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SRI GANESH COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE

Class- S.VIMALKUMAR M.Sc,.M.Phill

Satellite & Cable TV HOD Signature:


Unit – I

DIGITAL SATELLITE SYSTEMS:

A satellite navigation or sat-nave system is a system of satellites that provide


autonomous geo-spatial positioning with global coverage. It allows small electronic receivers to
determine their location (longitude, latitude, and altitude) to high precision (within a few
meters) using time signals transmitted along a line of sight by radio from satellites. The signals
also allow the electronic receivers to calculate the current local time to high precision, which
allows time synchronization. A satellite navigation system with global coverage may be termed
a global navigation satellite system or GNSS.

As of April 2013, only the United States NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS)
and the Russian GLONASS are global operational GNSSs. China is in the process of expanding
its regional Beidou navigation system into the global Compass navigation system by 2020. The
European Union's Galileo positioning system is a GNSS in initial deployment phase, scheduled
to be fully operational by 2020 at the earliest. France, India and Japan are in the process of
developing regional navigation systems.

Global coverage for each system is generally achieved by a satellite constellation of 20–
30medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites spread between several orbital planes. The actual
systems vary, but use orbital inclinations of >50° and orbital periods of roughly twelve hours (at
an altitude of about 20,000 kilometers (12,000 mi)).

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DTH WORKING - DTH ANTENNA

How does DTH work

A DTH network consists of a broadcasting centre, satellites, encoders, multiplexers,


modulators and DTH receivers.

A DTH service provider has to lease Ku-band transponders from the satellite. The
encoder converts the audio, video and data signals into the digital format and the multiplexer
mixes these signals. At the user end, there will be a small dish antenna and set-top boxes to
decode and view numerous channels. On the user's end, receiving dishes can be as small as 45
cm in diameter.

DTH is an encrypted transmission that travels to the consumer directly through a satellite.
DTH transmission is received directly by the consumer at his end through the small dish
antenna. A set-top box, unlike the regular cable connection, decodes the encrypted transmission.

How does DTH really differ from cable TV

The way DTH reaches a consumer's home is different from the way cable TV does. In
DTH, TV channels would be transmitted from the satellite to a small dish antenna mounted on

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the window or rooftop of the subscriber's home. So the broadcaster directly connects to the user.
The middlemen like local cable operators are not there in the picture.

DTH can also reach the remotest of areas since it does away with the intermediate step of
a cable operator and the wires (cables) that come from the cable operator to your house. As we
explained above, in DTH signals directly come from the satellite to your DTH dish.

There are four serious contenders for DTH services in India: Doordarshan, Star, Zee, and
Data Access.

DTH offers better quality picture than cable TV. This is because cable TV in India is
analog. Despite digital transmission and reception, the cable transmission is still analog. DTH
offers stereophonic sound effects. It can also reach remote areas where terrestrial transmission
and cable TV have failed to penetrate. Apart from enhanced picture quality, DTH has also
allows for interactive TV services such as movie-on-demand, Internet access, video
conferencing and e-mail. But the thing that DTH has going for it is that the powerful
broadcasting companies like Star, Zee, etc are pushing for it.

In DTH, the payments will be made directly by the subscriber to the satellite company
offering the service.

A big problem that broadcasters face in India is the issue of under-reporting of


subscribers by cable operators.

DTH where broadcasters directly connect to consumers and can actually grow revenues
with a growth in the subscriber base also reaping the benefits of more attractive tariffs.

DTH be cheaper than cable or more expensive and it will be definitely more expensive than
cable as it exists today.

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DTH LNB

A Duo LNB is a double low-noise block down converter (LNB) developed by SES for
the simultaneous reception of satellite television signals from both the Astra 23.5°Eand Astra
19.2°E satellite positions.

It is a monoblock LNB, which comprises two feed horns with a single body of electronics
containing the LNB stages along with switching circuitry to select which received signal is
passed to the output(s).

Availability

A Duo LNB can be purchased in most parts of Europe but it is particularly marketed to
Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and the Czech and Slovak Republics.

Duo LNBs operate as universal LNBs and are manufactured under various brand names, such
as Maximum and Invert, in single, twin-output and quad-output versions – with one, two and
four outputs (independently selectable for polarization and frequency band), respectively, for
one, two or four receivers/tuners. The Duo LNB is available in two versions - the original Duo
LNB for dishes of 80 cm or 85 cm diameter and the Duo LNB II for dishes of 60 cm.

Background

The Astra 23.5°E orbital position was established as a major source of direct-to-
home (DTH) broadcasts for central and western Europe with the launch of Astra 3A at the end
of 2007, and some channels moved there from other satellite positions (in particular 19.2° east)
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so viewers, who were unable to erect two dishes to receive transmissions from both positions,
had to choose between them.The Duo LNB was introduced to enable a single satellite dish to be
used to receive all the channels from 19.2° east and 23.5° east.

The ASTRA2Connect satellite internet service also operates from 23.5° east.

In May 2010 the Astra 3B satellite was launched to the Astra 23.5° east position to release
the Astra 1E and Astra 1Gsatellites previously in that position for use at other orbital positions.

Technology

The basic technology behind the Duo LNB is not new. It takes advantage of the fact that
signals hitting a dish off-axis will be focused (albeit with some diffusion) off axis in the
opposite direction. So, with the dish aligned so that the central LNB is receiving one satellite, a
secondary offset LNB can be aligned on the focus of a second satellite spaced away from the
first.

This effect has been exploited for many years to receive signals from two satellites at
once with a single dish, and two LNBs have been most commonly arranged on a dish in this
way for reception of Astra 19.2°E and the Hot Bird satellites at 13° east, primarily for the
abundance of TV channels from 19.2° east, and some additional channels (especially adult
channels) from 13° east.

Installation

The Duo LNB is normally fitted with the feed horn for Astra 23.5°E mounted on the
dish's feed arm, and the 19.2°E feed horn sticking out to the right - as viewed standing in front
of the dish, with the satellites behind you. The Astra 23.5°E feed horn is identified with a "23.5"
marking on the casing. The dish is then aligned on the 23.5°E position, using a signal strength
meter, in the normal way.

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The correct skew angle and height difference depend on the position of the receive site
on Earth's surface, and in most locations the tilt angle from the LNB is a compromise between
their ideal settings. However, within Europe the single tilt angle adjustment provides sufficient
accuracy for both settings for reliable reception.

The tilt angle for the Duo LNB at the receive site location may be found in maps or city
tables (a scale is marked on the LNB casing) or found by adjustment with a signal meter
connected. By setting the correct tilt angle and aligning the whole dish in azimuth and
elevation, the two feed horns of the LNB are optimally aligned for both orbital positions.

DTH RECIEVERS

A satellite dish is a dish-shaped type of parabolic antenna designed to receive


microwaves from communications satellites, which transmit data transmissions or broad casts,
such as satellite television.

Principle of operation

Schematics of reflection principles used in parabolic antennas.

The parabolic shape of a dish reflects the signal to the dish’s focal point. Mounted on
brackets at the dish's focal point is a device called a feed horn. This feed horn is essentially the
front-end of a waveguide that gathers the signals at or near the focal point and 'conducts' them
to a low-noise block down converter or LNB.

The LNB converts the signals from electromagnetic or radio waves to electrical signals
and shifts the signals from the down linked C-band and/or K u-band to the L-band range. Direct
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broadcast satellite dishes use an LNBF, which integrates the feed horn with the LNB. (A new
form of Omni directional satellite antenna, which does not use a directed parabolic dish and can
be used on a mobile platform such as a vehicle was announced by the University of Waterloo in
2004.

Modern dishes intended for home television use are generally 43 cm (18 in) to 80 cm
(31 in) in diameter, and are fixed in one position, for Ku-band reception from one orbital
position. Prior to the existence of direct broadcast satellite services, home users would generally
have a motorized C-band dish of up to 3 metres in diameter for reception of channels from
different satellites. Overly small dishes can still cause problems, however, including rain
fade and interference from adjacent satellites.

Systems design

In a single receiver residential installation there is a single coaxial cable running from the
receiver set-top box in the building to the LNB on the dish. The DC electric power for the LNB
is provided through the same coaxial cable conductors that carry the signal to the receiver. In
addition, control signals are also transmitted from the receiver to the LNB through the cable.

The receiver uses different power supply voltages (13/18V) to select antenna
polarization, and pilot tones (22 kHz) to instruct the LNB to select one of the two frequency
bands. In larger installations each band and polarization is given its own cable, so there are 4
cables from the LNB to a switching matrix, which allows the connection of multiple receivers
in a star topology using the same signaling method as in a single receiver installation.

Types--Motor-driven dish

A dish that is mounted on a pole and driven by a stepper motor or a servo can be
controlled and rotated to face any satellite position in the sky. Motor-driven dishes are popular
with enthusiasts. There are three competing standards: DiSEqC,USALS, and 36v positioners.
Many receivers support all of these standards.
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Multi-satellite

Special dish for up to 16 satellite positions (Ku-band).

Some designs enable simultaneous reception from multiple different satellite positions
without re-positioning the dish. The vertical axis operates as an off-axis concave parabolic
concave hyperbolic CASs grain reflector, while the horizontal axis operates as a concave
convex Casse grain. The spot from the main dish wanders across the secondary, which corrects
astigmatism by its varying curvature. The elliptic aperture of the primary is designed to fit the
deformed illumination by the horns. Due to double spill-over, this makes more sense for a large
dish.

Vsat

A common type of dish is the very small aperture terminal (VSAT). This provides two
way satellite internet communications for both consumers and private networks for
organizations. Today most VSATs operate in Ku band; C band is restricted to less populated
regions of the world. There is a move which started in 2005 towards new Ka band satellites
operating at higher frequencies, offering greater performance at lower cost.

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ADDITIONAL ACCESSERIES

Pigments are light-absorbing compounds, found in photosynthetic organisms, that work


in conjunction with chlorophyll. They include other forms of this pigment, such as
chlorophyll b in green algal and higher plant antennae, while other algae may contain
chlorophyll c or d. In addition, there are many non-chlorophyll accessory pigments, such
ascarotenoids or phycobiliproteins, which also absorb light and transfer that
light energy to photosystem chlorophyll. Some of these accessory pigments, in particular the
carotenoids, also serve to absorb and dissipate excess light energy, or work as antioxidants. The
large, physically associated group of chlorophylls and other accessory pigments is sometimes
referred to as a pigment bed, though this term is no longer supported by what we know of
photosystem and antenna complex structures.

The different chlorophyll and non-chlorophyll pigments associated with the photo
systems all have different absorption spectra, either because the spectra of the different
chlorophyll pigments are modified by their local protein environment or because the accessory
pigments have intrinsic structural differences. The result is that, in vivo, a composite absorption
spectrum of all these pigments is broadened and flattened such that a wider range
of visible and infrared radiation is absorbed by plants and algae. Most photosynthetic organisms
do not absorb green light well, thus most remaining light under leaf canopies in forests or under
water with abundant plankton is green, a spectral effect called the "green window". Organisms
such as some cyano bacteria and red algae contain accessory phycobili proteins that absorb
green light reaching these habitats.

In aquatic ecosystems, it is likely that the absorption spectrum of water, along with given
and trip ton (dissolved and particulate organic matter, respectively),
determines phototrophic niche differentiation. The six shoulders in the light absorption of water
between wavelengths 400 and 1100 nm correspond to troughs in the collective absorption of at
least twenty diverse species of phototrophic bacteria. Another effect is due to the overall trend
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for water to absorb low frequencies, while given and tripton absorb higher ones. This is why
open ocean appears blue and supports yellow species such as Prochlorococcus, which contains
divined-chlorophyll a and b. Synechococcus, colored red with phy coerythrin, is adapted to
coastal bodies, while phycocyanin allows Cyano bacteria to thrive in darker inland waters

COMPLETE DTH PROCESS

Work in process, work in progress, (WIP) goods in process, or in-process


inventory are a company's partially finished goods waiting for completion and eventual sale or
the value of these items. These items are either just being fabricated or waiting for further
processing in a queue or a buffer storage. The term is used in production and supply chain
management.

Optimal production management aims to minimize work in process. Work in process


requires storage space, represents bound capital not available for investment and carries an
inherent risk of earlier expiration of shelf life of the products. A queue leading to a production
step shows that the step is well buffered for shortage in supplies from preceding steps, but may
also indicate insufficient capacity to process the output from these preceding steps.

Just-in-time (acronym: JIT) production is a concept to reduce work in process with


respect to a continuous configuration of product. Just in sequence (JIS) is a similar concept with
respect to a scheduled variety in sequence of configurations for products.

Barcode and RFID identification can be used to identify work items in process flow.
For locating the products additional requirements must be considered to ensure not only
presence of work items, but also knowledge of the whereabouts of these items. This is a
mandatory condition in flexible production lines with paralleled work positions for single steps
of production.

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Sometimes, outside of a production and construction context "Work in process" is used
erroneously where the status "Work in Progress" would be correctly used to describe more
broadly work that is not yet a final product.

WIP in construction projects

Work-In-Process in construction accounting identifies the value of construction projects


which are currently being worked on by the construction firm. To properly account for each
project, FOUR values are needed for each project at the end of any given month (or period):

1. the Sales Price (excluding sales tax) for the project,


2. the total Cost Estimate for the project,

3. the Costs-To-Date,

4. the Billed-To-Date.

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UNIT-2

CONNECTING MORE THAN ONE TV RECEIVER TO A SINGLE DISH

Single Cable Distribution is a satellite TV technology that enables the delivery of


broadcast programming to multiple users over a single coaxial cable, and eliminates the
numerous cables required to support consumer electronics devices such as twin-tuner Digital
Video Recorders (DVRs) and high end receivers.

Without single cable distribution, providing full spectrum access for multiple receivers, or
receivers with multiple tuners, in a single family home has required a separate coaxial cable
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feeding each tuner from the antenna equipment (either multiple LNBs, a multi-output LNB or a
multi switch distribution system) because of the large bandwidth requirement of the signals.

Single cable distribution technology enables one coaxial cable from the antenna
equipment to multiple tuners, to provide independent tuning across the whole range of satellite
reception for each tuner.

A European industry standard for distributing satellite signals over a single coaxial cable
- CENELEC EN50494 - has been defined in 2007and developed by a consortium led by SES.

Single cable distribution technology can be found in commercial equipment with the
Unicable trademark from FTA Communications Technologies. Uni cable uses an integrated
software and hardware solution that allows Uni cable-certified Digital Video Recorders and
receivers to multiplex selected programming when using Uni cable LNB or multi switching
products.

The Unicable Interoperability Platform is open to companies designing and/or marketing


satellite and other broadcast-related products. The platform is designed to facilitate the
acceptance of Unicable-certified solutions in the consumer TV broadcast market.

How it works

Each satellite receiver in the installation has a dedicated user band of


a bandwidth approximately the same as a transponder. The receiver requests a particular
transponder frequency via a DiSEqC-compliant command. A mixer in the dish-end equipment
(an LNB or distribution unit) converts the received signal to the correct user band IF centre
frequency for that receiver.

The converted transponders of the various users are then combined, and sent via the
single coaxial cable to the receivers. The combined signal is tapped or split to reach every user.

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Silicon vendors have developed complex Integrated Circuits that greatly reduce the cost
of implementing the single cable distribution function. A Channel Stacking Switch IC is a
multiple-input multiple-output device. It typically has N 1.2 GHz inputs that can be cascaded to
additional chips as required (to expand output capacity).

Equipment

Special LNBs have been developed for use in single cable distribution systems. All four
sub-bands of the Ku band (low frequency/horizontal polarity, high frequency/horizontal
polarity, low frequency/vertical polarity, high frequency/vertical polarity) are received by a
conventional front end, amplified and down converted to the L-band, to be fed to a number of
Single Cable Router (SCR) chips – one for each user that can be connected - to further down
convert the required section of the received spectrum to centre on the user band IF frequency.

The LNB further includes a mixer to combine the user bands together and a
microcontroller to receive the instructions as to which frequency is required by each user and
control the SCR chips.

Alternatively, a single cable distribution system can use a conventional LNB feeding the
four sub-bands to a separate SCR device, as a substitute for a traditional multi switch, that needs
a dedicated coaxial cable for every receiver (or tuner) connected.

Fiber Optic Alternative

An alternative approach to that provided by single cable distribution of the signal from a
single LNB to multiple receivers, or receivers with multiple tuners, is offered by the use of fiber
satellite distribution using optical fiber. The high bandwidth of optical connections allows for
the full satellite spectrum received at the dish to be accommodated on one fiber optic cable,
which can be easily optically split to provide that full spectrum signal to a large number of
receivers.

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UK company, Global Invacom (which also developed and markets SCR single cable
distribution equipment) has developed a low cost system of fiber optic distribution suitable for
domestic installations and small or medium commercial communal dish systems.

CONNECTING MORE THAN ONE TV TO A SINGLE SATELLITE RECEIVER

Fibre satellite distribution is a technology that enables satellite TV signals from


an antenna to be distributed using an optical fibre cable infrastructure and then converted to
electrical signals for use with conventional set-top box receivers.

Particularly applicable to satellite TV distribution systems in a multi-dwelling unit, such


as a block of flats (but useful in smaller domestic distribution systems too), such a hybrid
fibre/electrical system reduces the cabling required, reduces signal noise and interference, and
provides for an easy upgrade to increase the number of tuners connected at each dwelling.

Conventional systems that distribute the electrical satellite IF signal via a star network
of coaxial cable require one relatively short cable run from the central distribution equipment to
each tuner connected to the system, whereas in a fiber system, cables can be very long, and split
at successive locations, in a tree structure without detriment to the reception.

Advantages

The primary benefit of using optical fiber for a satellite TV IF distribution system is that
the fiber can carry the entire received spectrum on one cable, which can then be split to provide

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for multiple tuners, without requiring a separate feed from the antenna to each tuner. Additional
outlets can be added to increase the number of receivers within one home without accessing the
central antenna or main infrastructure.

Fiber cable is cheap in long runs, retailing at about twice the price of equivalent copper
coaxial cable, but replacing four runs of coaxial cable with a single fiber cable. It is also much
smaller than the coaxial signal cable used for electrical IF distribution, but robust and flexible.
The losses in a fiber system are almost negligible so very long cable runs of hundreds of meters
are possible without any signal reinforcement.

Because the signal is carried as a beam of light, it is impervious to the electrical


interference that even the best coaxial satellite cable may suffer, and cables can be safely and
conveniently run alongside mains power cables. Power consumption is also lower than an
equivalent electrical system.

Development

An eight-way optical signal splitter to feed eight virtual LNBs or further splitters from a
single optical feed.While optical fiber has been used for telephone and Internet backbone
data, and even for television and multimedia carriage for terrestrial cable, for many years, use
for satellite IF distribution has been held back by considerations of cost and installation
convenience.

How it works

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A virtual LNB with four electrical outputs for four tuners, The complete spectrum of Ku-
band satellite reception stretches from 10.70 GHz-12.75 GHz across two signal polarizations, or
a bandwidth of about 4000 MHz This cannot be carried on a single coaxial cable and so in a
conventional satellite reception system, just one of four sub-bands (received in vertical and
horizontal polarization, and high and low frequency,) is sent from the antenna to the indoor
receiver as 0.95 GHz-2.15 GHz IF.

Which sub-band is required is signaled from the receiver to the antenna’s LNB by a
13/18V and 0/22 kHz tone on the LNB supply sent up the same coaxial cable. In a single
antenna distribution system, special Quattro LNB supplies all four sub-bands at once, from four
outputs and these are supplied as required to each of the multiple outlets connected to an
IF multiswitch

An optical fiber system “stacks” the four sub-bands in frequency, one above the other, at
the LNB, in the range 0.95 GHz-5.45 GHz (a bandwidth of 4500 MHz) and transmits them
together as a modulated optical signal down the fiber cable using a 1310 nm semiconductor
laser.

The losses in the cable are extremely small (in the region of 0.3dB/km) and the Global
Invacom optical LNB output can be split up to 32 ways with a cable length of up to 10 km
between the LNB and the receiver.

CONNECTING MORE THAN ONE DISH/LNB TO SINGLE RECEIVER

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A low-noise block down converter (or LNB) is the receiving device mounted on
satellite used for satellite TV reception, which collects the radio waves from the dish. Also
called a low-noise block. LNC (for low-noise converter), or even LND (for low-noise down
converter), the device is sometimes wrongly called an LNA (low-noise amplifier).

The LNB is a combination of low-noise amplifier, frequency mixer, local oscillator and
IF amplifier. It receives the microwave signal from the satellite collected by the dish, amplifies
it, and down converts the block of frequencies to a lower block of intermediate frequencies (IF).
This down conversion allows the signal to be carried to the indoor satellite TV receiver using
relatively cheap coaxial cable; if the signal remained at its original microwave frequency it
would require an expensive and impractical waveguide line.

The LNB is usually a small box suspended on one or more short booms, or feed arms, in
front of the dish reflector, at its focus (although some dish designs have the LNB on or behind
the reflector). The microwave signal from the dish is picked up by a feed horn on the LNB and
is fed to a section of waveguide. One or more metal pins, or probes, protrude into the
waveguide at right angles to the axis and act as antennas, feeding the signal to a PCB inside the
LNB's shielded box for processing. The lower frequency IF output signal emerges from a socket
on the box to which the coaxial cable connects.

LNBF disassembled (All Parts). The waveguide carrying the microwave radio signal
collected by the dish passes through the hole in the center. The pins visible at the top and left

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side of the hole project into the waveguide and receive the signal, converting it to radio
frequency switch are processed by the circuit board.

a low-noise block down converter. fig(a). the pin and the horn antenna in a converter. fig(b)

The LNB gets its power from the receiver or set-top box inside the house. This
phantom is sent "up" the same coaxial cable that carries the received signals "down" to the
receiver, eliminating the need for a separate power cable.

A corresponding component, called a block up converter (BUC), is used at the satellite


earth station (uplink) dish to convert the band of television channels to the microwave uplink
frequency.

Amplification and noise

The signal received by the LNB is extremely weak and it has to be amplified before down
conversion. The low noise amplifier section of the LNB amplifies this weak signal while adding
the minimum possible amount of noise to the signal.

The low-noise quality of an LNB is expressed as the noise figure (or sometimes noise).
This is the ratio of the amount of noise in the output to the amount in the input, in decibels (dB).
Every LNB off the production line has a different noise figure because of manufacturing
tolerances.

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The noise figure quoted in the specifications - important for determining the LNB's
suitability - is usually representative of neither that particular LNB nor the performance across
the whole frequency range, since the noise figure most often quoted is the typical figure
averaged over the production batch.

Ku-band linear-polarized LNBF

Block down conversion

Satellites use comparatively high radio frequencies (microwaves) to transmit their TV


signals. As microwave satellite signals do not easily pass through walls, roofs, or
even glass windows, it is preferable for satellite antennas to be mounted outdoors. Plastic
glazing however is transparent to microwaves and residential satellite dishes have successfully
been hidden indoors looking through acrylic attic windows to preserve the aesthetics of the
home.

The purpose of the LNB is to use the super heterodyne principle to take a block (or band)
of relatively high frequencies and convert them to similar signals carried at a much lower
frequency (called the intermediate frequency or IF). These lower frequencies travel through
cables with much less attenuation, so there is much more signal left at the satellite receiver end
of the cable. It is also much easier and cheaper to design electronic circuits to operate at these
lower frequencies, rather than the very high frequencies of satellite transmission.

LNBFs

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With the launch of the first DTH broadcast satellite in Europe (Astra 1A) by SES in 1988,
antenna design was simplified for the anticipated mass-market. In particular,
the feedhorn (which gathers the signal and directs it to the LNB) and the polarizer(which selects
between differently polarized signals) were combined with the LNB itself into a single unit,
called an LNB-feed or LNB-feedhorn (LNBF), or even an "Astra type" LNB. The prevalence of
these combined units has meant that today the term LNB is commonly used to refer to all
antenna units that provide the block-down conversion function, with or without a feedhorn.

Polarization

It's common to polarize satellite TV signals because it provides a way of transmitting


more TV channels using a given block of frequencies. This approach requires the use of
receiving equipment that can filter incoming signals based on their polarization. Two satellite
TV signals can then be transmitted on the same frequency (or, more usually, closely adjacent
frequencies) and provided that they are polarized differently, the receiving equipment can still
separate them and display whichever one is currently required.

Throughout the World, most satellite TV transmissions use vertical and horizontal linear
polarization but in North America,DBS transmissions use left and right hand circular
polarization. Within the waveguide of a North American DBS LNB a slab of dielectric material
is used to convert left and right circular polarized signals to vertical and horizontal linear
polarized signals so the converted signals can be treated the same.

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A 1980s banding (2.18 dB noise figure) without built-in polarization selection and with a
WR75 fitting for separate feed horn and polarizer

The probe inside the LNB waveguide collects signals that are polarized in the same plane
as the probe. To maximize the strength of the wanted signals (and to minimize reception of
unwanted signals of the opposite polarization), the probe is aligned with the polarization of the
incoming signals.

This is most simply achieved by adjusting the LNB's skew - its rotation about the
waveguide axis. To remotely select between the two polarizations, and to compensate for
inaccuracies of the skew angle, it used to be common to fit a polarizer in front of the LNB's
waveguide mouth. This either rotated the incoming signal with an electromagnet around the
waveguide (a magnetic polarizer) or rotated an intermediate probe within the waveguide using a
servo motor (a mechanical polarizer) but such adjustable skew polarizer’s are rarely used today.

CHANGING SATELLITE CHANNELS

Satellite television is television programming delivered by the means of communications


satellite and received by an outdoor antenna, usually a parabolic reflector generally referred to
as a satellite dish, and as far as household usage is concerned, a satellite receiver either in the
form of an external set-top box or a satellite tuner module built into a television set. Satellite
television tuners are also available as a card or a USB peripheral to be attached to a personal
computer. In many areas of the world satellite television provides a wide range of channels and
services, often to areas that are not serviced by terrestrial or cable providers.

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Direct-broadcast satellite television comes to the general public in two distinct flavors –
analog and digital. This necessitates either having an analog satellite receiver or a digital
satellite receiver. Analog satellite television is being replaced by digital satellite television and
the latter is becoming available in a better quality known as high-definition television.

Standards

Analog television distributed via satellite is usually sent scrambled or unscrambled


in NTSC, PAL, or SECAM television broadcast standards. The analog signal is frequency
modulated and is converted from an FM signal to what is referred to as baseband. This
baseband comprises the video signal and the audio subcarrier(s). The audio subcarrier is further
demodulated to provide a raw audio signal.

If the signal is a digitized television signal or multiplex of signals, it is typically QPSK.

In general, digital television, including that transmitted via satellites, is generally based
on open standards such as Megan DVB-S or ISDB-S.

Direct broadcast via satellite

Direct broadcast satellite, (DBS) also known as "Direct-To-Home" can either refer to the
communications satellites themselves that deliver DBS service or the actual television service.
DBS systems are commonly referred to as "mini-dish" systems. DBS uses the upper portion of
the Ku band, as well as portions of the Ka band.

Modified DBS systems can also run on C-band satellites and have been used by some networks
in the past to get around legislation by some countries against reception of K u-band
transmissions.

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Most of the DBS systems use the DVB-S standard for transmission. With pay
television services, the data stream is encrypted and requires proprietary reception equipment.
While the underlying reception technology is similar, the pay television technology is
proprietary, often consisting of a Conditional Access Module and smart card.

This measure assures satellite television providers that only authorized,


paying subscribers have access to pay television content but at the same time can allow free-to-
air (FTA) channels to be viewed even by the people with standard equipment (DBS receivers
without the Conditional Access Modules) available in the market.

Television receive-only

The term Television receive-only, or TVRO, arose during the early days of satellite
television reception to differentiate it from commercial satellite television uplink and downlink
operations (transmit and receive). This was before there was a DTH satellite television
broadcast industry. Satellite television channels at that time were intended to be used by cable
television networks rather than received by home viewers. Satellite television receiver systems
were largely constructed by hobbyists and engineers.

In 1978 Microcosm, a small company founded by radio amateur and microwave


engineer H. Paul Shush, introduced the first commercial home satellite television receiver.
These early TVRO systems operated mainly on the C band frequencies and the dishes required
were large; typically over 3 meters (10 ft) in diameter. Consequently TVRO is often referred to
as "big dish" or "Big Ugly Dish" (BUD) satellite television.

TVRO systems are designed to receive analog and digital satellite feeds of both television
or audio from both C-band and Ku-band transponders on FSS-type satellites. The higher
frequency Ku-band systems tend to be Direct To Home systems and can use a smaller dish
antenna because of the higher power transmissions and greater antenna gain.

Direct to Home television

DEPARTMENT OF E&C Page 23


Many satellite television customers in developed television markets get their
programming through a direct broadcast satellite (DBS) provider. The provider selects programs
and broadcasts them to subscribers as a set package. Basically, the provider’s goal is to bring
dozens or even hundreds of channels to the customer's television in a form that approximates
the competition from cable television. Unlike earlier programming, the provider’s broadcast is
completely digital, which means it has high picture and stereo sound quality. Early satellite
television services were broadcast in C-band radio, in the 3.7 Giga Hertz (GHz) to 4.2 GHz
frequency range. Digital broadcast satellite transmits programming in the K u frequency range
(10 GHz to 14 GHz).[2][3]

Programming sources are simply the channels that provide television programming for
broadcast. The provider (the DTH platform) does not create original programming itself. The
broadcast center is the central hub of the system. At the broadcast center, the television provider
receives signals from various programming sources, compresses these signals using
digital video compression (encryption if necessary), and sends a broadcast signal to the proper
satellite.

NEED OF TELEPHONE JACK:

A telephone plug is a type of connector used to connect a telephone set to the telephone
wiring inside a building, establishing a connection to a telephone network. It is inserted into its
counterpart, a telephone jack, commonly affixed to a wall or baseboard. The standard for
telephone plugs varies from country to country, though the RJ11 modular connector has become
by far the most common.

A connection standard, such as RJ11, specifies not only the physical aspects of an
electrical connector, but also the pin out, i.e. the assignment or function of each
contact. Modular connectors are specified for the Registered Jack (RJ) series of connectors, as
well as for Ethernet and other connectors, such as 4P4C (4 position, 4 contacts) modular

DEPARTMENT OF E&C Page 24


connectors, the de facto standard on handset cords,[2] often improperly referred to as RJ
connectors.

Bell system line cord as used in the mid 1960s

Historically the telephone was typically owned by the telephone company and
permanently wired to the telephone line they supplied, but as phone markets were deregulated a
need arose for a simple plug-in interface that consumers could install. Many countries initially
used different specifications for connectors. For example, after 1965 Bell System companies
used the 505A plug, a round connector about 40 mm in diameter with four prongs about 15 mm
apart. National connectors remain in service but few are used for new installations.

Connections

The installation of a conventional wired telephone set has four connection points, each of
which may be hardwired, but more often use a plug and socket:

 telephone line to phone cord: The wall jack. This connection is the most standardized,
and often regulated as the boundary between an individual's telephone and the telephone
network. In many residences, though, the boundary between utility-owned and household-
owned cabling is a network interface on an outside wall; all wall jacks in the home are part
of the household's internal wiring.

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 Telephone cord to telephone set base: This connection is generally not regulated, but
instead follows de facto standards. It is often a 6P4C connector, which is often RJ11, but
may be proprietary or hardwired.

 Telephone set base to handset cord: By de facto standard, this is usually


a 4P4C connector.

 Handset cord to handset: The handset end of the straight-through handset cord also uses
a 4P4C connector.

Some of these may be absent: Wired telephones may not have a separate base and
handset. The defining characteristic of wireless telephones is that they do not have a handset
cord, and the defining characteristic of mobile telephones is that they do not have a phone cord.

Wiring

Typical U.S. modular phone connector

A standard specifies both a physical connector and how it is wired. Sometimes the same
connector is used by different countries but wired in different ways.

For example, telephone cables in the UK typically have a BS 6312 (UK standard) plug at the
wall end and a 6P4C or 6P2C modular connector at the telephone end: this latter may be wired
as per the RJ11 standard (with pins 3 and 4), or it may be wired with pins 2 and 5, as a straight
through cable from the BT plug (which uses pins 2 and 5 for the line, unlike RJ11, which uses
pins 3 and 4).

List of plugs---Modular connectors

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 4P4C and 4P2C for handset cables (often erroneously referred to as RJ9, RJ10, and RJ22)
 6P2C for RJ11 single telephone line

 6P4C for RJ14 two telephone lines

 6P6C for RJ25 three telephone lines

 8P8C for RJ61X four telephone lines

Other connectors

50-pin miniature ribbon connector for RJ21X, used for up to 25 lines for multiline phones
such as the ITT 2564, key telephone systems such as the 1A2 Key System, and PBX systems.

International standards National standards


1. RJ11, by far the most common. WT-4
2. BS 6312, British. RJ11
3. F-010, French. Cable holes
4. TAE connector, German.

Traditionally, the 5th plastic pin disconnects 1 μF capacitor that shorts telephone line
while plug is not inserted into socket. In modern makes it does nothing electrical, and capacitor
compartment was reused for additional RJ11 socket.

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UNIT III

SITE SURVEY:

A site survey is an inspection of an area where work is proposed, to gather information


for a design or an estimate to complete the initial tasks required for an outdoor activity. It can

DEPARTMENT OF E&C Page 27


determine a precise location, access, best orientation for the site and the location of obstacles.
The type of site survey and the best practices required depend on the nature of the
project. Examples of projects requiring a preliminary site survey include urban
construction, specialized construction (such as the location for a telescope) and wireless
network design.

In hydrocarbon exploration, for example, site surveys are run over the proposed locations
of offshore exploration or appraisal wells.[5] They consist typically of a tight grid of high
resolution (high frequency) reflection seismology profiles to look for possible gas hazards in the
shallow section beneath the seabed and detailed bathymetric data to look for possible obstacles
on the seafloor (e.g. shipwrecks, existing pipelines) using multiband echo sounders

SATELLITE DISH INSTALLATIONS

Even a small 18 inch dish can excerpt a lot of force on a dish mast. The mast must be
secured to withstand years of wind loading. A dish mast installed on a traditional wood framed
structure should be secured with 6 lag screws. Two in the center secured into a wall stud or roof
rafter, and four secured in the corners of the mount.

When a solid wood beam or post is available, four lag screws on the corners are usually
sufficient. When mounting to brick or concrete, four corner anchors are sufficient. Masts should
not be attached with wood, sheet rock or sheet metal screws.

Only lag screws at least 5/16" in diameter should be used and they should be long enough
to set at least 2 inches into solid wood. At least two lag screws in the middle of the mount
should be set into a wall stud of roof rafter. 1/4" inch diameter lag screws should never be used,
they can loosen over a few years resulting in a loss of picture with wind.

Some form of sealant should be used on all wall / roof mast installations. The only
exception would be if the mounting service was treated wood. An appropriate sealant for the

DEPARTMENT OF E&C Page 28


mounting service should always be selected. Using silicone sealant on a asphalt roof should
never be allowed. If you read the instructions for the proper use of silicone sealant it says
something similar to; "Apply to a clean, grease free surface". Asphalt roofing IS a grease
surface. The silicone will stick to the rocks on the roofing, but will never form a water tight seal
to the roofing base. For asphalt roofing, roof patch tar or a material designed for sealing to
asphalt should be used. A good tar alternative is a pitch pad compound. The rubber/tar like
compound acts as gasket between the mount and the roof.

This particular install was only 6 months old and was already loose.

The sealant is placed between the siding and the mount. Excess sealant is removed. This
particular sealant will dry clear. Notice the 6 -5/16" lag screws securing the mount to the wall.

Ground post should always be metal pipe. Wood post not secured at both ends can twist
as they cure and with seasonal changes. The dish in image 8 had to be realigned after 6 months.
The wood post twisted enough to lower the signal level to the mid 40's. The dish in image 9 will
never need to be aligned due to mast movement. All ground post should be set in concrete. A
pin should also be inserted through the pipe to eliminate the chance of the pipe turning in the
concrete. All ground post installs are not considered part of a basic or standard installation.
Additional installation fees will be required. Never allow your installer to simply pound the
pipe into the ground. It must be in concrete or a special pole designed for a cement-less
installation.

DISH ROOF AND WALL MOUNTS

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Bracket for a shelf or hanging items.

A bracket is an architectural element: a structural or decorative member. They can be


made of wood, stone, or meta that projects from a wall, usually to carry weight and sometimes
to "...strengthen an angle". A corbel and console are types of brackets.

Uses

Brackets can support many architectural items, including a wall, balcony, parapets, eaves,
the spring of an arch, beams, pergola roof, window box, or a shelf. In adjustable
shelving systems, the bracket may be in two parts, with the load-bearing horizontal support
fitting into a wall-mounted slotted vertical metal strip. Brackets also are an element in the
systems used to mount modern facade cladding systems onto the outside of contemporary
buildings, as well as interior panels.

Architectural sculptures

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Brackets are used in traditional timber framing including the support of a jetted
floor which can be carved. Magdalene Street, Cambridge, England. Sixteenth century

Brackets are often in the form of architectural sculptures with reliefs of objects and
scrolls. Depending on their material, decorated ones can be carved, cast, or molded. They can
be of cast stone or resin-foam materials with faux finishes for use on new buildings in historic
revival styles of architecture. Some brackets and corbels are only ornamental, and serve no
actual supporting purpose.

ADJUSTING THE AZIMUTH AND ELEVATION SETTINGS

It is an angular measurement in a spherical. The vector from an observer (origin) to a


point of interest is projected perpendicularly onto a reference plane; the angle between the
projected vector and a reference vector on the reference plane is called the azimuth.

An example is the position of a star in the sky. The star is the point of interest, the
reference plane is the horizon or the surface of the sea, and the reference vector points north.
The azimuth is the angle between the north vector and the perpendicular projection of the star
down onto the horizon. Azimuth is usually measured in degrees (°). The concept is used
in navigation, astronomy, engineering, mapping, mining and artillery.

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In land navigation, azimuth is usually denoted alpha, , and defined as a horizontal angle
measured clockwise from a north base line or meridian. Azimuth has also been more generally
defined as a horizontal angle measured clockwise from any fixed reference plane or easily
established base direction line.

Today the reference plane for an azimuth is typically true north, measured as a 0°
azimuth, though other angular units (grad, mil) can be used. Moving clockwise on a 360 degree
circle, east has azimuth 90°, south 180°, and west 270°. There are exceptions: some navigation
systems use south as the reference plane. Any direction can be the plane of reference, as long as
it is clearly defined.

Quite commonly, azimuths or compass bearings are stated in a system in which either
north or south can be the zero, or the angle may be measured clockwise or anticlockwise from
the zero.

True north-based azimuths

From North
North 0° or 360° South 180°
North-Northeast 22.5° South-Southwest 202.5°
Northeast 45° Southwest 225°
East-Northeast 67.5° West-Southwest 247.5°
East 90° West 270°
East-Southeast 112.5° West-Northwest 292.5°
Southeast 135° Northwest 315°
South-Southeast 157.5° North-Northwest 337.5°

Mapping

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A standard Brunton Geo compass, used commonly by geologists and surveyors to
measure azimuth

There are a wide variety of azimuthally map projections. They all have the property that
directions (the azimuths) from a central point are preserved. Some navigation systems use
south as the reference plane. However, any direction can serve as the plane of reference, as
long as it is clearly defined for everyone using that system.

Astronomy

Used in celestial navigation, an azimuth is the direction of a celestial body from the
observer.[7] In astronomy, an azimuth is sometimes referred to as a bearing. In
modern astronomy azimuth is nearly always measured from the north. (The article on
coordinate systems, for example, uses a convention measuring from the south.) In former times,
it was common to refer to azimuth from the south, as it was then zero at the same time that
the hour angle of a star was zero. This assumes, however, that the star (upper) culminates in the
south, which is only true if the star's declination is less than (i.e. further south than) the
observer's latitude.

Other systems

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Right ascension

If instead of measuring from and along the horizon the angles are measured from and
along the celestial equator, the angles are called right ascension if referenced to the Vernal
Equinox, or hour angle if referenced to the celestial meridian.

Horizontal coordinate

In the horizontal coordinate system, used in celestial navigation and satellite


dish installation, azimuth is one of the twocoordinates. The other is altitude, sometimes called
elevation above the horizon. See also: Sat finder.

Polar coordinate

In mathematics the azimuth angle of a point in cylindrical coordinates or spherical


coordinates is the anticlockwise anglebetween the positive x-axis and the projection of
the vector onto the xy-plane. The angle is the same as an angle in polar coordinates of the
component of the vector in the xy-plane and is normally measured in radians rather than
degrees. As well as measuring the angle differently, in mathematical applications theta, , is
very often used to represent the azimuth rather than the symbol phi .

Other uses of the word

For magnetic tape drives, azimuth refers to the angle between the tape head(s) and tape.

In sound localization experiments and literature, the azimuth refers to the angle the sound
source makes compared to the imaginary straight line that is drawn from within the head
through the area between the eyes.

An azimuth thruster in shipbuilding is a propeller that can be rotated horizontally.

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DEPARTMENT OF E&C Page 34


UNIT-IV
DISH ANTENNA CONNECTION PROCEDURES:
 Unless you qualify for a 'free' promotional offer from one of the major
satellite TV service providers, a satellite dish installation by a pro may cost
you at least a couple of hundred dollars, especially in the case of a roof-top
antenna installation.

DEPARTMENT OF E&C Page 35


 However, installing a dish antenna yourself is not difficult. This guide shows
you in an easy-to-follow approach, how to select your dish, choose the best
location, install, and eventually fine tune your satellite TV antenna for best
reception.
 Invest some time prior to choosing your satellite dish to avoid unnecessary
expense later on; the type of satellite dish you use and satellite TV decoder
you purchase now will eventually determine the kind of satellite TV
programming you will be able to receive with your satellite TV system.

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 Low Noise Block-down Converters Equally important is deciding on
the number of LNBs. LNB's/LNBF are low noise 'block' down-converters. An
LNBF is an LNB with an integrated feedhorn.
 Most LNB's in use today are actually LNBF's. The term 'low noise' relates to
the quality of the amplification and mixing that takes place inside the LNB.
 LNB's sit in front of the actual parabola of the satellite dish, at the end of the
arm projecting from the dish itself.
 Their purpose is to receive, amplify and down convert the required 'blocks' of
microwave frequencies to lower 950MHz to 1.45GHz L-band frequency
signals; these are then sent to the satellite TV receiver or IRD (integrated
receiver decoder), via RG-6 coax cable (more information on RF coaxial
cables is available on our site here.)
 The number of LNBs determines the number of satellites a satellite dish can
'see' since a separate LNB is required to receive signals from satellites in
different orbital positions. Satellite TV service providers use multiple satellites
to deliver their content, hence the need for multiple LNBs to receive the full
range of satellite TV programming.
 LNB's use an antenna probe inside the feedhorn to pick up the signal focused
by the satellite dish.
 The probe has to be aligned mechanically in a vertical or horizontal direction
(or left and right hand circular polarization for DBS satellites), in line with the
polarization of the signal transmitted by the satellite transponders.
 This dual polarization is used by satellites to avoid interference between
adjacent channels, and is achieved by assigning even and odd transponders on
the satellite different polarization.

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 LNBF's employ a dual antenna probe setup inside the throat of the feedhorn
with one aligned vertically and the other horizontally (or left and right).
 Switching to the correct polarized probe is carried out electronically via a
voltage sent up the coaxial cable by the receiver.

PRECAUTIONS WHILE INSTALLING THE DTH SYSTEM

Safety
 DTH Corporation is committed to providing our employees with a safe and
healthful workplace. Our organization understands that safety is one of the
keys to a successful business operation, it demands responsible and
competent professionals.
 At DTH Corporation, each employee is expected to perform his or her job in
a safe manner and in accordance with the procedures outlined in our safety
program.
 All feasible and practical efforts are made to protect the lives of our
employees. Organizational policy requires employees and supervisors to
report unsafe conditions as well as any accidents and/or injuries.
 Employee-made requests to improve safety are made a priority by our
management team, and management provides the financial resources for any
reasonable request for safety.
 DTH Corporation develops a detailed and specific safety plan for each
project we perform. These plans are aimed at meeting or exceeding the
requirements of our clients and address topics ranging from responsibility and
lines of authority to lock-out/tag-out procedures.
DEPARTMENT OF E&C Page 38
 As part of our commitment to safety, DTH Corporation provides
comprehensive, project specific safety training throughout the lifecycle of
each project. Our training sessions are mandatory for all project personnel,
and subcontractor employees are invited to attend.
Quality Control
 It is DTH Corporations policy to obtain the highest level of quality and
workmanship in services performed in the projects we manage and construct.
Our team takes pride in its workmanship and strives to cover all aspects
within the Quality Control Program. This policy is implemented through our
company’s specific Quality Control Plan, which monitors and measures
performance though the project lifecycle.
 DTH Corporations Quality Control Program establishes procedures for the
scheduled and unscheduled inspection and review of all items of work
including management, design, and construction services to ensure that the
quality of materials, equipment, workmanship and warranty service comply
with the provisions and specifications of each project. Our Quality Control
plans apply to DTH Corporations employees, subcontractors, and vendors
providing on-site or off-site materials, equipment and/or services.
 At DTH Corporation, our employees complete the Corps of Engineers
Training Course, Construction Quality Management for Contractors.
 Additional quality control processes include: preparation and implementation
of a customized Quality Control Plan; submittal preparation, review
certification and submission; quality control meetings; performance of the

DEPARTMENT OF E&C Page 39


three phases of control; performance of testing; project acceptance
procedures; documentation; warranty response; and customer service program
implementation.

TROUBLE SHOOTING

1. Check that All Components are On


Check that your DISH receiver, your TV, and any component(s) (VCR, DVD
Player, etc.) in between are on.
2. Check for Current TV Channel or Input
Check what channel or input your TV is currently on by powering the TV off
then back on and noting the channel or input that appears on screen when the
TV is powered on.
3. Check that TV2 is on Correct Channel
Access "Modulator Setup" from TV1 by selecting Menu, System Setup,
Installation, Modulator Setup.
Tune TV2 to the channel that appears under "TV2 Out" on screen (channel
may appear on TV2 remote sticker).
If still no picture, verify the mode (air or cable) that TV2 is on. Then change
the modulator setup to match this mode (air or cable).
After changing modulator setup, tune TV2 to the channel that appears under
"TV2 Out" on screen.
4. Check Receiver-to-TV Configuration

DEPARTMENT OF E&C Page 40


Check that the wiring between your DISH receiver and your TV is configured
properly using Receiver to TV2.
5. Secure Receiver-to-TV Connections
Check that the connections between your DISH receiver, your TV, and any
componenet (s) (VCR, DVD player, etc.) in between are secure.
6. Reset Receiver
If the issue is only on ONE receiver, unplug the DISH receiver for 10 seconds
and plug back in.
Please note: It may take up to 5 minutes for the reset process to be completed.
7. Check for Obstruction to Dish
Check for anything obstructing the signal to your satellite dish such as tree
branches, severe rain, or snow build-up. If it is safe to do so, remove the
obstruction or wait for it to pass.
8. Reset Receiver
If the issue is only on ONE receiver, unplug the DISH receiver for 10 seconds
and plug back in.
Please note: It may take up to 5 minutes for the reset process to be completed.
9. Check Receiver-to-Wall Configuration
If issue is only on ONE receiver, check that the wiring between your DISH
receiver and your wall outlet is configured properly using the Receiver to Wall
diagrams.
10. Secure Receiver-to-Wall Connections

DEPARTMENT OF E&C Page 41


If you are experiencing the issue on only ONE receiver, check that the
connections between your DISH receiver, the wall, and any devices in
between are hand tight.

LNB TESTING

A communications satellite or com-sat is an artificial satellite sent to space


for the purpose of telecommunications. Modern communications satellites use a
variety of orbits including geostationary orbits, Molina orbits, elliptical orbits and
low (polar and non-polar) Earth orbits.

For fixed (point-to-point) services, communications satellites provide


a microwave radio relay technology complementary to that of communication
cables. They are also used for mobile applications such as communications to ships,
vehicles, planes and hand-held terminals, and for TV and radio broadcasting.

Today's satellite communications can trace their origins all the way back to the
Moon. A project named Communication Moon Relay was a telecommunication
project carried out by the United States Navy. Its objective was to develop a secure
and reliable method of wireless communication by using the Moon as a natural
communications satellite.

The first artificial satellite used solely to further advances in global


communications was a balloon named Echo 1. Echo 1 was the world's first artificial
communications satellite capable of relaying signals to other points on Earth. It
soared 1,000 miles (1,609 km) above the planet after its Aug. 12, 1960 launch, yet
relied on humanity's oldest flight technology — ballooning. Launched by NASA,
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Echo 1 was a giant metallic balloon 100 feet (30 meters) across. The world's first
inflatable satellite — or "sate loon", as they were informally known — helped lay
the foundation of today's satellite communications. The idea behind a
communications satellite is simple: Send data up into space and beam it back down
to another spot on the globe. Echo 1 accomplished this by essentially serving as an
enormous mirror 10 stories tall that could be used to bounce communications
signals off of.

The first American satellite to relay communications was Project SCORE in


1958, which used a tape recorder to store and forward voice messages. It was used
to send a Christmas greeting to the world from U.S. President Dwight D.
Eisenhower.NASA launched the Echo satellite in 1960; the 100-foot (30 m)
aluminized PET film balloon served as a passive reflector for radio
communications. Courier 1B, built by Phil co, also launched in 1960, was the
world's first active repeater satellite.

It is commonly believed that the first "communications" satellite was Sputnik


1. Put into orbit by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957, it was equipped with an
onboard radio-transmitter that worked on two frequencies: 20.005 and 40.002 MHz.
Sputnik 1 was launched as a step in the exploration of space and rocket
development. While incredibly important it was not placed in orbit for the purpose
of sending data from one point on earth to another. Hence, it was not the first
"communications" satellite, but it was the first artificial satellite in the steps leading
to today's satellite communications.

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Telstar was the first active, direct relay communications satellite. Belonging
to AT&T as part of a multi-national agreement between AT&T, Bell Telephone
Laboratories, NASA, the British General Post Office, and the French National
PTT (Post Office) to develop satellite communications, it was launched by NASA
from Cape Canaveral on July 10, 1962, the first privately sponsored space
launch. Relay 1 was launched on December 13, 1962, and became the first satellite
to broadcast across the Pacific on November 22, 1963.

An immediate antecedent of the geostationary satellites was Hughes' Syncom


2, launched on July 26, 1963. Sitcom 2 revolved around the earth once per day at
constant speed, but because it still had north-south motion, special equipment was
needed to track it.

Geostationary orbits

Geostationary orbit

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To an observer on the earth, a satellite in a geostationary orbit appears
motionless, in a fixed position in the sky. This is because it revolves around the
earth at the earth's own angular velocity (360 degrees every 24 hours, in
an equatorial orbit).

A geostationary orbit is useful for communications because ground antennas


can be aimed at the satellite without their having to track the satellite's motion. This
is relatively inexpensive. In applications that require a large number of ground
antennas, such as Direct TV distribution, the savings in ground equipment can more
than outweigh the cost and complexity of placing a satellite into orbit.

The first geostationary satellite was Syncom 3, launched on August 19, 1964,
and used for communication across the Pacific starting with television coverage of
the 1964 Summer Olympics. Shortly after Syncom 3, Intelsat I, aka Early Bird, was
launched on April 6, 1965 and placed in orbit at 28° west longitude. It was the first
geostationary satellite for telecommunications over the Atlantic Ocean.

On November 9, 1972, Canada's first geostationary satellite serving the


continent, Akin A1, was launched by Telecast Canada, with the United States
following suit with the launch of Westar 1 by Western Union on April 13, 1974.

On May 30, 1974, the first geostationary communications satellite in the


world to be three-axis stabilized was launched: the experimental satellite ATS-
6 built for NASA

After the launches of the Telstar through Westar 1 satellites, RCA Americom (later
GE Americom, nowSES) launched Satcom 1 in 1975. It was Satcom 1 that was

DEPARTMENT OF E&C Page 45


instrumental in helping early TV channels such as WTBS (now TBS
Superstation), HBO, CBN (now ABC Family), and The Wet Channel become
successful, because these channels distributed their programming to all of the local
cable TV head ends using the satellite. Additionally, it was the first satellite used by
broadcast television networks in the United States, like ABC, NBC, and CBS, to
distribute programming to their local affiliate stations. Satcom 1 was widely used
because it had twice the communications capacity of the competing Westar 1 in
America (24 transponders as opposed to the 12 of Westar 1), resulting in lower
transponder-usage costs. Satellites in later decades tended to have even higher
transponder numbers.

Low-Earth-orbiting satellites

Low Earth orbit in Cyan

A low Earth orbit (LEO) typically is a circular orbit about 200 kilo metres
(120 mi) above the earth's surface and, correspondingly, a period (time to revolve

DEPARTMENT OF E&C Page 46


around the earth) of about 90 minutes. Because of their low altitude, these satellites
are only visible from within a radius of roughly 1000 kilometers from the sub-
satellite point. In addition, satellites in low earth orbit change their position relative
to the ground position quickly. So even for local applications, a large number of
satellites are needed if the mission requires uninterrupted connectivity.

Low-Earth-orbiting satellites are less expensive to launch into orbit than


geostationary satellites and, due to proximity to the ground, do not require as high
signal (Recall that signal strength falls off as the square of the distance from the
source, so the effect is dramatic). Thus there is a tradeoff between the number of
satellites and their cost. In addition, there are important differences in the onboard
and ground equipment needed to support the two types of missions.

A group of satellites working in concert is known as a satellite constellation.


Two such constellations, intended to provide satellite services, primarily to remote
areas, are the Iridium and Global star systems. The Iridium system has 66 satellites.

It is also possible to offer discontinuous coverage using a low-Earth-orbit


satellite capable of storing data received while passing over one part of Earth and
transmitting it later while passing over another part. This will be the case with the
CASCADE system of Canada's CASSIOPE communications satellite. Another
system using this store and forward method is Orbcomm.
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DEPARTMENT OF E&C Page 47


UNIT V

DD DIRECT PLUS

DD Free Dish (formerly DD Direct+, known colloquially as Doordarshan DTH)[1] is


an Indian free-to-air digital direct-broadcast television service owned and operated by the state-
controlled public service broadcaster Prasar Bharati (Doordarshan). It is the only free-to-air
satellite television service in India. Free Dish has about 9 million subscribers and its free-to-air
service covers 81% of India’s geographical area via 1415 transmitters.

Free Dish is India's satellite television service.

Free Dish currently offers around 59 television channels and 25 radio stations. Major
international news-channels in the Doordarshan DTH are France 24, NHK World, ABC
News, DW-TV and Russia Today. Channels such as BBC World News, CNN and KBS
World were previously included in the Doordarshan DTH.

Free Dish is available in Ku-Band on INSAT-4B having 5 streams of channels with


different downlink frequencies. This Ku-Band DTH service provides the TV coverage
throughout the Indian territory (except Andaman and Nicobar Islands).

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Doordarshan DTH satellite slots are much sought after by the Indian private television
channels as it paves the way for obtaining a pan-India viewership. Prasar Bharati adopted the e-
auction system for filling slots in 2011 with a minimum reserve price around Rs. 3 core.

A separate DTH service in C-Band with a bouquet of 10 channels has also been provided
by Doordarshan exclusively for Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which is also free to Air. This C-
Band DTH service is available on INSAT-4B with downlink frequency of 3925 MHz

SATELLITE USES

In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an artificial object which has been intentionally
placed into orbit. Such objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them
from natural satellites such as the Moon.

The world's first artificial satellite, the Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet Union in
1957. Since then, thousands of satellites have been launched into orbit around the Earth. Some
satellites, notably space stations, have been launched in parts and assembled in orbit. Artificial
satellites originate from more than 50 countries and have used the satellite launching
capabilities of ten nations.

A few hundred satellites are currently operational, whereas thousands of unused satellites
and satellite fragments orbit the Earth as space debris. A few space probes have been placed into
orbit around other bodies and become artificial satellites to the Moon,
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Vesta, Eros, and the Sun.

Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military and
civilian Earth observation satellites, satellites, navigation, weather satellites, and research

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satellites. stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Satellite orbits vary greatly,
depending on the purpose of the satellite, and are classified in a number of ways. Well-known
(overlapping) classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary.

About 6,600 satellites have been launched. The latest estimates are that 3,600 remain in
orbit. Of those, about 1,000 are operational;[2][3] the rest have lived out their useful lives and are
part of the space debris. Approximately 500 operational satellites are in low-Earth orbit, 50 are
in medium-Earth orbit (at 20,000 km), the rest are in geostationary orbit (at 36,000 km).[4]

Satellites are propelled by rockets to their orbits. Usually the launch vehicle itself is a
rocket lifting off from a launch pad on land. In a minority of cases satellites are launched at sea
(from a submarine or a mobile maritime platform) or aboard a plane (see air launch to orbit).

Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled systems. Satellite


subsystems attend many tasks, such as power generation, thermal control, telemetry, attitude
control and orbit control.

He calculated the orbital speed required for a minimal orbit around the Earth at 8 km/s,
and that a multi-stage rocket fuelled by liquid propellants could be used to achieve this. He
proposed the use of hydrogen and liquid oxygen, though other combinations can be used.

He described the use of orbiting spacecraft for detailed peaceful and military observation
of the ground and described how the special conditions of space could be useful for scientific
experiments. The book described geostationary satellites (first put forward by Tsiolkovsky) and
discussed communication between them and the ground using radio, but fell short of the idea of
using satellites for mass broadcasting and as telecommunications relays.

In a 1945 Wireless World article, the English science fiction writer Arthur C.
Clarke (1917–2008) described in detail the possible use of communications satellites for mass
communications. Clarke examined the logistics of satellite launch, possible orbits and other
aspects of the creation of a network of world-circling satellites, pointing to the benefits of high-

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speed global communications. He also suggested that three geostationary satellites would
provide coverage over the entire planet. The US military studied the idea of what was referred
to as the earth satellite vehicle when Secretary of Defense James Forrestal made a public
announcement on December 29, 1948, that his office was coordinating that project between the
various services.

History of artificial satellites

Sputnik 1: The first artificial satellite to orbit Earth.

The first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet Union on October 4,
1957, and initiating the Soviet Sputnik program, with Sergei Korolev as chief designer (there is
a crater on the lunar far side which bears his name). This in turn triggered the Space
Race between the Soviet Union and the United States.

Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high atmospheric layers through measurement
of its orbital change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere. The
unanticipated announcement of Sputnik 1's success precipitated the Sputnik crisis in the United
States and ignited the so-called Space Race within the Cold War.

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In May, 1946, Project RAND had released the Preliminary Design of an Experimental
World-Circling Spaceship, which stated, "A satellite vehicle with appropriate instrumentation
can be expected to be one of the most potent scientific tools of the Twentieth Century." [10] The
United States had been considering launching orbital satellites since 1945 under the Bureau of
Aeronautics of the United States Navy. The United States Air Force's Project RAND eventually
released the above report, but did not believe that the satellite was a potential military weapon;
rather, they considered it to be a tool for science, politics, and propaganda. In 1954, the
Secretary of Defense stated, "I know of no American satellite program."[11]

On July 29, 1955, the White House announced that the U.S. intended to launch satellites
by the spring of 1958. This became known as Project Vanguard. On July 31, the Soviets
announced that they intended to launch a satellite by the fall of 1957.

Following pressure by the American Rocket Society, the National Science Foundation,
and the International Geophysical Year, military interest picked up and in early 1955 the Army
and Navy were working on Project Orbiter, two competing programs: the army's which
involved using a Jupiter C rocket, and the civilian/Navy Vanguard Rocket, to launch a satellite.
At first, they failed: initial preference was given to the Vanguard program, whose first attempt at
orbiting a satellite resulted in the explosion of the launch vehicle on national television. But
finally, three months after Sputnik 2, the project succeeded; Explorer 1 became the United
States' first artificial satellite on January 31, 1958.

In June 1961, three-and-a-half years after the launch of Sputnik 1, the Air Force used
resources of the United States Space Surveillance Network to catalog 115 Earth-orbiting
satellites.

Early satellites were constructed as "one-off" designs. With growth


in geosynchronous (GEO) satellite communication, multiple satellites began to be built
on single model platforms called satellite buses. The first standardized satellite bus design was
the HS-333 GEO comm. sat, launched in 1972.
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The largest artificial satellite currently orbiting the Earth is the International Space
Station.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER DTH SYSTEMS

Direct-broadcast satellite (DBS) is a term used to refer to satellite television broadcasts


intended for home reception.

A designation broader than DBS would be direct-to-home signals, or DTH. This has
initially distinguished the transmissions directly intended for home viewers from cable
television distribution services that are sometimes carried on the same satellite. The term DTH
predates DBS and is often used in reference to services carried by lower power satellites which
required larger dishes (1.7 m diameter or greater) for reception.

In Europe, prior to the launch of Astra 1A in 1988, the term DBS was commonly used to
describe the nationally commissioned satellites planned and launched to provide television
broadcasts to the home within several European countries (such as BSB in the United
Kingdom and TV-Sat in Germany). These services were to use the D-Mac and D2-Mac format
and BSS frequencies with circular polarization from orbital positions allocated to each country.
Before these DBS satellites, home satellite television in Europe was limited to a few channels,
really intended for cable distribution, and requiring dishes typically of 1.2m.

SES launched the Astra 1A satellite to provide services to homes across Europe
receivable on dishes of just 60-80 cm and, although these mostly used PAL video format and
FSS frequencies with linear polarization, the DBS name slowly came to applied to all Astra
satellites and services too.

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Terminology confusion

As a technical matter, DBS (also known by the International Telecommunication Union


as Broadcasting Satellite Service, or BSS) refers only to services transmitted by satellite in
specific frequency bands: 11.7-12.2 GHz in ITU Region 3 (Asia and Australia), 10.7 - 12.75
GHz in ITU Region 1 (Europe, Russia and Africa), and 12.2-12.7 GHz ITU Region 2
(North and South America). In 1977, the ITU adopted an international BSS Plan under which
each country was allocated specific frequencies at specific orbital locations for domestic
service. Over the years, this plan has been modified to, for example, accommodate new
countries, increase coverage areas, and reflect digital (rather than analog) technology. At
present, numerous countries have brought into use their BSS Plan allocations.

By contrast, DTH can apply to similar services transmitted over a wider range of
frequencies (including standard Ku band and Ka band) transmitted from satellites that are not
part of any internationally planned band. Nonetheless, the term DBS is often used
interchangeably with DTH to cover both analog and digital video and audio services
(including video-on-demand and interactive features) received by relatively small dishes (less
than 1 meter). A "DBS service" usually refers to either a commercial service or a group of free
channels available from one orbital position targeting one country. In certain regions of the
world, especially in North America, DBS is used to refer to providers of subscription satellite
packages, and has become applied to the entire equipment chain involved.

Commercial DBS services

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Astor satellite dishes

The second commercial DBS service, Sky Television plc (now BSkyB after its merger
with British Satellite Broadcasting's five-channel network), was launched in 1989. Sky TV
started as a four-channel free-to-air analogue service on the Astra 1A satellite, serving
both Ireland and the United Kingdom. By 1991, Sky had changed to a conditional access pay
model, and launched a digital service, Sky Digital, in 1998, with analogue transmission ceasing
in 2001. Since the DBS nomenclature is rarely used in the UK or Ireland, the popularity of
Sky's service has caused the terms "mini dish" and "digi box" to be applied to products other
than Sky's hardware. News Corporation has a 32% stake in BSkyB.

Prime Star began transmitting an analog service to North America in 1991, and was
joined by DirecTV (then owned by a division of General Motors, GM Hughes Electronics), in
1994. At the time, DirecTV's introduction was the most successful consumer electronics debut
in American history. Although Prime Star transitioned to a digital system in 1994, it was
ultimately unable to compete with DirecTV, which required a smaller satellite dish and could
deliver more programming. Direct TV purchased Prime Star in 1999 and moved all of that
provider's subscribers to DirecTV equipment. In a series of transactions consummated in

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2003, Hughes Electronics was spun out of GM and the News Corporation purchased a
controlling interest in the new company, which was renamed The DIRECTV Group. In
2008, Liberty Media Corporation purchased News Corporation's controlling interest in
DirecTV.

In 1996, EchoStar's Dish Network went online in the United States and, as DirecTV's
primary competitor, achieved similar success. AlphaStar also started but soon went
under. Astro was also started, using a direct broadcast satellite system.

Dominion Video Satellite Inc.'s Sky Angel launched on a satellite platform in the United
States in 1996, with its DBS service geared toward the faith and family market. It grew from six
to 36 television and radio channels of family entertainment, Christian-inspirational
programming, and 24-hour news services. Dominion, under its former corporate name Video
Satellite Systems Inc., was actually the second from among the first nine companies to apply to
the FCC for a high-power DBS license in 1981, and it was the sole surviving DBS company
from the first round of applicants until the sale of their license to EchoStar Communications
Corporation in 2007 and departure from satellite distribution in 2008. Sky Angel, although a
separate and independent DBS service, used the same satellites, transmission facilities and
receiving equipment used for Dish Network through an agreement with Echo star. Because of
this, Sky Angel subscribers also had the option of subscribing to Dish Network's channels as
well.

In 2003, EchoStar attempted to purchase DirecTV, but the FCC and U.S. Department of
Justice denied the purchase based on anti-competitive concerns.

As of 2013, India has the most competitive direct-broadcast satellite market with seven
operators (six private DTH and one Government-owned FTA DTH) vying for more than 110
million television homes. Subscribers to India's six private direct-to-home (DTH) satellite
television providers have now reached 56.5 million, according to the latest figures issued by the
Telecom Regulations Authority of India (TRAI)on 31st March 2013.
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Free DBS services

Germany is likely the leader in free-to-air (FTA) DBS, with approximately 200 digital
FTA channels (including 18 HDTV channels and various regional channels) broadcast from
the Astra 19.2°E satellite constellation. These are not marketed as a DBS service, but are
received in approximately 12 million homes, as well as in any home using the Sky Deutschland
commercial DBS system. All German analogue satellite broadcasts ceased on April 30, 2012. [1]
[2]

The United Kingdom has approximately 160 digital channels (including the regional
variations of BBC channels, ITV channels, Channel 4 and Channel 5) are broadcast without
encryption from the Astra 28.2°E satellite constellation, and receivable on any DVB-S-
compliant receiver (a DVB-S2 receiver is required for certain high definition television
services). Most of these channels are included within the Sky EPG, and an increasing number
within the Free sat EPG.India's national broadcaster, Doordarshan, promotes a free-to-air DBS
package as "DD Direct Plus", which is provided as in-fill for the country's terrestrial
transmission network. It is broadcast from Insat 4B at 93.5°E and contains about 57 FTA
channels.

RECEPTION OF DD DIRECT PLUS

DD Free Dish (formerly DD Direct+, known colloquially as Doordarshan DTH)[1] is


an Indian free-to-air digital direct-broadcast satellite television service owned and operated by
the state-controlled public service broadcasterPrasar Bharati (Doordarshan). It is the only free-
to-air satellite television service in India. Free Dish has about 9 million subscribers and its free-
to-air service covers 81% of India’s geographical area via 1415 transmitters.

Free Dish currently offers around 59 television channels and 25 radio stations. Major
international news-channels in the Doordarshan DTH are France 24, NHK World, ABC

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News, DW-TV and Russia Today. Channels such as BBC World News, CNN and KBS
World were previously included in the Doordarshan DTH.

Free Dish is available in Ku-Band on INSAT-4B having 5 streams of channels with


different downlink frequencies. This Ku-Band DTH service provides the TV coverage
throughout the Indian territory (except Andaman and Nicobar Islands). Doordarshan DTH
satellite slots are much sought after by the Indian private television channels as it paves the way
for obtaining a pan-India viewership. Prasar Bharati adopted the e-auction system for filling
slots in 2011 with a minimum reserve price around Rs. 3 core.

A separate DTH service in C-Band with a bouquet of 10 channels has also been provided
by Doordarshan exclusively for Andaman, which is also Free to Air. This C-Band DTH service
is available on INSAT-4B with downlink frequency of 3925 MHz

RECEIVER INSTALLATION—(In technology)

 The listening device part of a telephone


o The handset that sometimes contains the above device

o The headset (audio) that can also contain the above device.

 AV receiver, part of a home theater system

 Digital media receiver

 Receiver (firearms), which houses the working parts of the firearm

 Receiver (modulated ultrasound), a device that converts a modulated ultrasonic wave into
usable information

 Receiver (radio), an electronic device that converts a signal from a modulated radio wave
into usable information

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o Tuner (radio)

 Television set

o Tuner (television)

 Tuner (electronics)

 Receiver (video game), a first-person shooter

 In receivership, a person appointed as a custodian of another entity's property by a court


of law or a creditor of the owner, pending a lawsuit or bankruptcy

 Metropolitan Police Receiver, formerly the chief financial officer of the London
Metropolitan Police

 Receiver of Wreck, an official of the Maritime and Coastguard Agency of the United
Kingdom, who is concerned with the management of wrecked ships and boats

 Wide receiver, an offensive position in American and Canadian football leagues

 A type of midfielder in Australian rules football

 A person who receives goods in a distribution center

TV/RADIO C HANNELS ON DD

Doordarshan is an Indian public service broadcaster, a division of Prasad Bharati. It is


one of the largest broadcasting organizations in India in terms of the
studio and transmitter infrastructure. Recently, it has also started broadcasting on Digital
Terrestrial Transmitters. On September 15, 2009, Doordarshan celebrated its 50th anniversary.

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The DD provides television, radio, online and mobile services throughout metropolitan
and regional India, as well as overseas through the Indian Network and Radio India. For
the London Olympics, live telecasts of the opening and closing ceremonies of the games were
broadcast on its national channel. DD sports channel has provided round the clock coverage of
sport events.

Doordarshan had a modest beginning with an experimental telecast starting in Delhi on


15 September 1959, with a small transmitter and a makeshift studio. The regular daily
transmission started in 1965 as a part of All India Radio.

Doordarshan began a five-minute news bulletin in the same year in 1965. Pratima Puri
was the first newsreader. Selma Sultan joined Doordarshan in 1967 and later became a news
anchor.

The television service was extended to Bombay (now Mumbai) and Amritsar in 1972. Up
until 1975, only seven Indian cities had a television service and Doordarshan remained the sole
provider of television in India.

Television services were separated from radio on April 1, 1976. [2] Each office of All India
Radio and Doordarshan were placed under the management of two separate Director Generals
in New Delhi. Finally, in 1982, Doordarshan as a National Broadcaster came into
existence. Krishi Darshan was the first program telecast on Doordarshan. It commenced on
January 26, 1967 and is one of the longest running programs on Indian television.

Nationwide transmission

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National telecasts were introduced in 1982. In the same year, colour TV was introduced
in the Indian market with the live telecast of the Independence Day speech by then prime
minister Indira Gandhi on 15 August 1982, followed by the 1982 Asian Games which were held
in Delhi. Now more than 90 percent of the Indian population can receive Doordarshan (DD
National) programmers through a network of nearly 1,400 terrestrial transmitters. There are
about 46 Doordarshan studios producing TV programmers today.

Channels

Doordarshan operates 21 channels – two All India channels - DD National and DD News,
11 Regional language Satellite Channels (RLSC), four State Networks (SN), an International
channel, a Sports Channel DD Sports and two channels Rajya Sabha TV & Lok Sabha TV for
live broadcast of parliamentary proceedings.

On DD National aka (DD-1), Regional programs and Local Programs are carried on
time-sharing basis. DD News channel, launched on 3 November 2003, which replaced the DD
Metro formally known as (DD-2) Entertainment channel, provides 24-Hour news service.

The Regional Languages Satellite channels have two components – The Regional service
for the particular state relayed by all terrestrial transmitters in the state and additional programs
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in the Regional Language in prime time and non-prime time available only through cable
operators. DD-Sports Channel is exclusively devoted to the broadcasting of sporting events of
national and international importance. This is the only Sports Channels which telecasts rural
sports like Kho-Kho, Kabbadi etc. something which private broadcasters will not attempt to
telecast as it will not attract any revenues.

Active Doordarshan

It is an Interactive Service of Tata Sky to show TV Channels of Doordarshan which are


not available on Tata sky as normal channels. Active Doordarshan channels are DD
Kashmir, DD Podhigai, DD Punjabi, DD Sahyadri, DD Chandana and DD Gujarati.

DD has its own DTH service called DD Direct Plus. It is free of charge.

International broadcasting

DD India is broadcast internationally via satellite. It is available in 146 countries


worldwide; however, information on receiving this channel in other countries is not easily
available. In the UK, DD-India was available through the Euro bird Satellite on the Sky system
on Channel 833 (the logo is shown as Rayat TV). The timing and programming of DD-India
international is different from that of India. Transmissions via Sky Digital (UK &
Ireland) ceased in June 2008 and those viaDirecTV in the United States in July 2008.

 In 2004, it censored the airing of a controversial documentary on Jayaprakash Narayan,


one of the opposition leaders during the Emergency.[7]
 During Operation Blue Star, only government sources were used for reporting the story.
Here Doordarshan was complicit in the production of a video that claimed acts of violence
which when investigated by independent journalists were found to be false.

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Commercial viabilityOnce private television channels were allowed in 1991, Doordarshan
has seen a steep decline in viewership in homes with cable and satellite television, which in
2002 was just at 2.38% for DD National.

 While it earns significant advertising revenue due to the compulsory feed given to it by
the highest bidder to national events including cricket tournaments,[9] there has been a
proposal to give it funds by imposing a license fee to own a television in India like the
BBC. However this is unlikely to be imposed keeping in view the financial constraints of the
average Indian.

DIRECT PLUS

Dolby Digital Plus, also known as Enhanced AC-3 (and commonly abbreviated
as DD+ orE-AC-3, or EC-3) is a digital audio compression scheme developed by Dolby
Labs for transport and storage of multi-channel digital audio.

It is a successor to Dolby Digital (AC-3), also developed by Dolby, and has a number of
improvements including support for a wider range of data rates (32kbit/s to 6144kbit/s),
increased channel count and multi-program support (via sub streams), and additional tools
(algorithms) for representing compressed data and counteracting artifacts.

While Dolby Digital (AC-3) supports up to 5 full-bandwidth audio channels at a


maximum bit rate of 640kbit/s, E-AC-3 supports up to 15 full-bandwidth audio channels at a
maximum bit rate of 6.144 Mbit/s.

The full set of technical specifications for E-AC-3 (and AC-3) are standardized and
published in Annex E of ATSCA/52:2012,[1] as well as Annex E of ETSI TS 102 366 V1.2.1
(2008-08), published by the Advanced Television Systems Committee.

Technical details and Specifications

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 Coded Bit rate: 0.032 to 6.144 Mbit/s
 Audio Channels: 1.0 to 15.1 (i.e. from mono to 15 full range channels and a low
frequency effects channel)

 Number of Audio Programs per bit stream: 8

 Sample Rate: 32, 44.1 or 48 kHz

 Bit Depth: up to 24 bits per channel.

Structure

A Dolby Digital Plus service consists of one or more sub streams. There are three types of
sub streams:

 Independent sub streams, which can contain a single 5.1 program. Up to eight
independent sub streams may be present in a Dolby Digital Plus stream. The channels
present in an independent sub stream are the traditional 5.1 channels: Left (L), Right (R),
Center (C), Left Surround (Ls), and Right Surround (Rs) channels, as well as a Low
Frequency Effects (Life) channel.
 Legacy sub streams, which contain a single 5.1 program, and which correspond directly
to Dolby Digital content. At most a single legacy sub stream may be present in a DD+
stream.

 Dependent sub streams, which contain additional channels beyond the traditional 5.1
channels. As dependent sub streams have the same structure as independent sub streams,
each dependent sub stream may contain up to five full-bandwidth channels and one low-
frequency channel; however these channels may be assigned to different speaker
placements. Metadata in the sub stream describes the purpose of each included channel.

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All DD+ streams must contain at least one independent sub stream or legacy sub stream,
which contains the first (or only) 5.1 channels of the primary audio program. Additional
independent sub streams may be used for secondary audio programs such as foreign language
soundtracks, commentary, or descriptions/voiceovers for the visually impaired. Dependent sub
streams may be provided for programs that have additional soundstage channels beyond 5.1.

Storage of transform coefficients

At the heart of both Dolby Digital and DD+ is a Modified discrete cosine transform,
which is used to transform the audio signal into the frequency domain; within each block up to
256 frequency coefficients may be transmitted. Coefficients are transmitted in a binary floating-
point format, with exponents transmitted separately from mantissas. This allows for highly
efficient coding.

Exponents for each channel are encoded in a highly-packed differential format, with the
deltas between consecutive frequency bins (other than the first) being given in the stream. Three
formats, or exponent strategies, are used; these are known as "D15", "D25", and "D45". In D15,
each bin has a unique exponent, in D25 and D45, delta values correspond to either pairs or
quads of frequency bins. Audio blocks other than the first in a sync frame may additionally
reuse the prior blocks exponent set (this is required for channels that use the Adaptive Hybrid
Transform).

The decoded exponents, along with a set of metadata parameters, is used to derive the bit
allocation pointers (BAPs), which specify the number of bits allocated to each mantissa. Bins
which correspond to frequencies in which human hearing is more precise are allocated more
bits; bins which correspond to frequencies that humans are less sensitive to are allocated fewer.
Anywhere between zero and 16 bits may be allocated for each mantissa; if zero bits are
transmitted, a dither function may be optionally applied to generate the frequency coefficient.

Algorithm

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Dolby Digital Plus, like many loss audio codec, uses a heavily-quantized frequency-
domain representation of the signal to achieve coding gain; this section describes the operation
of the base transform as well as various optional "tools" specified by the standard, which are
used to achieve either greater compression or to reduce audible coding artifacts.

Modified discrete cosine transform

Both Dolby Digital and DD+ encoder converts a multichannel audio signal to the
frequency domain using the Modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT), with a switchable
block length of either 256 or 512 samples (the latter is used with stationary signals, the former
with transient signals). The frequency domain representation is then quantized according to a
psycho-acoustic model and transmitted. A floating-point format for frequency coefficients is
used, and mantissas and exponents are stored and transmitted separately, with both being
heavily compressed.

Adaptive hybrid transforms (AHT)

For highly-stationary signals, such as long notes in musical performance, the Adaptive
Hybrid Transform (AHT) is used. This tool is unique to Dolby Digital Plus (and unsupported in
Dolby Digital), and uses an additional Type II Discrete cosine transform to combine six
adjacent transform blocks (located within a sync frame) into an effectively longer block.

In addition to the two-stage transform, a different bit-allocation structure is used, and two
ways of representing encoded mantissas are deployed: use of vector quantization, which gives
the highest coding gain, and use of gain-adapted quantization (GAQ) when greater signal-
fidelity is required. Gain-adaptive quantization may be independently enabled for each
frequency bin within a channel, and permits variable-length mantissa encoding.

Coupling

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As many multichannel audio programs have high degrees of correlation between
individual channels, a coupling channel is typically used. High frequency information which is
common among two or more channels is transmitted in a separate channel (one that is not
reproduced by a decoder, but only mixed back into the original channels) known as the coupling
channel; along with coefficients known as "coupling coordinates" that guide the decoder on
how to reconstruct the original channels.

Dolby Digital Plus supports an more elaborate version of the coupling tool known as
Enhanced Coupling (ECPL). This algorithm, which is considerably more expensive to process
(both for encoders and decoders) allows phase information to be included in coupling
coordinates, allowing for phase relationships between channels that are coupled to be preserved.

Spectral extension

Dolby Digital Plus provides another tool for high frequencies. As high frequency
components are often harmonics of lower-frequency sounds, Spectral Extension (SPX) allows
high frequency components to be synthesized algorithmically from lower-frequency
components. This tool is also unique to Dolby Digital Plus, and unsupported in Dolby Digital.

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