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American-Eurasian J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 16 (8): 1504-1514, 2016
ISSN 1818-6769
© IDOSI Publications, 2016
DOI: 10.5829/idosi.aejaes.2016.1504.1514

Phytoremediation Studies on Soils Contaminated

with Heavy Metals in Malaysia: A Review Article

Keeren Sundara Rajoo, 1Ahmad Ismail,

1

2,4
Daljit Singh Karam and 3,4Farrah Melissa Muharam

Department of Biology, Faculty of Science,

1

Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

2
Department of Land Management, Faculty of Agriculture,
Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
3
Department of Agriculture Technology,
Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
4
Laboratory of Plantation Sciences and Technology,
Institute of Plantation Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Abstract: Widespread contaminations of lands, especially with heavy metals, are increasingly becoming more
common due to rapid industrialization. Heavy metal contamination can severely damage both the environment
and human health and is commonly caused by anthropogenic activities. There are many existing methods of
decontaminating contaminated soils; complete removal of soil, isolating the contaminated site, incineration,
thermal treatment, solvent extraction, chemical oxidation, microbes’ decomposition, etc. All these methods have
major disadvantages, either being too costly or even increasing the risks of secondary contamination. A cost
effective, green method of decontaminating land is by using phytoremediation technologies. Phytoremediation
is a method of decontaminating land using plants. Research on phytoremediation in Malaysia is still in its early
stages, but shows great potential. Several phytoremediators have already been identified. There are many
research studies carried out on phytoremediation throughout the world, but in Malaysia, phytoremediation
studies are still not well drawn. This manuscript summarizessignificant studies on phytoremediation in
Malaysia, where shrubs, herbs and forest trees species were studied to determine their potential to clean up
contaminated soils.

Key words: Phytoremediation Tropical trees species Land contamination Heavy metals

INTRODUCTION
Rapid urbanization and growing industrialization
have resulted in widespread contamination of lands.
Among contaminants, heavy metals are considered to be
one of the major threats to both the environment and to
human health [1]. Heavy metal contamination commonly
is caused by anthropogenic activities. Mining, fuel
production, agriculture fertilizers and military activities are
just some common contributors of heavy metal
contamination [2]. The past decades have seen the annual
release of heavy metals reaching up to 22000 metric ton
for cadmium (Cd), 939000 metric ton for copper (Cu),
1350000 metric ton for zinc (Zn) and 738000 metric ton for
lead (Pb) [3]. According to the United States
Environmental Action Group (USEAG), heavy metal
contamination threatens the life of more than 10 million
people, mostly in developing countries like Malaysia.
Therefore, it is vital that these contamination is
remediated immediately.
There are many existing methods of decontaminating
contaminated soils; complete removal of soil, isolating the
contaminated site, incineration, thermal treatment, solvent
extraction, chemical oxidation, microbes decomposition,
etc. [4]. All these methods have major disadvantages,
either being too costly or even increasing the risks of

Corresponding Author: Daljit Singh Karam, Department of Land Management, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
1504
 Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 16 (8): 1504-1514, 2016
secondary contamination [5]. Hence, a more cost effective
method of decontamination is required to address this
growing concern. One such option is phytoremediation.
Phytoremediation can be best described as the usage of
plants to remove, degrade or isolate contaminants from
the environment [4]. The term itself is derived from the
Greek word “phyton”, meaning plant and the Latin word
“remedium” which means to remedy. Phytoremediation is
an in situ, environmentally friendly and economical
approach to decontamination [1].
Sources of soil contamination of heavy metals can be
categorized into two separate groups, which are natural
and anthropogenic. Natural sources of heavy metal
contamination are usually the product of the weathering
process of various parent materials that are inherently rich
in heavy metals. Anthropogenic activities that cause
heavy metal contamination of soil comprise of mining,
smelting, improper municipal waste disposal, excessive
usage of pesticides and herbicides and automobile usage
[4]. Besides that, using sewage sludge as a soil
amendment has also been found to cause heavy metal
contamination [1]. The most harmful effects of heavy
metal contamination to living organisms, especially
humans are usually caused by anthropogenic
contamination [3]. Heavy metal contamination of
agricultural soils will not only affect plant productivity,
but also affect human health negatively. Heavy metal
pollution can take place not only in the soil, but in any
body of water and living organisms, hence making it a
serious environmental concern. The major reasons
behind the environmental concern of heavy metal
contamination is due to heavy metals not easily being
degraded, have a long perseverance in the environment
and can’t be altered by microorganisms. The half-life of
heavy metals can be more than 20 years [6].
Heavy Metal Contamination in Malaysian Soils: Malaysia
is a rapidly developing country with numerous
agriculture, properties mining and heavy industries to
sustain the country’s economy, with most of the urban
areas and industries situated on the west coast of
Peninsular Malaysia [7-10]. The various sources of heavy
metals in the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia are
usually from agricultural and animal management,
manufacturing industries, urbanization practices and agro-
based industries [11, 12]. Besides that, using sewage
sludge as a soil amendment has also contributed to heavy
metal contamination [5, 13]. Abandoned Malaysian tin
mining sites have also found to have toxic levels of heavy
metals in the soils. Unfortunately despite the numerous
1505
Table 1: Characteristic of plant to heavy metals
Plant’s characteristic Description
Accumulators Metals are in higher concentration in above ground
plant parts compared to the soil
Indicators Uptake and transport of metals to the shoot are
regulated so internal concentration reflects external
levels
Excluders Metal concentration in the shoot is constant and low
even in different metal concentrations in the soil
Source: Baker [17]
existing heavy metal contaminations, Malaysia does not
have definite regulations on the remediation and control
of contaminated soils and ground waters [14]. Although,
the generally permitted levels for Cu, Pb and Zn in
Malaysian soil are in range of 0.37 to 47.3, 0.85 to 65.8 and
2.9 to 92.0 mg kg 1, respectively [15]. If the heavy metals
are above the permitted levels, it’s most likely due to
contamination from the improper application of fertilizers,
pesticides or from atmospheric sources [15]. These heavy
metal contaminations have drawn considerable
awareness, namely from the Malaysian Department of
Agriculture (DOE). The DOE has conducted some studies
to improve the standards for remediation of contaminated
lands [16].
Plants require certain elements such as Zn, Cu and
iron (Fe) to maintain its wellbeing. However, in large
concentrations, these metals can become toxic to plants
[5]. Certain heavy metals like Cd and arsenic (As) can be
toxic even in small concentrations. Studies on plant’s
relationship with heavy metals have been conducted for
almost four decades; one of the most extensive research
was conducted by Baker [17]. Baker [17] stated that
different plants reacted differently to heavy metal
contaminations. The manner he described these plant
characteristics are listed in Table 1.
Baker [17] also described that all plants had a
critical metal concentration value in the soil; in which
the plant’s mechanism breaks down and unrestricted
transport results, causing negative growth for the plant.
Baker’s work can be perceive as the foundation for
phytoremediation research.
Phytoremediation: Phytoremediation is a green-
technology that was developed to degrade, extract and
remediate contaminants from soil and water [13, 18, 19].
Not only is it environmentally friendly, it is also an
economical alternative to currently practiced soil remedial
methods. Phytoremediation has received special attention
in the last decade as this technology does not damage
soil structure while preserving soil microbial consortia.
 Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 16 (8): 1504-1514, 2016
The detoxification potential of the plant can be determined
by examining the rate and depth of contaminant uptake
from the soil, accumulation in the plant cell and the degree
of contaminant transformation to regular cell metabolites.
To achieve the most desired results in the detoxification
of soil, the plant that should be selected for
phytoremediating purposes has to be based on multiple
plants characteristic [4]:
Overall ability to take up and degrade contaminants
in the soil
Ability to accumulate organic and inorganic
contaminants in its cells and intercellular spaces
Excretion of exudates to stimulates the multiplication
of soil microorganisms and secretion of enzyme
participating in the initial transformations of the
contaminants
Existence within the cell of contaminant degrading or
conjugating enzyme
High resistance against contaminants
The root system(main or fibrous)
Whether the plants are endemic and non-agricultural
Tolerance to salty soil
Appropriate adaptation to warm or cold condition
Growth rate
High biomass
Plants react differently when used as
phytoremediators, depending largely on the plant species,
the type of contaminant and the concentration level of the
contaminant in the soil. Some plants are capable of
accumulating large amounts of heavy metals without
exhibiting any signs of toxicity. However, some plants
accumulate metals but with negative consequences to
their growth rates. This limits the total biomass and hence
the total mass of accumulated metal will be lower.
Although there are many advantages in using
phytoremediation as a soil remedial method, however it
does have its own setbacks, namely the time required to
achieve cleanup is lengthy. Furthermore,
phytoremediation is limited to sites with lower
contaminant concentrations [6]. Besides that, the food
chain of humans could be adversely affected, due to the
degradation of chemicals within the plants.
Phytoremediation also poses a threat to the environment,
if the plants leaves or limbs containing dangerous
chemicals were to be burned, where the fumes could
contaminate the air and the ashes could re-contaminate
the soil. Phytoremediation on the basic of recent
understanding includes the following technologies:
1506
phytoextraction, phytostabilization, rhizofiltration,
phytovolatilization and phytodegradation. For this paper,
only researchers on phytoextraction and
phytostabilization are focused.
Phytoextraction: Phytoextraction is a method that
employs plant roots to absorb heavy metals, resulting in
their translocation within the plant. This method has
grown in popularity and extensively used worldwide for
the last twenty years. Phytoextraction is usually used for
extracting heavy metals rather than organic contaminants.
Besides that, it has been used for the treatment of
polluted sediment and sludge and to a lesser extent for the
cleaning of water. A plant which is able to phytoextract a
certain heavy metal is known as a hyperaccumulator of
said heavy metal [1]. An efficient phytoextraction plant
will be able to accumulate high ratios of heavy metal
concentration in the plant organ like shoots and roots
with relation to the heavy metal concentration in the soil.
Besides that, plants with high seasonally harvestable
plant biomass also make efficient phytoextraction.
Phytoextraction is an economical soil remediation
procedure. Rajoo et al. [20] reported that conventional
soil remediation techniques costs more than ten times
more compared to phytoextraction and the conventional
methods of cleaning up heavy metal-contaminated soil
can negatively affect the soil such as changing the soil
structure and nutrient content, whereas phytoextraction
can clean up the soil without causing any harm to soil
quality, making it an environmentally friendly process.
Phytostabilization: Certain plants have the ability to
immobilize metal in the soil by absorption, precipitation
and complexation. This process is known as
phytostabilization. Phytostabilization depends on the
roots ability to limit contaminant mobility and
bioavailability in the soil and is primarily used for the
remediation of soil, sediment and sludge [6]. The primary
purposes of phytostabilization plants are to (1) decrease
the amount of water percolating through the soil matrix,
which may result in the formation of a hazardous leachate,
(2) act as a barrier to prevent direct contact with the
contaminated soil and (3) prevent soil erosion and the
distribution of the toxic metal to other areas [4]. Using this
technology, the disposal of hazardous material/biomass
is not required and it is very effective when rapid
immobilization is needed to preserve ground and surface
waters [6]. Phytostabilization has been used to treat
contaminated land areas affected by mining activities
and Superfund sites. However since the contaminant
 Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 16 (8): 1504-1514, 2016
remains in the soil, it requires regular monitoring to ensure
the contaminants do not become volatile or get leached
out.
Determining Phytoextraction and Phytostabilization
Potential of Plants Using Translocation Factor (TF) and
Bioconcentration Factor (BCF): In order to evaluate the
potential phytoextraction and phytostabilization
capabilities of plant species, two indicators are commonly
used: bioconcentration factor (BCF) (metal concentration
ratio of plant roots to soil) and translocation factor (TF)
(metal concentration ratio of plant shoots to roots):
Plants with a high BCF and TF are suitable for
phytoextraction; these values need to be at least above
one. Plants with a high BCF (BCF>1) but a low TF (TF<1)
are suitable for phytostabilization [42]. Some researchers
on phytoremediation in Malaysia failed to calculate the
BCF and TF values; sometimes drawing conclusions
solely on the total metal concentration in the plant.
This is most likely due to phytoremediation research still
being relatively new in Malaysia, thus still requiring time
to have more standardized researches.
Researches on Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals in
Malaysia: Research on phytoremediation is slowly
gaining prominence in Malaysia, with studies becoming
more comprehensive. Most phytoremediation research in
Malaysia is conducted in greenhouses, whereby potential
phytoremediators are planted in soil contaminated with
heavy metals. Some research has also been conducted on
sewage sludge contaminated soils [21, 22]. Currently, the
Malaysian government has yet to have a policy on using
sewage sludge as a soil amendment, therefore there are no
viable statistics on sewage sludge contaminated soils in
Malaysia [21]. Research by planting potential
phytoremediators in field conditions is very rare.
However, some researchers have studied on species
growing naturally at contaminated sites, namely tin mining
areas as they very common in Malaysia. Another aspect
that needs to be considered is that there is almost no
research on Phytoremediation at Sabah and Sarawak,
although environmental conditions and plant species
between Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia are very
similar.These researchers on phytoremediation in
1507
Malaysia is shown in Table 2. The researchers are divided
according to the metals these plants were tested to
phytoremediate, the heavy metals being As, Cd, Cu, Fe,
Pb and Zn and nickel (Ni).
Arsenic (As): Arsenic exist naturally, although rarely in
its elemental form, due to the weathering of parent
materials. Arsenic has commonly used in agriculture, as
pesticides and fertilizers and also extensively in the
manufacturing industry, such as the production of alloys,
glass and lead-acid batteries [23]. Therefore, arsenic
contamination in the soil is a very common phenomenon
in countries that practice agriculture and manufacturing,
such as Malaysia.
Inorganic compounds of As can be very harmful to
animals and human beings, effecting the nervous and
cardiovascular system which eventually leads to death
[23]. As contamination in soils has the potential to enter
the food chain, eventually affecting human beings [24].
Plants are commonly first effected by environmental As
contamination. Extensive research has been conducted in
determining the effects of As on plants. Two forms of
arsenic, arsenate (AsV) and arsenite (AsIII), are
commonly taken up by plants through its roots [29].
Arsenic can affect the metabolism of plant cells, making it
a toxic element to plants. Although extensive study has
been conducted in this scope, there is still a lack of
understanding on the exact nature of why As is toxic to
plants [23]. Interestingly, some researchers have
discovered that As in low concentrations can stimulate
plant growth, although the mechanisms behind this is yet
to be understood.
Hyperaccumulators of As are able to uptake large
amounts of As without experiencing the toxicity of this
element, storing this metal in the upper parts of the plant.
These plants are capable of rapid uptake and
translocation of As and a higher antioxidant capacity to
maintain lower ROS levels [23]. Besides that, rapid dilution
is needed in the aerial tissues allows these
hyperaccumulators to neutralize the toxic effects of As
[23]. More research needs to be conducted to mechanisms
behind the physical capability of these
hyperaccumulators to isolate arsenite from vital metabolic
targets.
Two plant species in Malaysia has been identified as
potential hyperaccumulators of As. Ludwigia octovalvis
plant is known in Malaysia for being capable to survive
contaminated sites in Malaysia, making it a potential
phytoremediator [26]. Titah et al. [24] researched on using
these plants as phytoremediators of As. Arsenate was
 Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 16 (8): 1504-1514, 2016

Table 2: Phytoremediation of heavy metal studies in Malaysia

Contaminant remediated (heavy metals)
Soil type/site tested
Plant species on As Cd Cu Fe Ni Pb Zn Remarks Study done by

Highly tolerant to highly acidic soils

Sewage sludge BCF: <1 BCF: <1 BCF: >1 BCF: <1 BCF: <1
with high concentration of heavy
Aquilaria malaccensis contaminated soil Rajoo et al. [1]
metals. High potential for
(Serdang series) TF: >1 TF: >1 TF: <1 TF: >1 TF: >1
phytostabilization of Fe.

Copper sulphate
Growth performance decreased with
(CuSO4•5H2O) & BCF: >1 BCF: >1
higher concentrations of Cu and Cd.
Acacia mangium Cadmium chloride Parisa [27]
Potential for phytostabilization of Cu
(CdCl2.2•5H2O) TF: <1 TF: <1
and Cd.
contaminated soils.

Old mining are BCF: <1 BCF: <1 BCF: <1 BCF: <1 Tolerant to acidic soils with high
Cyperus rotundus abandoned for 30 concentration of heavy metals. Not a Ashraf et al. [26]
years. TF: <1 TF: <1 TF: <1 TF: <1 suitable phytoremediator.

Sewage sludge BCF: <1 BCF: <1 BCF: >1 BCF: <1 BCF: <1 Not tolerant to highly acidic soils with
Dipterocarpus
contaminated soil high concentration of heavy metals. Rajoo et al. [5]
verrucosus
(Serdang series) TF: >1 TF: >1 TF: <1 TF: >1 TF: >1 Potential for phytostabilization of Fe.

Copper sulphate
Growth performance decreased with
(CuSO4•5H2O) & BCF: >1 BCF: >1
higher concentrations of Cu and Cd.
Dyera costulata Cadmium chloride Parisa [27]
Potential for phytostabilization of Cu
(CdCl2.2•5H2O) TF: <1 TF: <1
and Cd.
contaminated soils.

Sand tailings from tin BCF: >1 An excluder of Pb. No Pb detected in

Hibiscus cannabinus mining (Durian Red the leaves, hence ideal for cattle feed. Ho et al. [36]
series) TF: <1 Potential for phytostabilization of Pb.

Contaminant remediated (heavy metals)

Soil type/site tested
Plant species Remarks Study done by
on
As Cd Cu Fe Ni Pb Zn

Arsenate dibasic
BCF: >1 NPK fertilizer addition improved As
heptahydrate
Ludwiga octovalvis uptake. Potential hyperaccumulator of Titah et al. [24]
(AsHNa2O4·7H2O)
TF: >1 As.
contaminated soils.

Old mining area BCF: <1 BCF: <1 BCF: <1 BCF: <1 Tolerant to acidic soils with high
Lycopodium cernuum abandoned for 30 concentration of heavy metals. Not a Ashraf et al. [26]
years. TF: <1 TF: <1 TF: <1 TF: <1 suitable phytoremediator.

Arsenate dibasic
heptahydrate Tolerant to soils with high
BCF: >1 BCF: >1
Melastoma (AsHNa2O4·7H2O) concentrations of As and Pb.
Selamat et al. [25]
malabathricum and Lead nitrate Potential hyperaccumulator of As.
TF: >1 TF: <1
(Pb(NO3)2) Potential for phytostabilization of Pb.
contaminated soils.

High transpiration rate. Potential

BCF: <1 BCF: <1
Sewage sludge indicator species for Cd and Zn. Not
Melaleuca cajuputi Shibli et al. [40]
contaminated soil a suitable phytoremediator of Cd and
TF: >1 TF: >1
Zn.

Old mining are BCF: <1 BCF: <1 BCF: <1 BCF: <1 Tolerant to acidic soils with high
Mimosa pudica abandoned for 30 concentration of heavy metals. Not a Ashraf et al. [26]
years. TF: <1 TF: <1 TF: <1 TF: <1 suitable phytoremediator.

Tolerant to acidic soils with high

Old mining are BCF: <1 BCF: <1 BCF: <1 BCF: <1
concentration of heavy metals.
Nelumbo nucifera abandoned for 30 Ashraf et al. [26]
Potential indicator species for As and
years. TF: >1 TF: >1 TF: <1 TF: <1
Cu. Not a suitable phytoremediator.

1508
 Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 16 (8): 1504-1514, 2016

Contaminant remediated (heavy metals)

Soil type/site tested
Plant species Remarks Study done by
on
As Cd Cu Fe Ni Pb Zn

Copper sulphate
Growth performance decreased with
(CuSO4•5H2O) & BCF: >1 BCF: >1
higher concentrations of Cu and Cd.
Hopea odorata Cadmium chloride Parisa [27]
High potential for phytostabilization
(CdCl2.2•5H2O) TF: <1 TF: <1
of Cd.
contaminated soils.

Tolerant to acidic soils with high

Old mining are BCF: <1 BCF: <1 BCF: <1 BCF: <1 concentration of heavy metals.
Imperata cylindrica abandoned for 30 Potential indicator species for Cu, Pb Ashraf et al. [26]
years. TF: <1 TF: >1 TF: >1 TF: >1 and Zn. Not a suitable
phytoremediator.

Copper sulphate
Growth performance decreased with
(CuSO4•5H2O) & BCF: >1 BCF: >1
higher concentrations of Cu and Cd.
Jatrophacurcas Cadmium chloride Parisa [27]
High potential for phytostabilization
(CdCl2.2•5H2O) TF: <1 TF: <1
of Cu and Cd.
contaminated soils.

Ableto tolerate highly acidic soils.

BCF: <1 BCF: <1
Textile sludge Potential indicator species for Fe and
Justiciagendarussa Nik et al. [39]
contaminated soils. Zn. Not a suitable phytoremediator of
TF: >1 TF: >1
Fe and Zn.

Lead contaminated The concentration of Pb in the soil is

BCF: <1
Mollisol soils, some directly proportional to metal Alaribe and
Lantana camara
with EFB and SMC as concentration in the root of the plant. Agamuthu, [37]
TF: <1
amendments. Not a suitable phytoremediator of Pb.

Tolerant to soils with high

Nickel contaminated concentrations of Ni. Has potential to
Lepidiumsativum TF: >1 Mojiri et al. [34]
soils. be hyperaccumulator of Ni; however
BCF was not calculated.

Contaminant remediated (heavy metals)

Soil type/site tested
Plant species Remarks Study done by
on
As Cd Cu Fe Ni Pb Zn

Arsenate dibasic
BCF: >1 NPK fertilizer addition improved As
heptahydrate
Ludwiga octovalvis uptake. Potential hyperaccumulator of Titah et al. [24]
(AsHNa2O4·7H2O)
TF: >1 As.
contaminated soils.

Old mining area BCF: <1 BCF: <1 BCF: <1 BCF: <1 Tolerant to acidic soils with high
Lycopodium cernuum abandoned for 30 concentration of heavy metals. Not a Ashraf et al. [26]
years. TF: <1 TF: <1 TF: <1 TF: <1 suitable phytoremediator.

Arsenate dibasic
heptahydrate Tolerant to soils with high
BCF: >1 BCF: >1
Melastoma (AsHNa2O4·7H2O) concentrations of As and Pb.
Selamat et al. [25]
malabathricum and Lead nitrate Potential hyperaccu mulator of As.
TF: >1 TF: <1
(Pb(NO3)2) Potential for phytostabilization of Pb.
contaminated soils.

High transpiration rate. Potential

BCF: <1 BCF: <1
Sewage sludge indicator species for Cd and Zn. Not
Melaleuca cajuputi Shibli et al. [40]
contaminated soil a suitable phytoremediator of Cd and
TF: >1 TF: >1
Zn.

Old mining are BCF: <1 BCF: <1 BCF: <1 BCF: <1 Tolerant to acidic soils with high
Mimosa pudica abandoned for 30 concentration of heavy metals. Not a Ashraf et al. [26]
years. TF: <1 TF: <1 TF: <1 TF: <1 suitable phytoremediator.

Tolerant to acidic soils with high

Old mining are BCF: <1 BCF: <1 BCF: <1 BCF: <1
concentration of heavy metals.
Nelumbo nucifera abandoned for 30 Ashraf et al. [26]
Potential indicator species for As and
years. TF: >1 TF: >1 TF: <1 TF: <1
Cu. Not a suitable phytoremediator.

1509
 Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 16 (8): 1504-1514, 2016
added to soils alongside nitrophoska (NPK) fertilizer
to determine if these plants phytoremediation
properties could be improved. It was discovered that this
L. octovalvis plants are natural hyperaccumulators of As,
while the addition of NPK fertilizers further improved this
capability [24]. A separate research conducted in a
greenhouse discovered that Melastoma malabathricum
had potential to be a hyperaccumulator of As [25].
This species were planted in soils that was added with
sodium arsenate salt (AsHNa2O4.7H2O). This research
determined that M. malabathricum was able to live in
soils with As concentrations of up to 40ppm and also had
very high TF, indicating that it was efficient in
translocating As to the upper plant parts [25]. However,
further field experiments needs to be conducted to confirm
that this species is a potential phytoremediator.
Ashraf et al. [26] conducted an extensive study on
determining the phytoremediator potential of endemic
species that grow naturally at an abandoned tin mining
area. Plants that are tolerant to contaminated soils, that is
highly acidic soils or soils with higher metal
concentrations, are potential phytoremediators, making
plants that naturally grow in tin mining sites ideal
candidates to be phytoremediators. [1]. However, in this
study, it was determined that none of the species were
potential phytoremediators. Two species, Nelumbo
nucifera and Pteris vittata, were discovered to have high
TF but low BCF, making them possible indicator species
of As [26].
Five other species from the same research by Ashraf
et al. [26], Cyperus rotundus L, Imperata cylindrica,
Lycopodium cernuum, Mimosa pudica and Salvinia
molesta, were determined to be not suitable
phytoremediators as they have low BCFs and TFs.
However, all these species were plants that were highly
tolerant to contaminated soils.
Cadmium (Cd): Cd is a highly toxic and soluble pollutant
and is one of the 126 priority pollutants [27]. Land
contamination of this metal has increased drastically these
past decades due to anthropogenic activities such as the
manufacturing of plastics, electroplating, paint pigment,
mining, alloys and smelting [27]. Besides that, domestic
sewage sludge in developing countries like Malaysia has
also been found to have high amounts of Cd [1].
However, some researchers believe that the application of
cheap, Cd-contaminated phosphate fertilizers is the
biggest contributors of Cd to soils [28].
Cd is highly dangerous to organisms, due to it
directing influencing the biochemical and physiological
mechanisms. In plants, it has been found to rapidly
1510
deteriorate organelles and even prevent photosynthesis.
Heavy metals tend to not be transported to the aerial parts
of some plants, often accumulating in the roots of these
plants. Although plants generally accumulate essential
elements, certain plants also accumulate non-essential
elements such as Cd, often causing negative growth to
these plants. Despite this, only one of the researches
conducted in Malaysia have found a potential
hyperaccumulator of Cd. Amin et al.[2] conducted a study
on the phytoremediation potential of Typha domingensis,
by planting these plants in urban waste leachates.
This plant has been found to have very high TF for Cd,
making it a highly effective hyperaccumulator of Cd [2].
However, the findings of this study has limitations due to
there being no calculations conducted on the BCF of
these species.
Despite Cd being highly soluble and thus easily
translocated to the aerial parts of most plants, a high
number of plants had been discovered to be able to
conduct phytostabilization of Cd, meaning that they
possess low TF values but high BCF. Parisa [27]
conducted a study on the potential of tropical tree
seedlings to be phytoremediators of Cd, by planting
several different species on cadmium chloride
contaminated soil. It was determined that four species,
Acacia mangium, Dyera costulata, Hopea odorata and
Jatropha curcas, were potential hyperaccumulators of Cd.
However, all these species had decreased growth
performances with higher concentrations of Cd. Hopea
odorata and Jatropha curcas has very high BCF values,
making them ideal phytostabilizers of Cd.
Rajoo et al. [1] and Rajoo et al. [5] conducted a study
on phytoremediation by planting Aquilaria malaccensis
and Dipterocarpus verrucosus on sewage sludge
contaminated soil. In this study, it was found that both
species were not phytoremediators of Cd. However,
Aquilaria malaccensis was discovered to be a species
that was highly tolerant to high concentrations of Cd
based on soil analyses done on the soils where the trees
was planted on.
Copper (Cu): Cu contamination of land is posing a serious
threat throughout the world as it reduces agriculture yield
and is harmful to human beings as it enters the food chain
[27]. Naturally, Cu concentrations in soils is very low and
can form strong complexes with organic matter. This
causes Cu to usually be immobile in soils [28].
Cu is an essential metal for plants, involved in many
enzymatic reactions. Despite being an essential element
for plants, Cu at higher concentrations is highly toxic to
plants and even to microorganisms and invertebrates [27].
 Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 16 (8): 1504-1514, 2016
Cu toxicity causes plants physiological process to be
interrupted, such as unexpected leaf fall and
interference with root growth. Plants roots are the first
plant parts to be damaged when exposed to toxic
concentrations of Cu.
Most of the phytoremediation studies conducted in
Malaysia was based on the potential of these species to
remediate Cu contamination. This is understandable as Cu
contamination is a serious threat to the agriculture sector.
Despite these numerous studies, only one study had
found a potential hyperaccumulator of Cu. Phragmites
australis, Common Reed, is a type of grass that is
widespread across Malaysia [30]. This species was
planted in urban waste leachates and found to have very
high TF values for Cu, making it a potential
hyperaccumulator [30]. However, similar to the study
conducted on Typha domingensis, the BCF values of this
plants were recorded, meaning there is limitations to this
study.
Parisa [27] planted tropical tree species seedlings in
copper sulphate contaminated soils and identified three
species, Acacia mangium, Dyera costulata and Jatropha
curcas, as potential phytostabilizers of Cu. Jatropha
curcas had very high BCF values, making it an ideal
phytostabilizer of Cu. However, all these species had
decreased growth performances when Cu concentrations
were high. Pteris vittata was found to also be a potential
phytostabilizer of Cu [26]. Besides that, unlike the three
tropical species in Parisa [27] study, Pteris vittata was
found to be tolerant to acidic soils with high
concentrations of Cu (26).
In the same study conducted by Ashraf et al. [26], it
was found that Imperata cylindrica and Nelumbo
nucifera had high TF values but low BCF. This means
that these plants could be used as indicators of Cu
contamination. In this same study, four species,
Lycopodium cernuum, Cyperus rotundus, Mimosa pudica
Linn and Salvinia molesta, were found to not be potential
phytoremediators as they have low TF and BCF values
[26]. Despite Hopea odorata being an ideal
phytostabilizer for Cd, it was not able to phytoremediate
Cu [27]. Besides these species, A. malaccensis and D.
verrucosus was also found to not be phytoremediators of
Cu conducted a study on phytoremediation by planting
on sewage sludge contaminated soil [1, 5].
Iron (Fe): Fe is an essential nutrient for plants, however
it can lead to toxicity when present at high concentrations
[32]. Fe is an essential plant nutrient due to it acting as a
1511
catalyst for a plant's production of chlorophyll. High
levels of Fe in soil has been found to reduce the
availability of other necessary soil elements required for
optimum plant growth [32]. When Fe levels are at toxic
levels, organic matter is also reduced making the soil
unsuitable for most crops [33]. As manufacturing is
becoming more prevalent throughout Malaysia, Fe
contamination is becoming a serious environmental
problem.
Very few studies has been conducted in Malaysia to
determine potential phytoremediators of Fe. In the study
conducted by Amin et al. [30] on Phragmites australis,
Common Reed, found that this plant was a potential
hyperaccumulator of Fe. Besides that, Aquilaria
malaccensis was found to be an ideal phytostabilizer of
Fe, as it had very high BCF values [1]. Besides that, this
species was also highly tolerant to high concentrations of
Fe in the soil. Dipterocarpus verrucosus was also found
to be able to conduct phytostabilization of Fe, although
it was not tolerant to high levels of heavy metals in the
soil [5]. Justicia gendarussa had high TF values for Fe
but low BCF values. This means that this plant but could
be a potential indicator species for Fe.
Nickel (Ni): Nickel is a natural occurring element that can
commonly be found in the forms of sulphide ores
underground or silicate minerals on the surface [34]. Ni in
large concentrations can cause environmental problems,
including posing a major threat to human beings [34].
Cost-effective methods of removing Ni have continuously
been researched upon, thus phytoremediation is an
effective solution.
Despite the threats that Ni possess, very limited
studies have been conducted in Malaysia on determining
potential Ni phytoremediators. Besides that, all of these
studies had limitations as they did not include the BCF of
these plants. All three spices that was studied had been
found to by potential hyperaccumulators of Ni. As
mentioned earlier, Phragmites australis and Typha
domingensis, was planted in urban waste leachates and
found to have very high TF values for Ni, making it a
potential hyperaccumulator [2,30]. Besides that, Typha
domingensis was planted on Ni contaminated soils and
was determined to be a potential hyperaccumulator of Ni
[34]. Another limitation to this study besides not
calculating the plant’s BCF, was that no data on the
plant’s growth pattern was provided. More thorough
studies needs to be conducted in Malaysia to determine
potential phytoremediators of Ni.
 Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 16 (8): 1504-1514, 2016
Lead (Pb): Pb is a commonly produced heavy metal since
it’s extensively used in various industries. Metallic lead
and its compounds are used in the production of
accumulators, piezoelectric element, gums, glasses, glaze,
enamel, drying oil and putty. The world produces several
million tons of lead annually by metal working,
engineering, chemical and others industries [35] Soil
throughout the world contains lead. Lead in soils can
occur naturally or due to anthropogenic contamination.
Generally, lead is not essential to plants. Certain plants
can uptake lead into roots. However, little is generally
translocate to the upper portion of the plant due to
insoluble Pb-phosphate that is formed in the roots [35].
Despite numerous studies have been conducted in
Malaysia to identify potential phytoremediators of Pb,
only two species were found to be phytostabilizers of Pb.
This species was an excluder of Pb, storing Pb in its roots.
No Pb was detected in its leaves, making it ideal to be
cattle food [36]. Similar to this plant species, Melastoma
malabathricum had high BCF values but low TF values,
making both these species ideal phytostabilizers of Pb
[25]. In contrast, Ashraf et al. [26], none of the species
growing on the tin mining area were potential
phytoremediators of Pb. However, Imperata cylindrica,
Pteris vittata and Salvinia molesta were found to have
high TF values, making it potential indicator species of Pb
[26]. A. malaccensis, D. verrucosus and L. camara was
also found to have low BCF and TF, making them not
potential phytoremediators of Pb [1, 5, 37].
In the study conducted by Amin et al. [2], Typha
domingensis was determined by the researcher to be a
hyperaccumulator of Pb. However as mentioned earlier,
this study did not calculate the BCF values, making its
findings questionable. As this species shows potential,
more studies need to be conducted using this plant
species.
Zinc (Zn): Zn can be commonly found in most soils. Zinc
is an essential mineral for both humans and plants, but at
high concentrations, zinc becomes toxic [38]. Zinc toxicity
for plants has been linked to negative growth. High intake
of zinc by humans has been found to cause damage to the
lungs. Numerous phytoremediation studies have been
conducted in Malaysia to determine potential
phytoremediators of Zn, unfortunately there have been no
findings of potential phytoremediators. A. malaccensis,
planted on sewage sludge contaminated soil, was found
to be highly tolerant to high concentrations of Zn in the
soil; however had low BCF and TF values for Zn, making
it not a potential phytoremediator of Zn [1]. A similar
1512
study found that D. verrucosus had similar results with
Aquilaria malaccensis [5]. Justicia gendarussa had high
TF values for Zn but low BCF values, which was to its
values for Fe. This means that this plant is not an ideal
phytoremediator of Zn but could be a potential indicator
species for both Zn and Fe [39].
Ashraf et al. [26] study on determining
phytoremediator potential of endemic species that grow
naturally at an abandoned tin mining area also could not
identify potential phytoremediators of Zn. S. molesta, C.
rotundus L, L. cernuum, M. pudica, I. cylindrica, N.
nucifera and P. vittata L. were plant species that grew
naturally at the abandoned tin mining area but were found
to have low TF and BCF values, making them not suitable
phytoremediators of Zn. However, I. cylindrica was
found to have high TF values, making it a potential
indicator species of Zn. Similar to I. cylindrical, M.
cajuputi was to be a potential indicator species of Zn [40].
More studies need to be conducted to identify potential
phytoremediators of Zn, as Zn contamination in
Malaysian soils is becoming more prevalent due to heavy
industrialization. Table 2 summarized some
phytoremediation studies conducted in Malaysia.
CONCLUSION
Research on phytoremediation in Malaysia is still
new but shows high potential. As Malaysia faces
increasing contamination problems, phytoremediation
could prove to be savior as it is not only cheap, but also
efficient. However, more studies need to be conducted to
fully utilize the potential of these species. Besides that,
studies needs to also be conducted on field conditions, as
sometimes greenhouse studies can provide different
results when applied on the field. Although research on
this aspect in Malaysia is ever expanding, the actual
usage of this method to decontaminate sites remains to be
seen. There needs to be a government coordinated effort
to apply phytoremediation, as the current methods being
used has proven to be not cost-effective and sometimes
even cause secondary contaminations.
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