1.

1 UNIT –I

FLUID PROPERTIES AND FLOW CHARACTERISTICS

1.1 UNITS AND DIMENSION

1.1.1 Dimension

The power (exponent) of base quantity that enters into the expression of a physical
quantity is called the dimension of the quantity in that base.

Dimension is defined as the quantity of a measure.

1. Length : L

2. Time : T

3. Mass : M

4. Temperature : T

5. Velocity : V : L/t

6. Acceleration due to gravity :g L/t2

7. Acceleration : a : L/t2

8. Weight : W : ML/t2

9. Force : F : ML/t2

1.1.2 Units

All physical quantities are measured w.r.t. standard magnitude of the same physical
quantity and these standards are called UNITS. eg. second, meter, kilogram, etc.

So the four basic properties of units are:—

1. They must be well defined.

2. They should be easily available and reproducible.

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3. They should be invariable e.g. step as a unit of length is not invariable.

4. They should be accepted to all.

PRIMARY UNITS
PHYSICAL
S.I UNITS CGS UNITS NOTATIONS
QUANTITY
Mass kg (kilogram) g M
Length m (meter) cm L
Time s (second) s T
Temperature K (kelvin) °C
Current A (ampere) A I or A
Luminous intensity cd (candela) — cd

Derived Units
Quantity Unit Symbol
Volume cubic meter m3
Density kilograms per cubic meter kg/m3
Speed meter per second m/s
Newton kg m/ s2 N
Energy Joule (kg m2/s2) J
Pressure Pascal (kg/(ms2) Pa

1.2 MASS DENSITY (ρ)

It is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fluid to its volume (or) mass per unit
volume.

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝜌=
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

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Unit - (kg/m3)

Reference: density of water = 1000 kg/m3

Problem 1: Density of mercury is 13600kg/m3. What is the mass of mercury? What is

the volume for one kg of Mercury?

1.3 SPECIFIC WEIGHT (w)

It is defined as the ratio of the weight of the fluid to its volume (or) weight per unit
volume.

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑤=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 ∗ 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑤=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

𝑤 =𝜌∗𝑔

Unit : N/m3

1.4 SPECIFIC VOLUME

It is defined as the volume of the fluid occupied by unit mass.

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 1 1
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = = =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜌
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

Unit : m3/kg

1.5 SPECIFIC GRAVITY (S)

It is defined as the ratio of weight density of a fluid to the weight density of a standard
fluid.

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑

𝑆𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑠 =
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

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𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠

𝑆𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 =
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟

1.6 VISCOSITY

1.6.1 Dynamic Viscosity (μ)

Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement
of one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of fluid.

𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒⁄𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝜇= =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 1
( )∗( )
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∗ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝜇=
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ2

Unit : Nm/s2

1.6.2 Kinematic Viscosity (γ)

It is defined as the ratio between dynamic viscosity and the density of the fluid.

𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝛾=
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

Unit : Length2/time

1.6.3 Newton’s law of viscosity

It states that the shear stress on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to the rate
of shear strain. The proportionality constant is called co-efficient of viscosity.

𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦

Fluids follow the above relation are known as Newtonian fluids.

Fluids which do not obey the above relation are called Non-Newtonian fluids.

1.6.4 Variation of viscosity with liquids

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 1.5

Liquids

As the temperature increases the viscosity decreases due to the reduction in the
cohesive forces.

1
𝜇 = 𝜇0 ( )
1 + 𝛼𝑡 + 𝛽𝑡 2

μ : viscosity of fluid at t°C in poise.

μ0 : viscosity of fluid at 0°C in poise.

α,β : constants for the liquid.

For water μ0 = 1.79*10-3poise

α = 0.03368

β = 0.000221

Gases

As the temperature increases the viscosity increases due to the increase in molecular
momentum transfer.

𝜇 = 𝜇0 + 𝛼𝑡 − 𝛽𝑡 2

For air μ0 = 0.000017,

α = 0.000000056

β = 0.1189*10-9

1.6.5 Types of Fluids

Ideal fluid

A fluid, which is incompressible and is having no viscosity, is known as an ideal fluid.

Ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all the fluids, which exist have some viscosity.

Real fluid
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A fluid, which possesses viscosity, is known as real fluid. All the elements, in actual
practice, are real fluids.

Newtonian Fluid

A real fluid, in which the shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain,
is known as a Newtonian fluid.

Non-Newtonian Fluid

A real fluid, in which the shear stress is not proportional to the rate of shear strain, is
known as a Non-Newtonian fluid.

Ideal Plastic Fluid

A fluid, in which shear stress is not proportional to the rate of shear strain, is known as
ideal plastic fluid.

1.7 COMPRESSIBILITY

It is defined as the reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity.

𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝐾 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 1
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐾

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1.8 VAPOUR PRESSURE

Vapour pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a vapour in thermodynamic

equilibrium with its condensed phases (solid or liquid) at a given temperature in a closed
system.

𝐵
log 𝑃 = 𝐴 −
𝐶+𝑇

P : Absolute vapour pressure

T : Temperature of the substance

A,B & C : Substance-specific constants.

1.9 SURFACE TENSION

Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in
contact with a gas.

1.9.1 Surface tension on liquid droplet

Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid of radius ‘r’. on the entire surface of
droplet. The tensile force due to surface tension will be acting.

Let the droplet is cut into two halves

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a. The tensile force acting on the circumference

= 𝜎𝜋𝑑

b. Pressure force on the area πd2/4

𝜋 2
=𝑝∗ 𝑑
4

These two forces are equal under equilibrium

𝜋 2
𝑝∗ 𝑑 = 𝜎𝜋𝑑
4

4𝜎
𝑝=
𝑑

1.9.2 Surface tension on a hollow bubble

Hollow bubble has two surfaces in contact with air. Hence,

𝜋 2
𝑝∗ 𝑑 = 2𝜎𝜋𝑑
4

8𝜎
𝑝=
𝑑

1.9.3 Surface tension on a liquid jet

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 1.9

Similarly force due to pressure

= 𝑝𝐿𝑑

Force due to surface tension

= 𝜎2𝐿

𝑝𝐿𝑑 = 𝜎2𝐿

2𝜎
𝑝=
𝐿

1.10 CAPILLARITY

Capillarity is defined as the rise or fall of a liquid surface in a small tube relative to the
adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the liquid.

1.10.1 Expression for capillary rise

4𝜎 cos 𝜃
ℎ=
𝜌𝑔𝑑

θ for water is almost equal to zero.

1.10.2 Expression for capillary fall

4𝜎 cos 𝜃
ℎ=
𝜌𝑔𝑑

1.11 FLOW CHARACTERISTICS

1.11.1 Steady and Unsteady Flows

Steady flow

In a flow when the fluid characteristics like velocity, pressure and density does not
change with time the flow is defined as steady flow.

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 1.10

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝜌
( ) = 0, ( ) = 0, ( ) =0
𝜕𝑡 𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ,𝑧0 𝜕𝑡 𝑥0 ,𝑦0,𝑧0 𝜕𝑡 𝑥0 ,𝑦0,𝑧0

Unsteady flow

In a flow when the fluid characteristics like velocity, pressure and density changes
with time the flow is defined as unsteady flow.

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑝
( ) ≠ 0, ( ) ≠0
𝜕𝑡 𝑥0 ,𝑦0,𝑧0 𝜕𝑡 𝑥0,𝑦0,𝑧0

1.11.2 Uniform and non-uniform flow

Uniform flow

In a flow, the velocity at any given time does not change with respect to space is
defined as uniform flow.

𝜕𝑉
( ) =0
𝜕𝑠 𝑡=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Non-uniform flow

In a flow, the velocity at any given time change with respect to space is defined as
uniform flow.

𝜕𝑉
( ) ≠0
𝜕𝑠 𝑡=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

1.11.3 Laminar and turbulent flow

Laminar flow

Laminar flow is defined as the type of flow in which the fluid particles move along
well-defined paths or stream line and all the stream-lines are straight and parallel. Thus the
particle moves in laminas or layers gliding smoothly over the adjacent layer.

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Turbulent flow

It is a type of flow in which the fluid flows in a zig-zag way. Due to this movement,
eddies are formed which are responsible for high energy loss.

1.11.4 Compressible and incompressible flow

Compressible flow

It is a type of a flow in which the density changes from point to point.

𝜌 ≠ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Incompressible flow

It is a type of a flow in which the density remains constant from point to point.

𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

1.11.5 Rotational and Irrotational flow

Rotational flow

In this type of flow, the fluid particles while flowing along the stream-lines also rotate
about their own axis.

Irrotational flow

In this type of flow, the fluid particles while flowing along the stream-lines do not
rotate about their own axis.

1.11.6 One, Two and Three Dimensional Flow

One dimensional flow

In this type of flow, the flow parameter such as velocity is a function of time and one
space coordinate only.

𝑢 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) , 𝑣 = 0 & 𝑤 = 0

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Two dimensional flow

In this type of flow, the flow parameter such as velocity is a function of time and two
spaces coordinate only.

𝑢 = 𝑓1 (𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑣 = 𝑓2 (𝑥, 𝑦) & 𝑤 = 0

Three dimensional flow

In this type of flow, the flow parameter such as velocity is a function of time and three
spaces coordinate only.

𝑢 = 𝑓1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), 𝑣 = 𝑓2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) & 𝑤 = 𝑓3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

1.12 CONTROL VOLUME

It is a volume fixed in space or moving with constant flow velocity through which the
continuum (gas, liquid or solid) flows. The surface enclosing the control volume is referred to
as the control surface.

1.13 RATE OF FLOW OR DISCHARGE

It is defined as the quantity of the fluid flowing per second through a section of a ppe
or a channel.

a. For incompressible fluids the flow rate is expressed in m3/s.

b. For compressible fluids the flow rate is expressed in N/s.

A = area of cross section of pipe

V = average velocity of fluid across the section

Q = A*V

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1.14 CONTINUITY EQUATION

The equation based on the principle of conservation of mass is called continuity

equation. Thus the quantity of fluid flowing through the pipe is constant. Consider two cross-
sections of the pipe above.

Let V1, ρ1 and A1 be the velocity, density and area at the point 1 and similarly, V 2, ρ2
and A2 are the velocity, density, and area at the point 2.

1 2

Rate of flow at point 1 = ρ 1 A1 V1

Rate of flow at point 2 = ρ 2 A2 V2

According to law of conservation of mass

Rate of flow at point 1 = Rate of flow at point 2

ρ 1 A1 V1 = ρ 2 A2 V2

For an incompressible flow the density is constant, then

A1 V1 = A2 V2

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1.15 CONTINUITY EQUATION IN THREE DIMENSION

Consider a fluid element of lengths dx, dy, and dz.

Consider a fluid with density ρ entering the area dx, dy with a velocity of dx,

Mass of fluid entering the side dx, dy is

= 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑑𝑦 ∗ 𝑑𝑧

= 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧

Mass of the fluid leaving the other side of the control volume

𝜕
= 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 + (𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧)𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥

Gain of mass in x-direction

=mass entering the control volume-mass leaving the control volume

𝜕
= 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 − (𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 + (𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧)𝑑𝑥)
𝜕𝑥

𝜕
=− (𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧)𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥

𝜕
=− 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥

Similarly the mass gain in the y and z directions

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𝜕
=− 𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥

𝜕
=− 𝜌𝑤𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥

Net gain of masses in the control volume

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= −[ (𝜌𝑢) + (𝜌𝑣 ) + (𝜌𝑤)] 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

According to law of conservation of mass, mass can neither be created nor destroyed
in the fluid element. The net increase in mass per unit time in the fluid element must be equal
to the rate of increase of mass in the fluid element.

Mass of the fluid element

= 𝜌𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧

Rate of increase with time

𝜕𝜌
= 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑡

Equating two equations,

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝜌
−[ (𝜌𝑢) + (𝜌𝑣 ) + (𝜌𝑤 )] 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
+ (𝜌𝑢) + (𝜌𝑣 ) + (𝜌𝑤) = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

For a steady flow

𝜕𝜌
=0
𝜕𝑡

Hence the equation becomes

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
(𝜌𝑢) + (𝜌𝑣 ) + (𝜌𝑤) = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

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 1.16

If the fluid is incompressible, the change in density is zero,

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

The equation is three dimensional, for a two dimensional flow the equation becomes

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

1.16 ENERGY EQUATION

This is equation in which the force due to gravity and pressure are taken into
consideration. This is derived by considering the motion of a fluid element along a stream
line.

Consider a stream line in which the flow is taking place in S-direction. Consider a
cylinder element of cross section dA and length dS. The force acting on the cylinder element
is.

1. Pressure force pdA in the direction of flow.

𝜕𝑝
2. Pressure force (𝑝 + 𝑑𝑠) 𝑑𝐴opposite to the direction
𝜕𝑠

3. Weight of element ρgdAds.

Θ is the angle between the flow and the line of action of the weight of the element.

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The resultant force on the fluid element in the direction of S must be equal to the
product of the mass of the fluid element and the acceleration in the direction of S.

𝜕𝑝
𝑝𝑑𝐴 − (𝑝 + 𝑑𝑠) 𝑑𝐴 − 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝐴𝑑𝑠 cos 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑑𝐴𝑑𝑠 ∗ 𝑎𝑠
𝜕𝑠

Where as is the acceleration in the direction of S.

𝑑𝑣
Now 𝑎𝑠 = , where v is a function of s and t.
𝑑𝑡

𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑣 𝑣𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
+ = +
𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝑣
If the flow is steady, =0
𝜕𝑡

𝑣𝜕𝑣
𝑎𝑠 =
𝜕𝑠

Sub the value of as

𝜕𝑝 𝑣𝜕𝑣
− 𝑑𝑠𝑑𝐴 − 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝐴𝑑𝑠 cos 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑑𝐴𝑑𝑠 ∗
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠

Dividing by ρdAds

𝜕𝑝 𝑣𝜕𝑣
− − 𝑔 cos 𝜃 =
𝜌𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠

𝑣𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑝
+ + 𝑔 cos 𝜃 = 0
𝜕𝑠 𝜌𝜕𝑠

𝑑𝑧
cos 𝜃 =
𝑑𝑠

𝑣𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑧
+ +𝑔 =0
𝜕𝑠 𝜌 𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑠

𝜕𝑝
+ 𝑣𝑑𝑣 + 𝑔𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝜌

This is Euler’s equation of motion.

FLUID PROPERTIES AND FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
 1.18

Bernoulli’s equation is obtained by integrating Euler’s equation of motion

𝜕𝑝
∫ + ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑣 + ∫ 𝑔𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝜌

If flow is incompressible, ρ is constant and

𝑝 𝑣2
+ 𝑔𝑧 + = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌 2

𝑝 𝑣2
+ + 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

𝑝
- Pressure energy per unit weight of fluid or pressure head.
𝜌𝑔

V2/2g - kinetic energy per unit weight or kinetic head.

Z - potential energy per unit weight or potential head.

Practical Application Of Bernoulli’s Equation

1. Venturimeter

2. Orifice meter

3. Pitot-tube

1.16.1 Venturimeter

Consider a venturi fitted in a horizontal pipe through which a fluid is flowing

FLUID PROPERTIES AND FLOW CHARACTERISTICS

 1.19

d1 - diameter at inlet section

p1 - pressure at inlet section

v1 - velocity at inlet section

a1 - area of cross section at inlet section

d2, p2, v2 and a2 are the corresponding values at section 2.

Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections 1 and 2

𝑝1 𝑣12 𝑝2 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧2 = + + 𝑧2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

As the pipes are horizontal z1 = z2

𝑝1 𝑣12 𝑝2 𝑣22
+ = +
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

𝑝1 − 𝑝2 𝑣22 − 𝑣12
=
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

𝑝1 −𝑝2
But is the difference of pressure heads at section 1 and 2
𝜌𝑔

𝑝1 − 𝑝2
ℎ=
𝜌𝑔

𝑣22 − 𝑣12
ℎ=
2𝑔

Applying the continuity equation

𝑎2 𝑣2
𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2 𝑜𝑟 𝑣1 =
𝑎1

Sub the value of v1 in the equation

𝑎2 𝑣2 2
𝑣22 − ( )
𝑎1
ℎ=
2𝑔
FLUID PROPERTIES AND FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
 1.20

𝑣22 𝑎12 − 𝑎22

ℎ= [ ]
2𝑔 𝑎12

𝑎12
𝑣22 = 2𝑔ℎ [ ]
𝑎12 − 𝑎22

𝑎1
𝑣2 = √2𝑔ℎ
√𝑎12 − 𝑎22

𝑄 = 𝑎2 𝑣2

𝑎2 𝑎1
𝑄= √2𝑔ℎ
√𝑎12 − 𝑎22

This gives the discharge under ideal condition. Actual discharge will be less than
theoretical discharge. Cd, the coefficient of venturimeter and is always less than 1.

𝑎2 𝑎1
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 √2𝑔ℎ
√𝑎12 − 𝑎22

Value of ‘h’ in U-tube manometer

Case I : Horizontal manometer with specific gravity of fluid greater than the sp.
Gravity of flowing fluid.

Sh - specific gravity of heavy fluid

S0 - specific gravity of liquid flowing through pipe

x - Difference of the heavier liquid column in U-tube.

𝑆ℎ
ℎ = 𝑥[ − 1]
𝑆0

Case II: Horizontal manometer with specific gravity of fluid less than the sp.
Gravity of flowing fluid.

Sl - specific gravity of lighter fluid

S0 - specific gravity of liquid flowing through pipe

FLUID PROPERTIES AND FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
 1.21

x - Difference of the heavier liquid column in U-tube.

𝑆𝑙
ℎ = 𝑥 [1 − ]
𝑆0

Case III: Inclined manometer with specific gravity of fluid greater than the sp.
Gravity of flowing fluid.

Sh - specific gravity of heavy fluid

S0 - specific gravity of liquid flowing through pipe

x - Difference of the heavier liquid column in U-tube.

𝑆ℎ
ℎ = 𝑥[ − 1]
𝑆0

Case IV: Inclined manometer with specific gravity of fluid less than the sp.
Gravity of flowing fluid.

Sl - specific gravity of lighter fluid

S0 - specific gravity of liquid flowing through pipe

x - Difference of the heavier liquid column in U-tube.

𝑆𝑙
ℎ = 𝑥 [1 − ]
𝑆0

1.16.2 Orifice meter

It is a device used to find the rate of flow of a fluid through a pipe. It consists of a
circular plate which has a circular sharp edged hole called orifice, which is concentric with
pipe. The orifice diameter is kept generally 0.5 times the diameter of the pipe.

A differential manometer is connected at section (1), which is at a distance of about

1.5 to 2 times the pipe diameter upstream from the orifice plate, and at section (2), which is at
a distance of about half the diameter of the orifice on the downstream side of the orifice plate.

FLUID PROPERTIES AND FLOW CHARACTERISTICS

 1.22

p1 - pressure at section (1)

v1 - velocity at section (1)

a1 - area of pipe at section (1)

p2, v2 and a2 are corresponding values at section (2). Applying Bernoulli’s equation

𝑝1 𝑣12 𝑝2 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧2 = + + 𝑧2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑣22 𝑣12
( + 𝑧2 ) − ( + 𝑧2 ) = −
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑝1 𝑝2
( + 𝑧2 ) − ( + 𝑧2 ) = ℎ = 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔

𝑣22 𝑣12
ℎ= −
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑣2 = √2𝑔ℎ + 𝑣12

Section (2) is at vena contracta and a2 represents the area at the vena contracta. If a0 is
the area of orifice then, we have

𝑎2
𝐶𝑐 =
𝑎0

Cc – coefficient of contraction

By continuity equation
FLUID PROPERTIES AND FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
 1.23

𝑎2 𝑎0 𝐶𝑐
𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 𝑣
𝑎1 𝑎1 2

Sub the value of v1 in the above equation

𝑎02 𝐶𝑐2 𝑣22

𝑣2 = √2𝑔ℎ +
𝑎12

𝑎0 2
𝑣22 = 2𝑔ℎ + ( ) 𝐶𝑐2 𝑣22
𝑎1

√2𝑔ℎ
𝑣2 =
𝑎0 2 2
√1 − ( ) 𝐶𝑐
𝑎1

The discharge 𝑄 = 𝑣2 𝑎2 = 𝑣2 𝑎0 𝐶𝑐

𝑎0 𝐶𝑐 √2𝑔ℎ
𝑄=
𝑎0 2 2
√1 − ( ) 𝐶𝑐
𝑎1

𝑎0 2
√1 − ( )
𝑎1
𝐶𝑑 = 𝐶𝑐
𝑎0 2 2
√1 − ( ) 𝐶𝑐
𝑎1

𝑎0 2 2
√1 − ( ) 𝐶𝑐
𝑎1
𝐶𝑐 = 𝐶𝑑
𝑎0 2
√1 − ( )
𝑎1

Sub. The value of Cc in the Q

𝑎0 2 2
√1 − ( ) 𝐶𝑐
𝑎1 √2𝑔ℎ
𝑄 = 𝑎0 𝐶𝑑
𝑎0 2 𝑎 2
√1 − ( ) √1 − ( 0 ) 𝐶𝑐2
𝑎1 𝑎1

FLUID PROPERTIES AND FLOW CHARACTERISTICS

 1.24

√2𝑔ℎ
𝑄 = 𝑎0 𝐶𝑑
𝑎0 2
√1 − ( )
𝑎1

𝑎0 𝐶𝑑 𝑎1 √2𝑔ℎ
𝑄=
√𝑎12 − 𝑎02

Cd - coefficient of discharge of orifice meter.

The coefficient of discharge of orifice meter is much smaller than that of venturimeter.

1.16.3 Pitot tube

It is a device used for measuring the velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or a
channel. It is based on the principle that if the velocity of flow at a point becomes zero, the
pressure there is increases due to the conversion of kinetic energy into pressure energy.

Consider two points (1) and (2) at the same level in such a way that point (2) is just at
the inlet of the Pitot tube and point (1) is far away from the tube.

p1 - intensity of pressure at point (1)

v1 - velocity of flow at (1)

p2 - pressure at point (2)

v2 - velocity at point (2) which is zero

H - Depth of tube in the liquid

FLUID PROPERTIES AND FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
 1.25

h - Rise of liquid in the tube above the free surface

applying Bernoulli’s equation

𝑝1 𝑣12 𝑝2 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧2 = + + 𝑧2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

z1 = z2 as both the points are in the same line

𝑝1
= 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 (1) = 𝐻
𝜌𝑔

𝑝2
= 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 (2) = (ℎ + 𝐻 )
𝜌𝑔

Sub. The values, we get

𝑣12
𝐻+ = (ℎ + 𝐻 )
2𝑔

𝑣12
ℎ=
2𝑔

𝑣1 = √2𝑔ℎ

This is theoretical velocity. Actual velocity is given by

𝑣1 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔ℎ

Cv - coefficient of pitot tube.

Velocity at any point

𝑣 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔ℎ

FLUID PROPERTIES AND FLOW CHARACTERISTICS

 1.26

1.17 MOMENTUM EQUATION

It is based on the law of conservation of momentum, the net force acting on the fluid
mass is equal to the change in momentum of flow per unit time in that direction. The force
acting on the fluid of mass ‘m’ is given by

𝐹 =𝑚∗𝑎

a - acceleration due to gravity

𝑑𝑣
𝑎=
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣
𝐹=𝑚
𝑑𝑡

𝑑 (𝑚𝑣 )
𝐹=
𝑑𝑡

The equation is the momentum equation

𝐹. 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑 (𝑚𝑣 )

This is impulse-momentum equation. This states that the force acting on a fluid in a
short interval of time is equal to the change of momentum in the direction of force.

1.17.1 Force exerted by a flowing fluid on the pipe-bend

Consider the two cross section (1) and (2)

v1, p1 and A1 represents the cross section (1) and v2, p2 and A2 represents the cross
section (2).

FLUID PROPERTIES AND FLOW CHARACTERISTICS

 1.27

Fx and Fy be the components of the forces exerted by the flowing fluid on the bend in x
and in y directions respectively. The forces exerted on the x and y directions are equal to Fx
and Fy but in opposite direction. Hence the component of force exerted in the x-direction is –
Fx and force exerted in y-direction is -Fy .

The net force acting on fluid in the direction of x = rate of change of momentum in x-
direction.

𝑝1 𝐴1 − 𝑝2 𝐴2 cos 𝜃 − 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 ∗ 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

= 𝜌𝑄(𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑥)

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 cos 𝜃 ) + 𝑝1 𝐴1 − 𝑝2 𝐴2 cos 𝜃

Similarly in y-direction

𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝑄 (−𝑉2 sin 𝜃 ) − 𝑝2 𝐴2 sin 𝜃

The resultant force FR acting on the bend

𝐹𝑅 = √𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑦2

𝐹𝑦
tan 𝜃 =
𝐹𝑥

FLUID PROPERTIES AND FLOW CHARACTERISTICS

 2-1

2 UNIT – II

FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

2.1 HYDRAULIC GRADIENT

It is defined as the sum of pressure head and the datum head of the flowing fluid in a
pipe with respect to some reference line or it is the line which is obtained by joining the top
of all vertical ordinates, showing the pressure head of a flowing fluid in a pipe from the
centre of pipe.

𝑝
Pressure head -
𝜌𝑔

Datum head - z

2.2 TOTAL ENERGY

It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head, datum head, and kinetic
head of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line. It is also defined as the
line which is obtained by joining the tops of all vertical ordinates showing the sum of
pressure head and kinetic head from the centre of the pipe.

𝑝
Pressure head -
𝜌𝑔

Datum head - z

𝑣2
Kinetic head -
2𝑔

2.3 BOUNDARY LAYER CONCEPTS

When real fluid flows past a solid boundary, the fluid particle adhere to the boundary
and condition of no slip occurs. This means the velocity of fluid close to the boundary will be
as that of the boundary. If the boundary is stationary, the velocity of fluid at boundary will be
zero. Further away from the boundary, the velocity will be higher and as a result of this
𝑑𝑢
variation of velocity, the velocity gradient will exist. The velocity of the fluid increases
𝑑𝑦

from zero on the stationary boundary to free-stream velocity of the fluid in the direction

FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

 2-2

normal to the boundary. This variation of velocity from zero to free-stream velocity in the
direction normal to the boundary takes place in a narrow region in the vicinity of solid
boundary. This narrow region of fluid is called boundary layer.

A very thin layer of the fluid, called the boundary layer. In this region, the velocity
𝑑𝑢
gradient exists and hence the fluid exerts a shear stress on the wall in the direction of
𝑑𝑦

motion. The shear stress is given by,

𝜕𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝜕𝑦

The remaining fluid is outside the boundary layer. The velocity outside the boundary
𝑑𝑢
layer is constant and equal to stream velocity. The velocity gradient becomes zero. As a
𝑑𝑦

result of this the shear stress is zero.

2.4 DEFNITIONS

2.4.1 Laminar Boundary Layer

Consider a flow of fluid, having a stream line velocity of ‘U’, over a smooth thin plate
which is flat and placed parallel to the direction for free stream of fluid. Let us consider the
flow with zero pressure gradients on one side of the plate, which is stationary. The velocity
of the fluid on the surface of the plate should be equal to the velocity of the plate. The
velocity of the plate is zero. The fluid free stream velocity is retarded in the vicinity of the
solid surface of the plate and the boundary layer region begins at the sharp leading edge. The
FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS
 2-3

boundary layer region increases because the retarded fluid is further retarded. This is also
called as growth of boundary layer. The length of the plate from the leading edge, upto which
laminar boundary layer exists, is called laminar zone. The laminar zone is obtained from
Reynold number equal to 5*105 for a plate. Because upto this Reynold number the boundary
layer is laminar.

𝑈∗𝑥
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟(𝑅𝑒 )𝑥 =
𝑣

x = distance from leading edge.

U = free-stream velocity of fluid.

v = Kinematic viscosity of fluid.

2.4.2 Turbulent Boundary Layer

If the length of the plate is more than the distance ‘x’ calculated, the thickness of the
boundary layer will go on increasing in the down-stream direction. Then the laminar
boundary layer becomes unstable and motion of fluid within it, is distributed and irregular
which leads to a transition from laminar to turbulent boundary layer. The short length over
which the boundary layer flow changes from laminar to turbulent is called transition zone.
Further downstream the transition zone, the boundary layer is turbulent and continues to grow
in thickness. This layer of boundary is called turbulent boundary layer.

2.4.3 Laminar Sub-layer

This is the region in the turbulent boundary layer zone, adjacent to the solid surface of
the plate. In this zone, the velocity variation is influenced only by viscous effects. Though the
velocity distribution would be a parabolic curve in the laminar sub-layer zone, but in very
small thickness we can reasonably assume that velocity variation is linear and so the velocity
gradient can be considered constant. The shear stress in the sub-layer is,

𝜕𝑢 𝑢
𝜏0 = 𝜇 ( ) =𝜇
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0 𝑦

FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

 2-4

2.4.4 Boundary Layer Thickness

It is defined as the distance from the boundary layer of the solid body measured in the
y-direction to the point, where the velocity of the fluid is approximately equal to 0.99 times
the free stream velocity of the fluid.

δlam = Thickness of laminar boundary layer.

δtur = Thickness of turbulent boundary layer.

δ’ = Thickness of laminar sub-layer.

2.4.5 Displacement Thickness (δ*)

It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body,
by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in flow rate on
account of boundary layer formation.

Consider the flow of a fluid having free stream velocity equal to ‘U’ over a thin
smooth plate. At a distance ‘x’ from the leading edge consider 1-1. The velocity of fluid at B
is zero and at C, which lies on the boundary layer, is U. thus the velocity varies from zero at
B to U at C, where BC is equal to the thickness of boundary layer,

Distance BC = δ

At section 1-1, consider an elemental strip.

y = distance of elemental strip from the plate.

dy = thickness of the elemental strip.

FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

 2-5

u = velocity of fluid at the elemental strip.

b = width of plate.

The area of elemental strip,

𝑑𝐴 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑑𝑦

Mass of fluid per second flowing through elemental strip,

= 𝜌 ∗ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝

= 𝜌 ∗ 𝑢 ∗ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑢 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑑𝑦

If there is no plate, then the mass of fluid per second flowing through elemental strip

= 𝜌 ∗ 𝑈 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑑𝑦

Since U is more than u, the reduction of mass per second flowing through elemental
strip

= 𝜌 ∗ 𝑈 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑑𝑦 − 𝜌𝑢 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝜌𝑏(𝑈 − 𝑢)𝑑𝑦

Total reduction in mass of fluid per second flowing through BC is

𝛿
= 𝜌𝑏 ∫ (𝑈 − 𝑢)𝑑𝑦
0

Let the plate is displaced by a distance δ* and velocity of flow for the distance δ* is
equal to the free-stream velocity. Loss of mass of the fluid per second flowing through the
distance δ*.

= 𝜌 ∗ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

= 𝜌 ∗ 𝑈 ∗ 𝛿∗ ∗ 𝑏

Equating the equations

𝛿
𝜌𝑏 ∫ (𝑈 − 𝑢)𝑑𝑦 = 𝜌𝑈𝛿 ∗ 𝑏
0

FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

 2-6

𝛿
∫ (𝑈 − 𝑢)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑈𝛿 ∗
0

1 𝛿
∫ (𝑈 − 𝑢)𝑑𝑦 = 𝛿 ∗
𝑈 0

𝛿
𝑢
∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝛿 ∗
0 𝑈

2.4.6 Momentum Thickness (θ)

Momentum thickness is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the

boundary of the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the
reduction in momentum of the flowing fluid on account of boundary layer formation.

Momentum of the fluid is given by

= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

= 𝜌𝑢𝑏𝑑𝑦 ∗ 𝑢

Momentum of the fluid in the absence of the boundary layer

= 𝜌𝑢𝑏𝑑𝑦 ∗ 𝑈

Loss of momentum through elemental strip

= 𝜌𝑢𝑏(𝑈 − 𝑢)𝑑𝑦

Total loss of momentum per second through BC

𝛿
= ∫ 𝜌𝑏𝑢(𝑈 − 𝑢)𝑑𝑦
0

Let θ = distance by which plate is displaced when the fluid is flowing with a constant
velocity ‘U’

Loss of momentum per second of fluid flowing through distance θ is given by

= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝜃 ∗ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS
 2-7

= 𝜌𝜃𝑏𝑈 ∗ 𝑈

= 𝜌𝜃𝑏𝑈 2

Equating both equations

𝛿
2
𝜌𝜃𝑏𝑈 = 𝜌𝑏 ∫ 𝑢(𝑈 − 𝑢)𝑑𝑦
0

𝛿
2
𝜃𝑈 = ∫ 𝑢(𝑈 − 𝑢)𝑑𝑦
0

𝛿
𝑢 (𝑈 − 𝑢 )
𝜃=∫ 𝑑𝑦
0 𝑈2

𝛿
𝑢
𝜃=∫ (𝑈 − 𝑢)𝑑𝑦
0 𝑈2

𝛿
𝑢 𝑢
𝜃=∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑦
0 𝑈 𝑈

2.4.7 Energy Thickness

It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body,
by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in kinetic energy
of the flowing fluid on account of boundary layer formation.

1
Kinetic energy of this fluid = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 2
2

1
= 𝜌𝑢𝑏𝑑𝑦 ∗ 𝑢2
2

Kinetic energy of the fluid in the absence of boundary layer

1
= 𝜌𝑢𝑏𝑑𝑦 ∗ 𝑈 2
2

Loss of K.E through elemental strip

FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

 2-8

1
= 𝜌𝑢𝑏 (𝑈 2 − 𝑢2 )𝑑𝑦
2

Total loss of K.E of fluid passing through BC

𝛿
1
= 𝜌𝑏 ∫ 𝑢[𝑈 2 − 𝑢2 ]𝑑𝑦
2 0

Let δ** = distance by which the plate is displaced to compensate for the reduction in
K.E

1
= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 2
2

1
= 𝜌𝑏𝛿 ∗∗ 𝑈 ∗ 𝑈 2
2

1
= 𝜌𝑏𝛿 ∗∗ 𝑈 3
2

Equating both the equations

𝛿
1 1
𝜌𝑏𝛿 ∗∗ 𝑈 3 = 𝜌𝑏 ∫ 𝑢[𝑈 2 − 𝑢2 ]𝑑𝑦
2 2 0

𝛿
∗∗
𝑢
𝛿 =∫ 3
[𝑈 2 − 𝑢2 ]𝑑𝑦
0 𝑈

𝛿
∗∗
𝑢 𝑢2
𝛿 = ∫ [1 − 2 ] 𝑑𝑦
0 𝑈 𝑈

2.5 LOSS OF ENERGY IN PIPES

Energy Loss

Major Loss Minor Loss

Sudden Sudden
Friction Loss Bend Pipe Fitting Obstruction
Expansion Contraction

Darcy-
Chezy
Weisbach

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 2-9

2.6 MAJOR LOSSES

2.6.1 Darcy Weisbach Equation

When liquid flows through a pipe, the velocity of the liquid layer adjacent to the pipe
wall is zero. The velocity of liquid goes on increasing from the wall and thus velocity
gradient and hence the shear stress is produced in the whole liquid due to viscosity. Thus
viscous action causes loss of energy which is usually known as frictional loss.

The frictional resistance for turbulent flow is,

1. Proportional to Vn, where n varies from 1.5 to 2.

2. Proportional to density of fluid.

3. Proportional to area of surface in contact.

4. Independent of pressure.

5. Depend on the nature of the surface in contact.

Consider a uniform horizontal pipe having steady flow. Let 1-1 and 2-2 are two
sections of pipe.

1 2
F1

p1 p2

F1
1 2

Let

p1 - pressure intensity at section 1-1.

FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS
 2-10

V1 - velocity of flow at section 1-1.

L - length of pipe between 1-1 and 2-2.

d - diameter of pipe.

f’ - frictional resistance per unit wetted area per unit velocity.

hf - loss of head due to friction

p2,V2 - values of pressure and velocity at section 2-2.

Applying Bernoulli’s equations between sections 1-1 and 2-2,

Total head at 1-1 = total head at 2-2 – loss of head due to friction between 1-1
and 2-2.

𝑝1 𝑣12 𝑝2 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧2 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝑓
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

z1 = z2 as pipe is horizontal

V1 = V2 as pipe diameter are constant

𝑝1 𝑝2
= + ℎ𝑓
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔

𝑝1 𝑝2
− = ℎ𝑓
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔

hf is the head lost due to friction and hence the pressure head is reduced in the
direction of flow.

Now frictional resistance = f’*wetted area*velocity2

𝐹1 = 𝑓 ′ ∗ 𝜋𝑑𝐿 ∗ 𝑉 2

𝐹1 = 𝑓 ′ ∗ 𝑃 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝑉 2

Resolving the forces from the diagram

FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

 2-11

𝑝1 𝐴 − 𝑝2 𝐴 − 𝐹1 = 0

𝑝1 𝐴 − 𝑝2 𝐴 = 𝐹1 = 𝑓 ′ ∗ 𝑃 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝑉 2

𝑓′ ∗ 𝑃 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝑉2
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 =
𝐴

𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑓

𝑓′ ∗ 𝑃 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝑉2
𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑓 =
𝐴

𝑓′ ∗ 𝑃 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝑉2
ℎ𝑓 =
𝐴𝜌𝑔

w.k.t

𝑃 𝜋𝑑 4
= =
𝐴 𝜋𝑑 2 𝑑
4

Sub in above equation

4𝑓 ′ 𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝑓 =
𝜌𝑔𝑑

Putting

𝑓′ 𝑓
=
𝜌 2

4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝑓 =
2𝑔𝑑

Sometimes the equation is written as

𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝑓 =
2𝑔𝑑

Then f = friction factor

FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

 2-12

Expression for coefficient of friction in terms of shear stress

The force acting on the fluid between section 1-1 and 2-2 in horizontal direction

𝑝1 𝐴 − 𝑝2 𝐴 = 𝐹1 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏0

= 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

= 𝜏0 ∗ 𝜋𝑑 ∗ 𝐿

𝜋𝑑 2
(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ) = 𝜏0 ∗ 𝜋𝑑 ∗ 𝐿
4

𝑑
(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ) = 𝜏0 ∗ 𝐿
4

4𝜏0 𝐿
(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ) =
𝑑

The equation for hf can be written as

𝑝1 𝑝2 4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
− = ℎ𝑓 =
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔𝑑

4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ) = 𝜌𝑔
2𝑔𝑑

4𝜏0 𝐿 4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
= 𝜌𝑔
𝑑 2𝑔𝑑

𝑓𝑉 2
𝜏0 = 𝜌
2

2𝜏0
𝑓=
𝜌𝑉 2

FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

 2-13

2.7 MOODY DIAGRAM

2.8 MINOR LOSSES

2.8.1 Loss of Head Due to Sudden Enlargement

p’ - pressure intensity of the liquid eddies on the area (A2-A1)

he - loss of head due to sudden enlargement

Applying Bernoulli’s equation

FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

 2-14

𝑝1 𝑣12 𝑝2 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧2 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

z1 = z2 as pipe is horizontal.

𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22
+ = + + ℎ𝑒
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑉12 𝑉22
( − ) + ( − ) = ℎ𝑒
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔

Consider the control volume of liquid between section 1-1 and 2-2. Then the force
acting on the liquid in the control volume in the direction of flow is given by

𝐹𝑥 = 𝑝1 𝐴1 + 𝑝′ (𝐴2 − 𝐴1 ) − 𝑝2 𝐴2

By experimentally it is found that p’=p1

𝐹𝑥 = (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )𝐴2

Momentum of liquid/sec at section 1-1 = mass *velocity

= 𝜌𝐴1 𝑉12

Momentum of liquid/sec at section 2-2 = mass*velocity

= 𝜌𝐴2 𝑉22

Change in momentum/sec = 𝜌𝐴2 𝑉22 − 𝜌𝐴1 𝑉12

From continuity equation 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2

𝐴2 𝑉2
𝐴1 =
𝑉1

Change in momentum/sec

= 𝜌𝐴2 (𝑉22 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 )

FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

 2-15

Net force acting on the control volume in the direction of flow must be equal to the
rate of change of momentum.

(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )𝐴2 = 𝜌𝐴2 (𝑉22 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 )

(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
= 𝑉22 − 𝑉1 𝑉2
𝜌

Dividing both sides by ‘g’

𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑉22 − 𝑉1 𝑉2
− =
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝑔

Sub. The value in the equation

𝑉22 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉12 𝑉22

ℎ𝑒 = ( )+( − )
𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑉22 + 𝑉12 − 2𝑉1 𝑉2

ℎ𝑒 =
2𝑔

(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2
ℎ𝑒 =
2𝑔

2.8.2 Head Loss Due to Sudden Contraction

Ac - area of flow at section C-C

Vc - velocity of flow at section C-C

A2 - area of flow at section 2-2

FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

 2-16

V2 - velocity of flow at section 2-2

hc - loss of head due to sudden contraction

hc - actually loss of head due to enlargement of section C-C to 2-2

(𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉2 )2
ℎ𝑐 =
2𝑔

2
𝑉22 𝑉𝑐
ℎ𝑐 = [ − 1]
2𝑔 𝑉2

From continuity equation

𝑉𝑐 𝐴2 1 1
= = =
𝑉2 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐 ⁄𝐴2 𝐶𝑐

Sub. In equation

2
𝑉22 1
ℎ𝑐 = [ − 1]
2𝑔 𝐶𝑐

𝑘𝑉22
=
2𝑔

1 2
Where 𝑘 = [ − 1]
𝐶𝑐

The value of Cc is assumed to be 0.62, then

2
1
𝑘=[ − 1] = 0.375
0.62

0.375𝑉22
ℎ𝑐 =
2𝑔

If the value of hc is not given, then

0.5𝑉22
ℎ𝑐 =
2𝑔

FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

 2-17

2.8.3 Loss of head at the entrance of a pipe

This is the loss of energy which occurs when a liquid enters a pipe which is connected
to a large tank or reservoir. The loss is similar to the loss of head due to sudden contraction.

0.5𝑉 2
ℎ𝑖 =
2𝑔

2.8.4 Loss of head at the exit of pipe

𝑉2
ℎ0 =
2𝑔

2.8.5 Loss of head due to obstruction

a - maximum are of obstruction

A - Area of the pipe

V - Velocity of liquid in pipe

(A-a) - Area of flow of liquid at section 1-1

Vc - Velocity of liquid at vena-contracta

Head loss due to obstruction = head loss due to enlargement from vena-
contracta

(𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉 )2
=
2𝑔

From continuity equation

FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

 2-18

𝑎𝑐 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐴𝑉

ac - area of cross section at vena-contracta

if Cc - coefficient of contraction
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑎 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎 𝑎𝑐
𝐶𝑐 = =
(𝐴 − 𝑎 ) (𝐴 − 𝑎 )

𝑎𝑐 = 𝐶𝑐 ∗ (𝐴 − 𝑎)

Substituting the value in continuity equation

𝐶𝑐 ∗ (𝐴 − 𝑎) ∗ 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐴𝑉
𝐴𝑉
𝑉𝑐 =
𝐶𝑐 ∗ (𝐴 − 𝑎)

Sub the value of Vc in the equation

2
𝐴𝑉
( − 𝑉)
𝐶 ∗ (𝐴 − 𝑎 )
= 𝑐
2𝑔
2
𝑉2 𝐴
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ( − 1)
2𝑔 𝐶𝑐 ∗ (𝐴 − 𝑎)

2.8.6 Loss of Head Due to Bend in Pipe

𝑘𝑉 2
ℎ𝑏 =
2𝑔

V - velocity of flow
k - co-efficient of bend (depends on angle of bend, radius of curvature of
bend and dia. of pipe)
2.8.7 Loss of head in various pipe fittings

𝑘𝑉 2
=
2𝑔

k - co-efficient of pipe fitting.

2.8.8 Flow through parallel and series pipes

FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS
 3-1

3 UNIT – III

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

SL.NO. PHYSICAL QUANTITY SYMBOL DIMENSONS

(a) Fundamental

1 Length L L

2 Mass M M

3 Time T T

(b) Geometric

4 Area A L2

5 Volume V L3

(c) Kinematic Quantity

6 Velocity v LT-1

7 Angular Velocity ɷ T-1

8 Acceleration a LT-2

9 Angular Acceleration α T-2

10 Discharge Q L3T-1

11 Acceleration due to Gravity g LT-2

12 Kinematic Viscosity γ L2T-1

(d) Dynamic Quantity

13 Force F MLT-2

14 Weight W MLT-2

15 Density ρ ML-3

16 Specific Weight w ML-2T-2

17 Dynamic Viscosity μ ML-1T-1

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 3-2

18 Pressure Intensity p ML-1T-2

19 Modulus of Elasticity K, E ML-1T-2

20 Surface Tension σ MT-2

21 Shear Stress τ ML-1T-2

22 Work, Energy W or E ML+2T-2

23 Power P MLT-3

24 Torque T ML+2T-2

25 Momentum M MLT-1

3.1 DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENITY

Dimensional homogeneity means the dimensions of each term in an equation on both

sides equal. Thus if the dimensions of each term on both sides of an equation are the same the
equation is known as dimensionally homogeneous equation. The powers of fundamental
dimensions (L,M & T) n both sides of the equation will be identical for a dimensionally
homogenous equation.

3.2 METHODS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

If the numbers of variable involved in a physical phenomenon are known, then the
relation among the variables can be determined by the following two methods:

1. Rayleigh’s method.

2. Buckingham’s π-theorem.

3.2.1 Rayleigh’s method

This method is used for determining the expression for a variable which depends upon
maximum three or four variables only. If the number of independent variables becomes more
than four, then it is very difficult to find expression for the dependent variable.

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 3-3

Let X is a variable, which depends on X1, X2 and X3 variables. Then according to

Rayleigh’s method, X is function of X1,X2 and X3 and mathematically it is written as

𝑋 = 𝑓(𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , 𝑋3 )

This can also be written as

𝑋 = 𝐾𝑋1𝑎 . 𝑋2𝑏 . 𝑋3𝑐

Where K is constant and a, b and c are arbitrarily powers.

The values a, b and c are obtained by comparing the powers of the fundamental
dimension on both sides. Thus the expression is obtained for dependent variable.

3.2.2 Buckingham’s π-theorem

Method of Selecting Repeating Variable

The number of repeating variables is equal to the number of fundamental dimensions

of the problem. The choice of repeating variables if governed by the following
considerations:

1. As far as possible, the dependent variable should not be selected as repeating

variable.

2. The repeating variables should be chosen in such a way that one variable contains
geometric property, other variable contains flow property and third variabes
contains fluid property.

a. Variables with geometric property are

i. Length (L)

ii. Diameter (d)

iii. Height (H)

b. Variables with flow property

i. Velocity (V)
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 3-4

ii. Acceleration

c. Variables with fluid property

i. Viscosity (μ)

ii. Density (ρ)

iii. Weight (w)

3. The repeating variables selected should not form a dimensionless group.

4. The repeating variables together must have the same number of fundamental
dimensions.

5. No two repeating variables should have the same dimensions.

6. In most of fluid mechanics problems, the choice of repeating variables may be

a. d,v,ρ

b. l,v,ρ

c. l,v,μ

d. d,v,μ

Procedure for solving problems by Buckingham’s π-theorem

The procedure for solving problems by Bucking ham’s π-theorem is explained by the
problem, resisting force R of a supersonic plane during flight can be considered as dependent
upon the length of the aircraft l, velocity v, air viscosity μ, air density ρ, and bulk modulus of
air K. Express the functional relationship between these variables and the resisting force.

Step – 1 : The resulting force R depends upon l, V, μ, ρ and K. Hence Ris a

function of l, V, μ, ρ, and K. Mathematically

𝑅 = 𝑓(𝑙, 𝑉, 𝜇, 𝜌, 𝐾) (i)
Or it can be written as

𝑓1 (𝑅, 𝑙, 𝑉, 𝜇, 𝜌, 𝐾) = 0 (ii)
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 3-5

Therefore, total number of variables, n=6

Number of fundamental dimensions, m=3

[m is obtained by writing dimensions of each variables as R=MLT-2, V=LT-1,

μ=ML-1T-1, ρ=ML-3, K=MLT-2. Thus as fundamental dimensions in the problem are M, L, T
and hence m=3.]

Number of dimensionless π-terms = n-m = 6-3 = 3

Thus three π-terms say π1, π2, and π3 are formed. Hence equation is written as

𝑓1 (𝜋1 , 𝜋2 , 𝜋3 ) = 0 (iii)

Step – II : Each π-term = m+1 variables, where m is equal to 3 and also

called repeating variables. Out of six variables R, l, V, μ, ρ and K, three variables are selected
as repeating variable. R is a dependent variable and should not be selected as a repeating
variable. Out of five remaining variables, one variable should have geometric variable, the
second should have flow property and the third one fluid property. These requirements are
fulfilled by selecting l, V and ρ as repeating variables. The repeating variables themselves
should not form a dimensionless term ans should have themselves fundamental dimensions
equal to m. Dimensions of l, V and ρ are L, LT-1, ML-3 and hence the three fundamental
dimensions exist in l, V and ρ and they themselves do not form dimensionless group.

Step – III : Each π-term is written as

𝜋1 = 𝑙𝑎1 . 𝑉𝑏1 . 𝜌𝑐1 . 𝑅

𝜋2 = 𝑙𝑎2 . 𝑉𝑏2 . 𝜌𝑐2 . 𝜇 (iv)
𝜋3 = 𝑙 𝑎3 . 𝑉𝑏3 . 𝜌𝑐3 . 𝐾

Step – IV : Each π-term is solved by the principle of dimensional

homogeneity. For the first π-term, we have

𝜋1 = 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 = 𝐿𝑎1 . (𝐿𝑇 −1 )𝑏1 . (𝑀𝐿−3 )𝑐1 . 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2

Equating the powers of M, L, T on both sides, we get

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 3-6

Powers of M, 0 = c1+1

c1 = -1

Powers of T 0 = -b1-2

b1 = -2

Powers of L, 0 = a1+b1-3c1+1

a1 = -b1+3c1-1

a1 = 2-3-1 = -2

Substituting the values of a1, b1 and c1 in equation (iv) we get

𝜋1 = 𝑙 −2 . 𝑉 −2 . 𝜌−1 . 𝑅

𝑅
𝜋1 = (v)
𝑙2 𝑉 2 𝜌
Similarly

𝜇
𝜋2 = (vi)
𝑙𝑉𝜌

𝐾
𝜋3 = (vii)
𝑉 2𝜌

Step - V

Substituting eq. (v), (vi) and (vii) in eq. (ii)

𝑅 𝜇 𝐾
𝑓1 ( , , )=0
𝑙2 𝑉 2 𝜌 𝑙𝑉𝜌 𝑉 2 𝜌

𝑅 𝜇 𝐾
= 𝜑 ( , )
𝑙2 𝑉 2 𝜌 𝑙𝑉𝜌 𝑉 2 𝜌

𝜇 𝐾
𝑅 = 𝑙2 𝑉 2 𝜌𝜑 ( , 2 )
𝑙𝑉𝜌 𝑉 𝜌

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 3-7

3.3 SIMILITUDE

Similitude is defined as the similarity between the model and its prototype in every
aspect, which means that the model and prototype have similar properties or odel and
prototype are completely similar.

3.3.1 Types of similitude

Three types of similarities must exist between model and prototype. They are

1. Geometric Similitude

2. Kinematic Similitude

3. Dynamic Similitude

Geometric Similitude

The geometric similitude is said to exist between the model and the prototype is the
ratio of all corresponding linear dimension in the model and prototype are equal.

Let

Lm = Length of model

bm = Breadth of model

Dm = Diameter of model

Am = Area of model

m = Volume of model.

Lp, bp, Dp, Ap, p = corresponding values of the prototype.

For geometric similarity between model and prototype, we must have the relation,

𝐿𝑝 𝑏𝑝 𝐷𝑝
= = = 𝐿𝑟
𝐿𝑚 𝑏𝑚 𝐷𝑚

Lr is called scale ratio

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 3-8

For area’s ratio and volume’s ratio the relation should be as

𝐴𝑝 𝐿𝑝 𝑏𝑝
= = 𝐿𝑟 ∗ 𝐿𝑟 = (𝐿𝑟 )2
𝐴𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝑏𝑚

∀𝑝 𝐿𝑝 3 𝑏𝑝 3 𝐷𝑝 3
=( ) =( ) =( )
∀𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝑏𝑚 𝐷𝑚

Kinematic Similarity

Kinematic similarity means the similarity of motion between model and prototype.
Thus kinematic similarity is said to exist between the model and the prototype if the ratios of
the velocity and acceleration at the corresponding point in the model and the corresponding
point in the prototype are the same. Since the velocity and acceleration are vector quantities,
not only the magnitude are equal if model and the prototype, but also the direction of the of
velocity and acceleration should also be parallel.

Let

VP1 = velocity of fluid at point 1 in prototype,

VP2 = velocity of fluid at point 2 in prototype,

aP1 = acceleration of fluid at 1 in prototype

aP2 = acceleration of fluid at 2 in prototype, and

Vm1, Vm2, am1, am2 = corresponding values at the corresponding points of fluid
velocity and acceleration in the model.

For kinematic similarity, we must have

𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃
= 2 = 𝑉𝑟
𝑉𝑚1 𝑉𝑚2

Where Vr is the velocity ratio.

𝑎𝑃1 𝑎𝑃
= 2 = 𝑎𝑟
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 3-9

Where ar is the acceleration ratio.

Dynamic Similarity

Dynamic similarity means the similarity of forces between the model and prototype.
Thus similarity is said to exist between the model and the prototype if the ratios of the
corresponding forces acting at the corresponding points are equal. Also the directions of the
corresponding forces at the corresponding points should be same.

(𝐹𝑖 )𝑃 = 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒

(𝐹𝑣 )𝑃 = 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒

(𝐹𝑔 ) = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒

𝑃

(𝐹𝑖 )𝑚 , (𝐹𝑣 )𝑚 , (𝐹𝑔 )

𝑚

= 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙

Then for dynamic similarities, we have

(𝐹𝑖 )𝑃 (𝐹𝑣 )𝑃 (𝐹𝑔 )

𝑃
= = = 𝐹𝑟
(𝐹𝑖 )𝑚 (𝐹𝑣 )𝑚 (𝐹𝑔 )
𝑚

Where Fr is the force ratio.

3.3.2 Forces Acting in Moving Fluid

1. Inertia force

It is equal to the product of mass and acceleration of the flowing fluid and acs in the
direction opposite to the direction of acceleration

2. Viscous force

It is equal to the product of shear stress due to viscosity and surface area of the flow.

3. Gravity force

It is equal to the product of mass and acceleration due to gravity of the flowing fluid.

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 3-10

4. Pressure force

It is equal to the product of pressure intensity and cross-sectional area of the flowing
fluid.

5. Surface tension force

It is equal to the product of surface tension and length of surface of the flowing fluid.

6. Elastic force

It is equal to the product of elastic stress and area of the flowing fluid.

3.4 Dimensionless Parameters

Dimensionless numbers are those obtained by dividing the inertia force by viscous
force or gravity force or pressure force or surface tension force or elastic force. As this is a
ratio of one force to the other force, it will be a dimensionless number. it is also called as
non-dimensional parameters.

1. Reynold’s number

2. Froude’s number

3. Euler’s number

4. Weber’s number

5. Mach’s number

3.4.1 Reynold’s number

It is defined as the ratio of inertia force of the flowing fluid and the viscous force of
the fluid.

Inertial force = mass * acceleration of flowing fluid.

𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
= 𝜌 ∗ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∗
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

= 𝜌 ∗ 𝐴𝑉 ∗ 𝑉
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 3-11

= 𝜌𝐴𝑉 2

Viscous force= shear stress * area

=𝜏∗𝐴

𝑑𝑢
= (𝜇 )∗𝐴
𝑑𝑦

𝑉
=𝜇 𝐴
𝐿

By definition, Reynold’s number

𝐹𝑖
𝑅𝑒 =
𝐹𝑣

𝜌𝐴𝑉 2 𝜌𝐿𝑉
= =
𝑉 𝜇
𝜇 𝐴
𝐿

𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝐿
= =
(𝜇 ⁄𝜌 ) 𝛾

In case of pipe flow, the linear dimension L is taken as diameter, d. hence Reynold’s
number for pipe flow,

𝑉𝐿 𝜌𝐿𝑑
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝛾 𝜇

3.4.2 Froude’s Number

The Froude’s number is defined as the square root of the ratio of inertia force of a
flowing fluid to the gravity force. Mathematically, it is expressed as

𝐹𝑖
𝐹𝑒 = √
𝐹𝑔

Fg = force due to gravity

= mass * acceleration due to gravity

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 3-12

= ρ*Volume*g

= ρ*L3*g

= ρALg

𝜌𝐴𝑉 2
𝐹𝑒 = √
𝜌𝐴𝐿𝑔

𝑉
𝐹𝑒 =
√𝐿g

3.4.3 Euler’s Number

It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force of a flowing fluid to the
pressure force.

𝐹𝑖
𝐸𝑢 = √
𝐹𝑝

Fp = intensity of pressure * area

= p*A

𝜌𝐴𝑉 2
𝐸𝑢 = √
𝑝𝐴

𝑉
𝐸𝑢 =
√𝑝⁄𝜌

3.4.4 Weber’s Number

It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force of a flowing fluid to the
surface tension force.

𝐹𝑖
𝑊𝑒 = √
𝐹𝑠

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 3-13

Fs = surface tension per unit length * Length

= σ*L

𝜌𝐴𝑉 2
𝑊𝑒 = √
𝜎𝐿

𝜌𝐿𝑉 2
𝑊𝑒 = √
𝜎

𝑉
𝑊𝑒 =
√𝜎⁄𝜌𝐿

3.4.5 Mach’s Number

Mach’s number is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force of a
flowing fluid to the Elastic force.

𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑖
𝑀=√ =√
𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑒

Fe = elastic stress * Area

= K*A

= K * L2

𝜌𝐴𝑉 2
𝑀=√
𝐾𝐿2

𝑉
𝑀=
√𝐾 ⁄𝜌

𝐾
But √ = 𝐶 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝜌

𝑉
𝑀=
𝐶
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 3-14

3.5 Model Analysis

For predicting the performance of the hydraulic structures or hydraulic machines,

before actually constructing or manufacturing, models of the structures or machines are made
and tests are performed on them to obtain the desired information.

The model is the small scale replica of the actual structure or machine. The actual
structure or machine is called prototype. It is not necessary that the model should be smaller
than the prototypes; they may be bigger than the prototype. The study of models of actual
machines is called model analysis. Model analysis is actually an experimental method of
finding solutions of complex flow problems. Exact analysis solutions are possible only for a
limited number of flow problems. The followings are the advantages of the dimensional and
model analysis.

1. The performance of the hydraulic structure or hydraulic machines can be easily

predicted, in advance, from its model.

2. With the help of dimensional analysis, a relationship between the variables

influencing a flow problem in terms of dimensional parameters is obtained. This
relationship helps in conducting tests on the model.

3. The merits of alternative designs can be predicted with the help of model testing.
The most economical and safe design may be, finally, adopted.

4. The tests performed on the models can be utilized for obtaining, in advance, useful
information about the performance of the prototypes only if a complete similarity
exists between the model and the prototype.

The modal laws are:

1. Reynold’s Model Law

2. Froude Model Law

3. Euler Model Law

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 3-15

4. Weber Model Law

5. Mach Model Law

3.5.1 Reynold’s Model Law

Reynold’s model law is the law in which models are based on Reynold’s number.
Models based on Reynold’s number include:

(i) Pipe flow

(ii) Resistance experienced by sub-marines, airplanes, fully immersed bodies, etc.

As defined earlier that Reynold’s number is the ratio of inertia force and viscous force,
and hence fluid flow problems where viscous force alone are predominant, the models for
dynamic similarity on Reynold’s law, which states that the Reynold number for the model
must be equal to the Reynold number for the prototype.

Let

Vm = Velocity of fluid in model.

ρm = Density of fluid in model.

Lm = Length or linear dimension of the model.

μm = Viscosity or fluid in model.

and Vp, ρp, Lp and μp are the corresponding values of velocity, density, linear
dimension and viscosity of fluid in prototype. Then according to Reynold’s model law,

[𝑅𝑒 ]𝑚 = [𝑅𝑒 ]𝑝

𝜌𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝜌𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝐿𝑝
=
𝜇𝑚 𝜇𝑝

𝜌𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚 1
∗ 𝜇 =1
𝜌𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝐿𝑝 𝑝
𝜇𝑚

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 3-16

𝜌𝑟 𝑉𝑟 𝐿𝑟
=1
𝜇𝑟

ρr, Vr, Lr and μr are called the scale ratio for density, velocity, linear dimension and
viscosity. The scale ratio for time, acceleration, force and discharge for Reynold’s model law
are obtained as,

𝐿𝑟
𝑡𝑟 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑉𝑟

𝑉𝑟
𝑎𝑟 = 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐿𝑟

𝐹𝑟 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = (𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)𝑟

= 𝑚𝑟 ∗ 𝑎𝑟 = 𝜌𝑟 𝐴𝑟 𝑉𝑟 ∗ 𝑎𝑟

= 𝜌𝑟 𝐿2𝑟 𝑉𝑟 ∗ 𝑎𝑟

𝑄𝑟 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = (𝜌𝐴𝑉)𝑟

= 𝜌𝑟 𝐴𝑟 𝑉𝑟

= 𝜌𝑟 𝐿2𝑟 𝑉𝑟

3.5.2 Froude Model Law

Froude model law is the law in which the models are based on Froude number which
means for dynamic similarity between model and prototype, the Froude number for both of
them should be equal. Froude model law is applicable when the gravity force is only
predominant force which controls the flow in addition to the force of inertia. Froude model
law is applied in the following fluid flow problems:

1. Free surface flows such as flow over spillways, weirs, sluices, Channels etc…

2. Flow of jet from an orifice or nozzle.

3. Where waves are likely to be formed on surface.

4. Where fluids of different densities flow over one another.

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 3-17

Let

Vm - Velocity of fluid in model,

Lm - Linear dimension or length of model,

gm - Acc. Due to gravity at a place where model is tested.

And Vp, Lp and gp are the corresponding values of the velocity, length and acceleration
due to gravity for the prototype. Then according to Froude model law,

(𝐹𝑒 )𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙 = (𝐹𝑒 )𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝
=
√𝑔𝑚 𝐿𝑚 √𝑔𝑝 𝐿𝑝

If the tests on the model are performed on the same place where prototype is to
operate, the gm = gp and hence,

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝
=
√𝐿𝑚 √𝐿𝑝

𝑉𝑚 1
∗ =1
𝑉𝑝
𝐿
√ 𝐿𝑚
𝑝

𝑉𝑝 𝐿𝑝
=√ = √𝐿𝑟
𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚

Where

Lr - Scale ratio for length,

𝑉𝑝
= 𝑉𝑟 = 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑉𝑚

𝑉𝑝
= 𝑉𝑟 = √𝐿𝑟
𝑉𝑚

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 3-18

Scale ratios for various physical quantities based on Froude model law are:

Scale ratio for time

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐴𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 =
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

Then ratio of time for prototype and model is

𝐿 𝐿𝑝
( )
𝑇𝑝 𝑉 𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝐿𝑝 𝑉𝑚 1
𝑇𝑟 = = = = ∗ = 𝐿𝑟 ∗
𝑇𝑚 ( 𝐿 ) 𝐿𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝑉𝑝 √𝐿𝑟
𝑉 𝑚 𝑉𝑚

= √𝐿𝑟

Scale ratio for acceleration

𝑉
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑇

𝑉
( )
𝑎𝑝 𝑇 𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝑇𝑚 𝑉𝑝 𝑇𝑚
𝑎𝑟 = = = ∗ = ∗
𝑎𝑚 (𝑉 ) 𝑇𝑝 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝑇𝑝
𝑇 𝑚

1
= √𝐿𝑟 ∗ =1
√𝐿𝑟

Scale ratio for discharge

𝐿 𝐿3 2
𝑄 =𝐴∗𝑉 =𝐿 ∗ =
𝑇 𝑇

𝐿3
( )
𝑄𝑝 𝑇 𝑝𝐿𝑝 3 𝑇𝑚 1
𝑄𝑟 = = 3 = ( ) ∗ ( ) = 𝐿3𝑟 ∗ = 𝐿2.5
𝑟
𝑄𝑚 𝐿 𝐿𝑚 𝑇𝑝 √𝐿𝑟
( )
𝑇 𝑚

Scale ratio for force

𝑉
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑃𝐿3 ∗ = 𝑃𝐿2 𝑉 2
𝑇
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 3-19

2
𝐹𝑝 𝜌𝑝 𝐿2𝑝 𝑉𝑝2 𝜌𝑝 𝐿𝑝 2 𝑇𝑚
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑟 = = = ∗ ( ) ∗ ( )
𝐹𝑚 𝜌𝑚 𝐿2𝑚 𝑉𝑚2 𝜌𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝑇𝑝

The fluid used in the model and prototype is same, then

𝜌𝑝
=1
𝜌𝑚

2
𝐿𝑝 2 𝑇𝑚 2
𝐹𝑟 = ( ) ∗ ( ) = 𝐿2𝑟 ∗ (√𝐿𝑟 ) = 𝐿3𝑟
𝐿𝑚 𝑇𝑝

Scale ratio for pressure intensity

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝜌𝐿2 𝑉 2
𝑝= = = 𝜌𝑉 2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐿2

𝑝𝑝 𝜌𝑝 𝑉𝑝2
𝑝𝑟 = =
𝑝𝑚 𝜌𝑚 𝑉𝑚2

If fluid is same

𝑉𝑝2
𝑝𝑟 = 2 = 𝐿𝑟
𝑉𝑚

Scale ratio for work, energy, torque, moment etc.

Torque = Force * Distance = F*L

Torque ratio

𝑇𝑝∗ (𝐹 ∗ 𝐿 ) 𝑝
𝑇𝑟∗ = ∗ = = 𝐹𝑟 ∗ 𝐿𝑟 = 𝐿3𝑟 ∗ 𝐿𝑟 = 𝐿4𝑟
𝑇𝑚 (𝐹 ∗ 𝐿)𝑚

Scale ratio for power

Power = work per unit

𝐹∗𝐿
=
𝑇

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 3-20

𝐹𝑝 ∗ 𝐿𝑝
𝑃𝑝 𝑇𝑝 𝐹𝑝 𝐿𝑝 1
𝑃𝑟 = = = ∗ ∗
𝑃𝑚 𝐹𝑚 ∗ 𝐿𝑚 𝐹𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝑇𝑝
𝑇𝑚 𝑇𝑚

1 1
= 𝐹𝑟 ∗ 𝐿𝑟 ∗ = 𝐿3𝑟 ∗ 𝐿𝑟 ∗ = 𝐿3.5
𝑟
𝑇𝑟 √𝐿𝑟

3.5.3 Euler’s Model Law

Euler’s model law is the law in which the models are designed on Euler’s number
which means for dynamic similarity between the model and prototype, the Euler number for
model and prototype should be equal. Euler’s model law is applicable when the pressure
forces are alone predominant in addition to the inertia force. According to this law:

(𝐸𝑢 )𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙 = (𝐸𝑢 )𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒

Vm - Velocity of fluid in model.

pm - Pressure of fluid in model.

ρm - Density of fluid in model.

Vp, pp, ρp - corresponding values in prototype, then substituting these values

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝
=
√𝑝𝑚 ⁄𝜌𝑚 √𝑝𝑝 ⁄𝜌𝑝

If fluid is same in model and prototype, then

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝
=
√𝑝𝑚 √𝑝𝑝

Euler’s model law is applied for fluid flow problems where flow is taking place in a
closed pipe in which case turbulence is fully developed so that viscous forces are negligible
and gravity force and surface tension force is absent. This law is also used where the
phenomenon of cavitation takes place.

3.5.4 Weber Model Law

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 3-21

Weber model law is the law in which models are based on Weber’s number, which is
the ratio of the square root of inertia force to surface tension force. Hence where surface
tension effects predominate in addition to inertia force, the dynamic similarity between the
model and prototype is obtained by equating the Weber number of the model and its
prototype. Hence according to this law:

(𝑊𝑒 )𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙 = (𝑊𝑒 )𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒

Vm - Velocity of fluid in model

σm - Surface tensile force in model.

ρm - Density of fluid in model.

Lm - Length of surface in model.

Vp, σp, ρp,Lp - corresponding values of fluid in prototype.

Then according to Weber Law, we have

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝
=
√𝜎𝑚 ⁄𝜌𝑚 𝐿𝑚 √𝜎𝑝 ⁄𝜌𝑝 𝐿𝑝

Weber model law is applied in following cases:

1. Capillary rise in narrow passages,

2. Capillary movement of water in soil,

3. Capillary waves in channels,

4. Flow over weirs for small heads.

3.5.5 Mach Model Law

Mach model law is the law in which models are designed on Mach number, which is
the ratio of the square root of inertia force to elastic force of a fluid. Hence where the forces
due to elastic compression predominate in addition to inertia force, the dynamic similarity

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 3-22

between the model and its prototype is obtained by equating the Mach number of the model
and its prototype. Hence according to this law:

(𝑀)𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙 = (𝑀 )𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒

Vm - Velocity of fluid in model

Km - Elastic stress for model.

ρm - Density of fluid in model.

Vp, Kp, ρp - corresponding values for prototype. Then according to Mach

Law,

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝
=
√𝐾𝑚 ⁄𝜌𝑚 √𝐾𝑝 ⁄𝜌𝑝

Mach model law is applied in the following cases:

1. Flow of aeroplane and projectile through air at supersonic speed, that is at a

velocity more than the velocity of sound,

2. Aerodynamic testing,

3. Underwater testing of torpedoes,

4. Water-hammer problems.

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 4-1

4 UNIT – IV

PUMPS

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 5-1

5 UNIT – V

TURBINES

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS