding units for theoretical or practical reasons. In the case of purposive
sampling, the choice of which units to include and exclude is theoretically-driven. In such
cases, there are few ethical concerns. However, where units are included or excluded
for practical reasons, such as ease of access or personal preferences (e.g., convenience
sampling), there is a danger that units will be excluded unnecessarily. For example, it is not
uncommon when select units using convenience sampling that researchers' natural
preferences (and even prejudices) will influence the selection process. For example, maybe
the researcher would avoid approaching certain groups (e.g., socially marginalized
individuals, people who speak little English, disabled people, etc.). Where this happens, it
raises ethical issues because the picture being built through the research can be excessively
narrow, and arguably, unethically narrow. This highlights the importance of using theory to
determine the creation of samples when using non-probability sampling techniques rather
than practical reasons, whenever possible.
Sample size
Whether you are using a probability sampling or non-probability sampling technique to help you
create your sample, you will need to decide how large your sample should be (i.e., your sample
size). Your sample size becomes an ethical issue for two reasons: (a) over-sized samples
and (b) under-sized samples.
Over-sized samples
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A sample is over-sized when there are more units (e.g., people, organizations) in the
sample than are needed to achieve you goals (i.e., to answer your research questions
robustly). An over-sized sample is considered to be an ethical issue because it potentially
exposes an excessive number of people (or other units) to your research. Let's look at
where this may or may not be a problem:
Imagine that you were interested in the effect of a carbohydrate free diet on the
concentration levels of female university students in the classroom. You know that
carbohydrate free diets (i.e., no breads, pasta, rice, etc.) are a new fad amongst female
university students because some female students feel that it helps them loose weight (or not
put weight on). However, you have read some research showing that such diets can make
people feel lethargic (i.e., low on energy). Therefore, you want to know whether this is
affecting students' performance; or more specifically, the concentration levels of female
students in the classroom.
So here comes the ethical issue: What if you could have come to the same conclusion
with fewer students? What if you only needed to ask 10 students to go on the carbohydrate
free diet rather than 20? Would this have meant that the performance of 10 students would
not have been negatively for a 14 day period as a result? The important point is that you do
not want to expose individuals to distress or harm unnecessarily.
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Under-sized samples
A sample is under-sized when you are unable to achieve your goals (i.e., to answer your
research questions robustly) because you insufficient units in your sample. The important point is
that you fail to answer your research questions not because a potential answer did not exist, but
because your sample size was too small for such an answer to be discovered (or interpreted). Let's
look where this may or may not be a problem:
let‘s take the example of the career choices of students at your university. If you
did not collect sufficient data; that is, you did not ask enough students to complete your
questionnaire, the answers you get back from your sample may not be representative of
the population of all students at your university. This is bad from two perspectives, but only
one is arguably a potential ethical issue: First, it is bad because your dissertation findings will
be of a lower quality; they will not reflect the population of all students at the university that
you are interested in, which will most likely lead to a lower mark (i.e., external validity is an
important goal of quantitative research). This is bad for you, but not necessarily unethical.
However, if the findings from your research are incorrectly taken to reflect the views of all
students at your university, and somehow wrongly influence policy within the university
(e.g., amongst the Career Advisory Service), your dissertation research could have negatively
impacted other students. This is a potential ethical issue. Despite this, we would expect that
the likelihood of this happening is fairly low.
Going back to the example of the effect of a carbohydrate free diet on the
concentration levels of female university students in the classroom, an under-sized
sample does pose potential ethical issues. After all, with the exception of students that just
want to help you out, it is likely that most students are taking part voluntarily because they
want to the effect of such a diet on their potential classroom performance. Perhaps they have
used the diet before or are thinking about using the diet. Alternately, perhaps they are
worried about the effects of such diets, and what to further research in this area. In either
case, if no conclusions can be made or the findings are not statistically significant because
99
the sample size was too small, the effort, and potential distress and harm that these
volunteers put themselves through was all in vein (i.e., completely wasted). This is where an
under-sized sample can become an ethical issue.
As a researcher, even when you're an undergraduate or master's level student, you have a
duty not to expose an excessive number of people to unnecessary distress or harm. This is one of
the basic principles of research ethics. At the same time, you have a duty not to fail to achieve what
you set out to achieve. This is not just a duty to yourself or the sponsors of your dissertation (if you
have any), but more importantly, to the people that take part in your research (i.e., your sample). To
try and minimize the potential ethical issues that come with over-sized and under-sized samples,
there are instances where you can make sample size calculations to estimate the required sample
size to achieve your goals.
Gatekeepers
Gatekeepers can often control access to the participants you are interested in (e.g., a
manager's control over access to employees within an organization). This has ethical implications
because of the power that such gatekeepers can exercise over those individuals. For example, they
may control what access is (and is not) granted to which individuals, coerce individuals into taking
part in your research, and influence the nature of responses. This may affect the level of consent that
a participant gives (or is believed to have given) you. Ask yourself: Do I think that participants are
taking part voluntarily? How did the way that I gained access to participants affect not only
the voluntary nature of individuals? participation, and how will it affect the data?
Problems with gatekeepers can also affect the representativeness of the sample. Whilst
qualitative research designs are more likely to use non-probability sampling techniques, even
quantitative research designs that use probability sampling can suffer from issues of reliability
associated with gatekeepers. In the case of quantitative research designs using probability
sampling, are gatekeepers providing an accurate list of the population without missing out
potential participants (e.g., employees that may give a negative view of an organization)? If non-
probability sampling is being used, are gatekeepers coercing participants to take part or
influencing their responses?
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Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________
Strand/Section/Grade: ______________________ Date: ______________
DIRECTIONS: Read the question carefully. Write your answer on the space provided.
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Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________
Strand/Section/Grade: ______________________ Date: ______________
Directions: Question does not only indicate your curiosity about your world but also signal your
desire for clearer explanation about things. Hence, ask one another thought-provoking questions
about quantitative data analysis. For proper question formulation, you may draft your question on
the space below.
ACTIVIITY 2: INDIVIDUAL WORK: Recall two or three most challenging question from your
classmates shared to the class that you wanted to answer but to get the chance to do so. Write and
answer them on the lines provided.
Directions: Match the expression in A with those in B by writing the letter of your answer on the
line before the word.
A B
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David M. Lane, Online Statistics Education: An Interactive Multimedia
Course of Study, Developed by Rice University (Lead Developer),
University of Houston Clear Lake, and Tufts University
http://onlinestatbook.com/2/analysis_of_variance/intro.html
http://www.health.herts.ac.uk/immunology/Web%20programme%20-
%20Researchhealthprofessionals/quantitative_data_analysis.htm
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/statistics.asp
Algina, J., & Keselman, H. J. (1999). Comparing squared multiple correlation coefficients:
Examination of a confidence interval and a test significance. Psychological Methods, 4(1),
76-83.
Bobko, P. (2001). Correlation and regression: Applications for industrial organizational
psychology and management (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Bonett, D. G. (2008). Meta-analytic interval estimation for bivariate
correlations. Psychological Methods, 13(3), 173-181.
Chen, P. Y., & Popovich, P. M. (2002). Correlation: Parametric and nonparametric measures.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Cheung, M. W. -L., & Chan, W. (2004). Testing dependent correlation coefficients via
structural equation modeling. Organizational Research Methods, 7(2), 206-223.
Coffman, D. L., Maydeu-Olivares, A., Arnau, J. (2008). Asymptotic distribution free interval
estimation: For an intraclass correlation coefficient with applications to longitudinal
data. Methodology, 4(1), 4-9.
Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation
analysis for the behavioral sciences. (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Hatch, J. P., Hearne, E. M., & Clark, G. M. (1982). A method of testing for serial correlation in
univariate repeated-measures analysis of variance. Behavior Research Methods &
Instrumentation, 14(5), 497-498.
Kendall, M. G., & Gibbons, J. D. (1990). Rank Correlation Methods (5th ed.).
London: Edward Arnold.
Krijnen, W. P. (2004). Positive loadings and factor correlations from positive covariance
matrices. Psychometrika, 69(4), 655-660.
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Module
6
REPORT AND SHARING FINDINGS
For any research project and any scientific discipline, drawing conclusions is the final, and
most important, part of the process. Whichever reasoning processes and research methods were
used, the final conclusion is critical, determining success or failure. If an otherwise excellent
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experiment is summarized by a weak conclusion, the results will not be taken seriously. Success or
failure is not a measure of whether a hypothesis is accepted or refuted, because both results still
advance scientific knowledge. ( Shuttleworth 2014)
Failure is poor experimental design, or flaws in the reasoning processes, which invalidate
the results. As long as the research process is robust and well designed, then the findings are sound,
and the process of drawing conclusions begins. Generally, a researcher will summarize what they
believe has been learned from the research, and will try to assess the strength of the hypothesis.
Even if the null hypothesis is accepted, a strong conclusion will analyze why the results
were not as predicted. In observational research, with no hypothesis, the researcher will analyze the
findings, and establish if any valuable new information has been uncovered.
However, very few experiments give clear-cut results, and most research uncovers more
questions than answers.
The researcher can use these to suggest interesting directions for further study. If, for
example, the null hypothesis was accepted, there may still have been trends apparent within the
results. These could form the basis of further study, or experimental refinement and redesign.
The researcher will then evaluate any apparent problems with the experiment. This involves
critically evaluating any weaknesses and errors in the design, which may have influenced
the results.
Even strict, 'true experimental,' designs have to make compromises, and the researcher must
be thorough in pointing these out, justifying the methodology and reasoning.
For example, when drawing conclusions, the researcher may think that another causal
effect influenced the results, and that this variable was not eliminated during the experimental
process. A refined version of the experiment may help to achieve better results, if the new effect is
included in the design process.
In the global warming example, the researcher might establish that carbon dioxide emission
alone cannot be responsible for global warming. They may decide that another effect is
105
contributing, so propose that methane may also be a factor in global warming. A new study would
incorporate methane into the model.
The next stage is to evaluate the advantages and benefits of the research. In medicine and
psychology, for example, the results may throw out a new way of treating a medical problem, so the
advantages are obvious. However, all well-constructed research is useful, even if it is just adding to
the fount of human knowledge. An accepted null hypothesis has an important meaning to science.
The final stage is the researcher's recommendations based upon the results, depending upon
the field of study. This area of the research process can be based around the researcher's personal
opinion, and will integrate previous studies.
For example, a researcher into schizophrenia may recommend a more effective treatment. A
physicist might postulate that our picture of the structure of the atom should be changed. A
researcher could make suggestions for refinement of the experimental design, or highlight
interesting areas for further study. This final piece of the paper is the most critical, and pulls
together all of the findings.
The area in a research paper that causes intense and heated debate amongst scientists is
when drawing conclusions.
It is critical in determining the direction taken by the scientific community, but the researcher will
have to justify their findings.
The key to drawing a valid conclusion is to ensure that the deductive and inductive
processes are correctly used, and that all steps of the scientific method were followed.
If your research had a robust design, questioning and scrutiny will be devoted to the experiment
conclusion, rather than the methods.
106
Recommendations
Other recommendations may also be appropriate. When preparing this section, remember that in
making your recommendations, you must show how your results support them. A recommendation
for a preferred alternative should include:
1. Specifically stating what should be done, the steps required to implement the policy, and the
resources needed;
2. discussion of the benefits to the organization and what problems would be corrected or
avoided;
4. general statement about the nature and timing of an evaluation plan that would be used to
determine the effectiveness of the proposed policy.
In this section, you finally have the opportunity to present and discuss the actions that future
researchers should take as a result of your Project. A well-thought-out set of recommendations
makes it more likely that the organization will take your recommendations seriously. Ideally you
should be able to make a formal recommendation regarding the alternative that is best supported by
the study. Present and discuss the kinds of additional research suggested by your Project. If the
preferred alternative is implemented, what additional research might be needed?
LIST REFERENCES
A bibliography is a list of the sources you used to get information for your report. It is
included at the end of your report, on the last page (or last few pages).
You will find it easier to prepare your final bibliography if you keep track of each book,
encyclopedia, or article you use as you are reading and taking notes. Start a preliminary, or draft,
bibliography by listing on a separate sheet of paper all your sources. Note down the full title, author,
place of publication, publisher, and date of publication for each source.
107
Also, every time a fact gets recorded on a note card, its source should be noted in the top
right corner. When you are finished writing your paper, you can use the information on your note
cards to double-check your bibliography.
When assembling a final bibliography, list your sources (texts, articles, interviews, and so
on) in alphabetical order by authors' last names. Sources that don't have authors (encyclopedias,
movies) should be put into alphabetical order by title. There are different formats for bibliographies,
so be sure to use the one your teacher prefers.
For a book:
Author (last name first). Title of the book. City: Publisher, Date of publication.
EXAMPLE:
Dahl, Roald. The BFG. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1982.
For an encyclopedia:
Encyclopedia Title, Edition Date. Volume Number, "Article Title," page numbers.
EXAMPLE:
For a magazine:
Author (last name first), "Article Title." Name of magazine. Volume number, (Date): page numbers.
EXAMPLE:
Jordan, Jennifer, "Filming at the Top of the World." Museum of Science Magazine. Volume 47, No.
1, (Winter 1998): p. 11.
For a newspaper:
Author (last name first), "Article Title." Name of newspaper, city, state of publication. (date):
edition if available, section, page number(s).
108
EXAMPLE:
Powers, Ann, "New Tune for the Material Girl." The New York Times, New York, NY. (3/1/98):
Atlantic Region, Section 2, p. 34.
For a person:
EXAMPLE:
For a film:
EXAMPLE:
CD-ROM:
EXAMPLE:
Compton's Multimedia Encyclopedia: Macintosh version, 1995. "Civil rights movement," p.3.
Compton's Newsmedia.
Magazine article:
Author (last name first). "Article title." Name of magazine (type of medium). Volume number,
(Date): page numbers. If available: publisher of medium, version, date of issue.
EXAMPLE:
Rollins, Fred. "Snowboard Madness." Sports Stuff (CD-ROM). Number 15, (February 1997): pp.
109
15-19. SIRS, Mac version, Winter 1997.
Newspaper article:
Author (last name first). "Article title." Name of newspaper (Type of medium), city and state of
publication. (Date): If available: Edition, section and page number(s). If available: publisher of
medium, version, date of issue.
EXAMPLE:
Stevenson, Rhoda. "Nerve Sells." Community News (CD-ROM), Nassau, NY. (Feb 1996): pp. A4-
5. SIRS, Mac. version, Spring 1996.
Online Resources
Internet:
Author of message, (Date). Subject of message. Electronic conference or bulletin board (Online).
Available e-mail: LISTSERV@ e-mail address
EXAMPLE:
Ellen Block, (September 15, 1995). New Winners. Teen Booklist (Online). Helen
Smith@wellington.com
URL (Uniform Resource Locator or WWW address). author (or item's name, if mentioned), date.
110
discipline, to undertake new research, and to blend theoretical and empirical aspects of archival
studies into scholarly investigations.
As a researcher finalizing your research paper is important in order to: free your paper from
any flaws (grammatical, punctuation, spelling); ensure that all of the parts contains the information
needed; assure that all the part necessary for the research are included; and references are properly
cited in the text and in the bibliography.
General
Sources
All the sources used in the paper are properly cited in the list of references.
All ideas and references from the source have been internally cited within the paper Iin text
citation).
Do not use information from unreliable sources (Wikipedia, sparknotes, and clifnotes etc.)
Development
The ideas included in the paper are appropriate for each part.
Subtopics are supported with examples, quotations, references, description and / or definition.
111
Senior High School Research Presentation Rubric
112
body language too quick or too
effectively slow; demonstrates
one or more
distracting
mannerisms
Reviewer_________________________________________________
113
https://www2.archivists.org/gpas/curriculum/research-design-execution
https://www.teachervision.com/writing-research-papers/research-paper-
how-write-bibliography
Baraceros, Esther L., PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1,First Edition 2016, Rex Book Store, 856
Nicanor, Sr. St., Manila, Philippines.