REASERCH APPROACH

AND
RESEARCH DESIGN

SAIMA HABEEB
Ph.D (N) SCHOLAR
 What is Research approach ?
The research approach indicates the basic procedure
for conducting research.
 Research approach is the technique which the
researcher uses to structure a study in order to gather
and analyze information relevant to the research
question .
 What is Research design?
Arrangement of the conditions for collection & analysis
of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to
the research purpose with economy in procedure.
 The conceptual structure within which research is
conducted.
 Constitutes the blue print for the collection ,
measurement & analysis of data.
The research design is concerned with the
following questions:
1. What is the study about? (Meaning)

2. Why is the study being made? (Need for study)

3. Where will the study be carried out? ( Setting )

4. What type of data is required? (Sample characteristics)

5. Where can the required data be found? (Reference)

6. What periods of time will the study include?

( Time of Data collection )

7. What will be the sample design? (Sampling techniques)

8. What tools & techniques of data collection will be used? ( Data

collection tools & techniques)
9. How will the data by analyzed ?(Statistical analysis )
Characteristics of a good research design:
1.Appropriateness for research question:
The research design should be appropriate for the question being
asked. The flexibility in selecting a research design depends upon
the type of research problem.

2.Lack of bias :
A good research design results in unbiased data. Bias can
operate in a variety of ways. The most obvious source of bias is
in allocation of subjects to groups. When groups are formed as a
non-random basis, the risk of bias is always present.
3.Precision:

Appropriateness of the statistical procedures used to analyze &

interpret the data.

4. Planning the sources & types of information relevant to the

research problem.

5. Strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering

& analyzing the data.

6 Procedure & techniques to be used for gathering information.

7.Time & cost budget constraints of the problem to be studied.

 Important concepts related to research Design:

1.Variables: These are concepts to be examined in a study. Such as qualities, properties or

characteristics of persons, things or situations that change or vary.

These are concepts at different levels of abstraction that are concisely defined to promote their
measurement or manipulation within a study(Chinn &Kramer 1998).

1.1 Demographic variables: are characteristics of study subjects which can take on different
quantitative values such as : age , gender , education, income etc.

1.2 Independent variable : is a cause, stimulus or the treatment that is manipulated by the
researcher in order to study its effect upon dependent variable.

1.3 Dependent variable: is the behavior, characteristic or outcome that the researcher is interested
in understanding, explaining or predicting. It is presumed consequence or effect of the independent
variable. Such as : i) smoking

( independent ) and lung cancer ( dependent )

ii) Dietary control (Independent)and reduction in obesity(dependent)

1.4. Extraneous variable:
 Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but
may affect the dependent variables are termed as extraneous variables.
 Suppose the researcher wants to test hypothesis that is the relationship
between side effect of drugs and discontinuation of treatment (non
compliance to drugs). In this case, non compliance of treatment is a
dependent variable and side effect of drugs is an independent variable.
 But at the same time, knowledge about drug , economic factor , type of
illness and insight of illness do affect the non compliance of drug. Since
these factors are not related to the purpose of the study undertaken by
the researcher, these will be termed as extraneous variables, which is
technically described as an experimental error.
 2.Conceptual and Operational definitions of variables

 A variable is operationalized in a study by development

of conceptual and operational definitions.
 A conceptual definition provides the theoretical
meaning of a variable while as an operational definition
is derived from a set of procedures that a researcher
performs to receive sensory impressions(such as: sound,
visual or tactile) that indicate the degree of existence of
a variable.
3. Control:

The technical term control (an important characteristic of a good

research design) is used with research design to minimize the
influence of extraneous variable. The study minimizes the effect of
extraneous independent variables. In experimental research control
is used to observe that the dependent variable is influenced in the
same way, as the independent variable influences it by restraining
the extraneous independent variables

4. Confounded relationship:
When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of
extraneous variable, the relationship between the dependent &
independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous
variable.
5. Research hypothesis:
A hypothesis is a formal statement of the expected relationship(s) between two or more
variables in a specified population. (Nancy Burns)

 When prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by scientific methods,

it is termed as research hypothesis.
 The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent
variable to a dependent variable. Usually, research hypothesis must contain, at least,
one independent & one dependent variable.
 Predictive statements which are not to be objectively verified or the relationships
that are assumed but not to be tested, are not a hypothesis.

6. Experimental & non experimental hypothesis testing research:

When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as
hypothesis-testing research. It can be of the experimental design or of the non
experimental design.
7.Experimental & control group:
In an experimental hypothesis testing research when a group is exposed to
usual (normal) conditions, it is termed as control group, but when the
group is exposed to some novel(special) condition it is termed as an
experimental group.

8. Treatment:
The different conditions under which experimental & control groups are
put, usually referred to as treatment.

9. Experiment:
The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to
some research problem is known as experiment.
 Purposes of Research Design
 Research design prescribes boundaries for research activities and

therefore it facilitates effectiveness and economical way of tackling

various research problems.

 It is a blueprint prepared in advance based on the objectives of the

study to enhance orderliness in data collection and analysis.

 It helps the researcher to organize his ideas and evaluate the projected

study.
 Factors Influencing for choosing the Research Design
1.Researcher's Knowledge:
Researcher's knowledge about the phenomenon to be studied decides the
choice of research design. If study requires experimentation, the researcher
should have a clear and thorough knowledge regarding the experimental
method before undertaking an experimental research design.

2. Researcher’s Experience:
Researcher's experience and interest are to be considered while deciding the
design of the study. Selecting a research design that is of interest to the
researcher is essential for maintaining enthusiasm throughout the venture.

3.Availability of Time:
Availability of adequate time for problem identification, its analysis and finally for
interpretation of results plays a vital role in the choice of research design.
4.Availability of Resources:
The selection of research design is determined by the availability of
resources like manpower, money and materials needed for research. The
amount of money intended to be spend on research is determined by the size
and magnitude of the problem selected, sample size, data collection and the
use of qualitative and quantative techniques for research.

5.Availability of Subjects:
The nature of the population, availability of eligible subjects, geographical
distribution of the sample, willingness and cooperation to participate in the
study and the expected response rate from the sample , are the factors to be
considered while choosing the research design.
6.Nature of the phenomenon being Studied: Whether, the phenomenon
to be studied in a naturalistic, or non-naturalistic way, is an important concern
in choosing how to study it.

7.Precision Required: Precision refers to the ability to obtain the most

accurate estimate of a single variable. The research design should allow the
researcher to control many other factors that are known to influence the
variable of interest to maximize the precision of the estimate.

8.Ethical consideration: The choice between an experimental and non-

experimental design must be made, while taking ethics into consideration.
Research design which places unethical demands on the subjects may not be
feasible to study.

9.Degree of Control: An efficient design should maximize results, reduce bias and
control other factors that are known to influence the variables of interest and
• Approaches of research design:
1.Quantitative research and 2.qualitative research
• There is an important distinction between quantitative research and
qualitative research.
• In quantitative research, the information obtained from the participants is
expressed in numerical form.
• Studies in which we record the number of items recalled, reaction times,
• or the number of aggressive acts are all examples of quantitative research.
• In qualitative research,
• on the other hand, the information obtained from participants is not
expressed in numerical form.
• The emphasis is on the stated experiences of the participants and on the
• stated meanings they attach to themselves, to other people, and to their
environment.
• Those carrying out qualitative research sometimes make use of direct
quotations from their participants, arguing that such quotations are often
very informative.
Quantitative research design Qualitative research
1.Experimental:
design
1.1 True experimental
1.2 Quasi experimental
1. Phenomenological
1.3.Pre-experimental
1.1 True experimental:
2. Ethnographic
a. Pretest-posttest control group
b. Posttest control group
3. Grounded theory
c. Solomon four group
1.2 Quasi experimental:
4. Historical
a. Non equivalent control group
b. Time series
5. Case studies
2 .Non-experimental
2.1Survey ( descriptive exploratory,
explanatory, comparative)
2.2Correlation
2.3Comparative
2.4 Methodological
 Quantitative research design:
• It is a blue print for conducting a study that maximizes control over factors which
could interfere with the study’s desired outcome.
• A quantitative research design is used to describe variables, examine relationship
among variables and determine cause and effect relationship between variables.
 Quantitative researcher specify the nature of the investigation, comparisons to be
made, methods to control extraneous variables, timing of data collection, the study
setting and prior information to be given to the participants all before a single piece
of data is gathered.
 Quantitative research design varies along with a number of aspects,

 It is based upon two important features:-

a) Mapping the design:-
 In quantitative research studies like quasi-experimental and experimental,
the design can be mapped to clarify the points at which measurements are
taken and treatments are provided for various groups in the study.
 Symbol “O” is used for an observation or measurement. Several
measurements or observations may be indicated by this symbol. Such as : O
I,

O 2 , O 3 and so on.

 The symbol ‘X’ is used for a treatment.

For example, in a study with two groups, experimental and control who
received a pretest-posttest control group design, the design, could be mapped
as follows:
 Group Pretest Treatment Post-test

Experimental O1
X O2
Control O1 _ O2

 This design map could be used for a quasi-experimental or an experimental

study.

 In the quasi-experimental study, the control group would be called the

“comparison” (or “nonequivalent”) group”.

 Experimental design subjects are randomly selected and then randomly assigned
to groups.

 If the study included several post-tests at monthly intervals, the design could be
mapped as follows:
 Post-test
Group Pretest Treatment 1 month, 2 month, 3 month & 4 month

Experimental OI X1, X2 ,X3 O2 O3 O4 O 5

Control OI _ O2 O3 O4 O 5

 Variations in the design map could be expressed for more than two

groups by adding more rows, for repeated treatments,

 by placing the “X” at each place the treatment is administered, or for
multiple treatments.
 Multiple treatments could be labeled X1, X2, X3, and so on.
b) Cause & effect relationship:
 In quantitative research studies research questions are

based upon “cause and effect”.

 The relationship between two is called causality.
According to causality theory, things have causes and
causes lead to effects and this phenomena is multiply
determined. e.g. weight gain can be effect of consuming too
many calories but other factors can cause weight gain as
well like sedentary work, intake of corticosteroids etc.
 Experimental Research Design

• Experiment:
It is scientific investigation in which observations are
made and data are collected according to a set of well
defined criteria.
• Experimental Design:
It is an objective, systematic, controlled investigation to
examine probability and causality among selected
variables for the purpose of predicting and controlling
phenomena (Burns and Grove, 1993)
 Characteristics of a True Experiment
• A true experiment should posses the following
properties:
1. Manipulation
2. Control
3. Randomization
4. Replication
 Manipulation:
It means doing something to at least some subject, which
is termed as the experimental treatment or intervention.
 The researcher consciously manipulates the
independent variable by the administration of
intervention to subjects and observes the effect on the
dependent variable.
Example: Music as an effective pain relief measure for
cancer patients.
Independent variable (music) is given to some cancer
patients and it is withheld for others.
 Control:

It is the basic element of the experiment. It prevents the effect of the
extraneous variables.

The experimenter introduces controls over the experimental situation,

including devising a good approximation of a counter factual- a group as
a basis of comparison usually a control group that does not receive the
intervention.

Control is obtained by manipulation, by randomization, by protocols

and by control group.

 Control group is the group of subjects who do not receive any

treatment or intervention and their performance is used to evaluate the
performance of experimental group.
Randomization:
1. Randomization is process of selecting the study subjects
randomly i.e. providing equal and unbiased chance for
every unit (subject) of target population to be included
as a study sample and equally assigning them to control
and experimental group at the same time.

2.The overall purpose of random assignment is to

approximate the ideal-but impossible counterfactual
group/groups of having the same people
simultaneously.
Replication:
Replication means the experiment or the study should be
repeated more than once to determine whether similar
findings can be obtained.
 It helps to increase the accuracy of the experiment,
with which the main effects and interactions can be
estimated.
 If the findings generated through replication are
consistent with the original study findings, these findings
are more credible and have potential to be used in practice.
 Steps involved in Experimental Design:

1.Identify the target population.

2.Select the sample randomly from population.
3.Group or pair subjects as experimental and control group by randomly
assigning the subjects.
4.Do pretest and record all characteristics of the groups.
5.Identify and control all intervening variables.
6.Manipulate the independent variable for experimental group and
withhold it for control group.
7.Do post-test for both the groups and record the difference.
8.Compare the change in experimental group with those of control group.
9.Compare the values with statistically computed values to judge the
significance of the difference.
 Types of Experimental Designs:
Experimental designs are classified into :

1.True or classical experimental design

2.Factorial design

3.Randomized block design

4.Quasi or semi experimental design

5.Pre-experimental design.
 1. True experimental Design:

 An experimental design examines cause- and- effect

relationship which involves manipulation or control of
independent variable (cause) and measurement of dependent
variable (effect).

 A basic distinction in quantitative research design between

experimental and non-experimental research is that in an
experiment, researchers are active agents, not passive
observers.

 Experiments answer questions about the effectiveness of

interventions.

 True experimental designs are also referred as randomized

controlled trails (RCT) as there is random assignment of
subjects and they have high level of control.
Symbolic presentation of experimental
research design:
R-Random assignments of subjects to groups

O-Observation or measurement of dependent variable

X-Experiment treatment or intervention

The X and O one-one line apply to a specific group.

The time sequence of events is read from left to right

If an X appear first and them O, this means the intervention occurred first and
than an observation was made.

If a subscript appears after an X or O (X1,X2, oI O2) the number indicate the

first treatment & second treatment, first observation & second observation.
Types of true experimental design
A. Pretest – Posttest control group design (before after
experimental design ).
 In this, subjects are assigned randomly to experimental and control
groups.
 Pretest and posttest are carried out before and after the
manipulation of independent variable in experimental group and
the effect of the treatment is observed in the treatment group and
then compared with control group.
RO1 XO2 (experimental group)
RO1 O2 (Control group)
 The researcher is able to determine if the groups were
equal before the treatment was administered.
 If the groups were not equivalent the post test scores can
be statistically adjusted to allow for the initial difference
between the two groups that were reflected in the pretest
scores.
 The results of the study can only be generalized to
situation in which a pretest would be administered
before the treatment.
 B. Post test only control group design

In the post test only control group design:

Subjects are randomly assigned to groups

The experimental group receives the experimental

treatment and the control group receives the routine
treatment or no treatment.
Only Post test is give to both groups

R X O1 (experimental group)

R O1 (control group)
The post test only control groups design is easier to carry
out and superior to the pretest post test design.
The researcher does not have to be concerned with the
reactive effects of the pretest on the post test. The
generalizability of the results would be more extensive .
Random assignment of subjects into groups in the post test
only control group design ensures equality of the groups.
 The use of a large sample size will increase the effectiveness
of random assignment.
 C. Solomon four group design:
Subjects are randomly assigned to one of the four
groups.
Two of the groups; one experimental group one
and comparison group are pretested
Two of the groups experimental group one and
experimental group two, receive the experimental
treatment,
 whereas two of the groups, comparison group
one and comparison group two, receive the
routine treatment or no treatment.
A post test is given to all four groups.
  R O 1 x O2 (experimental group one)
 R O1 O2 (control group one)
 R x O1 (experimental group two)
 R O1 (control group two)
 The Solomon four groups design is considered to be
the most prestigious and most powerful
experimental design because it minimizes threats to
internal and external validity.
 This design not only controls for all of the threats
to internal validity but also controls for the reactive
effects of the pretest. Any differences between the
experimental treatment.
 Unfortunately this design requires a large sample
and statistical analysis of the data is complicated.
 2.Factorial Design:


It is type of experimental research design in which the experimenter
manipulates only one independent variable.
 It is possible, however, to manipulate two or more variables
simultaneously.
 Suppose we were interested in comparing two therapies for premature
infants: tactile stimulation versus auditory stimulation.
 At the same time we want to learn if the daily amount of stimulation (15,
30, or 45 minutes) affects infant’s progress.
 The dependent variables for the study are measures of infant
development (e.g. weight gain and cardiac responsiveness.
The factorial design allows us to address three
research questions:
Does auditory stimulation have a more
beneficial effect on the development of
premature infants than tactile stimulation, or
vice versa?
Does the duration of stimulation (independent of
type) affect infant development?
Is auditory stimulation most effective when
linked to a certain dose and tactile stimulation
most effective when coupled with a different
dose?
 3.Randomized Block Design
• An experimental research design that looks similar to a factorial design in
structure is the randomized block design.
• In such a design, there are two factors (independent variables), but one
factor is not experimentally manipulated and thus is a stratifying variable.
• If the researcher was interested in comparing the effects of tactile versus
auditory stimulation for gender before randomization.
• The researcher could structure this as 2x2 experiment, with type of
stimulation as one factor and gender as the other.
• Thus the gender as another independent variable , which cannot be
manipulated, is the blocking or stratifying variable.
 4.Quasi-experimental Design:
 A quasi-experimental design is one in which full experimental control and
randomization is not possible.

 It lacks randomization which means that subjects are selected for

experimental and control groups individually in same setting but at
different occasions.

 Quasi-experimental studies usually lack a certain amount of control over

the manipulation of the treatment, management of the setting, or selected
of the subjects.

 When studying human behavior, especially in clinical settings,

researchers are frequently unable to randomly select the subjects or to
manipulate or control certain variables related to the subjects or the
setting.

 Thus nurse researchers conduct more quasi-experimental studies than

experimental studies.

 A quasi-experimental study is almost like a true experiment and far

better than pre-experimental design, as it employs a mean to compare
 It involves selecting groups, upon which a variable is tested
without any random pre selective process.

 It is most frequently used when it is not feasible for the

researcher to use random assignments.

The groups are chosen and assigned out of convenience.

Available subjects are simply entered into the study until the
desired sample size is reached rather than through
randomization.

 It is otherwise known as semi-experimental design.

 Appropriateness of quasi-experimental design:

 Quasi-experimental design is appropriate for situations when :

 Random assignment is not possible.
 The random assignment is unethical or there is funder or
community opposition.
 Random assignment is not feasible.
 Number of participants is too small to fill both the treatment and
control group.
 The treatment is under development.
 Types of quasi-experimental design:
 There are mainly two different designs that fall into the category of quasi-experimental
design:

A. Non equivalent control group design:

B. Time series design:

 A. Non-equivalent control group design:

 In this control & experimental groups are not equivalent as there is no random
assignment of subjects to the experimental and comparison group instead the
matching of the groups is used.

• E.g. .A researcher might choose a group of patients with diabetes on one hospital floor for
the experimental group and a group of patients with diabetes on another hospital floor
for the comparison group while the comparison group would receive no treatment or
some alternative treatment or the two groups i,e the experimental group & control
group will be studied at two different occasions.
 Non-equivalent control group design can be :
 i) Non-equivalent pretest post test control design
(O1 x O2 (experimental group, O1 O2
(comparison group) or
 ii) Non-equivalent post test only control group
design ( x O1 :experimental group) , (O1 :
comparison group)
A. Non equivalent group, pretest-posttest design:
 It is also known as four celled design without use of
randomization.
 In this the experimental and control groups are not equivalent.

 Comparing pretest results of both the groups will indicate

degree of equivalency between experimental and control group.
 The use of control group in this design helps the researcher to
determine whether or not the independent variable made change
in the experimental group.
 B. Non equivalent group, post test only:
In this control and experimental group are not
equivalent.
 It involves finding out the effectiveness of an
intervention, by comparing both the groups, after
intervention to the experimental group.
 The drawback of this design is that, the two groups
might not be same before intervention and may
differ in several ways that influence the intervention.
Such as: learned behavior or previous knowledge of
subject.
C. Time series design:
 In a time series design, the researcher periodically observes or measures
the subjects.
 The experimental treatment is administered between several number of
the observations.
 Several assessments are obtained from a group or groups, before and
after the experimental intervention.
 When it involves several observations of single control & experimental
group it is called single group time series design.
 (Pretest) O1, O2, O3,O4,O5 X (Posttest) O1,O2,O3,O4,O5
(experimental group)
(Pretest) O1, O2, O3,O4,O5 (Posttest) O1, O2,O3, O4,O5( control group)
 When several assessments are made on experimental and control group,
it is called multiple group time series design:
Measures at several points of time prior and subsequent to the program
provides a more reliable picture of achievement by the experimental group after
intervention.
 E.g. Researchers might assess the pain levels of a group of
clients with low back pain.
 After 3 weeks of pain assessment (O1, O2, O3) subjects
could be taught a special exercise to alleviate low back pain.
 During the next three weeks after low back exercise pain
levels would again be measured ( O1, O2, O3).
 The results of this study would help the researcher to
determine if low back pain and if the effectiveness of the
exercise persists or varies .
5.Pre-experimental Design(one group
design)
It is the name applied to the experimental
designs that are considered very weak and in
which researcher has little control over the
research.
• The various pre-experimental designs are:
i) One group posttest design (One shot case study) :
• In one shot case study, a single group is first exposed to an
intervention or treatment and is then observed after receiving
the intervention or treatment .
X (Intervention) O( Post Test)
 The intervention is presumed to cause change in the group.
 The primary goal is to identify whether the intervention had
any effect on the outcome.
 It is of little value as an experiment, as it is impossible to
determine the effect of intervention without a comparison group.
A group of patients with diabetes might attend a diabetic class
(X) and can be tested on their knowledge of diabetes (O) after
the class is completed. This design calls for no comparisons to
be made.
There is no way to determine if the level of knowledge about
diabetes was the result of the class. The clients could have
already possessed this knowledge before the class.
 ii) One group pretest and posttest design:
• A single group is observed before and after the intervention.
 The inclusion of pretest helps to determine the baseline scores for
comparison of the outcome .
 Absence of control group reduces the usefulness of the study.

 The one group pre test post test design provides a comparison between
a group of subjects before and after the experimental treatment.
(Pretest) O1 X (Posttest) O2
 A group of patients with diabetes could be given a pretest of their
knowledge concerning diabetes (O1) this group would then attend a
diabetic class (X) and be post tested (O2) at the end of the class.
 Evaluation of Experimental Research Design:
• The evaluation of experimental research design is based upon
Internal and external validity which helps to assess the adequacy
of research control mechanism and overall research design.
• Internal validity is the degree to which the outcome can be
attributed to the experimental treatment, not to extraneous
factors. It helps to find out the changes made by experimental
treatment on the dependent variable rather than other
extraneous variables.
• External validity refers to the degree to which it can be
generalized that relationships observed in the study hold true
over variations in people, conditions and settings.
 Major Threats to Internal Validity
 Occurrence of events between the first and second
measurement, and which might affect the measurement.
 Changes within the individual, because of passage of time.

 The effect created by pretesting before the experiment.

 Changes in the measuring instrument as a result of passage

of time.
 Personal differences in the subjects.

 Loss of study subjects during the course of study.

Major threats to External validity or Generalizability

 Learned behavior of the subjects by pretesting makes

them unrepresentative population during posttest.
 Hawthorne effect or reactive effect: It refers to the
tendency of the subjects to act differently when they
know they are being studied.
 Novelty effects: It occurs when subjects change their
behavior to a novel treatment.
 Ways to Control factors that Threaten
Validity
Pretest:
Measurement before the experiment helps to control
the experimental variables before the treatment begins.
Control group:
The use of matched or similar group can help to
reduce the effect of various factors.
Randomization:
Random selection procedures can aid in increasing the
generalizability of finding and make the group
representative of the population.
 Non-experimental research design:
Non-experimental research is descriptive in nature in which the
researcher observes, describes and documents characteristics of a
situation as it naturally occurs hence is called observational
study. It is used in situations, when manipulation of independent
variable as well control of study variables is not possible.
• Most nursing studies are non-experimental in design because a
vast number of human characteristics(birth weight, body weight,
ethnicity) inherently cannot be manipulated.
• But It is equally important to obtain the valid study results
through careful selection of study sample and control of
extraneous variables.
• Many research questions cannot be addressed with an
experimental or quasi-experimental design to establish the cause
and effect relationships.
• E,g: . To answer the research question:

• Do birth Wt. under 1.5 Kg. leads to developmental delay in

children?
• Clearly Birth Wt. as an independent variable cannot be
manipulated to find its effect on dependent variable ( i,e
Developmental delay)
• However two groups of infants with birth wt. above and below 1.5
kg. can be observed and compared for subsequent development
Also many variables that could be technically manipulated
cannot be manipulated ethically.
E.g. 1: To find out whether widow-hood reduces health status
among widows .
The widow-hood as independent variable cannot be manipulated
Thus, we can take two groups widows & non-widows as they
naturally occur & compare their health status.
The two groups are likely to differ in terms of many other
characteristics such as age, gender, education, income, No of
children, residence, family support and so on which are to be
controlled if not grouped and generalized.
 Example 2 : If we like to study the effect of pre-natal care on infant
mortality.
 It would be unethical to provide such care to one group of pregnant
women while deliberately depriving a randomly assigned second
group.
 We would need to locate naturally occurring group of pregnant
women who had not received prenatal care.
 Their birth outcomes could then be compared with those of women
who had received prenatal care.
 The two groups of women are likely to differ in terms of many other
characteristics such as age, education & health that could affect
infant mortality of prenatal care.
 Reasons for undertaking Non-experimental studies:

 Many human characteristics cannot be subjected to manipulation.

 Sometimes manipulation of independent variables can cause physical and mental
harm to the subjects.
 Some variables cannot be ethically manipulated.
 Factors like insufficient time, inadequate funds, subject’s inconvenience etc. may
not be practicable to conduct an experiment.
 In some situation, it may be more realistic to explore the phenomena in more
natural manner.
 For developing strong experimental interventions based on sound non-
experimental research which could describe the scope of a problem and explain
the relationship between variables.
Types of non-experimental research
design (Non interventional studies) :
The various types of non-experimental
research design are:
A. Descriptive study design
B. Correlation study design
C. Comparative(analytical ) study design
D. Exploratory study design
 A. Descriptive study design
 Descriptive study design is used to provide a picture of a
situation as it naturally happens.
 It gives more information about characteristics within a
particular field of study.
 It is used when very little is known about a topic or to
initially explore a research question.
 Through descriptive studies, researchers develop
theories, identify problems with current practice.
 Justify current practice, make judgments or determine
what others are doing in similar situations,
 Describe what exists, determine the frequency with
which something occurs, and categorize information.
 The outcome of descriptive research include the
description of concepts, identification of relationships
and development of hypotheses to provide a basis for
future quantitative experimental research.
Types of descriptive study design :

• Survey descriptive study design

•Simple descriptive study design

•Comparative descriptive study design

•Developmental descriptive study design

1.Survey descriptive study design:
 In this type of study data are collected from sample with the purpose of
describing the population on study variables.
 It measures variables by asking people questions and examines relationship
among variables.
 It examines the characteristics, behavior, attitude and intentions of a group.
 Survey descriptive study design can be carried out on a small scale (small
scale survey)called as descriptive case studies or on a large-scale (large-
scale survey)or cross-cultural survey called as cross sectional studies.
 Descriptive case studies involve an intensive exploration of a single unit of
study e,g. a patient, a group, a community, a village, a health centre or an
institution.
 Although the number of subjects in this design tend to be small, but the
number of variables is usually is large.
 Small scale surveys involve non-probability sampling and smaller size
sample.
 In this type of research design all the variables are examined extensively
which might have an impact on the situation being studied.
 Cross sectional studies include i) Large-scale surveys which involve the
whole country e.g. India’s population and ii) Cross-cultural surveys which
usually involve 3 to 6 nations.
 Cross sectional surveys aim at describing and quantifying the study
variables in a study population at one point of time. E,g. prevalence of
HIV, Hepatitis B or C, immunization coverage , behavior or healthy life
style practices of people.
 The survey may be repeated in order to measure the changes in the
characteristics that were studied. Although the surveys may be large but
variables may be limited to avoid problem in analyzing the findings.
 The control exercised by researcher in large surveys lies in probability sampling
technique and large sample size.
 Surveys can be conducted by phone, mail or through personal contact with the
subjects.
 The most common data collection methods used in survey research are
questionnaires and interviews.
 Limitations of survey design :
1. Reactivity: It means the respondents may give socially
desirable response.
2. Sampling frame: It may be lengthy and difficult to locate
adequate number and type of people who are needed to
represent the target population.
3. Non-response rate: Lot of people won’t participate in surveys
or will thus dropout.
4. Measurement errors: Surveys are full of systematic biases
techniques used to collect information : questionnaires and
interviews.
 Advantages:
1. A great deal of information can be obtained from the total

population called census.

2. It reduces unnecessary wastage of time and cost.
3. Quick responses can be obtained from the samples.
4. A large sample represent the target population.
5. Small surveys can reveal interesting associations between certain
variables e,g. Association between tuberculosis and
socioeconomic status, gender, education.
6. Information obtained will be accurate and it is easy to create
data sets.
 Disadvantages:
1.Information obtained tends to be superficial.

2.Confidentiality and privacy issues can occur because

people may provide socially acceptable responses.

3.It is limited to those who have access to technology,

otherwise, it can be time consuming and costlier.

4.Expertise researcher is needed to conduct a survey.

Survey Descriptive studies can be:
a. Cross-sectional survey
b. Longitudinal survey
c.Exploratory survey
d.Explanatory survey
e.Comparative survey
f.Evaluative survey
g.Correlation survey
a. Cross-sectional survey:
It is used to gather information on a population at a single point of time
and are thus known as one shot studies.
• It is designed to study some phenomenon by taking a cross section of it
at one time.
• It is useful in obtaining on overall picture of the population as it
stands at the time of the study.

b. Longitudinal survey:
 Longitudinal surveys are used to gather data over a long period at
several points of time.
The researcher may then analyze the changes in the population and
attempt to describe and explain them.
The major issues of concern are loss of subjects and difficulty in
tracing the subjects, as the study extends over time.
c. Exploratory Survey:
 The researcher can gain knowledge regarding
unknown aspects of a phenomenon, situation or a
problem .
 It acts as a means for the researcher to identify
problems that help to explain why one group of
persons or objects differ from another.
The problem can be investigated from different angles
at the same time which is called triangulation.
d. Explanatory Survey:
It provides causal explanations of a phenomena or situation.
The researcher must be familiar with the literature to identify the
causal relationship specific to the project as it involves hypothesis
testing.

e. Comparative survey:
Comparative surveys are used to describe and examine
differences in variables in two or more groups that occur
naturally in a setting.
f. Evaluative survey:
• It is descriptive in nature, Value judgment is made by
comparing the information collected with the criteria.
• The findings of the study can be measured in terms of
the degree of achievement of the objectives.
g. Correlation survey:
• It relates to multiple variables measured at a single
point of time from the subjects.
• Thereby, enables the researcher to relate to several
variables.
 2.Simple descriptive study design
• It is used to examine and describe the particular phenomenon ,
identify the variables within the phenomenon, and develop
conceptual and operative definitions of the variables.

• Advantages:
1. It saves time and is less expensive.
2. It is used as a preliminary research on a topic.
• Disadvantages:
1. Only limited information is obtained.

2. It does not identify the extent of relationship between the

variables.
 3. Comparative descriptive study design:

This design investigates the relationship of one variable (e,g. mental

stress) with another variable (e,g. Blood pressure) by examining the
difference on the dependent variable between the groups of subjects
that occur naturally in a setting.
The groups used must be similar as possible in all the variables e,g.
income ,occupation, education except the variables under study.
A criteria or standard is needed to compare the groups of selected
variables.
Subjects and instruments are described clearly and accurately.
Advantages:
1.It helps to identify the similarities and dissimilarities of
groups on selected variables.
2.Detailed information about several groups can be
obtained.

Disadvantages:
1.Inferences cannot be made about causation.
2.Unable to determine the degree of association between
the variables.
 4. Developmental descriptive study design:
It is non-experimental research design that only
examines the present status of the variables but also
the pattern of growth or change in the variables over a
period of time.
Developmental descriptive studies can be : cross-
sectional , longitudinal , retrospective and prospective
in design.
Retrospective study design:
 It is a non-experimental study design in which the phenomenon existing in the present is
linked to the phenomenon that had occurred in the past, e,g. it is presumed that the
existing lung cancer in the patient might have occurred due to cigarette smoking by

him in the past. Such studies also are also called Case control studies in which the
investigator compares one group called case group among whom the problem that he
wishes to investigate is present ( lung cancer) with another group called control or
comparison group, where the problem is absent in order to find out what factors have
contributed to the problem.
Prospective study design:
 It is also a non-experimental design in which researcher explores the presumed cause
( cigarette smoking) and then goes forward in time to observe presumed effect (lung
cancer).

 The researcher starts observing the cause in the present and its effect in the future .

Such studies also are also called Cohort studies.

 Types of Developmental descriptive
studies :
Based upon pattern of design, Developmental
descriptive studies can be classified into:

i. Trend studies

ii.Panel studies

iii.Cohort studies
 i)Trend studies

It is longitudinal and retrospective in nature.

 It helps to find out the happenings of the past, present and

future in a population group.
It is useful in forecasting the trends.

Since, trend studies may be conducted over a long period;

it does not necessarily be conducted by one researcher.

 A researcher may combine data from several studies of the

same population in order to show a trend.
Example: A sample of B.Sc, nursing graduates
passed out from a either a particular college or
many different colleges in a state in the year 1999
can be questioned regarding their attitude towards
nursing profession.
If the researcher studies the 2004 batch on the same
topic few years later, in the same college/ colleges it
becomes a trend study.
 ii)Panel studies:
It is also longitudinal and prospective in nature,
 in which the information is collected from the same respondents
over a period of time to ascertain the changes.
The sample of subjects which are used every time is called as a
panel.
 For Example, the researcher would select a sample of 1 year B.Sc
(nursing) graduate students, and ask them questions on library
usage, every year thereafter, the researcher would contact the same
subjects and ask them similar questions to ascertain any changes in
their habits.
 iii) Cohort studies:
It is a longitudinal and prospective in nature and relatively establish casual
relationship.
 In a cohort study a group of individuals that is exposed to a risk factor
e,g. unsafe water source ( study group) is compared to a group of
individuals that is not exposed to a risk factor ( control group). The
researcher follows both the groups overtime and compares the occurrence
of the problem that he expects to be related to the risk factor in the two
groups to determine whether a greater proportion of those with risk factor
are indeed effected with manifestation such as diarrhea.
 The two groups should be same in all characteristics except the variable
under study . The control group should be selected at the same time as the
study group, and both should be followed with the same intensity.
Advantages of Developmental descriptive studies :
 It identifies the changes in variables overtime.
 Depth of information can be obtained.
 It helps to assess the trends in the group, community , phenomenon or
situation.
Disadvantages:
 It is expensive in terms of time, effort and money.
 Loss of subjects may occur which may hinder the study.
 Difficulty in locating prospective subjects.
 Subjects may respond in a socially accept manner to be congruent with
the researcher’s experience.
 Maturational changes may occur.
 B. Correlation Design:
 It studies the systematic investigation of relationships between or among
two or more variables.
 A tendency for variation in one variable can be related to variation in
another variable.
 For example:-Research has shown that an increase in the number of years
of smoking is correlated with a decrease in life span.
 A correlational indicates the extent to which one variable (X) is related to
another variable (Y).
 As X increases, does Y increase or decrease?
 e,g. height and weight of child
 Stress and coping mechanism
 The relationship among variables can be positive, negative or zero.
 A positive relationship or direct relationship, means that as
the value of one variable increases, the value of other variable
increases e.g. height and weight of child.
 A negative relationship or inverse relationship means that
as the value of one variable increases, the value of other
variable decreases e.g. stress and coping strategy.
 Zero relationship: Increase or decrease of value on one
variable will not effect to change in the other variable e.g.
examination and beauty.
A correlative study can be either simple predictive study or multiple
regression study.
a) Simple predictive studies:

The performance of one variable (the predictor) is used to predict

the performance on a second variable (the outcome or criterion)
e.g. effect of kangaroo mother care on neonatal outcome.
b) Multiple regression studies:

It examines the several variables (predictors) to predict the

performance on a single variable (the criterion).e,g. relationship
muscle relaxation therapy with anxiety, fatigue, insomnia , lack of
appetite, and so on .
• The magnitude and direction of the relationship
• between two variables is indicated by a correlational coefficient
(r)
• Correlation Coefficient may be :-
• negative (-ve ) and
• positive ( +ve ) or
• which ranges from -1 (perfect negative correlation) to +1
(perfect positive correlation).
• A correlation coefficient of ‘o’ indicates no relationship
between variables.
• Correlation coefficients will be reported through
• various statistics such as the Pearson’s product moment
correlation and the spearman’s rho.
• Advantages:
– It is used to investigate complex relationship
among the variables.
– Large amount of data can be obtained about a
problem area.
– It stimulates further research.
• Disadvantages:
 Variables of interest occur in its natural setting
and are out of control of researcher.
It is difficult to determine a causal relationship
between the variables because it lacks
manipulation, control and randomization.
 C. Comparative study Design(Analytical studies):
 It is a study design which helps to examine the relationship
between independent and dependent variable in situations
where it is impossible to manipulate the independent variable
by comparing two or more groups, some of which have or
develop the problem and some of which have not.
 The investigator attempts to examine the causes or risk
factors for certain problems within two or more groups that
occur naturally in a setting.
• For example: Obesity is related to increased incidence of
CAD. Here the presumed cause (obesity) is not manipulated;
instead the subjects who are obesed are located to indentify
the effects on heart.
• Descriptive and inferential analysis may be used to examine
differences between or among groups.
• Comparative studies also called ‘Analytical studies’ are
carried out in three designs to investigate possible causes of a
problem such as cross-sectional, case-control and cohort
design.
 The difference in comparative studies and experimental studies
lies in the researcher’s ability to manipulate the independent
variable.
 In comparative studies, there is no manipulation of the
independent variable which is some inherent characteristic of
the subjects, such as personality type, IQ levels or medical
condition.
 This design offers high level of control. Causal relationship
between the variables can be identified.
 However selection of subjects who are similar as possible on all
the characteristics except the independent variable is required.
 4. Other Quantitative Research Designs:
Blind Studies:
In a blind study the study population does not know whether it
is getting real or fake treatment. The goal of this study is to
isolate the placebo effect from the real effect.

Double blind studies:

In this type of study the researcher does not know the
identification of experimental and placebo groups. Likewise
neither the researcher nor the study participants know who is
receiving real and who is receiving fake treatment. Thereby it
tries to eliminate the researcher’s bias.
 Case Studies:
This method involves intensive exploration of a single unit of
study,
 which may be a person, group, institution, process, community
or society.
 The data collected are organized in terms of the case and the
findings are generalized to other cases of similar type.
The subject’s history and previous behavior patterns are
usually explored in detail.
Although the number of subjects tends to be small but the
number of variables involved is large.
Natural Experiments:
It is the study of a group of subjects, who are exposed to a natural
or other cause that have an impact on health or other
consequences is compared with a non-experimental group. e.g,
effect of herbal treatment.

Delphi surveys: It is the technique for obtaining

judgments /opinions from panel of experts about an issue of
concern. The experts who are geographically dispersed are
questioned individually (through mail) in several rounds with a
summary of the panel’s views circulated between rounds, to
achieve some consensus e,g curriculum development.
Methodological research:
 The investigator is concerned with the development,
validation and evaluation of research instruments and
methods. Sometimes nurse investigators use tools
(developed by researchers in other disciplines ) because of
availability rather than appropriateness to measure the
variables of the research study.
Thus Methodological research helps to develop or refine
methods and tools for obtaining, organizing and/or analyzing
the data.
Meta Analysis:
It studies the phenomenon based on the findings of many

separate investigators relating to the same phenomenon. It

studies the results of multiple similar studies addressing the same

research question.

Evaluation research:
It is the applied form of research which helps to find out how
well a program, practice or product is working to assist decision
makers in choosing a course of action.
 Qualitative research Design:
 Qualitative research design is systematic, subjective approach

used to describe the life experiences and give them meaning.

 It focuses on understanding the whole, which is consistent with the

holistic philosophy of nursing(Leininger,1985)

 Within a holistic framework, qualitative research explores the

depth, richness and complexity inherent in phenomena.

 Frameworks are used in a different sense in qualitative research
than they are in quantitative research because the goal is not
testing hypothesis but gaining the insight and understanding
about the individuals perception of events.
 The data from qualitative studies are subjective and
incorporate perceptions and beliefs of the researcher
and participants.
The findings from qualitative studies lead to
understanding of a phenomenon in particular
situation.
The insight from qualitative studies can guide nursing
practice and aid in the important process of theory
development for building knowledge.

 Features of qualitative research design:
1. The variables are studied as it exists in the real world.

2. It is flexible elastic and strives for an understanding of

the whole phenomena.

3. Elucidation of complete nature of a particular

phenomenon occurs.

4. It merges together various methodologies.

Comparison between qualitative & quantitative research design
Qualitative research design
1. It employs unstructured, flexible or
open methodology.
2. It determines the nature of
phenomenon, situation or a problem
as it naturally occurs.
3. It allows flexibility in all aspects of
research process, design, sampling,
data collection, analysis,
communication of findings.
4. The researcher is not primarily
interested in measuring the variables
but is rather interested in identifying
variable that would help him to
explain the problem.
Quantitative research design
1.It employs structured, rigid or pre-
determined methodology.
2. It determines the effect of one variable
over another variable which may or
may not be manipulated in controlled
or uncontrolled setting.
3.Researcher specifies nature of
intervention, comparison to be made,
methods to control extraneous
variables, data collecting time, setting
and all before the data is collected.
4. Problem is assessed by measuring the
number of variables and relationship
among variables.
Phases of qualitative research design:
According to Lincoln and Cuba there are three phases of
qualitative studies:
1. Orientation and overview
2. Focused exploration
3. Confirmation and closure
1.Orientation and overview:
 In this phase the researchers try to find out the various
aspects of the phenomenon under study.
 Not knowing about a phenomenon drives the inquiry of
researcher to go ahead and find out the various aspects of
the phenomenon under study .
2.Focused Exploration:
It is the more focused and in-depth scrutiny of those
aspects of the phenomenon that are judged to be
important.

3.Confirmation and closure:

After obtaining a trustworthy findings, the researcher
discusses the understanding with the study
participants.
Types of Qualitative Research Design

1. Phenomenological studies

2. Ethnographic studies

3.Grounded theory studies

4. Historical studies

5.Case studies
 1. Phenomenological studies:
 Phenomenological research studies include study of phenomena
which are abstract concepts used by researchers in lieu of the
term variable.
 Phenomenology, rooted in a philosophical tradition was
developed by Husserl & Heidegger . It is an approach used for
exploring and understanding people’s everyday life experiences
through the descriptions that are provided by the people
involved.
 These experiences are called “lived experiences.”
 Phenomenological researchers ask: what is the essence of this
phenomenon as experienced by these people and what does it
mean? Essence is what makes a phenomenon what is it and
without which it would not be what is it.
 This approach is especially useful when a phenomenon has
been poorly defined or conceptualized.
 Phenomenologists believe that living experience gives meaning
to each person’s perception of a particular phenomenon.

 Four aspects of lived experience that are of concern to

Phenomenologists are: i)Spatiality (lived space);

ii)Corporeality (lived body) iii)Temporality (lived time)

and iv)Relationality (lived human relation)
 Phenomenologists view human existence as meaningful and
interesting because of people’s consciousness of that
existence.
 The word Embodiment (being in the world) is the concept

that acknowledge people’s physical ties to their world-

they think, see, hear, feel and are conscious through their
bodies' interaction with the world.
 Topics appropriate to study is fundamental to the life

experiences of humans-e.g., meaning of suffering,

domestic violence and quality of life.

 Phenomenologists explore the subjective feelings as they
believe that critical truth about the reality is grounded in

people’s lived experiences.

 1n Phenomenological studies , the main data source typically is

in-depth conversations with informants other than the

participants as co-participants.
 In order to understand the lived experience from the subject,
researcher first identifies what she or he expects to discover
and then deliberately puts aside this idea.

 This process is called “bracketing.” This explicits the

researcher’s own personal biases and beliefs.

 Data collection and analysis is occurring simultaneously as
understanding of the data occur, new questions emerge.
 Example of a phenomenological study:

Fu (2005) used phenomenological methods to

describe the experience of managing lymph edema in
breast cancer survivors. Data were collected in three
interviews with 12 women who described how they
managed lymphedema in their daily lives.
 2.Ethnographic studies:
 Ethnographic research was developed by anthropologists as a mechanism
for studying primitive, foreign or remote cultures, originated as research
methodology for anthropology & used in other disciplines.
 The word “Ethnographic” means “Portrait” i,e. picture and likeness of
people, which is reflected in people’s physical appearance, language,
dress, food, habits, thoughts, actions sentiments and a number of
accumulated traditions and customs.
 It is qualitative inquiry which involves description and interpretation of
culture of a group of people.
 It provides a means to understand people, including their ways of living,
believing and adapting to changing environmental circumstances.
  Culture is both material & nonmaterial. Material culture
consists of all created objects associated with a given group.
 Nonmaterial culture includes network of symbols, beliefs,
social customs social interaction that cannot be touched or
stored.
In ethnographic research, the researcher frequently lives with
the people and becomes a part of their culture.
The researcher explores their symbols, rituals and customs from
the people
An entire cultural group may be studied or a sub group in the
culture.
The term culture can be used in the broad sense to mean an
entire tribe of Indians, or in a more narrow sense to mean, nursing
care unit such as hospital unit.
• Ethnographers interview people who are most knowledgeable
about the culture.
• These people are some times called “key informants”.

• Data are collected through participant observations, interviews,

socio-demography and life histories.
• The end purpose of ethnography is the development of “cultural
theories”.
• There are two basic approaches in anthropology: “emic and
ectic.” The emic approach involves studying the behaviors from
within the culture and the ectic approach involves studying the
behaviors from outside the culture and examining the similarities
& dissimilarities across the cultures.
• It provides access to health beliefs and health practices of a
culture and subculture. Thus, helps to identify behaviors
affecting health and illness.
• It is used in nursing not only to increase ethnic cultural
awareness but also to enhance the quality of health care of
persons of all cultures.
• The nurse can examine health from the point of view of health
care consumers, rather than from the perspective of health care
providers.
• Leininger’s theory of transcultural nursing(1985) has been
developed on Ethnonursing research which focuses on
observing & documenting interactions with people of how these
daily life conditions and patterns are influencing human care ,
health & nursing care practices.
 3. Grounded theory studies
Grounded theory was formulated in the 1960s as a
systematic method of qualitative inquiry by two sociologists,
Glaser and Strauss (1967), was emerged from discipline of
sociology.

Grounded theory studies are those in which data are

collected and analysed and then a theory is developed that is
grounded in the data. The term grounded means that the
theory that developed the research has its roots in the data
from which it was derived.
It has contributed to the development of many
middle range theories of phenomenon relevant to
nursing.

It is to understand the actions by focusing on the

main concern or problem that the individuals’
behavior is designed to resolve.

In grounded theory, both the research problem

and the process used to resolve it are discovered
during the study.
 Conceptualization is a key aspect of grounded theory.

 Grounded theory represents an abstraction based on

participants’ actions and their meanings
 Grounded theory is viewed as an interpretation

• The data collected and analyzed are acknowledged to be

constructed from shared experiences and relationships between
as researcher and the participants
• Reflexion of both the researcher’s own interpretations and the
interpretations of the participants are important.
• Data and analysis are viewed as social constructions.
Example of a grounded theory

Kean (2010) used grounded theory method to

explore the experience of families of brain-injured
ICU patients. Data from nine family interviewing
revealed that “ambiguous loss” reflect the loss of a
family member who is physically present but
psychologically absent.
4. Historical studies:
It is systematic collection, evaluation and
interpretation of data relating to past
occurrences.
Historical researches are usually
qualitative, but quantitative data are some
times used(e.g. historical census data).
It can take different forms as:
Biographical histories: This focuses on experiences and
contributions of the individuals.
Social Histories: which focuses on, understanding prevailing values
and beliefs on a particular period.
Intellectual Histories: This focuses on historical ideas and ways of
thinking.
Steps of Historical Research:
There are three steps:
Collection of data
Evaluation of data
Analysis and interpretation of data.
 Collection of Data:
Collecting material for historical research may be a difficult task.
 The materials which can be used to obtain data in historical
research are:

Written Materials:

- letters, diaries, notes, newspapers and

- minutes of meetings, medical or legal documents.

Non written materials:

-physical materials (physical remains and objects),

-visual materials (photographs, films, CD’s) and

- audio materials (records and tapes).

 SOURCES OF DATA COLLECTION

• The sources from where the data can be obtained can be classified
as primary or secondary source.
• The sources from which the first hand information can be
obtained are known as primary source,
• which includes original documents or relics .

• The second and third hand accounts of historical events and

experiences are known as secondary source.
• Sources like textbooks and newspaper articles are known as
secondary sources.
 Evaluation of data:

The authencity of the data need to be assessed, before

it is subjected to analysis.
Therefore, it has to undergo internal and external
criticism.
 The process of evaluating the content and its
evidences is known as internal criticism.
 The external criticism refers to data’s authencity.
It deals with the form of data rather than its content.
 Analysis and interpretation of data:

Data analysis and interpretation are ongoing in

historical research.

Within the selected framework, researchers concentrate

on particular issues present in the data.

Try to describe what happened, how and why

happened.
END