Chapter One Introduction

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Contents
1.1 Definitions
1.2 Principles and Process of Remote Sensing
1.3 Types of Remote Sensing
1.4 Importance of Remote Sensing
1.5 Applications of Remote Sensing in Civil Engineering
1.6 Remote Sensing and GIS
1.7 Remote Sensing Data
1.1 Definitions
Remote Sensing (RS)1 is the science and art of obtaining information
about objects, area or phenomenon through the analysis of data acquired by
a device that is not in contact with the target under investigation. Eye sight
and photographs are common examples of remote sensing in which
sunlight or artificial light energy from electricity is made to strike the
object.

Remote Sensing (RS)2 is science of acquiring, processing, and interpreting

images and related data that are obtained from ground-based, air-or space-
borne instruments that record the interaction between matter (target) and
electromagnetic radiation.

Electromagnetic Radiation (ER) is energy in the forms of waves of a

wide range of frequencies. Electromagnetic radiation travels through empty
space at the speed of light (300 000 km / sec) and through materials at
different speeds.

Electromagnetic Spectrum (ES) is range of different types of

Electromagnetic Radiation ordered by either frequency or wavelength. It
ranges from low frequencies (high-wavelength, low energy) radio waves
through microwaves, infrared (heat) waves, light (the visible spectrum),
ultraviolet waves and X-rays to very high frequency (low-wavelengths,
high energy) gamma rays.

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1.2 Principles and Process of Remote Sensing

The sun is a source of energy or radiation, which provides a very
convenient source of energy for remote sensing. The sun's energy is either
reflected, as it is for visible wavelengths, or scattered or absorbed and
then reemitted, as it is for thermal infrared wavelengths.

A remote sensing instrument collects information about an object or

phenomenon within the instantaneous-field-of-view of the sensor system.
The sensor is located on a suborbital or satellite platform. Most sensing
modes are based on sampling of photons corresponding frequency in the
electromagnetic (EM) spectrum.

In much of remote sensing, the process involves an interaction between

incident radiation and the targets of interest. This is exemplified by the use
of imaging systems where the following seven elements are involved
(Figure 1.1). Note, however that remote sensing also involves the sensing
of emitted energy and the use of non-emitted sensors.

[1] Energy Source

Energy source is the first requirement for remote sensing which provides
electromagnetic energy to the target of interest.

[2] Radiation and the Atmosphere

As the energy travels from its source to the target, it will come in contact
with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction
may take place a second time as the energy travels from the target to the
sensor.

[3] Interaction with the Target

Once the energy makes its way to the target through the atmosphere, it
interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the target and
the radiation.

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[4] Recording of Energy by the Sensor

After the energy has been scattered by, or emitted from the target, we
require a sensor to collect and record the electromagnetic radiation.

[5] Transmission, Reception, and Processing

The energy recorded by the sensor has to be transmitted, often in electronic

form, to a receiving and processing station where the data are processed.

[6] Interpretation and Analysis

The processed image is interpreted, visually and/or digitally or

electronically, to extract information about the target, which was
illuminated.

[7] Application

The final element of the remote sensing process is achieved when we apply
the information we have been able to extract from the imagery about the
target in order to better understand it, reveal some new information, or
assist in solving a particular problem.

Figure 1.1: Components of Remote Sensing.

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1.3 Types of Remote Sensing

Based on source of the energy recorded by the sensor, there are two main
types of remote sensing: Passive remote sensing and Active remote
sensing.

1-Passive sensors detect energy of natural solar radiation that is emitted or

reflected by the object or surrounding area being observed. Reflected
sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by passive
sensors. It is collected during daylight hours, while the emitted radiation is
recorded day or night as long as emissions large enough to record.

Examples of passive remote sensors include: [1] Infrared [2] Radiometers

[3] Imaging Radiometer [4] Spectrometer[5] Spectroradiometer.

These are recorded by satellite missions of: Landsat TM, AVHRR, Spot,
MODIS, IKONOS and Quickbird.

Example of passive remote system includes Air Photography.

Figure 1.2: Passive Remote Sensing.

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2-Active remote sensing emits energy in order to scan objects and areas
whereupon a sensor then detects and measures the radiation that is reflected
or backscattered from the target. Energy collected by sensors is actively
generated by a man-made device.

RADAR is an example of active remote sensing where the time delay

between emission and return is measured, establishing the location, height,
speeds and direction of an object. Other examples are LIDAR (Light
Detection and Ranging) and Scatterometer.

Figure 1.3: Active Remote Sensing.

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1.4 Importance of Remote Sensing

The Importance of Remote Sensing can be briefed in the following points:

[1] Provides large amounts of data of large areas.

[2] Provides data of very remote and inaccessible regions such as: (a) Open
ocean (b) Hazardous terrain like high mountains and extreme weather areas
(c) Ocean depths and (d) Atmosphere.

[3] Easy and rapid collection of data which leads to gather much more data
in a shorter amount of time. As a result, land coverage can be increased and
ground resolution of a GIS can also be increased.

[4] Able to obtain imagery of any area over a continuous period of time
through which the any anthropogenic or natural changes in the landscape
can be analyzed.

[5] Relatively inexpensive when compared to employing a team of

surveyors. Remote sensing therefore reduces manual field work
dramatically.

[6] Rapid production of maps for interpretation.

Disadvantages of Remote Sensing

1) The interpretation of imagery requires a certain skill level so it can be

technically difficult.

2) Needs cross verification with ground (field) survey data.

3) Data from multiple sources may create confusion.

4) Objects can be misclassified or confused.

5) Distortions may occur in an image due to the relative motion of sensor

and source.

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1.5 Applications of Remote Sensing in Civil Engineering

Various applications of remote sensing may be grouped into the following:

[1] Site Investigation: Remote sensing is used extensively in site

investigations for dams, bridges, pipelines. It can be used to locate
construction materials like sand and gravel for the new projects.

[2] Land Use: By remote sensing, mapping of larger areas is possible in

short time. Forest area, agricultural area, residential and industrial area can
be measured regularly and monitored. It is possible to find out areas of
different crops.

[3] Geotechnical Engineering: Remote sensing can be used in identifying

soil types for heavy construction projects.

[4] Environmental Study: Remote sensing is used to study cloud motion

and predict rains. With satellite data it is possible to study water discharge
from various industries to find out dispersion and harmful effects, if any,
on living animals. Oil spillage and oil slicks can be studied using remote
sensing.

[5] Natural Hazard Study: Using remote sensing the natural hazards such
as Earthquake, Volcanoes, Landslides, Floods and Hurricane and cyclones
can be predicted to some extent and hazards minimized.

[6] Resource Exploration: Remote sensing can be used to study the

formation of sedimentary rocks and identify deposits of various minerals,
detect oil fields and identify underground storage of water. Remote sensing
is used for identifying potential fishing zone, coral reef mapping and to find
other wealth from ocean.

[7]Archaeological Investigation: Many structures of old era are now

buried under the ground and are not known. But by studying changes in
moisture content and other characteristics of the buried objects and upper
new layer, remote sensors are able to recognize the buried structures of
archaeological importance.

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1.6 Remote Sensing and GIS

Remote Sensing plays a large role in the enhancement of any GIS, and in
most cases, allows data to become much more relatable and useful for
anyone. A GIS receives much of the data for its built-in layers from
Remote Sensing platforms such as satellites, radars and airplanes.

Passive sensors contribute to imagery and data for land cover mapping,
change detection, snow monitoring, thermal changes and terrain modeling.
Active sensors contribute heavily to data for extremely accurate terrain
models known as Digital Elevation Models (DEMs).

These large quantities of data can be geo-referenced and integrated into one
large GIS, allowing a user to access a powerful amount of information at
one time with relative ease. And as remote sensing technology continues to
increase in resolution and power, the data base will enlarge and increase the
potential power of users of a Geographic Information System.

1.7 Remote Sensing Data

Useful Web Sources

[1] Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI): http://www.esri.com

[2] NASA: http://www.nasa.gov, http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/ and http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/

[3] http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/glossary/index_e.php?id=3054

[4] Sattellite Imaging Corps: http://www.satimagingcorp.com

[5] United States Geological Survey: http://www.usgs.gov

[6]http://earth.esa.int/applications/data_util/SARDOCS/spaceborne/Radar_
Courses/

[7] http://www.crisp.nus.edu.sg/~research/tutorial/image.htm

[8] http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/resource/tutor/fundam/index_e.php

[9] http://octopus.gma.org/surfing/satellites/index.html

[10] http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/glossary/index_e.php
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[12] European Space Agency earth.esa.int

[13] NOAA www.noaa.gov

[14] Remote sensing and Photogrammetry Society UK www.rspsoc.org

[15] IKONOS: http://www.spaceimaging.com/

[16] QuickBird: http://www.digitalglobe.com/

Free Web Sources Data

[1] GLOVIS (USGS Global Visualisation Viewer)

http://glovis.usgs.gov/

All global Landsat data now available – hugely useful resource

Plus ASTER, MODIS (moderate/coarse resolution but global coverage)

[2] NASA Distributed Active Archive Centres – huge range of free NASA
data:

http://nasadaacs.eos.nasa.gov/about.html (overview)

https://lpdaac.usgs.gov/ (land)

http://podaac.jpl.nasa.gov/ (oceans)

http://www.nsidc.org/daac/ (snow and ice)

[3] UK/NERC

NERC National Centre for Earth Observation (NCEO)

http://www.nceo.ac.uk

[4] Earth Observation Data Centre

http://www.neodc.rl.ac.uk/ (UK/European focused, with ESA data,

airborne, various campaign surveys )

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