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As of April 2013, only the United States NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS)
and the Russian GLONASS are global operational GNSSs. China is in the process of expanding
its regional Beidou navigation system into the global Compass navigation system by 2020. The
European Union's Galileo positioning system is a GNSS in initial deployment phase, scheduled
to be fully operational by 2020 at the earliest. France, India and Japan are in the process of
developing regional navigation systems.
Global coverage for each system is generally achieved by a satellite constellation of 20–
30medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites spread between several orbital planes. The actual
systems vary, but use orbital inclinations of >50° and orbital periods of roughly twelve hours (at
an altitude of about 20,000 kilometers (12,000 mi)).
A DTH service provider has to lease Ku-band transponders from the satellite. The
encoder converts the audio, video and data signals into the digital format and the multiplexer
mixes these signals. At the user end, there will be a small dish antenna and set-top boxes to
decode and view numerous channels. On the user's end, receiving dishes can be as small as 45
cm in diameter.
DTH is an encrypted transmission that travels to the consumer directly through a satellite.
DTH transmission is received directly by the consumer at his end through the small dish
antenna. A set-top box, unlike the regular cable connection, decodes the encrypted transmission.
The way DTH reaches a consumer's home is different from the way cable TV does. In
DTH, TV channels would be transmitted from the satellite to a small dish antenna mounted on
DTH can also reach the remotest of areas since it does away with the intermediate step of
a cable operator and the wires (cables) that come from the cable operator to your house. As we
explained above, in DTH signals directly come from the satellite to your DTH dish.
There are four serious contenders for DTH services in India: Doordarshan, Star, Zee, and
Data Access.
DTH offers better quality picture than cable TV. This is because cable TV in India is
analog. Despite digital transmission and reception, the cable transmission is still analog. DTH
offers stereophonic sound effects. It can also reach remote areas where terrestrial transmission
and cable TV have failed to penetrate. Apart from enhanced picture quality, DTH has also
allows for interactive TV services such as movie-on-demand, Internet access, video
conferencing and e-mail. But the thing that DTH has going for it is that the powerful
broadcasting companies like Star, Zee, etc are pushing for it.
In DTH, the payments will be made directly by the subscriber to the satellite company
offering the service.
DTH where broadcasters directly connect to consumers and can actually grow revenues
with a growth in the subscriber base also reaping the benefits of more attractive tariffs.
DTH be cheaper than cable or more expensive and it will be definitely more expensive than
cable as it exists today.
A Duo LNB is a double low-noise block down converter (LNB) developed by SES for
the simultaneous reception of satellite television signals from both the Astra 23.5°Eand Astra
19.2°E satellite positions.
It is a monoblock LNB, which comprises two feed horns with a single body of electronics
containing the LNB stages along with switching circuitry to select which received signal is
passed to the output(s).
Availability
A Duo LNB can be purchased in most parts of Europe but it is particularly marketed to
Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and the Czech and Slovak Republics.
Duo LNBs operate as universal LNBs and are manufactured under various brand names, such
as Maximum and Invert, in single, twin-output and quad-output versions – with one, two and
four outputs (independently selectable for polarization and frequency band), respectively, for
one, two or four receivers/tuners. The Duo LNB is available in two versions - the original Duo
LNB for dishes of 80 cm or 85 cm diameter and the Duo LNB II for dishes of 60 cm.
Background
The Astra 23.5°E orbital position was established as a major source of direct-to-
home (DTH) broadcasts for central and western Europe with the launch of Astra 3A at the end
of 2007, and some channels moved there from other satellite positions (in particular 19.2° east)
DEPARTMENT OF E&C Page 4
so viewers, who were unable to erect two dishes to receive transmissions from both positions,
had to choose between them.The Duo LNB was introduced to enable a single satellite dish to be
used to receive all the channels from 19.2° east and 23.5° east.
The ASTRA2Connect satellite internet service also operates from 23.5° east.
In May 2010 the Astra 3B satellite was launched to the Astra 23.5° east position to release
the Astra 1E and Astra 1Gsatellites previously in that position for use at other orbital positions.
Technology
The basic technology behind the Duo LNB is not new. It takes advantage of the fact that
signals hitting a dish off-axis will be focused (albeit with some diffusion) off axis in the
opposite direction. So, with the dish aligned so that the central LNB is receiving one satellite, a
secondary offset LNB can be aligned on the focus of a second satellite spaced away from the
first.
This effect has been exploited for many years to receive signals from two satellites at
once with a single dish, and two LNBs have been most commonly arranged on a dish in this
way for reception of Astra 19.2°E and the Hot Bird satellites at 13° east, primarily for the
abundance of TV channels from 19.2° east, and some additional channels (especially adult
channels) from 13° east.
Installation
The Duo LNB is normally fitted with the feed horn for Astra 23.5°E mounted on the
dish's feed arm, and the 19.2°E feed horn sticking out to the right - as viewed standing in front
of the dish, with the satellites behind you. The Astra 23.5°E feed horn is identified with a "23.5"
marking on the casing. The dish is then aligned on the 23.5°E position, using a signal strength
meter, in the normal way.
The tilt angle for the Duo LNB at the receive site location may be found in maps or city
tables (a scale is marked on the LNB casing) or found by adjustment with a signal meter
connected. By setting the correct tilt angle and aligning the whole dish in azimuth and
elevation, the two feed horns of the LNB are optimally aligned for both orbital positions.
DTH RECIEVERS
Principle of operation
The parabolic shape of a dish reflects the signal to the dish’s focal point. Mounted on
brackets at the dish's focal point is a device called a feed horn. This feed horn is essentially the
front-end of a waveguide that gathers the signals at or near the focal point and 'conducts' them
to a low-noise block down converter or LNB.
The LNB converts the signals from electromagnetic or radio waves to electrical signals
and shifts the signals from the down linked C-band and/or K u-band to the L-band range. Direct
DEPARTMENT OF E&C Page 6
broadcast satellite dishes use an LNBF, which integrates the feed horn with the LNB. (A new
form of Omni directional satellite antenna, which does not use a directed parabolic dish and can
be used on a mobile platform such as a vehicle was announced by the University of Waterloo in
2004.
Modern dishes intended for home television use are generally 43 cm (18 in) to 80 cm
(31 in) in diameter, and are fixed in one position, for Ku-band reception from one orbital
position. Prior to the existence of direct broadcast satellite services, home users would generally
have a motorized C-band dish of up to 3 metres in diameter for reception of channels from
different satellites. Overly small dishes can still cause problems, however, including rain
fade and interference from adjacent satellites.
Systems design
In a single receiver residential installation there is a single coaxial cable running from the
receiver set-top box in the building to the LNB on the dish. The DC electric power for the LNB
is provided through the same coaxial cable conductors that carry the signal to the receiver. In
addition, control signals are also transmitted from the receiver to the LNB through the cable.
The receiver uses different power supply voltages (13/18V) to select antenna
polarization, and pilot tones (22 kHz) to instruct the LNB to select one of the two frequency
bands. In larger installations each band and polarization is given its own cable, so there are 4
cables from the LNB to a switching matrix, which allows the connection of multiple receivers
in a star topology using the same signaling method as in a single receiver installation.
Types--Motor-driven dish
A dish that is mounted on a pole and driven by a stepper motor or a servo can be
controlled and rotated to face any satellite position in the sky. Motor-driven dishes are popular
with enthusiasts. There are three competing standards: DiSEqC,USALS, and 36v positioners.
Many receivers support all of these standards.
DEPARTMENT OF E&C Page 7
Multi-satellite
Some designs enable simultaneous reception from multiple different satellite positions
without re-positioning the dish. The vertical axis operates as an off-axis concave parabolic
concave hyperbolic CASs grain reflector, while the horizontal axis operates as a concave
convex Casse grain. The spot from the main dish wanders across the secondary, which corrects
astigmatism by its varying curvature. The elliptic aperture of the primary is designed to fit the
deformed illumination by the horns. Due to double spill-over, this makes more sense for a large
dish.
Vsat
A common type of dish is the very small aperture terminal (VSAT). This provides two
way satellite internet communications for both consumers and private networks for
organizations. Today most VSATs operate in Ku band; C band is restricted to less populated
regions of the world. There is a move which started in 2005 towards new Ka band satellites
operating at higher frequencies, offering greater performance at lower cost.
The different chlorophyll and non-chlorophyll pigments associated with the photo
systems all have different absorption spectra, either because the spectra of the different
chlorophyll pigments are modified by their local protein environment or because the accessory
pigments have intrinsic structural differences. The result is that, in vivo, a composite absorption
spectrum of all these pigments is broadened and flattened such that a wider range
of visible and infrared radiation is absorbed by plants and algae. Most photosynthetic organisms
do not absorb green light well, thus most remaining light under leaf canopies in forests or under
water with abundant plankton is green, a spectral effect called the "green window". Organisms
such as some cyano bacteria and red algae contain accessory phycobili proteins that absorb
green light reaching these habitats.
In aquatic ecosystems, it is likely that the absorption spectrum of water, along with given
and trip ton (dissolved and particulate organic matter, respectively),
determines phototrophic niche differentiation. The six shoulders in the light absorption of water
between wavelengths 400 and 1100 nm correspond to troughs in the collective absorption of at
least twenty diverse species of phototrophic bacteria. Another effect is due to the overall trend
DEPARTMENT OF E&C Page 9
for water to absorb low frequencies, while given and tripton absorb higher ones. This is why
open ocean appears blue and supports yellow species such as Prochlorococcus, which contains
divined-chlorophyll a and b. Synechococcus, colored red with phy coerythrin, is adapted to
coastal bodies, while phycocyanin allows Cyano bacteria to thrive in darker inland waters
Barcode and RFID identification can be used to identify work items in process flow.
For locating the products additional requirements must be considered to ensure not only
presence of work items, but also knowledge of the whereabouts of these items. This is a
mandatory condition in flexible production lines with paralleled work positions for single steps
of production.
3. the Costs-To-Date,
4. the Billed-To-Date.
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UNIT-2
Without single cable distribution, providing full spectrum access for multiple receivers, or
receivers with multiple tuners, in a single family home has required a separate coaxial cable
DEPARTMENT OF E&C Page 11
feeding each tuner from the antenna equipment (either multiple LNBs, a multi-output LNB or a
multi switch distribution system) because of the large bandwidth requirement of the signals.
Single cable distribution technology enables one coaxial cable from the antenna
equipment to multiple tuners, to provide independent tuning across the whole range of satellite
reception for each tuner.
A European industry standard for distributing satellite signals over a single coaxial cable
- CENELEC EN50494 - has been defined in 2007and developed by a consortium led by SES.
Single cable distribution technology can be found in commercial equipment with the
Unicable trademark from FTA Communications Technologies. Uni cable uses an integrated
software and hardware solution that allows Uni cable-certified Digital Video Recorders and
receivers to multiplex selected programming when using Uni cable LNB or multi switching
products.
How it works
The converted transponders of the various users are then combined, and sent via the
single coaxial cable to the receivers. The combined signal is tapped or split to reach every user.
Equipment
Special LNBs have been developed for use in single cable distribution systems. All four
sub-bands of the Ku band (low frequency/horizontal polarity, high frequency/horizontal
polarity, low frequency/vertical polarity, high frequency/vertical polarity) are received by a
conventional front end, amplified and down converted to the L-band, to be fed to a number of
Single Cable Router (SCR) chips – one for each user that can be connected - to further down
convert the required section of the received spectrum to centre on the user band IF frequency.
The LNB further includes a mixer to combine the user bands together and a
microcontroller to receive the instructions as to which frequency is required by each user and
control the SCR chips.
Alternatively, a single cable distribution system can use a conventional LNB feeding the
four sub-bands to a separate SCR device, as a substitute for a traditional multi switch, that needs
a dedicated coaxial cable for every receiver (or tuner) connected.
An alternative approach to that provided by single cable distribution of the signal from a
single LNB to multiple receivers, or receivers with multiple tuners, is offered by the use of fiber
satellite distribution using optical fiber. The high bandwidth of optical connections allows for
the full satellite spectrum received at the dish to be accommodated on one fiber optic cable,
which can be easily optically split to provide that full spectrum signal to a large number of
receivers.
Conventional systems that distribute the electrical satellite IF signal via a star network
of coaxial cable require one relatively short cable run from the central distribution equipment to
each tuner connected to the system, whereas in a fiber system, cables can be very long, and split
at successive locations, in a tree structure without detriment to the reception.
Advantages
The primary benefit of using optical fiber for a satellite TV IF distribution system is that
the fiber can carry the entire received spectrum on one cable, which can then be split to provide
Fiber cable is cheap in long runs, retailing at about twice the price of equivalent copper
coaxial cable, but replacing four runs of coaxial cable with a single fiber cable. It is also much
smaller than the coaxial signal cable used for electrical IF distribution, but robust and flexible.
The losses in a fiber system are almost negligible so very long cable runs of hundreds of meters
are possible without any signal reinforcement.
Development
An eight-way optical signal splitter to feed eight virtual LNBs or further splitters from a
single optical feed.While optical fiber has been used for telephone and Internet backbone
data, and even for television and multimedia carriage for terrestrial cable, for many years, use
for satellite IF distribution has been held back by considerations of cost and installation
convenience.
How it works
Which sub-band is required is signaled from the receiver to the antenna’s LNB by a
13/18V and 0/22 kHz tone on the LNB supply sent up the same coaxial cable. In a single
antenna distribution system, special Quattro LNB supplies all four sub-bands at once, from four
outputs and these are supplied as required to each of the multiple outlets connected to an
IF multiswitch
An optical fiber system “stacks” the four sub-bands in frequency, one above the other, at
the LNB, in the range 0.95 GHz-5.45 GHz (a bandwidth of 4500 MHz) and transmits them
together as a modulated optical signal down the fiber cable using a 1310 nm semiconductor
laser.
The losses in the cable are extremely small (in the region of 0.3dB/km) and the Global
Invacom optical LNB output can be split up to 32 ways with a cable length of up to 10 km
between the LNB and the receiver.
The LNB is a combination of low-noise amplifier, frequency mixer, local oscillator and
IF amplifier. It receives the microwave signal from the satellite collected by the dish, amplifies
it, and down converts the block of frequencies to a lower block of intermediate frequencies (IF).
This down conversion allows the signal to be carried to the indoor satellite TV receiver using
relatively cheap coaxial cable; if the signal remained at its original microwave frequency it
would require an expensive and impractical waveguide line.
The LNB is usually a small box suspended on one or more short booms, or feed arms, in
front of the dish reflector, at its focus (although some dish designs have the LNB on or behind
the reflector). The microwave signal from the dish is picked up by a feed horn on the LNB and
is fed to a section of waveguide. One or more metal pins, or probes, protrude into the
waveguide at right angles to the axis and act as antennas, feeding the signal to a PCB inside the
LNB's shielded box for processing. The lower frequency IF output signal emerges from a socket
on the box to which the coaxial cable connects.
LNBF disassembled (All Parts). The waveguide carrying the microwave radio signal
collected by the dish passes through the hole in the center. The pins visible at the top and left
a low-noise block down converter. fig(a). the pin and the horn antenna in a converter. fig(b)
The LNB gets its power from the receiver or set-top box inside the house. This
phantom is sent "up" the same coaxial cable that carries the received signals "down" to the
receiver, eliminating the need for a separate power cable.
The signal received by the LNB is extremely weak and it has to be amplified before down
conversion. The low noise amplifier section of the LNB amplifies this weak signal while adding
the minimum possible amount of noise to the signal.
The low-noise quality of an LNB is expressed as the noise figure (or sometimes noise).
This is the ratio of the amount of noise in the output to the amount in the input, in decibels (dB).
Every LNB off the production line has a different noise figure because of manufacturing
tolerances.
The purpose of the LNB is to use the super heterodyne principle to take a block (or band)
of relatively high frequencies and convert them to similar signals carried at a much lower
frequency (called the intermediate frequency or IF). These lower frequencies travel through
cables with much less attenuation, so there is much more signal left at the satellite receiver end
of the cable. It is also much easier and cheaper to design electronic circuits to operate at these
lower frequencies, rather than the very high frequencies of satellite transmission.
LNBFs
Polarization
Throughout the World, most satellite TV transmissions use vertical and horizontal linear
polarization but in North America,DBS transmissions use left and right hand circular
polarization. Within the waveguide of a North American DBS LNB a slab of dielectric material
is used to convert left and right circular polarized signals to vertical and horizontal linear
polarized signals so the converted signals can be treated the same.
The probe inside the LNB waveguide collects signals that are polarized in the same plane
as the probe. To maximize the strength of the wanted signals (and to minimize reception of
unwanted signals of the opposite polarization), the probe is aligned with the polarization of the
incoming signals.
This is most simply achieved by adjusting the LNB's skew - its rotation about the
waveguide axis. To remotely select between the two polarizations, and to compensate for
inaccuracies of the skew angle, it used to be common to fit a polarizer in front of the LNB's
waveguide mouth. This either rotated the incoming signal with an electromagnet around the
waveguide (a magnetic polarizer) or rotated an intermediate probe within the waveguide using a
servo motor (a mechanical polarizer) but such adjustable skew polarizer’s are rarely used today.
Standards
In general, digital television, including that transmitted via satellites, is generally based
on open standards such as Megan DVB-S or ISDB-S.
Direct broadcast satellite, (DBS) also known as "Direct-To-Home" can either refer to the
communications satellites themselves that deliver DBS service or the actual television service.
DBS systems are commonly referred to as "mini-dish" systems. DBS uses the upper portion of
the Ku band, as well as portions of the Ka band.
Modified DBS systems can also run on C-band satellites and have been used by some networks
in the past to get around legislation by some countries against reception of K u-band
transmissions.
Television receive-only
The term Television receive-only, or TVRO, arose during the early days of satellite
television reception to differentiate it from commercial satellite television uplink and downlink
operations (transmit and receive). This was before there was a DTH satellite television
broadcast industry. Satellite television channels at that time were intended to be used by cable
television networks rather than received by home viewers. Satellite television receiver systems
were largely constructed by hobbyists and engineers.
TVRO systems are designed to receive analog and digital satellite feeds of both television
or audio from both C-band and Ku-band transponders on FSS-type satellites. The higher
frequency Ku-band systems tend to be Direct To Home systems and can use a smaller dish
antenna because of the higher power transmissions and greater antenna gain.
Programming sources are simply the channels that provide television programming for
broadcast. The provider (the DTH platform) does not create original programming itself. The
broadcast center is the central hub of the system. At the broadcast center, the television provider
receives signals from various programming sources, compresses these signals using
digital video compression (encryption if necessary), and sends a broadcast signal to the proper
satellite.
A telephone plug is a type of connector used to connect a telephone set to the telephone
wiring inside a building, establishing a connection to a telephone network. It is inserted into its
counterpart, a telephone jack, commonly affixed to a wall or baseboard. The standard for
telephone plugs varies from country to country, though the RJ11 modular connector has become
by far the most common.
A connection standard, such as RJ11, specifies not only the physical aspects of an
electrical connector, but also the pin out, i.e. the assignment or function of each
contact. Modular connectors are specified for the Registered Jack (RJ) series of connectors, as
well as for Ethernet and other connectors, such as 4P4C (4 position, 4 contacts) modular
Historically the telephone was typically owned by the telephone company and
permanently wired to the telephone line they supplied, but as phone markets were deregulated a
need arose for a simple plug-in interface that consumers could install. Many countries initially
used different specifications for connectors. For example, after 1965 Bell System companies
used the 505A plug, a round connector about 40 mm in diameter with four prongs about 15 mm
apart. National connectors remain in service but few are used for new installations.
Connections
The installation of a conventional wired telephone set has four connection points, each of
which may be hardwired, but more often use a plug and socket:
telephone line to phone cord: The wall jack. This connection is the most standardized,
and often regulated as the boundary between an individual's telephone and the telephone
network. In many residences, though, the boundary between utility-owned and household-
owned cabling is a network interface on an outside wall; all wall jacks in the home are part
of the household's internal wiring.
Handset cord to handset: The handset end of the straight-through handset cord also uses
a 4P4C connector.
Some of these may be absent: Wired telephones may not have a separate base and
handset. The defining characteristic of wireless telephones is that they do not have a handset
cord, and the defining characteristic of mobile telephones is that they do not have a phone cord.
Wiring
A standard specifies both a physical connector and how it is wired. Sometimes the same
connector is used by different countries but wired in different ways.
For example, telephone cables in the UK typically have a BS 6312 (UK standard) plug at the
wall end and a 6P4C or 6P2C modular connector at the telephone end: this latter may be wired
as per the RJ11 standard (with pins 3 and 4), or it may be wired with pins 2 and 5, as a straight
through cable from the BT plug (which uses pins 2 and 5 for the line, unlike RJ11, which uses
pins 3 and 4).
Other connectors
50-pin miniature ribbon connector for RJ21X, used for up to 25 lines for multiline phones
such as the ITT 2564, key telephone systems such as the 1A2 Key System, and PBX systems.
Traditionally, the 5th plastic pin disconnects 1 μF capacitor that shorts telephone line
while plug is not inserted into socket. In modern makes it does nothing electrical, and capacitor
compartment was reused for additional RJ11 socket.
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UNIT III
SITE SURVEY:
In hydrocarbon exploration, for example, site surveys are run over the proposed locations
of offshore exploration or appraisal wells.[5] They consist typically of a tight grid of high
resolution (high frequency) reflection seismology profiles to look for possible gas hazards in the
shallow section beneath the seabed and detailed bathymetric data to look for possible obstacles
on the seafloor (e.g. shipwrecks, existing pipelines) using multiband echo sounders
Even a small 18 inch dish can excerpt a lot of force on a dish mast. The mast must be
secured to withstand years of wind loading. A dish mast installed on a traditional wood framed
structure should be secured with 6 lag screws. Two in the center secured into a wall stud or roof
rafter, and four secured in the corners of the mount.
When a solid wood beam or post is available, four lag screws on the corners are usually
sufficient. When mounting to brick or concrete, four corner anchors are sufficient. Masts should
not be attached with wood, sheet rock or sheet metal screws.
Only lag screws at least 5/16" in diameter should be used and they should be long enough
to set at least 2 inches into solid wood. At least two lag screws in the middle of the mount
should be set into a wall stud of roof rafter. 1/4" inch diameter lag screws should never be used,
they can loosen over a few years resulting in a loss of picture with wind.
Some form of sealant should be used on all wall / roof mast installations. The only
exception would be if the mounting service was treated wood. An appropriate sealant for the
This particular install was only 6 months old and was already loose.
The sealant is placed between the siding and the mount. Excess sealant is removed. This
particular sealant will dry clear. Notice the 6 -5/16" lag screws securing the mount to the wall.
Ground post should always be metal pipe. Wood post not secured at both ends can twist
as they cure and with seasonal changes. The dish in image 8 had to be realigned after 6 months.
The wood post twisted enough to lower the signal level to the mid 40's. The dish in image 9 will
never need to be aligned due to mast movement. All ground post should be set in concrete. A
pin should also be inserted through the pipe to eliminate the chance of the pipe turning in the
concrete. All ground post installs are not considered part of a basic or standard installation.
Additional installation fees will be required. Never allow your installer to simply pound the
pipe into the ground. It must be in concrete or a special pole designed for a cement-less
installation.
Uses
Brackets can support many architectural items, including a wall, balcony, parapets, eaves,
the spring of an arch, beams, pergola roof, window box, or a shelf. In adjustable
shelving systems, the bracket may be in two parts, with the load-bearing horizontal support
fitting into a wall-mounted slotted vertical metal strip. Brackets also are an element in the
systems used to mount modern facade cladding systems onto the outside of contemporary
buildings, as well as interior panels.
Architectural sculptures
Brackets are often in the form of architectural sculptures with reliefs of objects and
scrolls. Depending on their material, decorated ones can be carved, cast, or molded. They can
be of cast stone or resin-foam materials with faux finishes for use on new buildings in historic
revival styles of architecture. Some brackets and corbels are only ornamental, and serve no
actual supporting purpose.
An example is the position of a star in the sky. The star is the point of interest, the
reference plane is the horizon or the surface of the sea, and the reference vector points north.
The azimuth is the angle between the north vector and the perpendicular projection of the star
down onto the horizon. Azimuth is usually measured in degrees (°). The concept is used
in navigation, astronomy, engineering, mapping, mining and artillery.
Today the reference plane for an azimuth is typically true north, measured as a 0°
azimuth, though other angular units (grad, mil) can be used. Moving clockwise on a 360 degree
circle, east has azimuth 90°, south 180°, and west 270°. There are exceptions: some navigation
systems use south as the reference plane. Any direction can be the plane of reference, as long as
it is clearly defined.
Quite commonly, azimuths or compass bearings are stated in a system in which either
north or south can be the zero, or the angle may be measured clockwise or anticlockwise from
the zero.
From North
North 0° or 360° South 180°
North-Northeast 22.5° South-Southwest 202.5°
Northeast 45° Southwest 225°
East-Northeast 67.5° West-Southwest 247.5°
East 90° West 270°
East-Southeast 112.5° West-Northwest 292.5°
Southeast 135° Northwest 315°
South-Southeast 157.5° North-Northwest 337.5°
Mapping
There are a wide variety of azimuthally map projections. They all have the property that
directions (the azimuths) from a central point are preserved. Some navigation systems use
south as the reference plane. However, any direction can serve as the plane of reference, as
long as it is clearly defined for everyone using that system.
Astronomy
Used in celestial navigation, an azimuth is the direction of a celestial body from the
observer.[7] In astronomy, an azimuth is sometimes referred to as a bearing. In
modern astronomy azimuth is nearly always measured from the north. (The article on
coordinate systems, for example, uses a convention measuring from the south.) In former times,
it was common to refer to azimuth from the south, as it was then zero at the same time that
the hour angle of a star was zero. This assumes, however, that the star (upper) culminates in the
south, which is only true if the star's declination is less than (i.e. further south than) the
observer's latitude.
Other systems
If instead of measuring from and along the horizon the angles are measured from and
along the celestial equator, the angles are called right ascension if referenced to the Vernal
Equinox, or hour angle if referenced to the celestial meridian.
Horizontal coordinate
Polar coordinate
For magnetic tape drives, azimuth refers to the angle between the tape head(s) and tape.
In sound localization experiments and literature, the azimuth refers to the angle the sound
source makes compared to the imaginary straight line that is drawn from within the head
through the area between the eyes.
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Safety
DTH Corporation is committed to providing our employees with a safe and
healthful workplace. Our organization understands that safety is one of the
keys to a successful business operation, it demands responsible and
competent professionals.
At DTH Corporation, each employee is expected to perform his or her job in
a safe manner and in accordance with the procedures outlined in our safety
program.
All feasible and practical efforts are made to protect the lives of our
employees. Organizational policy requires employees and supervisors to
report unsafe conditions as well as any accidents and/or injuries.
Employee-made requests to improve safety are made a priority by our
management team, and management provides the financial resources for any
reasonable request for safety.
DTH Corporation develops a detailed and specific safety plan for each
project we perform. These plans are aimed at meeting or exceeding the
requirements of our clients and address topics ranging from responsibility and
lines of authority to lock-out/tag-out procedures.
DEPARTMENT OF E&C Page 38
As part of our commitment to safety, DTH Corporation provides
comprehensive, project specific safety training throughout the lifecycle of
each project. Our training sessions are mandatory for all project personnel,
and subcontractor employees are invited to attend.
Quality Control
It is DTH Corporations policy to obtain the highest level of quality and
workmanship in services performed in the projects we manage and construct.
Our team takes pride in its workmanship and strives to cover all aspects
within the Quality Control Program. This policy is implemented through our
company’s specific Quality Control Plan, which monitors and measures
performance though the project lifecycle.
DTH Corporations Quality Control Program establishes procedures for the
scheduled and unscheduled inspection and review of all items of work
including management, design, and construction services to ensure that the
quality of materials, equipment, workmanship and warranty service comply
with the provisions and specifications of each project. Our Quality Control
plans apply to DTH Corporations employees, subcontractors, and vendors
providing on-site or off-site materials, equipment and/or services.
At DTH Corporation, our employees complete the Corps of Engineers
Training Course, Construction Quality Management for Contractors.
Additional quality control processes include: preparation and implementation
of a customized Quality Control Plan; submittal preparation, review
certification and submission; quality control meetings; performance of the
TROUBLE SHOOTING
LNB TESTING
Today's satellite communications can trace their origins all the way back to the
Moon. A project named Communication Moon Relay was a telecommunication
project carried out by the United States Navy. Its objective was to develop a secure
and reliable method of wireless communication by using the Moon as a natural
communications satellite.
Geostationary orbits
Geostationary orbit
The first geostationary satellite was Syncom 3, launched on August 19, 1964,
and used for communication across the Pacific starting with television coverage of
the 1964 Summer Olympics. Shortly after Syncom 3, Intelsat I, aka Early Bird, was
launched on April 6, 1965 and placed in orbit at 28° west longitude. It was the first
geostationary satellite for telecommunications over the Atlantic Ocean.
After the launches of the Telstar through Westar 1 satellites, RCA Americom (later
GE Americom, nowSES) launched Satcom 1 in 1975. It was Satcom 1 that was
Low-Earth-orbiting satellites
A low Earth orbit (LEO) typically is a circular orbit about 200 kilo metres
(120 mi) above the earth's surface and, correspondingly, a period (time to revolve
DD DIRECT PLUS
Free Dish currently offers around 59 television channels and 25 radio stations. Major
international news-channels in the Doordarshan DTH are France 24, NHK World, ABC
News, DW-TV and Russia Today. Channels such as BBC World News, CNN and KBS
World were previously included in the Doordarshan DTH.
A separate DTH service in C-Band with a bouquet of 10 channels has also been provided
by Doordarshan exclusively for Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which is also free to Air. This C-
Band DTH service is available on INSAT-4B with downlink frequency of 3925 MHz
SATELLITE USES
In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an artificial object which has been intentionally
placed into orbit. Such objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them
from natural satellites such as the Moon.
The world's first artificial satellite, the Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet Union in
1957. Since then, thousands of satellites have been launched into orbit around the Earth. Some
satellites, notably space stations, have been launched in parts and assembled in orbit. Artificial
satellites originate from more than 50 countries and have used the satellite launching
capabilities of ten nations.
A few hundred satellites are currently operational, whereas thousands of unused satellites
and satellite fragments orbit the Earth as space debris. A few space probes have been placed into
orbit around other bodies and become artificial satellites to the Moon,
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Vesta, Eros, and the Sun.
Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military and
civilian Earth observation satellites, satellites, navigation, weather satellites, and research
About 6,600 satellites have been launched. The latest estimates are that 3,600 remain in
orbit. Of those, about 1,000 are operational;[2][3] the rest have lived out their useful lives and are
part of the space debris. Approximately 500 operational satellites are in low-Earth orbit, 50 are
in medium-Earth orbit (at 20,000 km), the rest are in geostationary orbit (at 36,000 km).[4]
Satellites are propelled by rockets to their orbits. Usually the launch vehicle itself is a
rocket lifting off from a launch pad on land. In a minority of cases satellites are launched at sea
(from a submarine or a mobile maritime platform) or aboard a plane (see air launch to orbit).
He calculated the orbital speed required for a minimal orbit around the Earth at 8 km/s,
and that a multi-stage rocket fuelled by liquid propellants could be used to achieve this. He
proposed the use of hydrogen and liquid oxygen, though other combinations can be used.
He described the use of orbiting spacecraft for detailed peaceful and military observation
of the ground and described how the special conditions of space could be useful for scientific
experiments. The book described geostationary satellites (first put forward by Tsiolkovsky) and
discussed communication between them and the ground using radio, but fell short of the idea of
using satellites for mass broadcasting and as telecommunications relays.
In a 1945 Wireless World article, the English science fiction writer Arthur C.
Clarke (1917–2008) described in detail the possible use of communications satellites for mass
communications. Clarke examined the logistics of satellite launch, possible orbits and other
aspects of the creation of a network of world-circling satellites, pointing to the benefits of high-
The first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet Union on October 4,
1957, and initiating the Soviet Sputnik program, with Sergei Korolev as chief designer (there is
a crater on the lunar far side which bears his name). This in turn triggered the Space
Race between the Soviet Union and the United States.
Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high atmospheric layers through measurement
of its orbital change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere. The
unanticipated announcement of Sputnik 1's success precipitated the Sputnik crisis in the United
States and ignited the so-called Space Race within the Cold War.
On July 29, 1955, the White House announced that the U.S. intended to launch satellites
by the spring of 1958. This became known as Project Vanguard. On July 31, the Soviets
announced that they intended to launch a satellite by the fall of 1957.
Following pressure by the American Rocket Society, the National Science Foundation,
and the International Geophysical Year, military interest picked up and in early 1955 the Army
and Navy were working on Project Orbiter, two competing programs: the army's which
involved using a Jupiter C rocket, and the civilian/Navy Vanguard Rocket, to launch a satellite.
At first, they failed: initial preference was given to the Vanguard program, whose first attempt at
orbiting a satellite resulted in the explosion of the launch vehicle on national television. But
finally, three months after Sputnik 2, the project succeeded; Explorer 1 became the United
States' first artificial satellite on January 31, 1958.
In June 1961, three-and-a-half years after the launch of Sputnik 1, the Air Force used
resources of the United States Space Surveillance Network to catalog 115 Earth-orbiting
satellites.
A designation broader than DBS would be direct-to-home signals, or DTH. This has
initially distinguished the transmissions directly intended for home viewers from cable
television distribution services that are sometimes carried on the same satellite. The term DTH
predates DBS and is often used in reference to services carried by lower power satellites which
required larger dishes (1.7 m diameter or greater) for reception.
In Europe, prior to the launch of Astra 1A in 1988, the term DBS was commonly used to
describe the nationally commissioned satellites planned and launched to provide television
broadcasts to the home within several European countries (such as BSB in the United
Kingdom and TV-Sat in Germany). These services were to use the D-Mac and D2-Mac format
and BSS frequencies with circular polarization from orbital positions allocated to each country.
Before these DBS satellites, home satellite television in Europe was limited to a few channels,
really intended for cable distribution, and requiring dishes typically of 1.2m.
SES launched the Astra 1A satellite to provide services to homes across Europe
receivable on dishes of just 60-80 cm and, although these mostly used PAL video format and
FSS frequencies with linear polarization, the DBS name slowly came to applied to all Astra
satellites and services too.
By contrast, DTH can apply to similar services transmitted over a wider range of
frequencies (including standard Ku band and Ka band) transmitted from satellites that are not
part of any internationally planned band. Nonetheless, the term DBS is often used
interchangeably with DTH to cover both analog and digital video and audio services
(including video-on-demand and interactive features) received by relatively small dishes (less
than 1 meter). A "DBS service" usually refers to either a commercial service or a group of free
channels available from one orbital position targeting one country. In certain regions of the
world, especially in North America, DBS is used to refer to providers of subscription satellite
packages, and has become applied to the entire equipment chain involved.
The second commercial DBS service, Sky Television plc (now BSkyB after its merger
with British Satellite Broadcasting's five-channel network), was launched in 1989. Sky TV
started as a four-channel free-to-air analogue service on the Astra 1A satellite, serving
both Ireland and the United Kingdom. By 1991, Sky had changed to a conditional access pay
model, and launched a digital service, Sky Digital, in 1998, with analogue transmission ceasing
in 2001. Since the DBS nomenclature is rarely used in the UK or Ireland, the popularity of
Sky's service has caused the terms "mini dish" and "digi box" to be applied to products other
than Sky's hardware. News Corporation has a 32% stake in BSkyB.
Prime Star began transmitting an analog service to North America in 1991, and was
joined by DirecTV (then owned by a division of General Motors, GM Hughes Electronics), in
1994. At the time, DirecTV's introduction was the most successful consumer electronics debut
in American history. Although Prime Star transitioned to a digital system in 1994, it was
ultimately unable to compete with DirecTV, which required a smaller satellite dish and could
deliver more programming. Direct TV purchased Prime Star in 1999 and moved all of that
provider's subscribers to DirecTV equipment. In a series of transactions consummated in
In 1996, EchoStar's Dish Network went online in the United States and, as DirecTV's
primary competitor, achieved similar success. AlphaStar also started but soon went
under. Astro was also started, using a direct broadcast satellite system.
Dominion Video Satellite Inc.'s Sky Angel launched on a satellite platform in the United
States in 1996, with its DBS service geared toward the faith and family market. It grew from six
to 36 television and radio channels of family entertainment, Christian-inspirational
programming, and 24-hour news services. Dominion, under its former corporate name Video
Satellite Systems Inc., was actually the second from among the first nine companies to apply to
the FCC for a high-power DBS license in 1981, and it was the sole surviving DBS company
from the first round of applicants until the sale of their license to EchoStar Communications
Corporation in 2007 and departure from satellite distribution in 2008. Sky Angel, although a
separate and independent DBS service, used the same satellites, transmission facilities and
receiving equipment used for Dish Network through an agreement with Echo star. Because of
this, Sky Angel subscribers also had the option of subscribing to Dish Network's channels as
well.
In 2003, EchoStar attempted to purchase DirecTV, but the FCC and U.S. Department of
Justice denied the purchase based on anti-competitive concerns.
As of 2013, India has the most competitive direct-broadcast satellite market with seven
operators (six private DTH and one Government-owned FTA DTH) vying for more than 110
million television homes. Subscribers to India's six private direct-to-home (DTH) satellite
television providers have now reached 56.5 million, according to the latest figures issued by the
Telecom Regulations Authority of India (TRAI)on 31st March 2013.
DEPARTMENT OF E&C Page 56
Free DBS services
Germany is likely the leader in free-to-air (FTA) DBS, with approximately 200 digital
FTA channels (including 18 HDTV channels and various regional channels) broadcast from
the Astra 19.2°E satellite constellation. These are not marketed as a DBS service, but are
received in approximately 12 million homes, as well as in any home using the Sky Deutschland
commercial DBS system. All German analogue satellite broadcasts ceased on April 30, 2012. [1]
[2]
The United Kingdom has approximately 160 digital channels (including the regional
variations of BBC channels, ITV channels, Channel 4 and Channel 5) are broadcast without
encryption from the Astra 28.2°E satellite constellation, and receivable on any DVB-S-
compliant receiver (a DVB-S2 receiver is required for certain high definition television
services). Most of these channels are included within the Sky EPG, and an increasing number
within the Free sat EPG.India's national broadcaster, Doordarshan, promotes a free-to-air DBS
package as "DD Direct Plus", which is provided as in-fill for the country's terrestrial
transmission network. It is broadcast from Insat 4B at 93.5°E and contains about 57 FTA
channels.
Free Dish currently offers around 59 television channels and 25 radio stations. Major
international news-channels in the Doordarshan DTH are France 24, NHK World, ABC
A separate DTH service in C-Band with a bouquet of 10 channels has also been provided
by Doordarshan exclusively for Andaman, which is also Free to Air. This C-Band DTH service
is available on INSAT-4B with downlink frequency of 3925 MHz
o The headset (audio) that can also contain the above device.
Receiver (modulated ultrasound), a device that converts a modulated ultrasonic wave into
usable information
Receiver (radio), an electronic device that converts a signal from a modulated radio wave
into usable information
Television set
o Tuner (television)
Tuner (electronics)
Metropolitan Police Receiver, formerly the chief financial officer of the London
Metropolitan Police
Receiver of Wreck, an official of the Maritime and Coastguard Agency of the United
Kingdom, who is concerned with the management of wrecked ships and boats
TV/RADIO C HANNELS ON DD
Doordarshan began a five-minute news bulletin in the same year in 1965. Pratima Puri
was the first newsreader. Selma Sultan joined Doordarshan in 1967 and later became a news
anchor.
The television service was extended to Bombay (now Mumbai) and Amritsar in 1972. Up
until 1975, only seven Indian cities had a television service and Doordarshan remained the sole
provider of television in India.
Television services were separated from radio on April 1, 1976. [2] Each office of All India
Radio and Doordarshan were placed under the management of two separate Director Generals
in New Delhi. Finally, in 1982, Doordarshan as a National Broadcaster came into
existence. Krishi Darshan was the first program telecast on Doordarshan. It commenced on
January 26, 1967 and is one of the longest running programs on Indian television.
Nationwide transmission
Channels
Doordarshan operates 21 channels – two All India channels - DD National and DD News,
11 Regional language Satellite Channels (RLSC), four State Networks (SN), an International
channel, a Sports Channel DD Sports and two channels Rajya Sabha TV & Lok Sabha TV for
live broadcast of parliamentary proceedings.
On DD National aka (DD-1), Regional programs and Local Programs are carried on
time-sharing basis. DD News channel, launched on 3 November 2003, which replaced the DD
Metro formally known as (DD-2) Entertainment channel, provides 24-Hour news service.
The Regional Languages Satellite channels have two components – The Regional service
for the particular state relayed by all terrestrial transmitters in the state and additional programs
DEPARTMENT OF E&C Page 61
in the Regional Language in prime time and non-prime time available only through cable
operators. DD-Sports Channel is exclusively devoted to the broadcasting of sporting events of
national and international importance. This is the only Sports Channels which telecasts rural
sports like Kho-Kho, Kabbadi etc. something which private broadcasters will not attempt to
telecast as it will not attract any revenues.
Active Doordarshan
DD has its own DTH service called DD Direct Plus. It is free of charge.
International broadcasting
While it earns significant advertising revenue due to the compulsory feed given to it by
the highest bidder to national events including cricket tournaments,[9] there has been a
proposal to give it funds by imposing a license fee to own a television in India like the
BBC. However this is unlikely to be imposed keeping in view the financial constraints of the
average Indian.
DIRECT PLUS
Dolby Digital Plus, also known as Enhanced AC-3 (and commonly abbreviated
as DD+ orE-AC-3, or EC-3) is a digital audio compression scheme developed by Dolby
Labs for transport and storage of multi-channel digital audio.
It is a successor to Dolby Digital (AC-3), also developed by Dolby, and has a number of
improvements including support for a wider range of data rates (32kbit/s to 6144kbit/s),
increased channel count and multi-program support (via sub streams), and additional tools
(algorithms) for representing compressed data and counteracting artifacts.
The full set of technical specifications for E-AC-3 (and AC-3) are standardized and
published in Annex E of ATSCA/52:2012,[1] as well as Annex E of ETSI TS 102 366 V1.2.1
(2008-08), published by the Advanced Television Systems Committee.
Structure
A Dolby Digital Plus service consists of one or more sub streams. There are three types of
sub streams:
Independent sub streams, which can contain a single 5.1 program. Up to eight
independent sub streams may be present in a Dolby Digital Plus stream. The channels
present in an independent sub stream are the traditional 5.1 channels: Left (L), Right (R),
Center (C), Left Surround (Ls), and Right Surround (Rs) channels, as well as a Low
Frequency Effects (Life) channel.
Legacy sub streams, which contain a single 5.1 program, and which correspond directly
to Dolby Digital content. At most a single legacy sub stream may be present in a DD+
stream.
Dependent sub streams, which contain additional channels beyond the traditional 5.1
channels. As dependent sub streams have the same structure as independent sub streams,
each dependent sub stream may contain up to five full-bandwidth channels and one low-
frequency channel; however these channels may be assigned to different speaker
placements. Metadata in the sub stream describes the purpose of each included channel.
At the heart of both Dolby Digital and DD+ is a Modified discrete cosine transform,
which is used to transform the audio signal into the frequency domain; within each block up to
256 frequency coefficients may be transmitted. Coefficients are transmitted in a binary floating-
point format, with exponents transmitted separately from mantissas. This allows for highly
efficient coding.
Exponents for each channel are encoded in a highly-packed differential format, with the
deltas between consecutive frequency bins (other than the first) being given in the stream. Three
formats, or exponent strategies, are used; these are known as "D15", "D25", and "D45". In D15,
each bin has a unique exponent, in D25 and D45, delta values correspond to either pairs or
quads of frequency bins. Audio blocks other than the first in a sync frame may additionally
reuse the prior blocks exponent set (this is required for channels that use the Adaptive Hybrid
Transform).
The decoded exponents, along with a set of metadata parameters, is used to derive the bit
allocation pointers (BAPs), which specify the number of bits allocated to each mantissa. Bins
which correspond to frequencies in which human hearing is more precise are allocated more
bits; bins which correspond to frequencies that humans are less sensitive to are allocated fewer.
Anywhere between zero and 16 bits may be allocated for each mantissa; if zero bits are
transmitted, a dither function may be optionally applied to generate the frequency coefficient.
Algorithm
Both Dolby Digital and DD+ encoder converts a multichannel audio signal to the
frequency domain using the Modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT), with a switchable
block length of either 256 or 512 samples (the latter is used with stationary signals, the former
with transient signals). The frequency domain representation is then quantized according to a
psycho-acoustic model and transmitted. A floating-point format for frequency coefficients is
used, and mantissas and exponents are stored and transmitted separately, with both being
heavily compressed.
For highly-stationary signals, such as long notes in musical performance, the Adaptive
Hybrid Transform (AHT) is used. This tool is unique to Dolby Digital Plus (and unsupported in
Dolby Digital), and uses an additional Type II Discrete cosine transform to combine six
adjacent transform blocks (located within a sync frame) into an effectively longer block.
In addition to the two-stage transform, a different bit-allocation structure is used, and two
ways of representing encoded mantissas are deployed: use of vector quantization, which gives
the highest coding gain, and use of gain-adapted quantization (GAQ) when greater signal-
fidelity is required. Gain-adaptive quantization may be independently enabled for each
frequency bin within a channel, and permits variable-length mantissa encoding.
Coupling
Dolby Digital Plus supports an more elaborate version of the coupling tool known as
Enhanced Coupling (ECPL). This algorithm, which is considerably more expensive to process
(both for encoders and decoders) allows phase information to be included in coupling
coordinates, allowing for phase relationships between channels that are coupled to be preserved.
Spectral extension
Dolby Digital Plus provides another tool for high frequencies. As high frequency
components are often harmonics of lower-frequency sounds, Spectral Extension (SPX) allows
high frequency components to be synthesized algorithmically from lower-frequency
components. This tool is also unique to Dolby Digital Plus, and unsupported in Dolby Digital.