The Buddhist Concept of Environment

THE BUDDHIST CONCEPT
OF THE ENVIRONMENT
AND INDIVIDUAL
This Thesis is submitted to the
University of Delhi in fulfillment of the
Ph.D. Examination for the Award of the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Buddhist Studies)
By
YEN. PALLEGAMA RATANASARA
Under the Supervision of
PROF. K.T.S. SARAO
PUBLISHED BY:
BUDDHIST MAHA VIHARA,
123, JALAN BERHALA,
50470, KUALA LUMPUR,
MALAYSIA.
FOREWORD
One of the greatest challenges facing Buddhist scholars and
teachers is the problem of presenting the ancient Sublime Teachings
of the Buddha in a manner which is consonant with contemporary
Buddhist Maha Vihara thinking and needs. And today one of the most urgent problems
Publication of the facing the human race is environmental degradation. In this 123, Jalan
Berhala, regard the task facing buddhist leaders is to interpret the Buddha’s
50470, Kuala Lumpur, Teaching on man’ s relationship with nature and its vital
importance Malaysia. in enhancing one’s physical and spiritual wellbeing.
I therefore welcome this work by Ven. Pallegama Ratanasara
devoted to this subject. It will doubtless be an invaluable aid in
throwing an enormous amount of light on the Buddha’s views on
@2001 bythe author,
Environmental Protection.
All rights reserved.
This book is the Doctoral Dissertation written by Ven. Ratanasara and it reveals the
author’s extensive research not only into the primary sources of the Buddhist Tipitaka but
also his knowledge of other philosophical traditions, both Indian and European.
Typeset by In spite of heavy editing, the book may still contain stylistic
Xblexx Grabhit and structural inconsistencies and other linguistic shortcomings but
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. if the reader is prepared to overlook this he or she will find in
it
ISBN: 983-40364-2-6 a wealth of information on the subject put together in this manner
probably for the first time. The Buddha did not directly address
the problem of man’s relationship with nature as a separate sub ject but only incidentally
as an adjunct to his elucidation of the
Four Noble Truths. The author has done an admirable job of
painstakingly going through the ancient texts to glean a vast array
of details and putting them together so that a clear picture emerges
L
about the Buddha’s stand on the subject. Chapter 6 is particularly important in this
respect.
The human race today is assailed by all kinds of pollution — both of natural resources
and noise — and the Buddha shows how we can gain peace and happiness if we learn to
love and respect nature.
While congratulating the author for his excellent show of scholarship, regarding the
buddhist texts, I also commend this book to every modem reader who wishes to get a
clear idea of the Buddhist attitude towards Nature.
1.12.2000
Ven. Dr. K Sri Dhammananda
INTRODUCTION
Both internal and external evidence stand in good stead for the continuity and existence
of living things among whom man is the foremost; phenomenal environment takes a
prominent place in it. In the present study, environment on the one hand, is identified as
aerial factors like stars, rain, wind, etc., and on the other hand, it is identified as terrestrial
factors like water, rivers, streams, forests, mountains etc. All these factors influence
human life in different ways. In like manner, man has diversely influenced the
environment since time immemorial.
Furthermore, history proves the fact that the natural environment has differently enriched
human culture. The cultivators created the agrarian civilization by means of the
phenomenal power of environment; even today man’s day to day essential food and
drink, are primarily produced by farmers. Ascetics who generally resorted to the forests
and mountains, cultivated their spiritual power, and so great philosophers came into
existence. Poets being enamoured by the aesthetic beauty of nature produced poetic
masterpieces whereby world-literature has been enriched. Furthermore, man has inherited
immense knowledge from the study of the environment, carried out by scientists.
Technicians, who used environmental resources, created wonderful things. Thus, it may
be ascertained that the inseparable, invariable relationship between man and environment,
has variously enriched human civilization.
Buddhism that has enriched Asian thought for more than 2500 years, is a special study of
human continuum and environment. The main objective of the present study is to know
how Buddhism, that is the ancient extensive righteous path, has understood and
interpreted the environment as well as the relative relationship found in human
civilization and environment. Similarly, here, it is proposed to study the Buddhist
directive as to how to conserve environment and its favourable view on environment as
well as enjoying dispassionately
Introduction 3
2 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual
environment, aesthetic beauty etc. These factors can be regarded as timely requirements.
Buddhism is a religion that represents a passionless philosophy and conduct, it points out
understanding of sorrow and redemption thereof. Someone may be intrigued at the
thought whether such philosophy has any scope for the study of environment. First of all,
it should be mentioned that the Buddha did not speak of any life, exclusive of the
environment. As a teacher, he lived in the natural environment in which most of the
important events connected with his life, like his birth, enlightenment, preaching, leading
day-to-day life as well as his passing away, favourably took place. While preaching and
elucidating facts, the Buddha invariably used both similes and metaphors in the light of
the environment; especially the Sutta Pitaka, i.e. a collection of suttas, is replete with
environmental similes.
The environmental conservative measures indicated by Buddhism are indeed intriguing.
Similarly, important instructions about flora, air, water, etc, and their conservation, are
abundantly found in Buddhism. In like manner, the Buddhist injunction about seeing the
real beauty of the environment is that it should be devoid of evil intention. The beautiful
things of the world, are not meant for sensuality. Therefore, Buddhism points out that
man’s behaviour must be developed so as to see the real beauty of the world. There is a
great deal of environmental narration found in Buddhist literature, especially the psalms
uttered by the passionless monks and nuns.
It may be said that Buddhism clearly points out how environment influences man, and
vice versa. Buddhism that explains ongin and development of man, is a good example of
it. Furthermore, Buddhism shows that because of the mutual influence of both man and
environment, various social organizations and their evolution occur.
Similarly, Buddhism elucidates how man’s behaviour badly affects the environment and
how environment affects man. According to this, the study of environment through
Buddhism as a fruitful measure, has been considered by us. As Buddhism and modem
science point out, nothing in this world, exists independently, so every thing
is interrelated and is endowed with mutual influence and cooperation. According to this
philosophy, the sky, the earth, water, air, flora, etc., all these environmental factors are
interconnected. If one of the factors is affected, the remaining factors are also affected.
Modem man has confronted this problem. As man has neglected relative relationship
between him and environment, he is facing terrible effects. Today, a number of problems
have arisen mainly due to unwanted changes in environment, its destruction as well as its
non-conservation. Most countries do not have adequate flora in their environment, as
trees and creepers are being cut down there. It has already been predicted that the world
would be a desert. The air breathed by people is being polluted everywhere. It is a well-
known fact that both science and technology are indirectly involved in such pollution.
The water used by people is also contaminated by germs. Similarly, the natural resources
are being dried up. The calmness of the environment has been shattered by the incessant
noise. In this way, the terrible consequence of a great deal of environmental pollution has
been brought to notice. Under such circumstances, people should be made aware of the
environment. Due consideration and inclination for the conservation, enrichment, and
preservation of the environment, are regarded to be a humanitarian well-being and a
timely need. It is hoped through this study, to provide patronage to it.
Religion means a great deal of special wisdom that is generated in human civilization
which is part and parcel of human life. Here an attempt is made to see the environment in
such a classical sphere. Man’s sound compatibility with religious philosophical theory
and path, definition of timely problems putting forward solution etc. have been greatly
fruitful. Apart from Buddhism, some brief attention is paid to the other main world-
religions, in the present study. Nevertheless, it is primarily hoped to study environment
through Buddhist philosophy and conduct. Such understanding of the environment cannot
be said to be contrary to the basic teaching of Buddhism.
First, we have to live to achieve the Buddhist ultimate reality and path as well. We should
live in a free and uncomplicated environ-
Introduction 5
ment. Principles cannot be fulfilled without a congenial environment and objectives

cannot be accomplished without principles. Therefore, a study of the environment is an
essential part of Buddhism.
At present, we are at the beginning of the 21st century. The scientific and technological
achievement obtained by man during past centuries, is indeed wonderful. It influenced
not only man but also environment. As a result of the modem development and
explorations, man regards science as a god. Furthermore, it may be pointed out here that
the wisdom of ancient man has been disregarded and religion has been considered as
mere rite and ritual connected with metempsychosis. Moreover, it is thought to be
irrelevant to contemporary problems. But fortunately, scholars have understood this as an
extreme stance.
This study, is expected to bring out the fact that mundane man has acquired immense
knowledge and experience through religion which he has followed for thousands of
years. According to it, Buddhism that arose in Asia laid the foundations for a special
culture, through which modern environmental problems and their solutions can be seen
and solved.
The science of environment is the foremost among the study of modem environment and
its relevance to diverse streams of subjects. Its objective is to carry out the scientific
study of the structure of environment and its function. The science of environment is
believed to have been introduced to the world about a hundred years ago. At the time, it
was introduced as ecology. Recently, the science of environment has been diversely
enriched. In the beginning it was used as a natural science. Nevertheless, the science of
environment has been divided in accordance with the background of human needs. Here,
it is not expected to investigate its theoretical and practical aspects. However, it is hoped
to derive light according to requirements.
Higher science of environment seems to have come into existence through natural
sciences or physical sciences (botany, biology), social sciences (geography, economics
etc) as well as the science of environment. Meanwhile, the knowledge of these subjects
will
be used for the comparative study.
Apart from this, today a number of environmentalists have come into being throughout
the world. Both, governmental and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have come
into being. The study of these people and their works, will not be emphasized here.
Nonetheless, they will be used in case of requirement. Buddhism is the main subject
matter of the present research. The environmental facts found in the most ancient Pãli
canonical texts, especially, the Sutta Pitaka and the Vinaya Pita/ca, have been
investigated in the present study. Besides this, Pãli commentaries, sub-commentaries and
other additional texts have been used. Apart from Buddhism, the environmental facts
found in other religious original texts, have been used in the present study.
Sources:
Sources are divided into two parts, namely, primary sources and secondary sources. For
the present study, the Pãli canonical sources especially the Sutta Pita/ca and the Vinaya
Pita/ca have been profusely used. So, it is proposed to bring out the historical
background of these two pitakas. According to the Pãli canonical sources, the entire
Buddhaword was compiled at the first Buddhist council that was held at Rãjagriha. The
compilation of the word of the Buddha consists of three baskets namely, the Sutta, the
Vinaya and the Abidhamma. As the Sutta Pitaka and the Vinaya have been used, the main
concern is focused on the historical background of the Sutta and the Vinaya. The Sutta
Pita/ca is a collection of suttas preached by the Buddha on several occasions. The Sutta
Pitaka also contains some suttas delivered by the disciples of the Buddha. All the suttas
of the Sutta Pita/ca elucidate socio-economic, politico-religious and ethico-philosophical
ideas of that time. Some of these suttas reveal some modern scientific ideas. Several
suttas bring out the environmental facts too. Therefore, these suttas of the Sutta Pita/ca
may be considered as the treasure-house of the above mentioned facts. Moreover they
furnish some principles which are morally and
6 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and individual
introduction 7
materially beneficial to both monks and lay people.

The Suttanta Pitaka is divided into five nikãyas or separate divisions. They are, Digha-
Nikãya, Majjhima-Nikãya, SamyuttãNikãya, Anguttara-Nikâya and Khuddaka Nikãya.
The first nikãya of the Sutta Pitaka which is Dgha Nikãya contains thirty four suttas. It is
divided into three divisions, namely, (i) Silakkahanda-Vagga (division concerning
morality), (ii) Mahâvagga (the large division) and (iii) Pãthakavagga (the division
beginning with the discourse on Pãthika the naked ascetic).
The second nikãya which is the Majjhima-Nikaya consists of one hundred and fifty two
suttas. This nikãya is divided into three divisions, namely, (i) MiEdapannãsa, (ii)
Majjhima pannãsa and (iii) Uparipannãsa.
The third nikãya known as the Samyutta-Nikaya, contains 7762 suttas of varied length. It
is arranged in a special order according to subject matter, into five major divisions: (i)
Sagãtha vagga (ii) Nidã na vagga (iii) Khandha vagga (iv) Salãyatana vagga and (v)
Mahã vagga. Each major vagga is divided into fifty six groups known as Samyuttas.
The fourth nikãya which is known as the Anguttara-Nikñya, has 9557 short suttas. It is
divided into eleven divisions known as nipã tas. Each nipãta is divided again into groups
called vaggas which usually contain ten suttas.
The fifth nikãya which is known as the Khuddaka-Nikaya, contains fifteen treatises,
namely, (1) Khuddaka pãtha (2) Dhaminapada
(3) Udãna (4) Itivuttaka (5) Sutta-nipãta (6) Vimãnavatthu (7)
Petavatthu (8) Theragãthã (10) Jãtaka (11) Niddesa (Mahã, C&la)
(12) Patisambhidâ magga (13)Apadãna (14) Buddhavamsa and (15)
Cariyã pitaka.
The miscellaneous nature of this collection, contains not only the discourses of the
Buddha but also the compilations of brief doctrinal notes mostly in verse. Accounts of
personal struggles and achievements by theras and theris also in verse, the birth stories,
the history of the Buddha, etc. may account for its title.
The second pitaka which is known as the Vinaya pitaka consists of five books namely,
• Pãrãjika Pãli
• Pãcittiya Pãli
• Mahâvagga Pãli
• Cullavagga Pãli
• Parivãra Pãli
The Vinaya Pitaka is a collection of ecclesiastical rules prescribed by the Buddha for
monks and nuns. Though there are different editions of Tipitaka only P.T.S. and B.T.S.
editions have been used in the present study.
Apart from the Pãli canonical sources, other primary sources like Vedas, Upanishads,
Bhagavad-gitã, Bible, Quran, Guru granthasàhib, Jam granthas, etc., have been used. As
secondary sources, various relevant books written by different scholars have been used.
Methodology: Methodology has been defined as the set of methods used (in doing
something). It is also defined as the science or study of methods. In order to write the
present thesis different methods have been used. Most of the environmental facts have
been taken from the Sutta Pitaka and the Vinaya Pitaka. While explaining these facts,
different kinds of similes, dialogues, episodes, maxims, illustrations etc. have been used.
For the present study, research methods have been divided into two main divisions. The
first method is known as the physical science and the second method is known as the
social science. The method of social science still follows the inductive method,
comparative method, descriptive method, historical method and discriminative method.
So, for the present research work, historical, comparative, descriptive methods have been
used.
Chapterization:
The present thesis consists of seven chapters including the con-
8 ihe Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual
Introduction 9
clusion. These seven chapters are briefly dealt with below.
Chapter One: An Investigation into Environmental Studies
While furnishing an introduction on environment, different ideas about environment put
forward by eastern and western religious thinkers and philosophers have been discussed
in this chapter. In addition to this, a comprehensive definition of the environment,
ecology, etc. have been given. The notion about the universal approach which draws
religious or cultural values and beliefs for environmental protection, has been focused on
in this chapter. The religious beliefs of different religions like Hinduism, Jainism,
Sikhism, Confucianism, Islam and Christianity, have been briefly introduced and
critically discussed in accordance with the basic texts of these religions. The views on the
origin of the environment, its possession and conservation etc. have been emphasized in
the light of world religions besides Buddhism.
Chapter Two: A Critique of the Concept of Man
This chapter defines philosophical views on man. In this chapter, it is proposed to discuss
both Greek as well as Indian philosophical thoughts on man. It is expected to give high
priority to man while discussing the Buddhist conception about man. It is hoped to
organize this discussion by dividing it into five categories namely,
• The nature of man
• Buddhist views on man’s origin
• Potentialities of man
• Problems of the classfication of man
• Attitudes towards the development of man.
All these categories have been explained in the light of Buddhist suttas. While
elaborating these factors, other religious views have been compared to reveal the origin
and development of man. Besides this, the reciprocal relationship between the
environment and man
has been comparatively discussed in this chapter.

Chapter Three: Loss of Resources and its Influence on Man
This Chapter thoroughly discusses the natural resources on the basis of vegetation, water,
organisms etc. They have been scientifically classified as biological, non-biological,
which include resources like minerals, agriculture, forestry, food, power, energy, plants
and animals, water etc. All these natural resources, their loss, harm to them, their
destruction as well as their influence on man have been explained in this chapter.
Chapter Four: Interrelationship between Mind and Environment This chapter which is
divided into three parts, primarily, discusses
the dispassionate mind in accordance with the Abhidhamma Pitaka and other relevant
texts. It introduces the mind of a person and endeavours to transform it into passionless
mind. The second part of this chapter deals with environmental influence on the
passionless mind. It further discusses to what extent the environment influences man’s
mind to become passionless. In this part it is proposed to bring out to what extent the
environment stood in good stead for the Buddha to attain enlightenment. The third part of
this chapter describes the aesthetic evolution of the environment through a dispassionate
mind. In this part, it is also intended to furnish a descriptive narration of the natural
beauty, its value and gratification derived by the mind therefrom.
Chapter Five: Buddhist Ethical Views on
Environmental Problems
Buddhist ethics has been introduced in the early part of this chapter. Numerous terms
have been taken from the Pãli-canonical texts, in order to introduce and define the ethics.
Furthermore, it denotes the ethical significance of overcoming the environmental crisis.
Here, it is hoped to investigate the ecclesiastical rules of the Vinaya texts and see how far
they help to overcome such a crisis.
10 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual 11

Chapter Six: The Buddhist Attitude Towards
Environmental Conservation
In this chapter, an attempt has been made to discuss how to
protect the environment. Furthermore, it endeavours to show how
to conserve the balance of the physical environment as well as to
denote to what extent Buddhism endeavours to enable others to
understand the environment in all respects. Here attention is paid to
the devotional aspects towards the environment.
Chapter Seven: Conclusion
This Chapter contains the conclusion. Having considered all the
pertinent facts of the present thesis, they are compared and evaluated,
and a logical conclusion is drawn.
CHAPTER ONE
AN INVESTIGATION INTO
r ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
{wledgernent
I acknowledge with Thanks the following
enthusiastic supporters, assisting in various ways
in the making possible of this book.
Mr. Vaya Samarawickrama, Ms. Chong Hong
Choo, Mr. Karl Maass, Ms Chew Siew Kheng,
Mr. Quah Swee Kheng.
An Investigation Into Environmental Studies 13
This world consists of the cosmos, solar system, Milky Way, and its surroundings. This
world seems to have begun during an uncertain period. The visible stars like the Sun,
Mars, Venus, Saturn, Mercury and other planets and sub-planets like the Moon etc., form
our earthly environment. The surface of our earth is blended with the atmosphere. It is
also surrounded by it. We are the people who live in it. The surface of the earth is the
base of the atmosphere. Diverse things like soil, water, vegetation, animals and air, are
our environment. It belongs to both human beings, animals and vegetation. Just like
human beings, all other creatures are also living things.
Environment has been defined as “the aggregate of all the external conditions and
influences affecting the life and development of an organism.” On the other hand, most of
the psychological studies deal with cultural tracts as parts of the environment. But in
contrast to the physiological studies, culture may or may not be considered as
environmental at all.2 Environment has been defined in the Concise Oxford Dictionary,3
as, physical surroundings and conditions, esp. affecting people’s lives, conditions or
circumstances of living, external conditions affecting the growth of plants and animals,
natural conditions, e.g., land, air and water, in which we live.4 Whatever encompasses us
is called environment, the aggregate of all external and internal conditions affecting the
existence, growth and welfare of organisms. One’s surroundings or external
circumstances collectively are called environment.
1. International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, p. 91
2. Ibid
3. The Concise Oxford Dictionary, p. 392
4. Oxford Advanced Leaner’s Dictionary, p. 403
5. The New International Webster’s Comprehensive Dictionary of the English Language,
p. 425
Ecology6 has been defined as the total relationship of animals and plants to both their
organic and inorganic environment. According to Tylor, “ecology is the science of all the
relations of all organism to all their environments.” Woodbury in his book Principles of
General Ecology has defined ecology as, “a science which inves— tigates organisms in
relation to their environments: a philosophy in which the world of life is interpreted in
terms of natural process”.
Odum defined ecology as “study of structure and function of nature”. According to
Andrewartha, a clean definition of ecology is “it is the specific study of the distribution
and abundance of organisms.” Charles J. Kreb modified the above definition as follows:
“Ecology is the interactions that determine the abundance and distribution of organisms.
The most clear and appropriate definition of ecology seems to be given by Petrides,
“regulation, their distribution, abundance, and evolution of organisms.”
According to another definition, “Environment is everything around us”, i.e., people, the
atmosphere, the soil, the plants and the animals. They affect us and we affect them and
jointly we affect the environment. It means that “Man” is the central object around whom
everything revolves. According to another definition, “All the physical, social and
cultural factors and conditions influencing the growth and well-being of an organism or
group of organisms are environment:’ 8
The present chapter discusses the notion that a universal approach draws religious or
cultural values and beliefs in environmental protection. This will be imperative if we
desire to give to ourselves and to future generations an opportunity to enjoy life in peace
and in harmony with nature. The present chapter throws light on six religions.
6. Concepts of Ecology, p. 2.
7. Ibid., p. 3.
8. Environment and Man, p. 4.
14 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual An Investigation Into

Environmental Studies 15
Much light has been thrown on the environment, on the basis of the 1.1 An
Environmental Evaluation of Eastern and Western
doctrines of six religions. They are: Religious Teachings
• Hinduism Hinduism
• Jainism While appreciating the contribution made towards environ-
• Sikhism mental development and protection, it is worthwhile to bring out
• Confucianism the different concepts about environment, which were held by
• Islam both eastern and western religious thinkers. Let us start with
• Christianity. environmental protection as declared in Hinduism first. The
principle of the sanctity of all kinds of life is clearly ingrained in
Hindu religious tradition.
According to Hindu scriptures only God has absolute sovereignty
over all creatures and man. Thus man has no power over his own
life or non-human life.’0 Man has no absolute power or control over
nature. According to the Yajurveda, the divine being is an omni presen one, and has
power of unity.
For example, “the loving sage beholds that ‘Being’, is hidden in
mystery, in which the universe finds its home. Therein unites and
therefrom emanates the whole of universe. The Omnipresent One,
pervades soul and matter like warp and woof in created beings.” ‘
According to the Atharvaveda, the earth is not only for human
beings but also for other creatures. It states, “Born of thee, move mor ta creatures. Thou
bearest them, the biped and the quadruped. Thine,
0, Earth, are the five races of men, for whom Surya (Sun), as he
rises, spreads with his rays the light that is immortal.”2 The earliest
Sanskrit texts, Vedas and Upanishads accepted and preached the non-
dualism of the supreme power that existed before the creation. The
9. Hindu Concept of Ecology and Environmental Crises, pp. 33-67.
JO. Ecological Mind in Evolution, p. 13.
1]. YVp.32,8.
L 12. A.V 12.1.15.
An investigation Into Environmental Studies 17
Rigveda 13 states, “He is one, but the wise call him by different names.” It further states,
“he who has eyes on all sides and mouths on all sides, arms on all sides and feet on all
sides. He the one God, producing heaven and earth wields them together with his arms
and wings.”4 It is quite clear from the above statements that God is the creator of this
world and the next.
Lord Krishna in G itã advises Arjuna that all that is material and all that is non-material
i.e., spiritual in this world, know for certain that he is both its origin and dissolution.’5
This clarifies the fact that sanctity or purification of life is wholly dependent on the grace
of the Almighty God. Our planet earth is an ordered whole, having physical, biological
and human components. This fact has been revealed in the Bhagavad Gita.
It states, “ruled by my law, the power of nature gives birth to the animate and inanimate
things of the world”.’6 The Bhagavad Gita further states that nature has eightfold
divisions, such as, earth, water, fire, air, ether, mind, understanding and
selfconsciOU5fle55’7 It further states that everything is linked to every other thing.’8 It
may be ascertained from the above facts that God and nature were to be one and the
same.’9 It may be remarked that man has no power over nature and its creatures.
K.W. Morgan states that Hindus are noted for their respect and consideration for the
natural world.20 The natural world is enriched by the flora and fauna of the earth,
creatures of the sky and the sea. Nature worship seems to have been in existence in early
times. The archaeological findings at Mohenjodãro revealed the fact that some sort of
animal worship was common among those people, because
13. R.Vl.164..46
“Ekam sat viprã vahudhã edanti.”
14. Ibid., 10.81.3.
15. Bg. 7.6.
16. Ibid, 9.10.
17. Ibid. Ch. 7, Vs. 4-6.
18. Ibid. Ch. 7, 7.
19. World Religions and The Environment, p. 168.
Hindus believed that the phenomenal world is a manifestation of a Supreme Being.

The Visvakarman is said to have created all the planets, stars, the Sun, the Moon, and the
earth with its animals, birds, trees, flowers, rivers, mountains and man. According to the
Atharvaveda, the earth is not only for human beings to enjoy, but also for other creatures
such as bipeds, quadrupeds, etc. 21
The Visvakarman who created them, left them all to interact for further evolution and
development. According to this description it may be said that Visvakarman does not
interfere with the above mentioned living things.
The creation of the whole world by the Supreme One, has been further substantiated by
the Mundakopanishad. It states, “From him too, goods are manifoldly produced. The
celestial beings, men, cattle, birds, the inbreath and the outbreath, rice and barley,
austerity, faith, truth, chastity and the law.” 22
The Srimad Bhãgavatam states, “this form is the source and indestructible seed of
multifarious incarnations within the universe and different living things, entities like
demi-gods, animals, human beings and other beings are created from the particle and
portion of this form.” 23
The above passage clarifies the fact that the interaction of beings of this world is based on
mutual respect and kindness. Let none harm anybody, because everybody is an incarnate
being. If this principle is transgressed then it would be an offence against the God. In
addition to this, Hindus have been advised by the seers to treat all other species just like
their own children. The following verse of
20. The Religions of Hindus, p. 102.
21. A.V 12.1.15.
22. Mundakopanisad, 2.1.7
23, Srimad Bhâgavatam, Book 1, Discourse III, 5

the Srimad BhãgavatO.m illustrates, “one should look upon deer, camels, monkeys,
donkeys, rats, reptiles, birds and flies as though they were their children.” What is that
which distinguishes these from those (children)24 animals and birds in the Hindu
Society, are both respected and revered. These two aspects have prevented violence
against animals and human beings alike. Killing animals for food, was prohibited in the
Rigveda. One who kills is called Yatudhana, “The Yatudhana who fills himself with the
flesh of man, and he who fills himself with the flesh of horses or other animals, and he
who steals the milk of the cow.”25
“Lord cut off their heads with thy flame.”26 This fact has been corroborated in the
Yajurveda.27 The Manusmriti states, “He who injures innoxiouS beings with a desire to
have pleasure himself, never finds happineSs neither during this life nor after death.”28
Tree worship was very popular and universal, during the early part of the Rigveda. Trees
are said to have symbolized various attributes of God to the RigvediC seers. The Rigveda
regarded plants as having divine powers. A hymn has been entirely devoted to their
praise, mainly with reference to their healing properties.29 During the period of great
epics and PuranaS, the Hindu concept of flora has been further expanded. Trees were
considered as being animate, alive, feeling happiness and sorrow.
According to the Mahãbhãrata, trees take water from the roots. If they are affected by any
disease, they are cured by sprinkling of medicine. It shows that they have sense of taste
(rasendriya). Trees are alive and have life like other living things because they feel sad
when they are harmed or cut off. After cutting a branch, a new one springs up. 30
24. Srimad Bhagavatam, 7.14.9.
25. R.v. 10.87.16.
26. Ibid.
27. Y.v. 13, 47, 49.
28. Manusmriti, 5, v. 45-176.
29. R.v. 10.97.
30. Matsya Purãna, 59.159.
The great epic Rãmãyana also mentions the beauty of flora in different places and gives a
poetic description of trees and forests. It is evident that during the period of Rãmãyana,
trees were considered as sacred and fortune bestowers. Hindus consider trees as abodes of
various gods. For Hindus, planting of a tree is a religious duty. The practice of planting
trees was in vogue at least fifteen hundred years ago. This fact has been illustrated in the
Matsya Purãna. The Varãtha Purãna states, “One who plants one Pipal, one Neem, one
Bar, ten flowering plants or creepers, two pomegranates, two orange trees, and five
mango trees, will not go to hell.” 31
Cutting down trees and destruction of flora, were considered as a sinful act.
Padmapurãna 32 states that cutting down trees, is a punishable offence and the person
who indulged in cutting down trees and destroyed the grass fields had to go to hell.
Kautilya in his Artha Sãstra,33 prescribes various punishments for pulling trees down as
well as destruction of plants. Charaka Samhità, considers the destruction of forests as the
most dangerous act for humanity and its welfare.
Jainism
Achãrya G.L. Amar in his article entitled, “Jainism and the environmental harmony”,
states, “The society has recently reached a qualitatively new, global level through our
interaction with nature; whereas the integrity and the stability of life of the physical
environment have been substantially undermined, and in some regions, it has already
been brought to an end.” Maintenance of the physical environment in a condition suitable
for life, now depends on men only; and it is therefore necessary to reconstruct the
traditional
31. Varâhcj Purãna, 172.39.

32. PO4OW Purãna, 56.40-41.
33. Kautil’a, Arthasâstra, ed. R. Sharna-Sãstry Ch. 19. v. 197, p. 224
34. Chraka Sanjhjtã, Vimcinsthan, 3.11.
modes of interaction with nature substantially on the basis of the properly understood
requirements of ecological laws.
According to Jam texts, the environment should be considered in the following way.
Violence gives rise to calamity and reproach in this world and in the next. 36 Or,
sufferings only result from injury; or the nature of mundane existence (the universe) and
the body may also be contemplated in order to cultivate awe at the misery of worldly
existence and attachment to worldly things. 38
Benevolence towards all living beings, joy at the sight of the virtuous, compassion and
sympathy for the afflicted, and tolerance towards the insolent and ill-behaved,39 should
also be contemplated. 4°
Jainism explains the universe as the capacity for common accommodation to all
substances, i.e., to the universe (Loka), which is the special characteristic of space. 41
Space which is one of the six substances, pervades both the universe and the non-
universe.42
The universe is in the midst of the non-universe and space which is endless43 exists
alone without the other five substances, namely, the souls, the medium of motion, the
medium of rest, matter, and time.
35. World Religions and the Environment, p. 217.
36. Hims-ãdisv- ihãmutraàpãyãVa-dYadar.anam, T 7.9.T = Tattv- ãrthã dhigama-sutra.
37. Duckkham eva vã, T 7-10.
38. “Jagat-kàya-sva bha vau vã samvega-vairãgyãrtham” T 7-12.
39. “Maitri pramodaarunya-mñdhY05tht ca sattva gun- ãdhika klisyamãnã
-vineyesu,” T Z11.
40. “Sattvesu maitrim gunisu pramodam klistesu jivesu krpa-paratvam Madhyastha-bha
yam viprita-vrttu sadñ mam-atma vidadhatu deva. “Acãrya Amrita gati (C. tenth
centuly), BhavanadavatrimSatika, verse 1.
41. “Sarva padãrthã nam sadhñranavagãhana hetutvam asyâ sãdhàrana,n.
Sarvãthasiddhi 5- 18.
42. “Akñsasy-ãn-antãh.” T 5.9.
43. “Samantãd anantasyã lokñ kãsasya bahu madhya desa-bhãvino loksya
samsthanãdividhir- vyakhyãtah,” S. 9-7.
44. “Lolthkasevagãhah,” T 5.12.
Substances : Existence which is characterized by origination, disappearance (destruction)

and permanence,45 is the differentia of a substance.
Origination : Origination is the attainment of other modes by souls or other substances by
means of external and internal causes without giving up their essential characteristics.
For instance, the production of a pitcher from clay. Similarly, the loss of the former mode
is disappearance. For instance, the loss of the lump shape of clay in the production of the
pitcher. ‘
As there is no annihilation or origination of the inherent nature or quality, it is lasting,
that is, it is permanent. 48 Permanence is indestructibility of the essential nature (quality)
of the substance. The Jam teachers are of the opinion that apart from scientists and
philanthropists, the spiritual preceptors are also within their respective religious
framework, striving to control the escalating situation. In this regard, what the older
preceptors provided mankind through Jainism, is the public curiosity of the day.
The Jam law and code of conduct, are all against anything which may be polluting the
fourfold congregation i.e., the ascetics, the nuns, the laymen and the laywomen.5° Our
ethical and moral beliefs and values influence our behaviour towards other people
including all creatures and plant life, and if for some reason those noble values get
replaced by other beliefs, which are either thrust upon the society or transplanted from
another culture due to invasion, then the faith of masses, in the earlier cultural tradition
gets shaken slowly when alien culture, language and system of administration acquire
45. “Utpãdavyay dhrauvya-yuktam sat,” T 5.30.
46. Sad-dravya, Laksranam, T 5.29. Z
47. “Cetanasyã cetanasya vã dravasya svãmajãtim ajahata, ubhaya nilnitta vasad
bhävântarâvâptir utpädanam utpàdah /Mrt pindasya ghata
paryäyavat/Tath,j ghatopattam pindâkrtayah “/5.30.
48. ‘Anad, pãrinâmi svabhâvena vyayodayâ bhñvãd dhruvãti sthiribhavatiti
dhruvah ‘YS. 5-30.
49. “Tad bhñvãvvayam nityam ‘YE 5.31.
a root and reach a superior level. Leadership was not forthcoming from the religious
leaders and brahmanas; it was natural for masses to become more intuitive and self-
centred.
Obviously, protection of the environment would not remain a high priority item when
they had to worly about their life, liberty, and freedom. Consequently, the worship of
nature would replace Idolatry and other supposedly super-natural powers.
Sikhism
According to Sikhism, nature is actually a bridge between man and atal (permanent),
Abchal (stable), agamhond (impassable). Guru Nanak, founder of the Sikh religion, has
attributed divine attributes to nature. Sikh religion anti philosophy are deeply related to
nature, the animate and inanimate world; as the Guru Grantha Sahib depicts. 52 Sikh
philosophy deals with garden, fields, flowers, trees, growth and decay, pruning and
grafting, manuring, weeding and so on. The Guru grantha Sahib states, “The tiller tills
the soil with his whole heart, He ploughs and makes efforts so that his progeny may
thereby find substance. It is further stated in the Guru grantha Sahib, how a gardener
works in the garden. In an orchard are planted numerous trees. In that orchard, there is a
tree of ambrosial name. It bears fruit.
One sole gardener this orchard cultivates. Of each leaf and twig is mindful. All manner of
vegetation in it is planted, all bearing fruits, none barren.
Trees and plants are full of life, which is shown by the sap and the growth of trees. So,
unnecessary felling of trees and jungles is forbidden. Jungles, trees and earth, decorate
with greenery and vegetation. There is one tree, its boughs are innumerable. The flowers
5]. Hindu Concept of Ecology and the Environment Crisis, Indian Journal of Public
Administration, Vol. XXX, No. 1, pp. 61.2.
53. Guru Grantha Sahib, p. 166.
54. Ibid., p. 385.
and leaves are full of sap. This is the garden of nectar that perfect Han bath made.
The Gurugrantha Sahib, vividly depicts various seasons etc.56 Similarly, animal
slaughter is condemned in Sikhism.
Sikh attitude towards nature has been shaped with a religious view of the cosmos,
creation, inanimate and animate world, the plant kingdom and his relation to the external
world. Sikhism states, “so far as man and nature live in perfect harmony of the divine
will, and ecology remains benevolent to man.”
Environmental and ecological balance can be achieved if the conservation designed by
God is maintained and it can be maintained through adherence to ethical behaviour as
prescribed in the holy scriptures. The great irony of the environmental crisis is the
working of natural phenomena the ecological facts of life — in all their mysterious
wonder, are utterly unconcerned with human illusions about man’s place in the universe,
his power over nature, his destiny, values, mysteries and taboos. The failure to appreciate
the distance encompassed by this ironic gap, is one of the reasons that humanity is now
approaching the brink of oblivion. If man is to survive this crisis, he will do so by
developing an ecological psyche, one that will allow him to bridge the gap between
illusions of separateness from and superiority over what he has come to think of as
“nature” and to recognize that he is not only tied to nature but that he is nature.
The whole universe operates under this common rule. The cycles of nature, the properties
of great elements, high mountains, seas and rivers, fauna and flora, all act, according to
the duties assigned to them. According to Sikh-religious philosophy, all organisms and
elements of nature function under the supreme and divine will and awe.
Sikhism expects men to develop a respectful and fearful attitude
55. Ibid., p.970.
56. Ibid., pp. 557, 1250, 1176.
57. Ibid., p. 1377
58. Robert Disch, The Ecological Conscience, p. 17.
L
towards ecology and the environment, only then is the full development of nature and
men possible. This attitude has been described in the Gurubani. According to it,
In fear of the Lord, flow millions of streams.
In fear of the Lord, does fire perform its labour.
In fear of the Lord is our earth placed under its burden.
In fear of the Lord do clouds roam about bearing the burden of the water on their heads.
In fear of the Lord are spread skies, over the head of all, has been recorded the writ of
fear.
Confucianism and Taoism
Confucianism and Taoism as religions have no clear beginning, a specific scripture or
historically revealed God. Confucianism traces its origin back to 6th century B.C. with a
scholar who came to be known as Confucius. There was no revelation or religious
experience that influenced Confucius to become China’s greatest religious philosopher.
He emphasized the veneration of ancestors.6° Taoism considers men to be endowed with
intellect, and thus are quite capable of living in harmony with nature. 61 It means there is
no unbridgeable chasm between the two. They are interconnected. The extent of Taoist
harmony between man and nature reached down to the smallest of creatures, for Taoist
texts adjure that “even insects and crawling things, herbs and trees may not be injure1.”
62
Uncontrolled attitudes toward nature can only resiJt in disharmony and “hurtful results”.
Anyone who tries to do anything in violation of this interconnectedness is “doomed to
failure”. In order to prevent such transgressions, the Taoist books refer to two classes of
officials whose duties were concerned with preservation and conservation.
59. Guru Granth Sahib, p. 461
60. What the Great Religions Believe, p. 56.
62. “Discrepancies between Environment Attitude and Behaviou, Examples from Europe
and China.” Environment Ethics, p. 182.
One was Shanyu, inspector of mountains, and other, Lin-heng, inspector of forests. 63
These officials, through their protective duties, enforced conservation practice through
admonitions. For example, which trees could be cut down by whom and when, and they
warned against the consequences of deforestation. The regulation of nature also finds its
philosophicai roots in an appreciation of nature and in feelings of painful sentiment
which arise out of the senseless destruction of nature. An ancient compendium of songs,
the Shi-Ching contains such lines about trees turned up by “cruel brigands” and “no one
knew of their crime”, and of trees being so lovely, they were not even looked to for
firewood.
Islam
The Holy Qur ‘an and the divinely inspired word of the prophet Muhammad, contain
rules for the conservation of nature. 65
The Qur ‘an’s conservational message in contrast to the JudaeoChristian tradition, is of
unity, harmony, balance and order, and is essentially captured by such terms as “balance”
“proportion” and “measure”.
According to Islamic writers, God created nature with its bounty of plant and animal life,
air, water and land resources for man’s use and enjoyment. The Qur ‘an states that
though heaven and earth were created by God for man, ultimately everything belongs to
God. “Your Guardi..Lord is God, who created the heavens and earth..., the Sun, the
Moon, and the stars, all governed by the laws under his command.”
According to this, it may be said that mankind has only guardianship over God’s heaven
and earth, but not complete ownership. Man can overpower the environment just for
some special purpose.
63. Ibid. p. 183.
64. Ibid pp. 182-183.
65. “The Islamic Ethic “, pp. 75-76.
66. Q. 76.
An investigation Into Environmental Studies 27
God is said to be representing the environment. Glorification can only be achieved if the
conservation designed by God, is maintained. It can be done only by observing some kind
of behaviour and ethic, which has been prescribed in the Qur’an. 67
The writings of the Qur ‘an clearly indicate that man has a choice in his relationship with
the environment (and ultimately with God). He can either be just or unjust in his
treatment of the natural environment which also includes animal life. The indiscriminate
use of fertilizers and pesticides, overtilling, overcutting, the discharge of harmful wastes,
the indiscriminate killings, harming or abusing of fourlegged creatures, bird life, fish or
fowl, are unacceptable and open to punishment. 68
Iqtidar Zaidi in his article entitled “On the ethics of Man’s Interaction with
Environment”, mentions that punishment for disrupting the delicate balance of nature is
found in the Qur ‘an and the writings of the prophet. The basic essence of punishment is
accountability before God after death.69 The Qur ‘an states, “unto Allah belongs
whatsoever is in the earth, and whether ye make known what is in your minds or hide it,
Allah will bring you to account for it. He will forgive whom he will and he will punish
when he will. Allah is able to do all things”.7° God reveals himself in cosmos and in
man. In the terminology of Muhammad Iqbali, “nature is to the divine self as character is
to the human self.” 71
The Qu’ran further explains the creation of the universe. According to it, God desired to
bring into existence a universe which should serve as a manifestation of his majesty and
his light and that this was the cause of the creation of the universe.
67. Islam and Ecological Problenz.” P 215.
68. Ibid.
69. iqtidar Zaidi, “On the Ethics of Man Interaction with the Environment an Islamic
Approach “, “Environmental Ethics.” 3, No. 1, p.41.
70. Q. 87: 1, p. 31.
71. “World Religions and the Environment”, p. 120.
It says that God created Heaven and Earth in six periods. Before that, God ruled over
water. The creation of material Universe started from water and passed from that state till
the Earth assumed a shape and developed properties which could sustain human life. 72
In Islam, creation has taken place in different grades and sequences although each and
everything is composed of the same four elements with different qualities and abilities in
different degrees.
All creation is created on the principle of order as distinguished from disorder, and of
beauty as distinguished from ugliness. And this is due to the mercy of the creator.
“All created things are like in having been created from the four elements (the arkan);
plants are superior to minerals in being able to absorb nourishment, to grow and feed;
animals in addition to these powers have one or more of the five senses and man, while,
of the animal kingdom in other respects and possessing all the senses, also speaks and
reasons.”73 According to the Islamic theory there are three important factors.
i) Allah created everything in the universe and has also given the regulations.
ii) He created everything by measure.
iii) Everyone has to observe the balance with proportion.
The Qur’an vehemently stresses that nature’s regulations be observed, and that limits
should not be transgressed. It states, surely, “your Lord is Allah, who created the heavens
and the earth in six periods His is the creation and its regulation. He loves not those who
transgress the limits. Create not disorder in the earth after it has been put in order, and
call upon him in fear and hope.”
72. lbid, p. 122.
73. Rasajl, II, 153. Vide, World Religions and the Environment, 123.
Q. 7: 55.57
The Lord has created plenty of things for the survival of his creation, but all these things
have been made available in appointed measure which have been set up to avoid
transgressions. In this respect the Qur ‘an elucidates,
“And there is not a thing, but we have unbounded stores thereof and we send it in
regulated quantities.”
“We have created everything in due course. 76
The Qur’an further states, “The sun and the moon move according to a fixed reckoning;
and the stars and trees submit to him. He has raised the heaven high and set up the
measure, that you may not transgress the measure. So weigh all things in justice and fall
not short of the measure.”77 According to the Qur’an, “Allah does not approve of
environmental exploitation. And also Allah does not approve of ecological disturbance.”
78
The environment provided by nature has been perfect, and it started polluting only when
man tried to change it, when he disturbed the balance which he was not allowed to do at
all; according to the word of God, as revealed to prophet Mohammad.
A new dimension and a crisis has begun to appear in the last few decades because man
and his activities on exploiting nature has no limits. The impact of these activities on our
physical and biological environment has a consequential effect on man and his society
due to changes in the environment. Allah warned against such destructive human efforts.
The Qur ‘an says such activities are inspired by Satan. “A community, which takes Satan
rather than Allah as its patron and assaults nature to the extent of altering Allah’s
creation, will face obvious and tangible loss and its ultimate abode will be an
environmental hell from which it will find no escape.
75. Ibid. 15: 21.
76. ibid. 54: 49.
77. Ibid. 55 : 5-10.
78. Q. Tr vide, Religions and Environment, p. 127.
79. Q. 4: 17-199.
The following verse provides a solution to pollution-problems because the Qur ‘an wants
human beings to preserve the natural environment made by Allah
“0, thou enveloped in thy mantle, arise and warn, make the law posterior, nourisher and
sustainer, reign supreme, clean thy person within and without. Do away with 80 Thus,
Islam cannot co-exist with pollution, purifying in Islam is considered as being a good
deed. 81
R.A. Nicolson, in “Studies in Islamic Poetry”, states “Above all in life Abul-Ala places
kindness to living creatures and would appear in this respect to have come under Indian
(Jam) influence. Whatever the truth of that may be, he adopted as a result of his creed, the
most absolute form of vegetarianism refusing to eat not only meat and fish; but milk,
eggs and honey. 82 This testifies the fact that Islam recommends ecological preservation.
Water, plants and trees are often repeated as favourite themes of the Qur’an since they
stand in vital relation to animal and human life. “He grows for you corn, and olive and
the date palm and the grapes, and all kinds of fruits. Surely, that is a sign for people who
reflect.”83
Briefly, the human being who is God’s representative on earth, was entrusted with a
particularly heavy responsibility so as not to behave like an unlimited owner, but to live
by the divine teachings with respect to the preservation of ecological balances, while
assuring the proper management of the environment. Today, when we are exploiting
natural resources unjudiciously and moving towards chaos, understanding must be
developed by re-establishing cultural and religious values of society.
80. Ibid.
81. Ibid.,2.. 223;5: 7; 108; 24; 22; 33:34, 74:5; 87: 15;91: 10-11.
82. “Studies in Iskzmjc Poetry”, pp. 134-Z
Q. 16: 12.

Christianity
Love has been expressed as the fairest flower of nature. It is the most sacred of all things
of nature. Nature releases energy through matter, develops life and apprehending
consciousness through the material base, gets information from all and reveals the truth
of relationship at all levels, enables all to strengthen their faith in one and eventually
creates love for the oneness in everything. Similarly, the standpoint of life continues
evolving the environment. It is very useful to develop the consciousness of environment
in man’s thinking. This has been declared by the ancient wise Hebrew sages in the Holy
Bible, “For behold, I create new heavens and a new earth.”
The Genesis reveals the fact that the material earth was originated from emptiness. “In
the beginning of creation God made heaven. And earth was without form and void; and
darkness was upon the face of the deep.” 85
Furthermore, the genesis states that “. . .the Lord God made trees spring from the ground,
all trees pleasant to look at and good for food.” 86 It further states that the emergence of
zoological life through water is seen after botanical life. God then created the great sea
monsters and all living creatures that move and swarm in the waters, according to their
kind, and every kind of bird. 87
Nature continues to evolve other species. The Genesis states, “God said, ‘let the earth
bring forth living creatures, according to their kind, cattle, reptiles and wild animals,’ all
according to their kind”. 88
All this was possible because nature has an advanced information system. It is declared in
Matthew,
“your Father knows what your needs are before you ask him.” 89
84. Holy Bible, Isaiah, 65, 17.
85. Ibid. Genesis, p. 1, 1, 2.
86. Ibid. 2: 9.
87. Ibid. 1.21.
88. Ibid. 1.24.
89. Ibid. 24: 32.
And again : “Learn a lesson from the fig tree. When its tender
shoots appear and are breaking into leaf, you know that summer
‘9O
is near.
The Proverbs state that the process of evolution is slow
“Schemes lightly made come to nothing but with long planning they succeed.” 91
According to both Testaments, (the Old Testament and the New Testament) God is said
to have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the air, and over the cattle,
and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. 92
Lynn White Jr. maintains that the ecological crisis will worsen and continue to persist
until we reject the Christian axioms that nature has no reason for existence save to serve
man. According to Genesis, God, later gave man licence to do what he likes with the
world:
“Be fruitful and multiply, and replenish the Earth and subdue it.” It further states that
man not only does what he can do, but also what he should do, multiply, replenish and
subdue the earth. In essence, this verse gives man the licence to conquer nature.
Lynn White Jr. has interpreted these verses to say quite succinctly that God specifically
planned creation for man’s benefit to the extent that “no item in the physical creation had
any purpose save to serve man’s purpose.”
90. IbId. Mathew, 6: 8, 24: 32.
1. Holy Bible, Genesis, 1.26.
93 ‘The Historical Roots of our Ecological Crisis “, p. 12.
4. Holy Bible, Genesis, 1.28.
95 Ibid. 2.19.
He further points out that man’s predominance at the time of creation was further
enhanced by the fact that God brought all the beasts and birds to man to be named.
Naming was considered a paternalistic duty and was perceived as virtually a creative
activity in Hebrew psychology. Therefore, the fact that man gave other creatures their
names, which represents more or less their identity, was viewed as proof of his
unquestioned ascendancy over the animal kingdom. Thus, man becomes clearly the
dominant species, occupying a position of control, dominance and supremacy in creation.
A contrary and liberal view is presented by John Black who drawing inspiration from
Genesis,98 presents a more direct argument by contending that rather than take man’s
dominion as despotism, it should be interpreted as a responsible exercise, a circumscribed
trust or mandate. According to Black the second account of the creation is drawn from
Genesis which states, “And the Lord God took man and put him into the Garden of Eden
to dress it and keep it.”
As a starting point, although Genesis gives man dominion over the earth, the scriptures
also clearly establish God as the sole owner, while man is actively responsible as God’s
deputy for the care of the world.
“The Earth is the Lord’s, and everything in it, the world, and all who live in it”, 100 and
“Every animal in the forest is mine, and the cattle on a thousand hills.” 101 Furthermore,
man is advised that he has no rightful ownership over the land, “because the land is mine
and you are but aliens and my tenants.” 102
The new testament provides instructions on stewardship and the consequences of not
carrying out the stewardship role in accordance with scriptural teachings. The key
instruction is that man must be faithful to use and put to work that which God has
entrusted to him)°3
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
World Religions and the Environment, p. 299

Holy Bible, Genesis, 2: 15.
The Dominion of Man, pp. 48-49.
Ibid., Psalm, 24: 1.
Holy Bible, Genesis, 2: 5.
Ibid., 50: 10.
World Religions and the Environment, p. 301.
103. Ibid.
35
CHAPTER TWO
A CRITIQUE OF THE CONCEPT OF MAN
A Critique of the Concept of Man 37
The Concept of Man in Greek Thought

While elucidating the concept of man in Greek thought, John Wild states that man is a
marvelous and manysided creature. 22 Even Greek thought just like the oriental
philosophical thoughts, agrees with the concept that man is composed of basic elements.
We are informed that the concept of man was not sharply focused during the earliest pre-
Socratic phase of Greek thought. Man was considered to be part and parcel of the
cosmos. But no consideration was directed to the nature of man.
The Sophists who emerged in the 5th century B.C. put forward their views about the
nature of man.23 Thales held that the universe was replete with gods, whereas the
atomists had upheld the view that spirits did not exist and so believed that the bodies
were real. Parmenides and his adherents believed that everything was immobile while
Heraclitus held that all was in flux. These aspects were basically responsible for the new
philosophy found in Protagoras. He was interested in man rather than the cosmos.
Protagoras said that he did not know whether gods existed or not. He held that there was
no objective truth, but only subjective opinion, and maintained that man was the measure
of all things. 24 Of all visible beings, man alone possesses the faculty of rational insight,
weak though it is. Therefore, Socrates is said to have found a new view of the soul and a
fundamentally new theory of human nature as a whole. He further states that man is not a
cosmic accident but a culminating phase of the whole important function to perform. Man
according to Socrates, is able to bring nature into the light of understanding, and
consciously directs his life and activities into voluntary harmony with this order. 25
Plato is of the opinion that all men seek good by nature. According to him all things have
an inherent tendency to enhance
22. The Concept of Man, p. 42.
23. Ibid.
24. Collier’s Encyclopaedia, Vol. 19, p. 426.
and to perfect existence with which they are originally endowed.

Man is no exception to this rule. He asserts that the soul is more important than the
physical body. He further states that man is a social animal. He is fully dependent on his
fellow men. 26
While describing man and his nature Plato elucidates the fact that man is a composite
being, consisting of a body with something moving it or animating it, which is called
soul. It cannot be destroyed as it is changeless and immaterial, whereas the body is
destroyed. Hence every soul is deathless. 27
Aristotle states that the individual, or primary substance is a whole made up of matter and
form, each of which makes its own contribution to the total, single entity. Matter acts as a
substratum, giving the thing a place in the flux of nature. Form determines and actualizes
matter. This form is the definition, or essence, of the substance, and it may be predicated
of the primary substance.
The term “being” denotes multifarious connotations. In a sense, “being” denotes that
things have existence in rerum natura, but this “being” also has its subdivisions, the most
important of which is parental contrasted with actual being. Before a thing actually exists,
it exists as a potentiality in its various causes. This power or capacity to exist is not
nothing but it is a being that is incomplete or unfinished. Even when a material substance
emerges into the world from its causes, it is still in an unfinished or imperfect state of
potency. 28
Aristotle while explaining the nature of man states that man is by nature a political
animal requiring the co-operation of his fellows in order to approximate his own highest
possible perfection. This happy life can be achieved only with others in an interlocking,
interdependent mode of combined activity for the common good. 29
26. Collier’s Encyclopaedia, Vol. 19, pp. 145, 146.
27. Ibid. p. 147.
28. Collier’s Encyclopaedia, Vol. 2, p. 11.
29. Ibid. p. 612.
The Concept of Man in Indian Thought

Since the dawn of human civilization, the definition of man has been an enigmatic
problem for both Oriental as well as Occidental thinkers. The Indian thinkers tried their
level best to find out the origin and development of man. Thus, we find a vivid picture of
man and his life in the Vedas, Epics as well as Codes of Ethics. Similarly, the six
orthodox systems of philosophy, namely, the Nãya, the Vaisesika, the Sãmkhya, the Yoga,
the Mimãmsã and the Vedãnta, provide important ideas about man. According to
upanishadic thought man is controlled from outside, and inside, by God. The
Briahadãranyaka Upanishad elucidates the nature of man. It further states that the light
of the ãtman is just like that of the sun; the self within is just like the sun.
The subordinate gods were made chief deities of mind and reason. In this way, a close
relationship was established between man’s psychological nature and phenomena. It is
said that the Atman alone existed in the beginning. Therefore, it desired to create the lords
of the worlds. First, it created a form (world-person). The mouth of the form opened,
from the mouth speech, and from speech the god of fire came forth. Its nostrils opened,
out of the nostrils came life, prãna. Atman is said to have given gods to man. In this way,
the senses and the mind and their corresponding objects became the realms (bases,
ãyatanas) of the gods of the world. It is said that fire became speech and entered the
mouth of man; the sun became sight and entered the eye. Thus all the gods became
functions of man’s organs and entered his body. The external gods became internal
objects of man. Therefore God is accepted as the innermost spirit of man.
It is obvious from the above that man and natural forces were regarded as interrelated and
were under the supervision of the Atinan. Although the Vedas3° thought of man as
created by the Atman, the founder of the Lokãyata maintained that man is a product of
four material elements, earth, water, fire and air. When these elements
come together and constitute a particular structure, life and consciousness emerge and
when these elements are separated life and consciousness disappear. Thus, the above two
conceptions of man were present in Vedic times. In the early Vedic and even in
upanishadic times, man was thought to have been controlled by Karma or action. 31 Man
thought that he could determine his own destiny, 32 make it or mar it: he was its master.
He had no conception of salvation, of an existence beyond the life of action.
He had no need even of God. Everything, happiness and misery, heaven and hell,
depended on his own actions. He performed actions on earth, accumulated merit, part of
which he enjoyed here and the rest in heaven, his merit being exhausted he came back to
the human world and performed actions again, in order to accumulate more merit. The
above thoughts were strongly emphasized in the early Vedic thought.
The Taittiriya Upanishad says that the upanishads are of five kinds. They are concerned
with knowledge (Vidyã) obtained through sacrifices, penances and teachers, with
processes of creation through cosmic sexes, and Atman. Man himself can be viewed
under any one of these five aspects. The Isãvãsya Upanishad, for instance, asks man to
perform actions, saying that they do not taint him when performed rightly.
- According to the Upanishads, man has to realize the Atman. The Atman and Brahman
are regarded to be one and the same. The Atman within the man is also the same as the
Brahman. Whether the Brahman is the same as the Atman or different from it, it is within
man and so can be realized through inward contemplation. But from the standpoint of
philosophy, it may be said that man was one with the world, not a stranger dropped into it
by an unknown agency. Man is the unifying principle of the processes of sense
31. Chãndogy1 Upanishad vi 10 pp. 1-2.
32. Ibid.
34. Ibid. p. 228.
organs, of organs of action, and of their corresponding objects.

The Aitareya UpanishOd states that man was created as the centre of the activities of the
cosmiC gods. This is said to have been the mythological basis of the theological and
philosophical conception of the microCoSmos and macroCOsmos. Man in the three states
is the micro cosmos and, at the fourth state constantly realizes his relation with the macro
cosmos. The micro cosmos is the Atman and the macro cosmos is the Brahman.
Sometimes the Brahmafl is called the Supreme Atman (paramãtman) or simply Atman.
Similar to the three states of the micro cosmos, there are states in the macro cosmos. The
different states may be described thus: 36
Macrocosmos
Virãt
Hiranyagarbha (also
Called Sutrãtman)
Isvara
Brahman
In every state the micro cosmos is related to the macro cosmos. Virãt is the physical
cosmos. Hiranyagarbha is the vital principle that binds all the parts of the universe, and
the Taijasas are related through it. Isvara is the selfconSCi0USne55 entity that like mind,
controls the universe. And the Brahman is the self-effulgent spirit that comprehends the
whole. Physical man as part of the physical cosmos is easily understood. The
BrahadãraflYa Upanishad exhorts man to get at this psychic force, which is his essential
being apart from the forms it creates, which is the same as the psychic force at its
uncreative stage. There, in one’s own being one gets the light of the Atman and becomes
one with the Brahmafl although the oneness is interpreted differently by different
commentators. When unity with the Brahmafl is realized man knows that he has the
35. S. RadhãkriShflan Indian Philosophy, VoL. 1, p. 169.
36. The Concept of Man, 230.
whole world within himself, that he has no need to desire anything and he is consciously
blissful.37 The causal body is the result of the tendencies produced by man’s actions. It is
the medium of Brahma’s creativity. The Upanishads believe that this causal body goes
from birth to birth in transmigration. The tendencies are brought together, tied into a
knot, and constitute the individual’s inner core, (hydayagranthi).
The individual is created and acts according to the tendencies, with the possibility of
always rising above them. The Atman is the origin of this creativity and is therefore
above the forces of which it is the origin. Man, therefore, can alter himself and his
environment, provided he understands himself well.
Man is the jiva bound by matter and assuming the gross physical body. In its pure state
the jiva is unbound and omniscient and though not infinite, is only a little less than
infinite. According to Jainism, jiva is originally pure, omniscient, and eternal.38 Human
karma is the bond that binds the jiva and the world of action, performing both good and
evil actions, the jiva goes from birth to birth, assuming various forms and limiting itself
to the bodies of those forms. For Jainism, the jiva bound by karma constitutes man. Mind
is of two kinds : bhãva manas or the psychic mind and dravya manas or substantial or
physical mind.
The epics furnish a more comprehensive survey of man: of his life, thought, and action
and of his relation to the world. We find in the epics almost all that is found in the
systems. But since the epics are addressed to all people, they preach mostly the life of
action (Karmayoga). Now and then they preach also the way of devotion (bhaktiyoga)
and the way of knowledge (jnãnayoga). According to the epics, these aspects are related
to the philosophy of man and the world.39 The way of knowledge is generally preached
by those philosophies that accept the ultimate identity of the inner essence of man with
the Supreme Reality.
38. Ibid. p. 257.
39. Ibid. pp. 272, 273.
States
Waking Consciousness
Dream
Sleep
Pure state
MicrocosmOs
Visva
TaUasas
Prãjna
Atman
Bhagavadgitã, which is part of the epic Mahâbhãrata, preaches selfless action or, more
literally describes action (niskãmakarma).4° Desire involves egoity; but in self-less
action man works only as an instrument of God.
In understanding man and his environment, the schools except
the Cãrvãka, do not differ much from the Vedic conception.
The idea that the world is a world of action and that, if man wants to be part of the world,
he has to live a life of action according to the laws of duty was accepted by all schools,
both orthodox and heterodox, except the Cãrvãka. The Cãrvãka materialists did not
believe in the law of Karma, in the soul, in rebirth, or in God, and taught that man should
make the best of the situation.
Among the orthodox schools, the Sãnkhya (founded by Kapila, 400 B.C.) did not accept
God. However, it accepted the minor gods as part of man’s environment, and it accepted
the Vedic injunctions about duties and sacrifices, if man wanted to remain a member of
the cosmos. If man wanted salvation, he should give up everything and realize his inner
spirit. What is given up is the material world. The Vedantic schools were followed by
Upanishads, each school interpreting them in its own way. According to those schools,
man’s environment consists, on the whole, of the Brahman within and the material world
outside. Like the Sãnkhya, all the Vedantic schools unified the material world into one
principle, Prakriti, and made it part and parcel of the Bra hman. Thus man’s environment
is not merely material but also spiritual and ethical. Men are bound together in a common
world either by human karma, or by Prakriti, or by God, or by any two, or by all the
three.
The Vedantic schools which approach the upanishads from the side of the Agamas make
the relation between God or the Brahman, on the one side, and spirit and matter, on the
other. According to both the Pasupata and Pãncarãra, evolution is of three stages, pure,
mixed (pure and impure), and impure. The Pdsupata evolution may be described thus —
Siva
Sakti
pure Creation Sadasjva
Isvara
Sadvaidya
Mixed Creation — Maya
(with its forms
Limit, Time, Attachment,
Partial Knowledge
Partial Ability)
I.
Purusa Prakrjtj
Buddhj
Ahankar
Impure
Creation I I I I
\ Sense Organs Organs of Subtle Elements
Mind Action
Gross Elements
40. Bg. Ch. 18, V. 6, p. 262.
41
The Pancarãtra table of categories may be described thus — Vishnu
Sakti
Pure Creation
Sankarsana
Pradyunlna
Aniruddha
According to Indian schools of thought, man is a spiritual and psychophysical individual.

But the nature of spirit, mind, and body, is differently understood by each of these
schools. The Advait of Sankara states that man is a product of Mãyã (illusion). The
Sãnkhya conception of the nature of man is as the centre is to the circumference, so man
is the correlate of the external world. But the centre of both man and the world is the ego,
or rather, the ego comprehends both because both issue out of it. The ego itself comes out
of reason, which comes out of the Primeval Matter, Prakriti. According to both the
Mimãmsã and N ãya-Vaisesika, the physical body of man is a group of atoms brought
together by the latent karma. Atoms are of four kinds, earth, water, fire, and air.
The systems present four ideals such as, wealth, enjoyment, duty and salvation as the
highest values of life. Man’s life is understood by all as containing misery, though they
will not accept that the imperfections and shortcomings of life can be removed
completely only by realizing one’s relation with God or the Brahman. Salvation means
gaining eternal life.
—I
praicriti
Mixed Creation —Purusa
(Consisting of the three qualities sattva rajas and tamas and of Limit and Time, Some
include space also)
Vital Pnnciple Gross Time
Ahankara
Buddhi
Impure
Creation
Sense Organs Organs of

Mind Action
Subtle Elements
II
Gross Elements
41. Ibid. pp. 283, 284, 285.
L
iii) Problems of Classification

The nature of society is that of a constant conflict. Wise men have often worked to
redeem man from such crises. During the Vedic period man seems to have been
dominated by the decree of Mahã Brahmã. Such conditions were fairly conducive to
social subjugation. According to the Bhagavadgitã the four divisions (or varna)
based on aptitude and vocation of human society were created. “Though I am the author
of this system of the division of labor (or Varnãsrama Dharma), one should know that I
do nothing and I am eternal”
The classification of caste was made in accordance with the differences, qualities and
actions prevalent in man. It is clear from this that caste ism had been bifurcated to a great
extent. The great Brahmã
64. Bg. 4.13, p. 66.
“Chaturvarnyam maya sristam
Gunakarma vibhagasah
is said to have created the society to which man belongs. The Rgveda states:
“Brãhamnosyamukhamãsit
bãhurãjanyah kritah
uru tadasya yad vaishya
padbhyãm sudro ajayata.” 65
It means, the Brahmana was born from the mouth of the Purusha; the Kshatriya was born
from his arm; the Vaisya was born from his thigh, the Sudra was from his foot. These
different castes are said to have been assigned different works. For example,
“Prajãnam rakshanam dãnam
Mijjhãdhyana meva ca
Vishayashva pusaktishca
Kshatriyasya samãdhishat.”
Protecting his subjects, giving, having sacrifices performed, studying, and remaining
unaddicted to the sensory objects are, in summary, the works of a ruler. 67
According to the Manusmriti, “the duties of the Vaishya are protecting his livestock,
giving, having sacrifices performed, studying, trading, lending money and farming the
land.”
“Pasunãm rakshanam dãnam
Mijjhadhayana meva ca
Vanikpatham kusi&zm ca
Vaisya kri’si meva’ca.” 69
65. Rv. X Mandala Purusasukta, V 12, p. 201.
66. Manusmriti, V. 87, p. 42.
67. The laws of Manu, p. 13.
68. Ibid.
69. Manusmriti, v. 88, p. 43.
The duties of Brahmins are prescribed in the Manusmriti. They are as follows
“Adhyãpana madhyanam
Yajanam yãjanam tathã
Dãnam pratigraham chaiva
Brãhmananãmakalpayatat.” 70
“For priests, he ordained teaching and learning, sacrificing for themselves and sacrificing
for others, giving and receiving.” 71
“Ekamevatu Sudrasya
Prabhu karma samãdisat
Etesãm meva vamãnam
Susrusãnama suyayã.” 72
“The Lord assigned only one activity to a servant: serving these (other) classes without
resentment.”
Man seems to have been rendered helpless due to caste differences of superiority and
inferiority. According to the fabricated caste system, a particular class seems to have
enjoyed all kinds of privileges. According to the Gautam Sutra, a sudra cannot earn
wealth. Whatever property he has must be owned by the king. If a sudra strikes a
brãhman with a single grass he will, as a result of such act, be reborn in an evil place of
birth.
‘Tad.ayitva trinenãpi
Sauram bhãhmati purvakam
Ekavimsatj mrjati
Pãpayonisu jãyate.”
70. Ibid. v. 86, p. 42.
71. The Laws of Manu, pp. 12, 13.
72. Manuusmrjtj, v. 89, p. 43.
73. The Laws of Manu, p. 13.
74. Gautama Dharma Sutra.
The Buddha pointed out the place for a man in the above mentioned classification of
castes. It shows that man is an essence of a society. The Buddha had given a right place
to man according to his action. The Vasalasutta of the Suttanipãta states,
“Na jaccã vasalo hoti,
Na jaccã hoti brãhmano,
Kammanâ vasalo hoti,
Kammanã hoti brãhmano.”
It means one does neither become low (vasala) nor brãhman by birth, but one becomes
(vasala) low by one’s own deeds, similarly one becomes brãhman by one’s own deeds.
Unlike the code of Manu. Buddhism did not classify people. The Buddhist attitude
towards the divisions of society is mentioned in the Vãsettha sutta. It is as follows:
If you don’t know different trees and grass then know them. They have their distinctive
marks on them. However, their species are different. Then know the smallest tiniest
creatures, insects, like ants, worms, moths. They have their distinctive marks on them.
Know big animals quadrupeds and reptiles. Know also the water-born fish. Know also
the birds that fly in the sky. Men do not have such distinctive marks on them, as these
creatures have. 76
76. M. II, (B.TS.) Vasettha sutu, p. 702.
“Tina rukkhepi jãnàtha na cãpi patijãnare
Lingam jãtimayam tesam annamannã hi jãtiyo.
Tato kite patange ca yàva kuntakipilli2ke
Lingam jãtimayam tesam annamannàhi jãtiyo.
Pãdudarepi jãnâtha urage digha pitthike.
pe
Tato macchepi jãnãtha udiike vãrigocare
pe
Although a distinctive difference is observable in vegetation and insects, yet such a

difference is not to be found in men. The Buddha classified mankind according to a
different theory.
Having given up the material attitude, the Buddha advocated spiritual equality of
mankind, in so far as Nibbãna was concerned. As it has already been mentioned, the
Buddha did not accept the concept of materialism. He based his classification of society
on deeds and not on the birth of a person. The Majjihima Nikãya states:
“Yohi koci manusesu gorakkham upajivati evam Yasettha jana hi kassako so na
brãhmano.” ‘
He who among men, lives by cattle breeding, know this Vãsettha, he is a farmer and not a
brãhman.
Even the Brãhmanavagga of the Majyhima Nikãya, clarifies this fact, as follows,
“Tapena brahmacariyena,
samyamena daamena Ca,
etena brãhmano hoti,
etam brãhmana muttamam.” 78
One becomes a brãhman by penance (austerity), celibacy, restraint, self-control, such a
brãhman is the best.
The Brahmanhood which is an inheritance of a particular man and is reserved for him,
has been rendered accessible to any man in Buddhism. Buddhism advocates that a man
should be given a right place in society, according to his skillfulness and capability. The
Buddha said that there is no purity in caste, because it always gets amalgamated and
contaminated.
Tato pakkhipi jãnâtha pattayâne vihangame

pe
Yathâ etãsu jätisu lingam jäti mayam puthiu Evam natthi manussesu tin gam jäti
mayam.”
77. Ibid Sutta, p. 704.

78. Ibid. p. 710.
There is no room for caste purity. Rather there is purity in spirituality.

It is obvious from the above statement that man should be judged by his wholesome
deeds and not by his birth. According to the Assalãyana Sutta, there is no caste difference
but there is an economic and social difference between master and slave.
One being master, the other becomes slave and vice versa accoding to economic
circumstances. This division seems to have been made on the basis of economy. It is
clear from this that those who had money were called masters and those who were
paupers were called slaves. When wealth changes hands the status of both master and
slave also change.
The Gothamukha sutta of the Majjhima Nikãya states that though the complexion of the
body is different, the intellect is not different.78 It is wrong to differentiate one man from
another merely on the basis of biology, complexion, the qualities of hair, shape of nose,
etc. It is not a complete differentiation of men.
Buddhism emphasizes that the above conspicuous qualities are futile as far as the self-
development of man is concerned. The Buddha rejected social divisions and established
the unity of individuals. These facts have been elaborated in various suttas of the Pãli
Canon. The gist of them is furnished below:
The caste system seems to have originated from social evolution. 82
“Four castes (caturvarna) are mere fabrication.” 83
79. D. I, Ambattha Sutta (PTS.), p. 101.
80. M. (BTS) AssaLyana Sutta, p. 612.
“Ayyo hutvâ dãso hoti,
dñso hutvà ayvo hoti.”
81. Ibid. Gothornukha Sutta, p. 630.
82. Ibid. II, (PTS) p.143.
83. Ibid. (P TS.) pp. 148- 149.
A brãhmana is not born out of the mouth of Brahmã, but he is born out of the womb of a
brahmana lady. “The sixfold difference of man is fallacious.” 85
“Ime cattãro vannã samasamñ honti.”86 It means the four castes are equal. Generally
speaking, all people are equal. The Buddha pointed out the common features of human
beings in so far as the historical, biological, economic, political, and psycho-ethical facts
are concerned. According to Budhism, “the ruler should be righteous, then only can man
get his legitimate status in the society.87 Similarly, a king’s injustice affects both the
individual and natural resources.88 A ruler should always attend his duties diligently.89
An oppressive king should be denounced. 9°
The Buddha did not approve the ruling of people by means of weapons.91 The Buddha
has clearly stated in the Majjhima Nikãya that emancipation is not only for brahmins but
also for all.92 According to Buddhism, man should be given a suitable place in the
society. Having understood the potential of a man, equal political, economic, social
structure should be made in accordance with Buddhism. According to this, it appears that
the above mentioned social structure cannot be made through despotic and harsh policies.
Having established a society which is based on individual freedom and free will, a man
must be provided an opportunity through it. This has been strongly emphasized in
Buddhism.
84. Ibid. Assalãyana Sutta, p. 148.
85. A. (P TS.) pp. 383-384.
86. M. (P TS.) pp. 85-86.
87. A. III, (PTS.)p. 149.
88. Ibid. II, pp. 74-76.
89. S. I, (PTS.)p. 89.
90. Ibid. p. 100.
91. Ibid p. 166.
92. M. (PTS.) II, pp. 147, 148.
64 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual A Critique of the Concept of
Man 65
2.3 Relationship between Man and Environment

The environment influences man in various ways; similarly, man also affects the
environment in manifold ways. The physical environnent of this universe, which consists
of the sun, the moon, the sky. the wind, the vegetation and the earth is an important factor
that affects both man and society. Man’s different interests and activities, cause the
distortion of the environment. Buddhism clarifies this relative linkage between man and
environment.
The 4gganna Sutta of the Digha Nikãya, throws light on man’s activities based on his
thought and how they affect the physical environment. This sutta points out the mutual
influence of cause and effect, social evolution and the origin of society with its manifold
activities. According to it, society deteriorates due to unnecessary exploitation of the
natural environment, and its distortion. It also explains how social crises crops up due to
the division and distribution o natural resources like land etc., among the masses.
Besiles this, it explains how man’s behaviour affects the environment and vice versa.
According to the above sutta, in the early period, natural resources were not divided.
Therefore people lived happily and without any social problems, but with the passage of
time, due to the division and distribution of land a number of crises came into existence.
122
The 1’dhammika Sutta of Anguttara Nikãya which brings out the mutual telationship
between man and environment, is summarized as follows. “0, monks when kings become
unrighteous, then the king’s men also become immoral. When king’s men become
unrighteous, then the brahman householders also become unrighteous. When the brahman
householders become impious, then the people of cities and villages become unrighteous,
when these people become
122. D. iii, (B.TS.) Aggann Sutta, p. 13Z
unrighteous then the sun and the moon rise irregularly. When the sun and the moon rise
irregularly, then the Stars rise irregularly and because of this both day and night become
irregular. When both day and night become irregular then the month and the fortnight,
become irregular. When the month and the fortnight become irregular, then the seasons
become irregular. When the seasons become irregular the wind becomes irregular. When
the wind becomes irregular gods become irritated.
When gods become irritated, the great rain does not fall. When the great rain does not
fall, then the crops become irregular. When crops become irregular, then the people who
consume them become short-lived, ugly, weak, and afflicted with many diseases. 123
Thus the Adhammika Sutta reveals the fact that kings, their followers and societies, being
unrighteous, the universe with its environment, becomes irregular. Conversely kings
being righteous their followers also become righteous, and as a result of it, the global
environment becomes regular. 124
Here, being righteous signifies man’s right conduct and being unrighteous signifies a
person’s misconduct. Righteous conduct assists well in the environment. Unrighteous
behaviour confuses environmental activities. Briefly speaking, man’s good or bad
behaviour affects environment in good or bad Ways, which affect man’s happiness or
unhappiness.
According to Buddhism, the order of the cosmic law, can be introduced as the
environmental activities. Meteorology which belongs to the environment is rendered
Significant by the order of physical change (utumyãna). The cold season of Hemanta,
heat of summer season, rainfall during the rainy Season, etc., are not divine occurrences.
They are neither the result of the previous deeds nor do they occur spontaneously. They
do occur in accordance with the meteorology. Similarly trees and creepers bear flowers
and fruits. The
123. A. ii, (P.TS.) Adhammika Sutta, p. 74f
124. Ibid.
botanical evidence which belongs to the physical environment is rendered significant by

the Biological Order of seed (bija niyama). When necessary factors are available, the
seeds sown in the field grow. Trees and creepers are interrelated, the characteristics can
be seen through their bearing of flowers and fruits which is in keeping with botany. The
order of the cosmic law (Dhamma niyãma) is the real nature of animate, inanimate,
organic and inorganic things.
It may be said that the Citta-niyãma (psychological) and Kammaniyãma (moral) are to
some extent, related to nature. According to this, the teaching of the Order of Law is
essentially scientific, as far as human life and the world and the numerous environmental
activities, are concerned. Through this fivefold order the relationship between man and
environment can be pointed out. So, I intend to introduce briefly, the order of law,
through the present study. The fivefold Order of Law, 125
“Imasmini santhâne pancavidha niyãmayam nãma ganhimsu, bijaniyãmani, utu
niyãmam, Kamma niyämam 138, dhamma-niyã mam, cittaniyãmanti.” Discussed in the
Atthasãlini, is as follows
Bijaniyãma : Order of germs, or seeds (Biological Law)
A special law which is seen in the environment, is described under the bijaniyãma.
A conglomeration of bioenergy and property of element, may be introduced through the
order of seed. According to the Atthasãlini, sprout, leaf, fruit are grown in accordance
with seed, it is called the bzjaniyama. 126
Utuniyãma : Physical (inorganic) order
Primitive man believed that natural things like trees, creepers, grains, blossoming of
flowers, bearing of fruits, drought, famine etc,
125. Atthas_Iini, p. 252.
126. Ibid. pp. 305, 306.
occur due to supernatural power. Those men attributed divinity to seasons and offered
prayers to them. However, the creation of organic and inorganic things is affected by
utuniyama. It is shown in the Atthasãlini that the utuniyama affects natural phenomena
like rain, growth of seeds, the odour emitted by the earth, mountainous greenery, filling
up ocean with water, etc. 127 In this way, the relationship between man and environment,
becomes valid and meaningful.
Kamma-niyãma : Order of act-and-result.
Buddhist Kamma niyãma (Moral Law), is connected with ethics and causality. This cause
which gives rise to effect, is centred around an individual. It is also a law that shows three
tenses, i.e., the past, the future and the present, in accordance with the fixed cosmic law.
When karma is aimed at the ethical evaluation of wholesome (kusala) and unwholesome
(akusala) , deeds, it points out the influence on the good and bad behaviour of man, good
existence of nature and its change. Therefore karma should be considered as a natural
force. Buddhism emphasizes on such natural forces. The world exists on the basis of
Karma. People continue their existence due to Karma.] According to the Vãsettha Sutta a
being bound by Karma, moves• in the world like a pin of the wheel-axle. 128 This shows
the inter relationship between the environment and human activities.
127. Ibid. p. 305.
“Utu samutthãno nãma valãhako utu paccayãnãma
Vutthidhârã, dvepana, vape btjãni viruhanti
pathavi gandham muncati,
Pabbatã nilã khãyanti,
Samuddekã vaddhanti,
etam utu paccaya utu samuttãnam naina.”
etam utu paccaya utu samuttãnam nãma.”
128. Sn. Vâsettha Sutta, p. 200.
“Kam,nanñ vattati loko,
Kammanã vattati pajã,
Kammanibandha suttã,
Rathassãniva yãyato.”
The regular behaviour of kings and people causes change in the environment. When
kings and people are unrighteous, then the world will be reversed, unrighteousness will
prevail everywhere, the rain will not fall in time as a result of it, there will be famine. 129
Good behaviour of kings and subjects will be helpful to protect the equilibrium of nature.
According to the Kurudhamma Jãtaka, a severe drought had occurred in the country of
Kãlinga, due to non-observance of the five precepts by the king and his subjects. 130 The
fertility of a country is destroyed through the unrighteous activities of government.
Because of falsehood committed by kings, the vitality of vegetation is destroyed,
similarly the vitality of the earth gets reduced by one metre. Other things like oil, honey,
jaggery, etc. lose their vitality. People who use such food lose vitality, suffer from
various diseases. 131 In this way, Kamma niyãma affects ethical, environmental and
social changes.
Dhammaniyãn,a : Order of the norm.
Natural occurrences are not accidental. They are based on one or many causes. Nature
based on the above features, exists due to cause and effect. This mass of existent cause
and effect is described by Buddhism as the Dhammaniyã, (casual law). The Dhamma is
explained in the Nidàna Samyutta, as Dependent Origination. 132 Thus, this cause and
effect which is declared, acts circle-wise as a theory, in the environment Dhamma niyama
means, nothing is independent in nature. Organic and inorganic things rise and exist
being interdependent All these things grow as objective factors
129. J. Mahäsupina Jãtaka, No. 7Z P 191.

13Q J. Kurudha,n,, Jâtaka, p. 328.
13j J. No. If. Gãmini Cand Jataka, p. 210.
‘32. S. ii, Nidñna Samyutta, p. 130.
“uppãda va Tathãgatanam thjtã vã sa, dhâtu dhammathjtatã dhamma niyânzattj, ida
paccayatà, yadidam paticca samuppáde.
like beings, plants, the cosmos, essence of the earth, rain, heat, aire 133
Citt niyãma : Order of mind, or conscious life.
Citta Niyãma is peculiar to both: man who is a perfect being of the nature and the lowest
creatures. It is devoid of a physical base but it is based on individuality, hence it is
independent. Being freed from the innate nature, man endeavours for the highest aim,
therefore his Citta Niyãma becomes distinctive. Because of these factors man can directly
affect the environment.
This five fold order of law which is part and parcel of nature, is ‘flterrelated and so
continues due to interaction. Utuniyäma functions With bijaniyãma, dhamma niyãma
functions with utuniyãma and bijanjyama, even Citta niyãma and Kamma niyãma and
vice versa, have interactions. In this way, non-physical law affects physical law and vice
versa, and carries on the interrelationship in the nature.
When the relationship between man and environment is dispted, then human society
declines. In the same manner, when the attitudes of man are changed, then the social
environment is also Changed. When man’s attitudes are changed then the physical
environment is inevitably changed. According to this, human relationShips being
dependent on the environment, occur through the following three factors.
Physical Environment.
Mental Environment.
Social Environment.
133 S. Bhikkhu Samyutta Sela Sutta, p. 102.
“Yathã annataram bijam — khette vuttam viruhati pathavi rasanca agamma, —
Sinehanca tadubhayam.”
Physical Environment:
The existence and development of man, are decided according to his relationship with the
physical environment. He associates with the physical environment according to his
required resources and their use. Man has excessive desire. Though his wants are
limitless, resources are limited. Therefore, man who seeks new resources, changes the
physical environment which causes its exploitation as well as destruction. This situation
can be discerned through various suttas of the Pãli Canon.
Mental Environment:
Apart from the physical environment which is meant for human habitation, man should
have a good relationship for the spiritual development of his intellectual and moral
conduct.
When the physical environment is aimed at objective goals, then it becomes detrimental
to the mental environment. Buddhism clarifies the fact that a congenial environment is
necessary for man to develop his intellect. Therefore, living in a suitable place has been
considered in the Mangala sutta as the highest blessing. ‘s” When man lives in an
unsuitable environment, his mental behaviour becomes wild. The episode of Punna
serves to prove the fact that the people of Sunãparanta, led a hard life because
Sunãparanta was hostile province. ‘ Even to-day, it is a well-known fact that people who
live in hostile places and inherit traditional cultures, are affected in their spiritual
behaviour, by the environment.
Fall literary sources bring out the fact that some characters, though they are busy,
irresponsible, restless and wild get changed due to a tranquil environment.
For instance, the Sãmannaphala Sutta, reveals the fact that Ajãttlsattu, a parricidal king,
became calm and quiet due to a tranquil cnViroflment.
134. Sn. Mangala Sutta. P 46.
“Patirupa desav_soca.”
135 M. (B.TS.) Punnov_da sutta, p. 548

It is expressed by king Ajãtasattu himself as follows.

“How pleasant, friends, is the moonlit night!
How beautiful, friends, is the moonlit night!
How lovely, friends, is the moonlit night!
How soothing, friends, is the moonlit night!
How grand a sight, friends is the moonlit night!
How can it be that there should be no sound at all, not a sneeze nor a cough in so large an
assembly of the brethren, among twelve hundred and fifty of the brethren?” 136
The rulers who were contemporaneous with the Buddha, highly appreciated seclusion of
the body and mind for which pleasure groves and gardens were planted in the vicinity of
palaces. Kings are said to have resorted to parks to discuss and solve administration
problems peacefully. The noted parks of that time were Salagrove of the Licchavis, the
Jeta-grove of the prince Jeta, etc.
Social Environment:
Man bears a relationship with the social environment raised by himself. While pointing
out the connection between man and the social environment, factors like ideas, intentions
etc., unexpectedly affect them. As a reaction to it, man always endeavours to march
forward in society. Here, through such competitive conditions thoughts like irregular
passion ( Visamarãga), irregular greed (visma lobha), and wrong views (mitthyã ditthi),
which are harmful to the social environment, are generated.
way.
These threefold unwholesome roots affect society in the following
i) Overpopulation due to irregular passion.

ii) Privatization or denationalization and exhaustion of physical resources are caused by
uncontrolled greed.
iii) Change in social attitudes is caused by speculative views.
While considering these facts, many problems are confronted due to an imbalance in the
environment caused by the negligence of man. While considering the above mentioned
factors, there cannot be an environment without man and vice-versa. Therefore it may be
concluded that this world continues due to the interrelationship between man and the
environment.
136. D. Sãmannaphala Sutta, pp. 66, 67.

“Ramaniyã vata bho dosinã ratti,
abhirupa vata b/ui dosinãratti,
dassaniya vata bho desinã ratti,
pâsãdikâ vata bho dosinãratti, lakkhanna vata bho dosinñ ratti katham hi nãma tàya
mahato bhikkhu sanghassa ad.dha
telasânam bhikkhu sathnam neva khipita saddo bhavissati, na vkkôsita saddo
navigghosoti.”
I
83
CHAPTER THREE
LOSS OF RESOURCES AND ITS INFLUENCE ON MAN
Loss of Resources and Its Influence on Man 85
It is an accepted fact that the resources of our planet earth are limited. They have been
divided into two categories, namely flexible resources, or resources in constant flux; and
the non developmental resources. The first category comprises sun’s rays, air, water,
organisms. Iron, mineral, fuel etc. are included in the second category.
According to the scientific classification, natural resources can be broadly classified as
biological and non biological which include resources like minerals, agricultural
products, forestry, food, power and energy, plants and animals, water etc. They can be
renewable or non-renewable.BiologiCal resources like fish, are of course, replenishable,
but even such resources as nitrogen, iron and energy may also some times be renewable,
though not to the same extent as forests and fisheries.
Under this topic, we hope to deal, in the light of Buddhist doctrines, with the harm caused
by the destruction of natural resources as well as suggestions for the conservation of
natural resources. Man is always in conflict with nature, mainly due to his search for
food. It is because of our advertent and inadvertent actions that the environment becomes
subjected to change. Therefore, it is our bounden duty to conserve it.
Here we hope to deal with several resources described in Buddhism.
Vegetation
Buddhism describes seed as the basic factor for the growth of vegetation and considers it
to be the most precious resource. It signifies seed as,
i.e., the growth of seed is the most excellent thing. Reference to vegetation has frequently
been made in the Pãli Canon. Therefore, the Buddhist attitude towards vegetation
becomes quite clear. For instance, arañña,2 rukkha müla,3 and Vanappati (Vanaspati).4
We find a separate doctrine on the Vana Samyutta in the ninth section of the Samyutta
Nikñya.5 Grains like paddy, wheat, barley, etc., are accepted as the staple food of both
men and animals. Similarly, other natural things like, leaves, buds, roots, fruits, flowers
etc., are useful to them. When we think of a tree, we find that it is inhabited by birds and
utilized by animals. The Mahãsãla Sàtra brings out the fact that a banyan tree, situated at
an intersection, furnishes animals with shade, fruits etc. Such trees are no doubt
conducive to environmental beauty. In like manner, many gods seek shelter in such trees.
The Gandhabba Kãyikã gods like, Mãlagandha, Sãragandha, Phalagandha etc., as well
as six other kings of gods such as, ãrãma, vana, rukkha, asadhi, trina, and vanaspati,
inhabit the tree. A tree is useful to the other trees. In the beginning, a single tree serves as
the basis for the entire forest. It is said,
“Tam rukkham upanissãya vaddhante vanaspati.”6 Therefore, destruction of a tree
affects the existence of animals and entails the stopping of the entire forest. According to
Buddhism, cutting down of trees and throwing hot water on the green grass entails an
ecclesiastical offence. Cutting a branch of a tree that supplies fruit is considered to be an
act of betrayal. The above facts have been depicted in the Petavatthu. According to it, he
who sits or sleeps in the shade of a tree, should not break even a branch of it. If it is done,
it entails an act of betrayal.”7
“Bijam uppannam settham”
2. D. I ‘p71. M. p. 1.16, S. I, p.4.7’, 27, A. I, p. 60

3. M. I, p. 252, A. III, p. 290, J.iv, p. 8
4. Vim. III, p. 47
5. S. Vana Samyutta, (P.TS) pp. 197-205
6. A. I. (B.TS) Mah_sja SutC p. 159
7. Petavatthu, 52,54
1. Modern Concepts of Ecology, p. 317
Cutting down of trees for making sacrificial stakes of posts, etc., was considered as
harmful by the Buddha, who denounced such sacrifices. According to the Kãtadanta
Sutta of the Digha Nikãya the King Mahãvijita asked his chaplain to instruct him as to
how to perform sacrifice, so that he could get the highest happiness. The chaplain said
that trees were not cut down, no animals were slaughtered, even kusagrass was not cut to
spread on the ground in that sacrifice. 8
Our behaviour towards the trees and creepers affect them in a subtle way. It has been
discovered through the micrograph appliance that even stroking or patting a growing
plant is beneficial to its growth. B.M. Puskin, Prof. of Botany, in Russia, has discovered
that man and vegetation, are closely interrelated with the mental attitude of men. Our
ancestors had known these facts and so, they regarded trees and creepers as gods.
Water, one of the most precious gifts of nature, covers almost three fourths of the surface
of the globe. The chemist sees water as a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. The
geographer sees water as an element that occurs on earth, in the form of rivers, lakes, seas
and oceans. Its purest natural form is rain. The ecologist sees in water several forces at
work : some positive, some negative. While on the one hand, water ensures growth of
life-human, animal and plant it does, on the other hand create innumerable problems
weighing heavily on mankind, such as scarcity, pollution and waste.
8. D. I, Kãtadanta Sutta, (B. TS) p. 274
“Na rukkhâ chinjinsu yupatthãya,
na dabbã luyimsu barihisatthciya.”
9. Water in Culture, p. 13
In nature, water moves in a cycle : the water on the earth evaporates at normal
temperatures and remains in a state of vapour in the atmosphere. These visible masses of
vapour, the clouds, cause rain, which falls on the earth to flow again as streams and rivers
into lakes and seas to be evaporated again. 10 Water, obtained from wells, ponds, tanks,
streams, brooks, rivers, sea etc., is polluted due to man’s careless activities.
The water resource that is in our surroundings, is not dried up due to rainfall and so it
continues to exist. This rain which provides us water to live, has been highly praised by
the Buddha. Whatever living organism exists, in the world, it exists due to rain. Because
of rain people continue their cultivation and economy, in fact. Other agricultural factors
like ploughing, sowing and reaping harvest, depend on rain. Therefore, it is said in the
Samyutta Nikãya that seeds are sown, it rains, fields are ploughed by farmers, and the
country reaps the crop, again and again.
The ocean is important because it is a water-resource besides containing other treasures.
The Buddha, in the Cullavagga Pãli explains eight wonderful qualities of the ocean.
They are as follows:
• The great ocean gradually deepens...
• The nature of the great ocean is that it does not cross over the shore...
• The great ocean does not associate with a dead body, so it carries away the dead body to
its shore...
• The water of great rivers like, Ganges, Yamunã, Aciravati, Sarabhu, Mahi, is reckoned
to be the same as that of the great ocean, when these rivers join it...
10. Ibid. p. 13
11. S. Kasi Sutta (P.TS) p. 172
“Punappunam ceva vapanti bijâ,
Punappunam vassati devarãjã,
Punappunam khettam kosanti kassakà,
Punappunam dhanna mupeti rattham.”
• The great ocean is never reduced or overflowing...

• The taste of the great ocean is that of salt...
• The great ocean is rich in treasures...
• The great ocean is an abode of great creatures... 2
Most of the Jãtaka tales state that the behaviour of kings and their subjects, affects water.
It is recorded in the Mahãsupina Jãtaka that it is due to the unrighteousness of kings and
their subjects, that the rain doesn’t fall regularly, as a result of which trees suffer.
Therefore, famine occurs.’3 Buddhism maintains a favourable attitude towards water.
As water contains living organisms, it is important to take precautions while using it.
Such a consideration is supposed to be an environmental ethic. Many people contaminate
water with their urine as well as excreta. Such an act which pollutes water has been
criticised in Buddhism. This uncultured, bad-behaviour is considered to be an ethical
offence. According to the Vinaya text, a monk who defiles water with his urine, excreta
as well as spittle, becomes guilty of breaking a disciplinary rule which entails behaviour
offence. His offence is declared to be dukkata. “
12. Cullavagga Ptimokkhattapana khandhakam, pp. 42 7-430. (i) “mahãsamuddo
bhikkhave anupubbo ninno anupubba pono. anupubba pabbharo a ãyatake neva päpoti...
(ii) Samuddo thitadhammo velam nãtivattati... (iii) mahâsamuddo na matena kunapena
samvasati... (iv) ) kãci mahãnadiyo, seyyathidam, Gangâ, Yamunã, Aciravati, Sarabhu,
Mahà, tã mahã samuddam puttã jahanti purimam nñma Gottãni, sabba samuddoiveva
sabbam samkham gacchanti... (v) ) ca loke savam tiyo... ünattam Va pãrattam vã
pañnâyati... (vi) Mahãsamuddo ekaraso lona raso... (vii) Mahãsamuddo nwhatam
bhütãnam ãvãso... (viii) Mahãsamuddo bahuratano anekaratano...
13. J. Mahãsupina Jãtaka, Vol. I, p. 188
14. Pãcittiya Pãli bhikhuni vibhanga (B.TS) P 554. “Anadariyam paticca udake uccãram
Va passãvam vâ khelam vã karonto ekamäpattinz ãpajjati.”
Water resources are saved or exhausted in accordance with their use. The Pathama
Aputtaka Sutta states that water of a tank will not be exhausted if it is used well. ‘ Right
livelihood signifies non hurting of beings and vegetation, proper use of water, in other
words, using them properly, and being frugal in their use.
Animal Resources
All animals, that live in our surroundings are said to be resources. Even the ants and other
insects are useful to the growth of necessary pollen and fruit. They are also useful to
make transplantation of plants successful. Small insects help to store up water in the soil
and to digest the rubbish. Besides them, other living beings are also helpful to men. The
cow is regarded to be one of the most useful animals. It is so important because it
provides food, energy, health and happiness to all men.
The Brãhmanadhammika Sutta of the Suttanipãta clarifies the above fact. ‘ The cow
under discussion is as valuable as other precious things, like water, great earth, gold and
wealth. The Buddha declared that no wealth can be compared to the cow. He said,
“Natihi go samitim dhanam”7
Hunting, setting one animal on another animal, rearing animals, for flesh, selling meat
etc. are not good for right livelihood. Slaughtering animals even for religious sacrifice,
entails an offence. The Buddha denounced such bloody sacrifices. According to the
Kutadanta Sutta,
15. S. I. (PTS), p. 89-91
16. Sn. Brãhmana dhammika sutta (B.TS). Vs. 298-299, p. 90 “Yathà math pita bhátã-
aññe vãpi ca ñãtakñ, Gãvo no paramã mittã yãsu jàyanti osadhà,
Annadã baladñ cetã vannadñ sukhadñ tathã
Etamatthavasam ñatvã nâsu gãvo hanimsu te.”
1 Z S. I, (RTS) Natthiputtasamam Sutta, p. 6
“0, Brahmana, I do not appreciate all sacrifices. The Buddha does not approve and
appreciate a sacrifice in which living beings are slaughtered.” 18 It is not a sensible thing
to set up an interrelationship in an environment where small and big creatures are
destroyed. Digging the ground with the intention of getting treasure leads to the
destruction of a large number of insects.
Once, while dwelling at Nerañjã, Moggallana Thera asked the Buddha whether he could
get undergrowth from the soil. Thereupon the Buddha rejected his request. The Pãrãjika
Pãli furnishes us with the dialogue that took place between the Buddha and Moggallãna:
Moggallana: “0 Lord, the inner part of the earth is extremely savoury. It is as sweet as a
honey comb. Therefore, may I dig out the earth, so that monks may savour of the
undergrowth in the soil.
The Buddha: “What 0 Moggallãna will happen to those insects that live in the soil.”
Moggallana: “0, Lord, I will make my palm just like the earth and make all the insects
shift to it and dig out the earth with the other hand.
The Buddha: “0, Moggallãna, do not do such a thing, because the insects will be
confused.” This shows that the Buddha did not tolerate any kind of harm or injury to any
creature. The Dhammapada testifies to this act. It states,
“Sabbe tasanti dandassa,
Sabbe bhãyanti maccuno,
attãnam upamam katvã
na haneyye na ghãtaye.”2°
It means, all tremble at the rod (punishment), all fear death, comparing oneself with
others, one should neither strike nor cause to strike.
Once, a monk Dhaniya, the son of a potter, constructed a hut out of clay. The Buddha
who was informed about this denounced the work of Dhaniya and declared that it was
against the vinaya. And so, the Buddha ordered him to destroy the hut as the clay
contained innumerable insects. Such was the compassionate attitude of the Buddha
towards living beings. Therefore, it is said in the Metta Sutta “Just as a mother would
protect her only child even at the risk of her own life, even so let one cultivate a
boundless heart towards all beings” 21 Misuse of the resources and environment leads to
pollution. Air, water, soil, and forest, which are integral parts of the environment, are
being exploited. In like manner, deforestation, greatly affects both animate and inanimate
things. According to the Buddhist view, all of us must generate a motherly love towards
the environment, because we are nurtured by nature.
We are facing ecological disaster and environmental problems mainly due to the ill-
treatment of the earth, dense forest, the realm of tranquility, and water which is a source
of life and energy. Similarly, in order to gratify our senses, we have misused the rivers
and seas. Buddhism enables us to have a clear understanding of the present situation of
the environmental crisis prevalent in almost all countries. These crises are due to a
misunderstanding of the place of man in nature. Man has boundless desire for material
well-being and the thoughtless exploitation of nature, without having a sense of mutual
protection and goodwill.
21. Sn. 1, 8. (B.TS)p. 46
“Mãtã yathâ niyam puttam
ãyusâ eka putta manu rakkhe
evampi sabba bhütesu,
mànasam bhâvaye aparimãnam.”
18. D. I, K_tadanta Sutta, p. 127ff
19. yin. III. pp 1-11
20. Dh. Dandavagga, v. 129, p. 283
Y2 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual
Buddhism does not advocate cruelty to other living creatures, and propagates the theory
of karma, theory of cause and effect, and declares that neglecting the principles of right
living may lead to chaos resulting in our environmental crisis. 22
The Agganna Sutta clarifies the fact that due to the covetousness and bad behaviour of
beings, the food obtained from the natural environment, gets spoilt. 23 The early beings
used the savoury earth for their food. But due to their covetousness, it vanished.
Afterwards, they used fungus as their food. It also disappeared owing to their excessive
greed. Thereafter, those beings used Badãlatã rice that grew naturally. This too,
disappeared due to their avarice.
The Samuddaianija Jãtaka shows that natural forms like trees, creepers, and fertile land
are destroyed due to man’s misconduct. 24 Even the Gãmini Canda Jãtaka points out that
unrighteous deeds cause barrenness of the fertile land. 25 the Kurudhamma Jãtak.a states
that the behaviour of both king and his subjects affect natural phenomena.26
One cannot lead a happy life through using the natural resources alone, nor can one be
happy having immense wealth, if one is not mentally satisfied. The urban environment,
with a lot of noise deprives man of his peace of mind as well as his solitude. Noise has
been recognized as a serious threat today, because it pollutes the environment, saps
energy, causes oppression, disgust and it definitely lowers efficiency. 27
The Pãli Canon brings out the fact that the Buddha expressed his concern and displeasure
over excessive noise. 28 He appreciated a calm and quiet environment. Calmness and
tranquility can lead to mental culture, whereas the noise can be a hindrance for
meditation. 29
Man who is born with spiritual inclinations has to endeavour to comprehend conduct,
duty, morality, and religion. In other words, man has to fulfil religio-moral and social
duties, obligations etc. Well known Indian religions like, Buddhism, Jainism, and
Hinduism, preach how to protect the objects of nature. Since desires are the root cause of
suffering, man has to reduce them. Most religions also preach how to eliminate these
cravings. Unlike during the time of the Buddha, today, the feelings, ideas of people,
regarding flora, etc., are totally different. In those days people believed that vegetation
contained some sort of life, but today it is not accepted. Jainism has explicitly indicated
that vegetation contains life or soul. According to their beliefs, man and animals have six
senses, whereas, vegetation contains only one sense-organ. According to Jainism, it is
contact that harms vegetation. Therefore, harming vegetation is an offence. This may be
regarded as their devotional sentiment about their natural resources.
It is an accepted fact that people will be punished by nature if they harm it. It becomes
quite clear from a tale of a lad who defiled water with manure. 30 If people abuse either
earth or water they will suffer dire consequences. Modern American Buddhists have
linked the tenet of interpenetration with the ecological view that all forms of life, are
interconnected.
22. World religions and the Environment, pp. 196, 205

23. D. II (P TS) Agganna sutta, pp. 80-98
24. J. iv Samuddavãnija, p. 102, 103
25. J. ii. Gâmini anda Jãtaka, p. 210
26. J. ii. Kurudhanima Jãtaka, p. 252ff
27. Robert, Arrival, Man and Environment, p. 118
28. A. III, p. 31
29. A. 1’p. 135
30. The Lankñvatãra Sütra, p. 221
i ne I5uaanLs( concept oj the invironment and Individual
According to Joan Halifax, “In contemporary Buddhism, the term Sangha refers to the
community that practices the way together. I have often asked myself where is the
boundary of this community. From the perspective of some tribal people, Sangha does
not stop at the threshold of our species and next of kin. The community for many native
people is regarded as including other species, plant and animal, as well as environmental
features and unseen ancestors and spirits. Community is used and experienced as a whole
system of interrelated types and species. 31 Padmasiri de Silva 32 clarifies the fact that a
living entity cannot isolate itself from this casual nexus, and has no essence of its own.
Reciprocity also conveys the idea of mutual obligation between nature and humanity, and
between
people.
Man is influenced by
• bio-physical restrictions
• behavioural controls, and
• availability of resources.
Weather and climate also affect human well-being and health. As far as biology is
concerned a human being can function properly only in a congenial environment.
Environmental conditions like oxygen, heat, light, humidity and precipitation, wind,
lightning, fog, clouds, atmospheric electricity and space also play predominant
31. Ancient Buddhism in Japan Sutra and ceremonies in use in the seventh and eight
centuries, A.D and their History in later times, p. 198, 212
32. Non violence to Animals, Earth and Self in Asian traditions, p. 66
roles in man’s life. For example, excessive heat and humidity retard body and mental
growth whereas very high or very low temperature on the one hand adversely affects the
human body and on the other hand makes food a scarce commodity to support human
life. Micro climate also affects leisure, recreation, comfort etc. Diverse amalgamations of
environmental characteristics in the universe affect racial differences. Furthermore,
thoughts, ideologies as well as culture are also influenced and conditioned by such
environment.
We find some influence of environment on socio-economic and political behaviour.
Natural events and environmental factors like vulcanicity, earth-quakes, floods, droughts,
landslides, atmospheric storms etc., influence man’s perception regarding natural
environment and determine his reactions and responses to these events. A number of
examples may be cited to demonstrate the impact of environment on human behaviour,
and the perception and respons s to environmental factors.
Considering the above facts it may be concluded that both man and environment are
scientifically, and ethically interrelated. In order to bring about a complete equilibrium
between man and environment, man has to conserve the environment and behave in such
a way that his actions will not adversely affect his surroundings. Though man has limited
resources at his disposal he can make good use of them for a happy life. While preserving
environment, he can pave the way for happiness of his progeny.
97
CHAPTER FOUR
INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MIND AND THE ENVIRONMENT
interrelationship Between Mind and the Environment 99
4.1 Nature of Passionless Mind

I deem it to be important to clarify and understand the basic nature of mind, prior to
presenting the analysis of the passionless mind. The Buddha declared “I teach you all.
Listen to it, 0 monks, what is all? eye-form, ear-sound, nose-smell, tongue - taste, body-
touch, mind-mind-states, this is meant by all.” This indicates a person as twelve-sense-
objects (dvãdasãyatana), and these twelve sense-objects represent the world. This fact
has been shown in the Samyutta Nikãya. According to it, “Imasmim ceva byamamatte
kalebare lokanca pannapemi lokasamudayanca pannapemi”. 2
Of these six sense-organs, mind can be considered to be the chief faculty. The
Dhammapada states,
“Manopubbangamã dhammã
mano setthã manomayã” 2
It means, mind is the forerunner of all states, mind is chief, mind made are they.
Furthermore, the condition of mind is explained as,
“Durangamam ekacaram
asariram guhasayam”
It means, faring far, wandering alone, bodiless, lying in the cave, is the mind. In Pãli
language, Citta means thought or mind whereas in Sanskrit language it is mentioned as
citcit,5 thought or mind. According to the Manual of Abhidhamma, terms like citta, ceta,
cittuppãda, nãma, mana, vinnana are synonymous. 6 The PãliEnglish Dictionary defines
the Citta as, the heart (psychologically) i.e. centre and focus of man’s emotional nature as
well as that intellectual element which inheres it and accompanies its manifestations, i.e
thought. Furthermore, it is defined as that which thinks mentally is thought. “Cetasã
cintetiti cittam.” 8 According to the Manual of Abhidhamma, citta is one of the four
ultimates (paramatthas). It has been derived from the root cit, i.e to think. According to
the commentary citta is that which is aware of (cinteti = vzjãnati) an object. It is not that
which thinks of an object, as the term implies. From the standpoint of Abhidhamma, citta
may better be defined as the awareness of an object, since there is no agent like that of a
soul.
4. Ibid. Cittavagga, V 37, p. 102

5. Sanskrit English Dictionary, p.2O8
6. Manual of Abhidharnma, p.9
7. RED. (PTS) p. 266.
8. ibid.
9. Manual Of Abhidhamma, p. 9.
1. S. iv. (PTS) p. 15.

2. S. iv. Migajäla Vagga, p. 37. Dh. Yatnaka Vagga, V I, p. 41.
Interrelationship Between Mind and the Environment 101
According to the compendium, “The grammarian’s definition of the term citta (mind) is
ãrammanam cinteti ti cittam (thought, thinking of an object).” Here the word cinteti is
used in its most comprehensive sense of vijãnãti (to know). Mind is then ordinarily
defined as that which is conscious of an object. From this definition we got our definition
of Vinnàna (consciousness). Consciousness may therefore be tentatively defined as the
relation between ãrammanika (subject) and ãrammana (object). ‘°
While discussing mind and thought, we find a close relationship between them. On the
comparison of mind with the ocean, we may say that the mental states are the waves of
the ocean. The waves that emerge from the ocean cannot be separated from it. Emergence
is the nature of the waves. In like manner, the nature of the mental states is also similar to
it. While the ocean is the basis of the waves, the mind is helpful to the mental states. In
this way, it may be said that interrelationship between the mental states, is inseparable.
The nature of mind is based on the remaining sense organs and it receives the sense
objects. What is the original nature of the mind that visualizes various objects? According
to the Anguttara Nikâya, the mind is fundamentally resplendent.
“Pabhassaramidam bhikkhave cittam tancakho ãgantukehi kilesehi upakilittham.” “It
means this mind is naturally pure and
radiant but is defiled, polluted by the external impurities, influence of sense and mental
faculties or defilements. While defining the nature of mind, the Buddha said, “0, monks,
there is no object in this world that can move faster than the mind. It is very difficult to
find any example of the speed of mind.” 12 The mind has been further defined in the
Dhammapada, as,
“Phandanam capalam cittam
durukkham dunnivãrayam.” 13
The flickering, fickle mind, is difficult to guard, difficult to control. Furthermore,
Vârijova thale khitto
okamokata ubbhato
pariphanda midam cittam
mãradheyyam pahatave.” 14
Like a fish that is drawn from its watery abode and thrown upon land, even so, does this
mind flutter, hence should the realm of the passion be shunned.
“Dunniggahassa lahuno
yattha kãmanipãtino”5
12. Ibid. 9.
13. Dh. Cittavagga, V. 33, p. 99.
14. Ibid V. 34.
15. Ibid. V. 35, p. 100.
10. Compendium, p. 234

11. A.I.R10
102 The Buddhist Concept of the Environmeni and Individual
The mind is difficult to control; swiftly and lightly it moves and lands wherever it
pleases. The passion bound mind is like an oasis for defilements. What does it mean by
the control of mind9 The mind is naturally movable, it is fickle, controlling this nature of
mind is subjugation. The uncontrolled mind always generates passions. Here, the factors
like passion (ràga), hatred (dosa), delusion (moha) and in addition to these jealousy, envy
(isa), anger (kodha), intoxication (mada), conceit (mãna), sloth and drowsiness,
(thinamiddha), excitement and flurry or worry (uddhacca-kukkucca), doubt (vicikicchã),
all these factors defile the mind.
There is no escape from this mind which is full of defilements. It is constantly burning
with the fire of lust, hatred and delusion etc. Nibbãna is shown as the extinction of this
fire. Nibbána is defined as “Ragakkhayo, dosakkhayo, mohakkhayoti Nibbâna.” 16 That
mind which is freed from rãga (lust), dosa (hatred), and delusion (moha), is called the
passionless mind. The mind that is freed from passion is the best. Passionless is the best
of norms. “Wãgo settho dhammãnam” 17 “Virãga” is often called ‘Nibbãna’.
“Tanhakkhaya virãga nirodha Nibbãna.” 18 In order to get rid of the above defilements,
mind should be passionless.
Thus, the centered mind while taking good and bad objects through five sense organs,
gives rise to impurities as well . This is the very thing that is expected of the passionless
mind. Such a mind calm, tranquil, endowed with equanimity, is transcendental. The
nature of such a dispassionate mind is to be attentive (Yoniso manasikãro) and to know
the things as they truly are (Yathãbhuta). The Dhamrriacakkapavattana Sutta depicts the
nature of such mind, as fol1os
“Cakkhum udapãdi, nãnam udapãdi, pannãudapãdi, vijjã udapddi, ãloko udapãdi.” ‘
“the vision, the knowledge, the wisdom, the insight and the light arose’
16. S.Vp.8.
17. RE.D. (PTS), p. 634.
18. S. 1, pp. 136
19. S. v. (P.T.S.) Dhammacakkapavattana Sutta, p. 424
.i u’. I ne iiuaan:st concept of the Environment and Individual
According to the Abhidhamma, the mind is divided into four divisions. It is said, “Tahtã
cittam tãva catubbidham hotj.
(i) Kãmãvacaram (ii) rupãvacaram (iii) arupãvacaram (iv) lokuttaram cati”
Of them, consciousness stands first. It is fourfold:
The first three categories are named as lokiya, i.e. mundane, whereas the fourth one is
supramundane (lokottara). In this context, loka stands for five aggregates
(pancakkhandha) and uttara means, above, beyond or that which transcends. It is the
supramundane consciousness that enables one to transcend this world of mind and body.
What does this fathom-long body signify? It is said, “lujjati kho lokoti vuccati.” That
which crumbles away, or that which is destroyed ; therefore it is called “loka”. These are
destructive, subject to change, bound to the world of sense-desire, in the realm of sense
desire, the realm of form, and the realm of non-form minds, the condition of passionless
mind cannot be expected of such a mind that belongs to the realm of sense-desire. But
this state of passionlessness can be found in the transcendental mind.
In an ordinary sense, lokuttara is the highest of the world’s best, sublime, (like lokagga
etc.). It is often applied to Arahantship, e.g. “Lokuttara-dãyajja”, an inheritance of
Arahantship, (ii) it has been defined in the later Pãli canonical texts, as beyond these
worlds, supramundane, transcendental, spiritual. 22 There are four states to reach the
supramundane realm. They are,
Sotãpanna
Sakadãgãmi
Anãgami
Arahant
The primary aim of the above four stages is to redeem a person from worldly fetters, by
destroying them. If that is so, the nature of passionless mind is to redeem a person from
ten fetters which bind him to the wheel of transmigration. 23 What are these ten fetters?
According to the Samyojana sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya, the ten fetters (Samyojanas)
are:
20. Dhaminasamgani, p. 631

21. Cullaniddesa, Pãli p. 550, PE.D. (PTS), p. 584.
22. P.E.D. (PTS), p. 588.

23. Vin. I, p. 183, S. I, p. 23, A. p. 264.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
realm of sense-desire.
realm of form.
realm of formlessness.
realm of transcendental mind. 20
One who has entered the stream

Once returner
Never returner
Worthy one
Sakkaya ditthi
Vicikicchã
Silabbataparãmãso
Kãmacchando
belief in theory of soul, doubt

dependence on mere rite and ritual. excitement of sensual pleasure.
malevolence, ill-will.
lust after rebirth in form. lust after rebirth in formlessness. conceit.
haughtiness.
ignorance 24
“Yathãhãram succhannam vuthi na samtivijjati evam subhãvitam cittam rãga na

samtivijjhati.”
“Selo Yathã ekaghano vãtena na samirati.”

Doubt about the teacher (Buddha)
Doubt about the teaching of the Master.
Doubt about the training (Sikkhã). 29
Vyãpãdo
Ruparãgo
Aruparãga
Mãno
Uddhacca
Avijjã
Even as rain does not penetrate a well-thatched house, so does it not penetrate a well-
developed mind. 26 Similarly, the mind freed from sensual pleasures, cannot be shaken
by any worldly force. This is clear from the following verse.
The first three are called three samyojanä 25 These ten fetters are destroyed through the
attainment of Arahantship. While enjoying arahantship the mind does not cling to sensual
pleasures.
This has been vividly described in the Yamakavagga of the Dhammapada as follows
As a solid rock is unshaken by the wind,27 so the worthy one is not shaken. The
defilements of mind are, greed, covetousness, malevolence, anger, malice, hypocrisy,
spite, envy, stinginess, deceit treachery, obstinacy, impetuosity, arrogance, pride, conceit,
indolene.28
A1og with these four doubts are eliminated. They are as follows:
(Dhamma)
According to the Buddhist philosophy, the mind while generating mental states, every
moment, exists, perishes, and changes constantly. it is the nature of mind. The basic aim
of Buddhist training is to control this fickle mind and bring about onepointedness.
Accordingly, this itself is the nature of the passionless mind.
24. A. Sanzvojana sutta, V 17

25. M. I. p. 9. A.N.Ip. 231
26.
27.
28.
29.
Dh. Yamakavagga, V 14, p. 52

IbiL Pandita Vagga, V. 81, P. 195
M. L pp. 36, 37
M. 1. pp. 101, 102
4.2 Environmental Influence on the Passionless Mind.

Man is intimately related to the environment. Man in the past was said to have deified
nature and regularly worshipped it. While cultivating spirituality, he acted with utmost
care and subtle sensitivity. In like manner, the environment stood in good stead for him to
enable him to develop his spirituality and to destroy his mental taints, or impurities. The
ascetics who were not of perverted views, associated with the environment and engaged
themselves in the pursuit of meditation as well as the search of the truth.
The Buddha saw delight in the environment. He observed the radiant beauty of parks,
groves, forests, landscape, ponds of Rajagriha. There were certain places which
fascinated the Buddha. While explaining the most delightful beauty, the Buddha said to
Ananda. “0 Ananda, Vesãli and Cetiyas like Udeni, Gotama, Sattabba, Bahuputtaka,
Sãrandada Cãpãla, are indeed, magnificently delightful, charming, enchanting and
endearing, lovely and agreeable, and pleasant to eye.” 30 These Cetiyas observed by the
Buddha, stood for great trees. So, Vrksha Cetiyas were trees, deified and worshipped in
those days.
While constructing a monastery, monks had to pay serious attention to the environment.
The monastery was not to be built at a long distance fr9m a village or too near to the
village. It was to be convenient for travelling to. It was not to be haunted by people by
day and was to be kept free from noise at night. 31 This indicates that a monk required a
congenial and favourable environment, to cultivate a passionless mind. Furthermore, the
Man gala Sutta of the Suttanipâta, states that having a convenient habitable locality is
itself a great blessing. 32
“To reside in a suitable locality, to have done meritorious actions
30. D. II, Maàparinibbãna Sutta, p. 74
31. Vln. II Cullavagga Senãsa,zakJthtjndjw, 146ff
32. Sn. Mangala Sutta, (BTS) P 80
“Patiràpa desavãsoca.”
in the past, and to set oneself in the right course, this is the highest blessing. u A forest is
the most suitable for the repose and tranquility of both mind and body. Therefore, let a
person who wishes to get one pointedness of mind, enter the forest. (Viveka Kãmehi
vanam pavittha).
The environment causes bodily and mental repose. Likewise, it enables the person to
realize the truth. According to the Theragãthâ, a person who realizes the true nature of
the world, sees the Worthy One, and in like manner, identifies even a worldling. The
Thera Vappa says,
“He who doth see, can see another seer, Him too who hath no eyes wherewith to see He
who himself sees not, can ne’er discern Either the eye that sees not, or the seer.
To understand nature means to visualize the truth. Those monks who were accustomed to
the environment got spiritual tranquility through the repose of both body and mind. The
monks who made observations of the environment were able to shake off laziness,
melancholy, disgust, non-enthusiasm, dissatisfaction from their minds. Some monks
could reach the path of Nibbãna through environmental sanctity. For the cultivation of
their minds, those monks got something more than us, from the environment. The
Majjhima Nikâya informs us that the Buddha preached to cultivate, elevate the mind of
his disciples. While delivering the sermon the Buddha said,
“0 monks while I was seeking after supreme Enlightenment, I wandered and in due
course of time reached a village of Senãni, which lay in the principality of Uruwela.
There I saw a delightful landscape, beside which a river flowed gently.
33. What the Buddiw taught, p. 98
34. Thag. (PTS) Vappa Thera, V 61, p. 62
Two banks of it were adorned with white shining sand. It was so enchanting that one
could enter it without any inconvenience. Villages were situated in its surroundings, and
it was quite convenient to go on alms rounds. I therefore deemed it to be the most suitable
spot for meditation. Subsequently, I started practising meditation there.”35 It is quite
obvious from this how the natural beauty of that spot invited the Buddha to engage
himself in meditation. Therefore, it may be ascertained that such an agreeable
environment conduces to the cultivation of a passionless mind.
Being woridlings, we are flexible,36 and so are attached to the objects of sense-organs.
We are often confronted by unpleasant disagreeable, disgusting sense objects. This
phenomenal world is constituted by sense organs and objects. ‘ We classify the sense
objects in accordance with our mental values. Because of this, history bears testimony to
the fact that man has endeavoured to win over the environment.
Early Buddhism brings out the fact that worldlings are full of passions 38 Similarly, the
philosophy of the Buddha has been pointed out as the philosophy of dispassionateness
and conduct.39 The phenomenal world conduces to the development of our inner
passions. Therefore, getting rid of objective things conduces to the destruction of the
inner passions.4° Some persons who resort to deserted places of their own accord,
develop their meditation and attain to Nibbãna.4’
35. M. I. p. 163
36. Mãdhyamika Darshanaya, I!, p. 507
37. M. I., 190ff
38. Dh. 254, A. II!. p. 347
39. D. I. p. 47, M. III 1.8
40. Mahaniddesa, pãli I, p.
41. D. II. p. 28ff
Nevertheless, Buddhism emphasizes the fact that one should abandon human society,
while living in this environment, because one can get emancipation through it.42 The
Theragatha brings out the fact that there were a number of disciples of the Buddha, who
had attained to the emancipation.
It may be said that man develops his spirituality together with his fondness for and
realization of the environment. It is believed that there had been a few people who
appreciated the environment. Such people have been mentioned in Buddhist literature.
The dispassionate people are attached to the environment where ordinary people do not
find any pleasure or delight. It is so, because they are not pleasure seekers. The
Theragãthã records that the dispassionate people have availed themselves of the
environment to give rise to their dispassionate mind. The Thera Pãrãpariya describes the
environment as follows:
“The requisites for men as living things, And medicine too as means to live : for these not
fervently they cared, as care they did how to destroy the poisons of the mind.
In the deep forests neath the shade of trees,
In caverns, in the bosom of the rocks,
Detachment studying and developing
So lived they making that their instant quest.
42. 4. II. p. 28. if
43, Dh. Arahanta Vagga, p. 215 “Na te Kãmagavesino “.
112 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and lndivdual
Lowly, humble of soul and frugal in their ways,

gentle of heart, pliant and apt in mind,
of gracious manner, speech not scurrilous,
Intent on good for others and for self.”
Furthermore, it becomes quite evident from the Tãlaputa Theragãthã. He declares, “I
abide in the grove of trees, when it rains and grass grows four inches high, this soft grass
is like a bed to me.” ‘
The spiritually elevated mind feels that not rnly his fellow human beings but also flora
and fauna are inseparable from his life. So, he derives a great deal of passionless delight
fom the sight of nature. Considering in this manner, we are tempted to state that the
environment supports to build a passionless mind. This fact has been testified through the
noble, dispassionate lifes of hoth the Buddha and the passionless Arahants.
44. Thag. Pãrãpariya Thero, vs 924-926
“J)vitãnam parikkhãre bhesajje atluz paccaye
na bãtham ussukã ãsum yathâ te ãsavakkhaye.
araññe rukkhamülesu kandaräsu guhãsu ca
vivekain anubrühantã vihimsu tapparãyanã,
n)canivitthñ subh-arã mudu atthaddhamânasã
abyãsekñ amukharã atthacintãvasãflugã.”
45. Thag. Thiaputa Thera, vs. 1140ff
4.3 Aesthetic Evaluation of Environment through the Dispassionate Mind

Though nature, environment and man may be divided for convenience, they are
integrated. It is meaningless to consider man without environment and vice-versa. So
man is part and parcel of environment. All these significant factors are interrelated in this
universe. People of the past had been in close touch with nature. Buddhism that
developed in accordance with Indian traditional philosophy, did not forget the
environment or man. Buddhism that gives a right place to the animate and inanimate
things of the environment, has not inclined or tempted to make man a slave of the
environment, nor has it attempted to make the environment a slave to man. Buddhism
attempts to raise the mutual relationship between man and environment. It is a generally
accepted concept that man should neither be a threat to the environment nor should he be
overcome by it. Here, a significant question arises as to how the environment can be
changed. Buddhism lays greater emphasis on the fact that man should come closer to the
environment with sensitivity. The attitude of people from the East, is revealed through
utterances made after their being united with the environment. Just as the environment is
helpful to a farmer, just so, it is helpful to a poet in his poems of aesthetic values. In the
past, the environment stood in good stead for the spiritual development of an ascetic.
The Pãli Canon brings out the fact that Arahants had willingly entered the domain of the
animate and inanimate things of the environment and uttered joyous but passionless
utterances and through them, clearly unfolded the existent relationship between man and
the environment. Some of such occasions are
Peacocks of sapphire neck and comely crest,

calling, calling in kãrãniya woods,
By cool and humid winds made musical;
They wake the thinker from his noon-day sleep. 46
And I alone in fearsome hollow dwell,
Yet dwelling so in fearsome rocky dell,
To me no fear comes nigh, nor creeping dread,
No quailing (of my soul). ‘
Through unique association with the nature, the Arahants of the past enjoyed non-
material, disinterested delight. The above joyous utterances were uttered by those worthy
ones, through the culture of their mind. Having visualized the true nature of both life and
world, the Arahants enjoyed the beauty of environment with the dispassionate mind and
reflected upon the true nature of the environment. They are said to have been extremely
fond of it. Having abandoned habitation they entered the dense forest and led a secluded
life in rocky hills and while living there, they observed and enjoyed the matchless beauty
of the forest that consisted of torrential rain, cool waterfalls, and peaks of mountains. The
following psalm indicates their immaculate, lovely spiritual life.
Hark! how the peacocks make the welkinring,

Fair-crested, fine their plumes and azure throat.
Graceful in shape and pleasant in their cry.
And see how this broad landscape watered well
lies verdure-clad beneath the dappled sky!
Cülaka Thera who uttered the above psalm with composed mind, revealed the amazing
beauty of nature. He saw the matchless beauty of peacocks. Because of their unique
beauty, even the environment became excessively charming. Sappaka Thera is said to
have practised meditation sitting under the rose apple tree situated on the bank of the
Ajakarani river. He saw rain clouds in the sky, that were about to burst. Beyond the river
Ajakarani, Sappaka Thera noticed frightened cranes looking for shelter in the sky. He
was fascinated by this scenic beauty. This was indeed, his honest feeling of the above
mentioned environment. It is reflected in the following psalms which he uttered.
“Whenever I see the crane, her clear bright wings, outstretched in fear to flee the black
storm cloud, A shelter seeking, to safe shelter seeking, to safe shelter borne. Then doth
the river Ajakarani give joy to me.”
Whenever I see the crane, her plumage pale
And silver wings outstretched in fear to flee
The black stormcloud, seeing no refuge, seeking the
rocky cave,
Then doth the river Ajakarani give joy to me.
46. Thag. (PTS) Cittaka Thera, Vs. 22, 27.

NflL sug7vä sikhino morã kãramviyam abhinadanti, te sitavàtakalitã suttam jhã yam
nibodhentiti.
47. Ibid. Sambula Kaccàyana Thera, V 189, p. 142 Tassa mayham ekakassa bherave bile
viharato n ‘atthi bhayam và chambhitattam vã lomahamso Va
48. Ibid. Cãkzka Thera, V. 211, p. 154, nadanti norä susikhã supekhunã sun ilagvã
sumukhã sugajjino, Susaddalã càpi mahãmahi ayam subyapitambu, suvalahakam
nabham
Who doth not love to see on either bank

Clustered rose apple trees in fair array
Behind the great cave [of my hermitage]
or the soft croak of the frogs, well rid
of their undying mortal foes proclaim:
‘Not from the mountain-streams is’t time-today To flit. Safe is the Ajakarani,
She brings us luck. Here is it good to be.’
The above psalms testify to the fact that Arahants had visualized and realised the spotless
beauty of the forest, which was not realised by worldly minded people.
They were able to enjoy charm and beauty through passionlessness. They seem to have
enjoyed the life and worldly existence through wisdom and sharp sense organs. Arahants
were able to get wonderful, unique experiences of the sky, the great earth, vegetation,
mountainous ranges, etc., torrential rain, flowing rivers flying birds, the croaking of frogs
and the trumpeting of elephants. Kãludãyi Thera while inviting the Buddha to preach his
doctrine to the Sakyans at Kapilavastu, uttered the following psalms in praise of the
environment.
49. Ibid. Sappaka Thera, Vs 307-310, pp. 186-187
Yadñ balãkã sucipandaracchadà kãlassa meghassa bhayena tajjitã palehiti ãlyam
ãlayesini, tadã nad2 Ajakaran) rameti mam
Yadñ balãkñ suvisuddhapandarã Kãlassa meghassa bhayena tajjith pariyesati lenain
alenadassin7, tadã nad) Ajakaran rameti mam
Kanu tattha na ramenti jambuyo ubhato tahim,
sobhenti ãpagãkülam mahàlenassa pacchato
tamatamadasamghasuppahJnâ bhekâ mandavati panãdayanti nâjja girinadThi
vippavãsasamayo;
Khemã Ajakaran) sivii surammã ti.
Nov crimson glow the trees, dear lord, and cast Ther ancient foliage in quest of fruit, like
crests of flame they shine radiant, And rich in hope, great Hero, is the hour,
Verdure and blossom-time in every tree,
Wherever we look delightful to the eye,
And every quarter breathing fragrant airs,
While petals falling, yearning comes for fruit.
‘Tis time, 0 Hero, that we set out hence.
Not over hot, nor over cold, but sweet,
o Master, now the season of the year,
o let the Sakyans and the Kolians
Behold thee with thy face set toward the West
crossing the [border-river] Rohini. 50
This means, trees are in full bloom, petals are visible. They seem to bear fruit soon. It is
opportune time, for Sãkyans to listen to the doctrine. The grandeur of the forest is part
and parcel of the forest- environment. The trumpeting of elephants, chirping of birds,
though fearful to ordinary people, is indeed, wonderful for arahants. The passionless
saints and sages who are fond of peace of mind and repose of body, are not afraid of such
forests. It is quite clear from the joyous utterance of Mahãkãshyapa Thera, that all the
phenomenal occurrences in the forest are nothing but things of joy.
50. Ibid Ksdàyi Thera, vs. 527, 528, 529, p. 249 Angãrino dãni durnà bhadante phalesino
chadanam vippahñ)’a, te accinanto va pabhñsayanti,
Samayo rnahñvra bhagrasanam dumñni phullâni nzanoramàni samantae sabbadisã
pavanti pattam pahâya phalam ãsasãnã, halo itopakk.amanàya vira n’ evàtistam
na pa.’thtiunham sukhà utu addhaniyà bhadante passan tam Sãkiyã kotsiyã ca
pacchãmukhanz Rohinivam tarantam
Free from the crowds of citizens below.

But thronged with flocks of many winged thing
The home of herding creatures of the wild;
Such are the braes wherein my soul delights,
Crags where clear waters lie a rocky world,
Haunted by black-faced apes and timid deer
Where, neath bright blossoms run the silver stretms,
Such are the braes wherein my soul delights. 51
The worthy ones, while lying in the lap of the naturti environment which patronized them
in their search of Nibbãnicbliss, fascinate everybody. The description about the river
Ajakaani, made by Sappaka Thera (page 115), reveals the attitude of the interrelationship
between man and the environment.
The expression of Sappaka Thera encourages us tourify our minds while living in a
society that consumes the envinnment a great deal. Similarly, it indicates how we should
be respinsible for the environment.
51. Ibid. Kassapa the Great, Vs. 1069, 1070 p. 364
Anãkinnà gahauhehi migasamghanisevitã
nanadijaganakinna te selã ramayanti mam
Acchodikã puthusilã gonangulamigãyutâ
ambusevälasañchannã te selä ramayanti man ti
The Dhammapada shows how the mind of dispassionate ones, finds delight in the forest.
“Delightful are the forests where worldlings delight not; the passionless will rejoice
(therein), (for), they seek no sensual pleasures.”
The scenic beauty of the forest, fascinates the seekers of the spiritual bliss. This bliss is
devoid of cankers and impurities. The ascetic Siddhartha left for Uruvela to practice
austerities, because of the beautiful landscape and charming forest scenery. Buddhism as
au ethico-philosophical system, was influenced by the environment, tight from its
foundation.
The environment is our friend. It guides our life correctly. Buddhism penetrates into the
heart of man, on the basis of the environment. For example, “Selo yathã ekaghano.”54
(just as a solid rock). ‘Saptabhãro pakkhi sakuno vijo.” (a simple monk is compared tc a
bird).
The environment of the animate and inanimate establishes the interrelationship between
man and the environment. “Ramaniyo vata bhüinibhãgo, pãsãdiko ca vanasando nad)ca
sandati Setakãsuppatitrã ramaniyo samantãca gocaragãmo.” 56
53. Dh. Arahanta Vagga, V. 99, p. 215
Ramaniyäni araññani yatrha na ramati jano,
Vrarãgâ ramissanti na te kâma gavesino.”
54. Dii. Panditavagga, V. 81, p. 196
55• ii. I. P 180
56. 14. Ariyapariyesana Sutta, (B.TS) p. 406
The landscape is entirely charming, the grove is delightful. The river which has sandy
banks, as well as a bridge across it set up, flows delightfully. There is a human habitation
in its vicinity. This is the most suitable spot for those clansmen who desire to meditate.
Through this, a close affinity between the sensitive environment and spiritual solace, can
be understood. It can also furnish busy society with inspiration to feel disgusted with it,
and to get rid of it. Mahakashyapa Thera while describing the scenic beauty of the forest
where he lived, imparts to us the knowledge of his poetic mind through which we inherit
spiritual as well as environmental inspiration. The above ideas are reflected in the
following utterance.
“Those upland glades delightful to the soul,
where the kareri spreads its wildering wreaths, where sound the trumpet-calls of
elephants,
those are the braes wherein my soul delights.”
Furthermore,
“Those rocky heights with hue of dark clouds, Where lies enbosomed many a shining
tarn
of crystal clear, cool waters and whose slopes
The ‘herds of Indra’ cover and bedeck.
Those are the braes wherein my soul delights.”
Karerimãlãvitatã bhümibhãgã manoramã kuñjarãbhirudã ramma to selã ramayanti mam
n2labbhavannã rucirã
57. The ragãth Kassapa the great vs. 1062, 1063. pp. 363, 364 Karerimãlâvitatã
bhümibhãgã manoramã
kuñjaràbhirudñ rammá te selã ramayanti mam
n1abbhavannã rucirã vãrisita sucindharã
indagopara sañchannã te selâ ramayanti mom
Nklagopaka sañchannã te se1 ramayanti mom
Nilabbavnnã rucirã vãrisitãa sucindharã
Indagopaka sañchannã teselã ramoyanti mom
vârisita sucindhard indagopara sañshannã to seld ramayanti ma.

The Buddha and his disciples considered natural beauty as a source of aesthetic joy. The
saints who detached themselves from household bondage, appreciated the scenic beauty
of nature with detached mind.
The ordinary poet observes nature and gets inspiration mostly through the innate
sensation of his own heart. He emotionally gets involved in nature. For example, he can
compare the rays of the sun passing over the summit of the mountains to the blush on a
sensiti e face, he can see a tear in a dew drop, the lips of his beloved in a rose petal, etc.
On the other hand, the appreciation of the worthy one, is totally different. He appreciates
the beauty of nature and denves serene joy unsullied by sensuous associations. This is
quite evident from the following expression of Mahãkashyapa Thera.
Like serrieci battlements of blue-black cloud, like pinnacles on stately castle built, re-
echoing to the cries of jungle folk; Those are the braes wherein my soul delights. Fair
uplands rain-refreshed and resonant with crested creatures’ cries antiphonal, lone heights
where silent Rishis do resort’ Those are the braes wherein my soul delights. Here is
enough for me who fain would dwell In meditation rapt, mindful and calm. Here is
enough for me, who fain would seek The highest good, or brother filled with zeal.
58. Ibid. vs. 1064, 1065, 1066
N)labbhakütasadjsâ kàtãgãravarüpamá
vâranãbhiruda rammã te selã ramayant mom abhivutthâ rammatalã nagâ isibhi sevitã
abbhunnaditã sih ikhThie te selã ramoyanti nam alam jhãyitukâmassa pahitattassa me
sato;
Iiterrationship Between Mind and the Environment 123
The above expression of Mahãkashyapa Thera is an admonishinent for those worldlings

who destroy the environment.
Only the tranquil mind can understand the inheritance of environment, bestowed on
human beings. The perverted mind carrnot grasp it.
One day, the lord of gods (Sakka), enquired of the Buddha about the beauty of the
landscape. Thereupon the Buddha said,
“Arãma cetyã vanacetyã
Pokkharaññã sunimmitã,
Manussa rãmaneyyassa
kalam nãgghati solasim.”
While considering the delightfulness of man, well constructed poHcharañña, ãrãma cetyã,
vanacetyã, (ponds, parks, gardens) it is not to be worth the sixteenth part of moon’s disk.
In this context, the delightfulness of man is the goodness of his morality, good conduct,
virtues etc. If it is not so, environmental values will not be protected by man.
The Buddha adds,
“Game vã yadi vã raññe ninne vã yadi vã thale yattha arahantã viharanti tam bhumim
rãmaneyyakam.”
Whether in villare or in forest, in valley or on hill, wherever arahants dwell, delightful

indeed, is that spot. This fact has been corroborated in the ãmaneyyaka Sutta. According
to it, Sakka visits the Buddha atJetavana and asks him what is that which by situation, is
enjoyabe. The Buddha replies that any place that is occupied by the Arahants, is the most
enjoyable. 6i
The above descnption of the delightfuL forest is found in the Theragãtha, where Siriputta
Thera says,
“In village or the wild, in vale, on hill, Wherever, the men of worth, the Arahants, Their
dwelliiig make, delightful is that spot.”
“Delightful are the forests, where no crowd Doth come to take its pleasure; there will
they Who are released from passions find their joy, Not seekers they for sense satiety.”
62
While considering the environment, it may be pointed out how the dispassionate mirds
take delight in the environment and their attitudes can be anal)sed in the light of
environment. When we consider the psalm of the brethren as well as the entire Pãli
literature, so many facts cf the aesthetic evaluation of the environment can be culled from
them Suffice it to say that the arahants were sensitive to the aesthetic beauties of nature
and environment, as well as their harmony, their frank and open appreciation is coloured
by spontaneity, simplici’ and a non sensuous spirituality.
alam me attha kãnwssa pahitattassa bhikkhuno
59. S. I, Ramaneyyakã Sutta, (PTS) p. 233
60. Dh. V. 98, p. 214
61. S. I, Ramaneyyak6 Sutta, p. 232

62. Thag. Sâripurta Tiera, Vs. 991, 992 p. 344
125
CHAPTER FIVE
BUDDHIST ETHICAL VIEWS
ON ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
126 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment nd Individual
Buddhut Ethical Views on Environmental Problems 127
Buddhist Ethical Views on EnvironmeflWl Problems

Ethics is generally understood as the inquiry into the evaluation of human conduct,
behaviour, goals, dispositiOflS intentions, ways of life and institutionS. The ethics of a
particular community, cultural group or a religious system can be empirically studied by
following the methods of social science to discover what in fact are its values and why
these values have come into being. Ethics also signifies a mode of philosophical inquiry
which attempts to answer certain general questions about the meaning of moral terms and
criteria of moral evaluation. In contemporarY philosophy a distinction is made between
two approaches to philosophical ethics. The first is viewed as a normative inquiry which
attempts to determine the distinctions between right and wrong, good and bad, and it
ought to be in relation to the moral evaluation of human action.
The second approach is viewed as an analytical and logical exercise called metaethics
attempting to clarify the meaning of moral words, analyze moral concepts and describe
the logical status of moral utterance. Collier’s Encyclopedia defines ethics as the science
of the values of the human life.2 It deals with conduct and character, approved or
disapproved. “Moral science” and “Moral philosophy” are commonlY used as synonyms
of ethics. According to some writers, moral philosophy is more definitely concerned with
the ultimate implications of morality in a scientific and a spiritual view of the world.
The Greek and the Latin terms from which our words “Ethical and moral”, are derived
describe significant qualities of character, generally esteemed.3 Sin Padma De Silva has
divided ethics into three parts.
j. Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, Vol. V p. 144
2. Collier’s Encyclopedia, Vol. IX, p. 339
3. Ibid
— A general pattern or way of life

— A set of rules or a moral code.
— An inquiry about ways of life, rules of conduct and basic terms used in the evaluation
of human behavior, such as good and bad, right and wrong etc. ‘
It is quite clear from the above definition that the activities are carned out by men as good
or bad, right or wrong and getting them subjected to evaluation. Similarly, it has been
held as ethics.
It is important to make an inquiry about the attitude held by Buddhism about ethics.
Considering the basis of Buddhist ethics, we find that it has an outstanding basis of ethics
which is not found in any other religion. That is, Buddhism has demonstrated ethical
norms based on an individual without adhering to the belief in an omnipotent or an
invisible power. This definition is made by giving prominence to the intelligence of man.
Once, Ananda Thera inquired of the Buddha as to what are these basic ethical norms. The
Buddha said, “Not to do any evil, to cultivate good, to purify one’s mind, this is the
teaching of the Buddha.”
According to this verse it may be said that the teaching of the Buddha is aimed at the
destruction of immoral behaviour, engaging oneself in what is good and controlling the
human mind well. It is obvious from the teachings of the Buddha that though the highest
goal of Buddhism is Nirvana, the approach is based on individual ethics and a series of
moral practices. The Buddhist idea is that the wise man should establish himself in moral
conduct before he attains emancipation. The Sarnyutta Nikãya states that a saga-
4. Buddhist Perpectives on the Eco-crisis, p. 38
5. Dh. Buddhavagga, V 183, p. 388
“Scibba Pâpassa akaranam
Kusatassa upasampadâ,
Sacitta pariyodcipanam
Etam Buddhñnasãsanarn’
Buddhist Ethical Views on Environmental Problems 129
cnus man, having established himself in morality should cultivate hE mind and
understanding. 6
It is quite clear from this that in obtaining purification of mind, th moral conduct or path
of morality bears a great responsibility. Bsddhism points out that it is the highest goal of
a person to eradi:ate the mental unwholesome states like passion, hatred and delusion and
cultivate wholesome moral qualities. Buddhist ethical principles aim at the existence of
man with the expectation of msterial and spiritual development. It emphasizes that this is
not orly a supernormal existence of man, but establishes man’s social existence also,
without any conflict.
That the mind is the basis of action, is important in the ethics of Buddhist teachings. As
the Dhammapada states, “Mind is the forerunner of (all evil) states, mind is chief.”
Therefore, the responsibility for doing intentional actions, lies with man. Nevertheless,
the Pãli Canon shows that there was predominance over individual freedom, upheld by
the religious philosophy of that time. Of them, two theories are,
— the theory of creation by God, or the theory of i.’.. creation (IssaranimmãflaVãda).
— Determinism (Niyativãda)
The first theory signifies the predominance of God over all things in this world. Here,
man is totally deprived of freedom of thought. Therefore, no value has been attached to
ethics. Even the behaviour of man is an inevitable characteristic of divine creation.
According to this determinism everything occurs automatically, in this world.
The Buddhist texts explain this as, “Adhicca samupanna”, i.e., arisen without a cause, or
spontaneous arising, unconditioned arising.9 According to all these theories, individual
freedom has no value. Similarly, an ethical code becomes meaningless. Buddhism rejects
this completely, and establishes individual-freedom and makes ethics meaningful. The
Dhammapada states, “Oneself is one’s own protector (refuge), what other protector can
there be? With oneself fully controlled, one obtains a protection (refuge) which is hard to
gain. 10
The Buddha in the Cülakammavibhanga Sutta of the Majyhima Nikãya furnishes a vivid,
good exposition of men’s good or bad intentional behaviour. According to it, “their deeds
are their passions, their parents, their kindred, and their refuge. Deeds divide beings as
low or high.” It implies that one should be prepared to bear the consequences of one’s
deeds. Buddhism admits the fact that there is no end to an individual after his death. The
Apannaka sutta of the Majjhima Nikãya declares that a wise person believes that beings
have past, present and future.’2 The Pãli Canon has used numerous evaluative ethical
terms, such as,
6. S. (&TS) p. 26
‘Site patitthãya naro sapañño Cittam paññañca bhãvayam
7. Oh. Yamaka Vagga, V 1, p. 4] ‘Manopubbangamâ dhammã Wano setthã manomayã.”
9. D. I, Brahmaàla Sutta, p. 28 (P TS)

10. Dh. Attavagga, 1<160, p. 337 “Attãhi attano nãiho-kohinäthoparosia attanãva
sudantena, nãtham labhati dullabham.”
11. M. iii, Cülakammav)bhanga Sutta, p. 202ff “Kammassakâ mânava sattã, kamma
dãyãdâ, kammayoni, kammabandhu, karnmapatisaranã kammam satte vibhajati yadidam
hinappanitatã.”
12. M. 1, Apannaka Sutta, pp. 401-411
Kusala-akusala 13 (wholesome and unwholesome)

Puñña-pãpa 14 (merit and demerit)
Sãdhu-asãdhu 15 (good and bad)
Sammã-micchã 16 (right and wrong)
Karaniya-akaraniya 17 (to be done and not to be done)
Subha-asubha 18 (auspicious and inauspicious)
Sukata-dukkata 19 (good and evil deeds)
Dhammika-adhammika2° (righteous and unrighteous)
Sucaritam-duccaritam2’ (good behaviour and bad behaviour)
Uttama-adhama22 (excellent and lowly)
Silavã-dussilavã 23 (moral and immoral)
Katapuñña-pãpakãri24 (good and evil)
Sappurisa-asappurisa25 (noble and ignoble)
Katãni-akatãni 26 (what is done and what is not done)
Subhãsita-dubbhãsita 27 (well-spoken and ill-spoken)
Bãla-pandita28 (foolish and wise)
Sãra-asãra 29 (essential and non-essential)
Kalyãna-pãpaka3° (good and evil)
Buddhism points out that one must be careful in carrying out one’s ethical responsibility.
The Dhammapada lays emphasis on the fact that a deed is not well done which when
being done one regrets, and when weeping, with tearful face, one reaps the fruit thereof.
“That deed is well-done, when after having done it, one regrets not, and when with joy
and pleasure one reaps the fruit thereof.” 31
13. Ibid. p.226

14. D. iii, p. 119
15. Dh. Attavagga, v. 163
16. Dh. Panditavagga, v. 89
17. D.I.,p.3
18. S. p. 341
19. D. I., p. 55
20. Ibid. p. 86
21. Dh. Lokavagga, v. 168
22. Ibid. Puggalavagga, v. 56
23 D. iii, p. 235
24. Dh. Yamakavagga, Vs. 17, 18

25. M. iii, p. 37
26. Dh. Puggalavagga, v. 50
27. Ibid. Puggalavagga, v. 51
28. Ibid. Balavagga, Vs. 62-63
29. Ibid Yamaka vagga, V 11
30. J. V p. 238
31. Dh. Balavagga, Vs. 67, 68, pp. 158, 159 “Na tam kammam katam sãdhu -yam katvâ
nãnutappati, Yassa-assumukhorodam-vipãkam patisevati.” Tañca kammam katam sãdhu-
yam katvâ nânutappati, Yassa patito sumano-vipãkain patisevati.”
This clarifies the fact that one can himself understand what is good and what is bad,
without resorting to extraneous aid.
The Ambalatthika Rãhulovãda sutta of the Majjhima Nikãya throws light on the ethics,
approved by the society. According to it, the Buddha used the simile of a mirror and
pointed out that the use of a mirror is for reflecting oneself. Therefore Rahula the
Buddha’s son had entered the Buddhist Order as a child, and was instructed by the
Buddha to reflect on his bodily, verbal and mental deeds. If they were good for him he
had to follow them; if not, he had to give them up. 32 In this context, it is interesting to
note how the Buddha made Rahula who was a mere child, understand the ethical teaching
of the Buddha. In the Anguttara Nikãya, the Buddha has explicitly explained how a
person should behave.
According to Buddhist ethical ideas, one should neither cause trouble to others nor should
harm oneself. It emphasizes the fact that one’s activities should be directed towards social
welfare. The Buddhist way of training is that one should neither strike nor cause to strike.
It is obvious from the above facts that one’s behaviour should not be harmful to oneself
or to the animate and inanimate environment.
32. M. III, Ambalatthika Rahulavãda Sutta, p. 132
“Tam kim maññasi Rahula, kimatthhñya
ãdãso ti, pacca vekkha-nattho Bhante ti.
Evamevakho Rahula pacavekkhitvã vãcãya
Kammam kâtabbam paccavekkhityã
Manasà kainmam kätabbam.”
33. A. II, p. 132
“line kho bhikkhave puggalo attantapo
ca hoti attaparitâpanãnuyogam anuyutto
parantaheva paraparitâpa nãnuyogam aniyutto.”
34. Dh. Dandavagga, V 129, p. 283
“Attãnam upamam katvã
na haneyya na ghãtaye.”
Man is responsible for the obvious current environmental problems. It is an undeniable

fact that, owing to man’s craving and insensitive behaviour, the entire environment is
polluted. It has already been discussed how, due to excessive greed by a being who lived
at the beginning of the world, social problems had come about. The Agganna sutta in the
Dig/ia Nikãya has adequately dealt with this fact.35 These problems were increased
gradually from age to age and have become a serious challenge to man now. The
Cakkavatti Sihanãda Sutta of the Digha Nikãya states that when man’s behaviour
deteriorates, his health will be weakened in future and his life span will be reduced to ten
years. Even food and drink will become scarce.36 Because of this, Buddhism lays
emphasis on the good relationship between man and environment.
The Anguttara Nikãya states that after man’s mind is polluted by immorality, lust,
covetousness, avarice and misunderstanding, immorality becomes rampant, and as a
result of it, rain doesn’t fall at an opportune time. Similarly grains and wealth become
rare, pestilence spreads everywhere, and the death toll increases.37
As man has to depend on nature for most of his requirements, he has to understand how
nature exists and how he should deal with it. Then only can he avail himself of the natural
resources for right living. Man must ensure timely rain, irrigation, soil, vegetation that
provide various good stuff etc.
35. D. Agganna Sutta, pp. 88-92
36. D. Cakkayatti Sjhanâda Sutta, p
37. A. I, p. 100
It is a well-known fact that agriculture has been diversely improved during the present
scientific age. These facts, mainly through commercial pursuits, have given rise to
environmental problems.
Man who hankers after wealth, doesn’t care about the environment, and his own fellow
beings, and treats them mercilessly. Men who suffer from limitless desires, pollute the
limited natural resources, without being far sighted about it. For example, it has been said
that the same amount of natural resources which have been consumed by the entire
human race in four thousand years, has been used up by America within forty years.38
Because of insatiable desires, man is inclined towards immodesty and self-interest. It is
just like the simile of the goose that laid golden eggs. According to Buddhism, health is
the highest gain, contentment is the greatest wealth. 40 Buddhism appreciates a person
who has limited desires, leads a simple, frugal, and contented life. While considering
environmental problems, we notice that vegetation, streams and brooks, wild animals, air
which are environmental resources, have been subjected to destruction. Only a limited
number of people know how these environmental problems originate.
Today, many people of different countries suffer from the repercussions of the
destruction of environment. It is important, in this context, to enquire how Buddhist
ethics can resolve these environmental problems.
38. Vide, vance Packard the West Makers, London, 1961, p. 195
39. J. I, p. 475
40. Dh. Sukhavagga, v. 204, p. 405
“Arogyã paramã lãbhã
Santutthi paramam dhanam.”
We find a close relationship between nature and Buddhist thought. The Pãli Canon
furnishes some terms like “Yathãbhüta”, “Dhammatã”, “Niyãmatã”, etc. Buddhism
explains nature philosophically, and at the same time, discusses emotional, psychological,
wonderful experiences. Here, the Buddha especially expected men to exert themselves
thoughtfully, to create a world of peace and amity. Therefore, the principles of the five
precepts, of Buddhist ethics, have been subjected to discussion as a basic proposition.
The five precepts have been demonstrated to establish the healthy existence of society as
well as personal spiritual development. According to Buddhism, even animals have rights
to live just like human beings do. Therefore, there is no excuse for anybody to deprive
them of their legitimate rights to live. While leading a righteous life, one is required to
protect one’s own property. To loot or plunder the property that belongs to other people,
is an anti-social activity. Committing adultery without considering the morality of
married life, leads to social problems.
Misuse of speech also leads to social crisis. Use of intoxicants and drugs cause serious
mental distortion and confusion. Therefore, they have been prohibited.4’ The sammã
kammanta (right action) which belongs to the noble eightfold path, points out the above
facts.42
41. D. I. Brahmajãla Sutta, p. 46
42. M. v. Vassupanãyikkhandha, (B.TS) p. 153
“Tena kho pana samayena Bhagavatâ bhikkhunam vassãnavãso appaññato hoti.
Te ca bhikkhu Hemantampi Gimphampi Vassampi cãrikam caranti, man ussà
Ujjhâyanti, kh)yanti vipâcenti, katam hi nâma samanã sakyaputtiyã Hemantampi,
Gimhampi, Vassampi, cãrikam carissanti, haritãni tinãn sanzmaddantà ekindriyam
Jivam vihetthento bahu khuddake pane ãsatam âpädento.”
Ii The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual
Once the monks of Alavi province were engaged in a new project. While doing it, they
threw water containing insects at the grass and clay. When He heard about this, the
Buddha prescribed an ecclesiastical rule. According to it “If a monk deliberately throws
water, at grass or clay that contains insects, or causes somebody to do so, in such a case,
he becomes guilty of Pãcittiya.”43 Furthermore, while adopting the policy of non-
violence, the Buddha did not allow monks to dig up the land or cause somebody to do
so.44
As mentioned in a previous chapter, the Vinaya texts narrate an episode of a monk who
was a potter before he entered the Buddhist Order.
After his ordination he constructed a clay-hut. He intended to burn it so that he could
beautify it. Having understood his intention the Buddha directly opposed it. The Buddha
condemned his burning of the clay-hut, just to avert the killing of a number of insects
which lived in the clay. Then the Buddha ordered him to demolish it. Therefore, the
Buddha did not allow monks to indulge in such harmful activities.45
The Cakkavatti Sihanäda Sutta of the Digha Nikãya, throws light on the ten qualities of a
universal monarch. The eighth quality among these deals with the protection of animals
as well as birds. 46 Another precept that deals with non-violence prohibits monks from
drinking unstrained water.
43. Pàcittiya Pãli, Bhikkhu Vibhanga (B. T.S), P. 142
“Yo pana bhikkhu jãnam sappãnakam udakam tinam vã mattikam và mattikam vâ
siñceyya
va sineàpeyya và pãCittiyaflti.”
44. 1/in. iv, p. 125
Yo pana bhikkhu pathavim khaneyya vã khanãpeyya vã pàcitriyanti.”
45. Vin. III, p. 42
46. D. CakkavattisThanada Sutta, (B. TS), P 38
47. yin. iv, p. 125
Such a rule was laid down to prevent monks from destroying insects. According to it, “if
a monk drinks water containing insects, he becomes guilty of pãcittiya.” This
undoubtedly conduces a healthy condition and generates compassion towards all living
things. Buddhism fosters compassion, mercy and amity for all living things. The Metta
Sutta states, “Whatever living things there may be — feeble, or strong, long or tall, stout
or medium, short, small or large, seen or unseen, those dwelling far or near, those who
are born and those who are yet to be born, may all beings, without exception be happy
minded!” ‘
If a monk deliberately kills an animal, he becomes guilty of pãcittiya. °
The Nandivisãla Jãtaka explains how domestic animals should be treated kindly. Even
wild animals can be tamed through kind words. When the Buddha resided alone, he was
attended upon by a wild elephant called Nãlãgiri, in the forest of Parileyya. 52 Nalagiri
the elephant which was in rut was tamed through compassion and loving kindness, by
Buddha.53 Both man and animals can live together, provided man cultivates loving
kindness towards all living beings. Some stories of Buddhist literature reveal the fact that
man’s kindness to animals enables him to be reborn in a good family or place in his next
life, and it eventually leads him to Nibbãna.
48. Pãciuiya Pãli, Bhikkhu Vibhnga (B. T.S), p. 338
“Yo pana bhikkhu jãnam sappãnakam udakam paribhunjeyya pãcittiya.”
49. Sn. 1, p. 8
“Ye keci pãnabhütatthi vâ rhasãvã thãvarã vã anavasesã d)ghã vâ ye mahantãvà —
majjhimãrassa kãnaka. Ditthã vã yeva aditthã-ye ca düre vasanti
avidüre, bhâtã Va sambhavesi vã-sabbe sattã bhavantu sukhiktattâ.”
50. Päcittiya Pãli, Bhikkhu Vibhanga (B. T S), p. 336 “Yo pana bhikkhu sañciccha
Pânam jivitã oropeyya, pãcittiyamti.”
51. J. I, Nandivisãla Jãtaka, p. 191
52. dh.A1,55ff
53. yin. ii, 194f
According to the Anguttara Nikaya, throwing of the left-over water with kindly heart,
into a tank containing insects, generates merit. ‘ The Maccudãna Jãtaka points out that
Bodhisatta threw his left over food into the river, for fish. Consequently, a disaster was
averted. The Cakkavatti Sihanãda sutta of the Digha Nikãya states that one should
protect animals and birds, righteously while leading a pious life and at the same time
paying due respect to righteousness. 56
The Jãtaka Pãli states, “0, Khattiya King! be kind towards animals and birds. 0, noble
king, being righteous towards animals and birds, leads to happy destiny.”
The king Asoka accepted and put into practice the following noble aphorism preached by
the Buddha.
“Yo gilãnam upatthayya
so mam upattheyya.”
King Asoka built hospitals for both men and animals. 58 To friendly with one’s
surroundings is not a new thing for people in the East. Since time immemorial they have
been familiar with this attitude through Indian religions. Unlike in the Buddha’s time,
today people have different attitudes towards vegetation. Today, the life
54. J. II, Nandivisãla Jãtaka, p. 423
55. A. Nikãya 1, p. 161
56. D. III, Cakkavatti SThanada Sutta (B.T.S), p. 102
“Dhammam eva nissãya, Dhammam sakkaronto .... Dhammikam rakkhãvaranam
guttim samvidahamsu migapakkhisu.”
57. J. Ummãdanti Jãtaka.
“Dhammam care Mahãräja,
Mga pakkhisu khattiya
idha dhammam caritvàna
Rajasaggam gamissasi.”
58. Girinara Edict, 2.
“Sarvatra devãnäm priya manussa
Cikicchã ca piu cikicchã ca.”
of vegetation has been accepted, whereas its ‘soul’ has not been taken for granted.
Nevertheless, the people of ancient time, and the religious people believed that vegetation
has a sort of ‘soul’ like that of living beings. This belief that was current in the sixth
century B.C. is elaborated in Jam philosophy.
According to their belief higher living beings have six sense organs,59 whereas the
lowest organism has only one sense organ. Thus they held that destruction of vegetation
entails ethical offence. Whatever might have been the basis of this attitude; ancient
Indians used to love the environment. This might have been the basis for their devotion to
the environment.
Though Buddhism does not agree with the Jam view of vegetation, it has included the
responsibility for environmental existence in its ethics, as an indispensable part of it. A
Buddhist monk is prohibited from cutting or destroying living flora. The potential seed
that generates flora is not to be destroyed by a monk. monk is prohibited from eating a
seed that has a generative power. 61 The friendly -‘attitude towards flora, and nature,
held by ancient Indians is to be developed and appreciated even today.
As an act of altruism, the ancients thought of making fruitful trees available for people.
They further considered that by supplying shade, even a barren tree would be useful to
others. The Petavatthu Pãli attaches great importance to trees. For instance if a person
destroys a branch of a tree which provides shade to him, then that person has committed
an act of ingratitude. Therefore, it is said, “Let a person not destroy a branch of a tree
under which he sits or sleeps; disloyalty to a friend is lowly.” 62
59. Human problems in a Buddhist Perspective, p. 135
60. Vide. Tripitakaye Sankrika Lakshana
6]. Vin. (B.TS) p. 554
62. Petavatthu Pâli ii, 9, 3
“Yassa rukkhassa châyäya,
nisideyya sayeyya vâ,
na tassa sâkham bhuñjeyya,
mitta dubbho hi pãpako.”
All these examples bring out the fact that ancient Indians had a cordial, grateful attitude
towards nature. The pre-Buddhist people of India used to worship natural things like,
mountains, forests, trees, rocks, air and wind etc., These natural things and forces were
endowed with mysterious powers.
This fact has been recorded in the Dhammapada. It states, “When threatened with danger,
men resort to many a refuge, to hills, woods, groves, trees, and shrines.” 63 They
considered all these things a habitation of non-human beings (spirits, gods etc). Even
though Buddhism introduced the triple refuge, to be worshipped by men, the above
mentioned natural places haunted by spirits, gods,M and devils,65 were not contrary to
Buddhist beliefs. Therefore, Buddhists hold reverential attitudes towards long lived trees.
Such trees are recognized as the forest’s heroic vegetation. That’s why, in Pãli they are
termed as “Vanaspati.” 67 (lords of the forest)
Large trees like, Iron wood, Sãla, Fig, etc., were regarded to be Bo-trees (trees of
Wisdom), of the former Buddhas, hence, the above attitudes towards the trees, are further
reinforced. 68 It is a well known fact that the Ficus religiosa is widely worshipped.
Buddhism teaches that planting of trees, making parks, roads etc., are meritorious acts
which ultimately lead to heaven.69
63. Dh. Bu&thavagga, v. 188, p. 390
“Bahum ye saranam yanti,
pabbatãni vanãni ca,
ãrãma rukkha cetvâni
manussà bhaya tajjitã.”
64. S. 1. pp. 1-45
65. Ibid. pp. 2 06-215
66. Buddhist Perspective on the Eco-crisis, p. 79
67. S.!., pp. 206-215
68. D. II
69. S. I, p. 33
“A râ ma ropà vanaropã,
te jaflã saggagamiflO.
The Jãtaka book underscores the fact that Sakra (Sakka), the lord of gods got supremacy
over all other gods, mainly due to his meritorious, wholesome deeds, like making parks,
roads, digging tanks, ponds etc. Both Buddhist literature and Hindu literature bring out
the fact that Eastern people have considered the phenomena of atmosphere, natural
dwellings, dense forests etc., as symbols of religious devotion.
The household life has been deemed to be full of impediments. “Sambãdho ‘yam
gharãvãso.” Renunciation is compared to the sky free from clouds. “Abbhokãso” That is
nature which is not polluted by beings.7’ The life of the Buddha is a valuable, glowing
example of this. The important events of his life, like birth, enlightenment, and final
passing away,72 were intimately linked with flora and fauna, as well as the open air. The
propagation of this Dhamma was started at the Deer Park of Isipatana. To spend the
afternoon, the Buddha would always choose the open air. In the course of his journey he
spent nights under the trees. He always admonished his disciples to seek shelter under
trees or caves, linked with nature. Monks should dedicate themselves to the practice of
meditation in a place which was not haunted by men.
Because of this, monks got used to life in the open air, and most of them lived in the
forest, under trees, in grottoes and caves. They engrossed themselves in the passing of
solitary, secluded lives. The Theragãthã states,
“In the deep forests ‘neath the shade of trees, In caverns, in the bosom of the rocks,
70. J. I, p. 199f
71. D. 1, p. 63
72. Ibid. III, p. 97
73. M. I, p. 178, S. iv, p. 373
Detachment studying and developing:

So, lived they making that their constant quest.” ‘
It may be thought that man’s spiritual development takes place together with his fondness
and comprehension of nature. A spiritually and mentally cultured, elevated person
realizes the fact that both living and non-living things like vegetation, animals and other
fellow beings, cannot be separated from his life. Looking at nature, he enjoys it
dispassionately. No wonder that a person who lives in society finds pleasures in sensual
enjoyment, sees the above attitude as an inaccessible thing. The root cause of the
negligence and destruction of the environment lies in modern society that does not have
any feeling for its good existence. Modern man has to understand the critical balance of
the environment due to so much of environmental exploitation. People who have been the
victims of various diseases caused by environmental exploitation, cannot be silent any
longer.
While the period of the Buddha did not witness so much environmental exploitations the
present age is replete with it. Buddhist literaure as a whole is greatly concerned for the
good existence and continuity of the environment. A good example is given to clarify the
related fact. The food that was not accepted by the Buddha, was to be thrown at a place
where there was not any green grass, or it was to be thrown into the water wherein no
living organism was to be found.
74. Thag. (PTS) V 925, p. 85
“Araññe rukkhamãlesU
Kandarâsu guhãsu ca
Vivekam anubruhantã
VThimsu tapparãyanã.”
75. S. Brahmana Samyutta,
Kasibhãradvãja Sutta, p. 175
“Appaharitevã acchaddehi,
appãnakeva udake opiläpehi.”
If that food is carelessly thrown onto the green grass then the green grass is destroyed or
spoiled. In like manner, if the food is thrown into the water, then the water will get
contaminated and the living organism in the water will be destroyed. That is why, the
Buddha preached to his disciples, through the disciplinary code, to refrain from spitting,
urinating and excreting on the grass, and in the water. If any monk does so he entails the
offence of dukkata. 76
To be of right view, means to be moral. Some people engage in the destruction of seeds
and vegetation. These seeds are enumerated as of five kinds, namely, root-seeds, cutting
seeds, joint seeds, budding seeds, and shoots-seeds. Refraining from the destruction of
such seeds and vegetation, is the morality of a person with right view. points out the fact
that the environment is not protected through scientific study alone. For this, a person
ought to generate morality, and right view. A mentally cultured or elevated person alone
gets a sensitive attitude about environmental conservation. According to the Cullavagga
Pãli, monks are not allowed either to hurt a tree or to rub one’s body (back) against it.
It further states that if one does so, he on that account becomes guilty of the offence
called Dukkata. 78
76. Vin. iv, 205, 206
“Na harite agilâno uccãram vã passãvam
vã khelam vã karissãmiti sikkhä karaniyã.”
“Na udake uccãram Va passãvam Va
Khelam vâ karissãmiti sikkhñ karaniyã.”
77. D. I, Sàmaññaphala Sutta (B. T.S), p. 112
“Te eva rüpam b7jagama, samârambham anuyuttã viharanti seyyathidam mülabijam,
khandha bijam, phala bJjam, aggab)jam, bijabijam pañcamam... iti
vã iti eva rüpa b)jagama, samärambhã, pativirato hoti sflasmim...”
78. Cv. (B. TS) II Khuddaka Vattha khandhako (B. TS), p 2
“Na bhkkhave nahãyamãnena bhikkhünã rukkhe kãyena uggham setabbo, )‘O
ugghamseyya ãpatti dukkatassãti.”
Buddhist Ethical 1/jews on Environmental Problems 145
On the investigation of disciplinary rules, prescribed in the Vinaya Pitaka, we find how
the Buddha responded to protect the environment. The Cullavagga Pãli states, “At that
time, monks used to take bath in their respective dwelling places, in the same monastery.
As a result of it, the entire monastery became absolutely muddy. When this event was
brought to the notice of the Buddha, a pool (pond) was recommended by him.”79
At that time, bath-water became stagnant due to non-flow. Hearing this the Buddha
recommended a sewer. 80 This information brings out the fact that there were such
environmental problems even during the life time of the Buddha. Therefore disciplinary
rules were enacted by him to solve such problems.
The Buddha praised the purity of both man and his environment. This is evident from the
great deal of information found in the Vinaya texts. Accordingly, one should train oneself
not to throw left-over water with rice, inside the house.8’ “Na sassittakam patta
dhovanam antaraghare Chaddessãmiti sikkhãkaraniyãti.” If a monastery is dusty and
full of rubbish, then it should be cleaned completely.
First, the cleaner of the monastery, should remove the bowl and robe and place them in a
separate place of the monastery. Similarly other things like stools and rugs should be kept
in a separate place. 82 The monks are said to have been very careful in keeping the water
of wells, rivers, and tanks, absolutely clean. If the water of the rivers, wells, tanks, is kept
perfectly clean, then it can be used by others. The rules and regulations of the purity of
vegetation were laid down on the basis of the essential law and aesthetic importance.
Noise has made a great difference between individual and environment. It causes
deafness, stress and irritation, breeds resentment and saps energy, and inevitably lowers
efficiency. 83 The Buddha’s attitude towards noise is evident from the Pãli Canon. He
disapproved of any kind of noise. Whenever he got the opportunity, he expressed his
dislike for it. Once the Buddha told some noisy monks to go away from the monastery.
85 While the Buddha enjoyed solitary life, he praised silence that led to the achievement
of the one pointedness of mind. Noisiness is described as a thorn in the first stage of
meditation. 86
79. Ibid. p. 54
“Tena kho pana sa,nayena bhikkhü ãrãme taham taham nahãyanhi. Arãmo
cikkhallo hoti. Bhagavato etamattham ãrocesum. Anujãnãni bhikkhave candanikanti.”
80. Ibid.
“Udakam samtitthati Anujànãmi bhikkhave udaka niddhamanti.”
81. Pãcittiya Pãli, Bhikkhu Vibhanga (B. TS), p. 536
“Na sassittakam patta dhovanam antaraghare
Chaddessãnhii sikkhãkarafliYãti.”
82. Cv. 11 (B. TS), p. 364

“Yasmim vihãre viharati sace so vihãro uklâpo hoti sace ussahat sodhetabbo
Vihã ram sodhentena pathamam pattac varam n )haritvã ekaman tam nikkhipitabbam
Nisidanapaccataranam nTharitvã ekamantam nikkhipitabbam.... pe...”
83. Man and Environment, p 118
Robert Arvill, Penguin Books, 1978
84. A III. p. 31
85. ML p.457
86. AVp.135
However when the meditator gets over the first stage of concentration, he is no more
affected by the noise. Environmentalists have discovered the fact that noisiness affects
living and non living organisms, as much as it affects human beings. Mrs. Dorothy
Rhetulac states in her book entitled ‘The Sound of Music and Plants’ that noise
considerably affects both the growth and destruction of plants. According to her research,
some plants grow quickly and some are destroyed due to musical systems.
Some plants die out due to incessant music. Some plants grow well owing to occasional
music, some plants especially grow well, because of Indian Classical Music. Some plants
die out due to harsh modern Rock Music. Due to music, the branches of some plants
extend in opposite directions. Dr. T.C. Singh who is the chairman of the Department of
Botany, at the University of Annamalai, in South India has proved through his research
that musical instruments like violin, flute, mandolin etc., when played cause growth of
plants to increase by 90%. 88
Dr. Singh states that a species of sensitive plants grows doubly at the sound of a violin.
Mrs. Barb Hither of America, has accepted the fact that vocal sound is the diet for plants.
She talks with the plants. She has seen that her talk with plants causes speedy growth. It
is just as a magnet that gravitates towards another magnet and can be moved here and
there. By doing so, it proves itself to be a means to gravitation and not a life force of it;
just so, the research carried out so far, has proved that vegetation has gravitation towards
sound, light and instinct.
87. Vide, the Tripitakayehi Sanskritika Lakshana, p. 166 (Sinhala edition)
88. Ibid. p. 167
The commentary on the Samyutta Nikãya states that the walls of the Samuddagiri vihãra,
were made of magnetic stones (ayakanta pãsãna), and therefore, the waves of the sea,
were gravitated towards that wall. 89
The Buddha has given the foremost place to kindly speech, which is one of the four
objects (characteristics) of sympathy. Buddhism lays great emphasis on truth, mild
speech, and timely, appropriate or necessary, restrained speech. 90 admonishing his
disciples, the Buddha said, that they should either engage themselves in the discussion on
the Dhamma or keep silence.9’ In the time of the Buddha, monks used to keep silence.
Because of this noble practice, even contemporary kings were greatly surprised amazed
and astonished.92 Silence is the best thing for a thoroughly purified mind, to develop
spirituality.
Once king Mahãnãma reported to the Buddha that he was greatly perturbed in his mind
due to the disturbing conditions of Kapilavastu, the capital city of Sãkyans.
He further said that he had enjoyed absolute peace of mind after he entered the monastery
where the Buddha lived; but he had been perturbed and perplexed when he entered the
city. This indicates that the monastrery where the Buddha lived was perfectly calm and
quiet and had peaceful surroundings. The Buddha recommended the forests for his
disciples to lead a calm and quiet life.
89. S.A iii, p. 15
“Tattha (samuddagrivihare), ayakanta pãsãnehi, paricchinditvã kata cankamo
au/u, koci tam cankamitum samattho näina natthi, Lattha samudda- viciyo agantva
ayakantapãsãnesu paharitvã mahã-saddam karonti.”
90. M. 1, p. 126
91. Ibid. p. 161
92. M. II, p. 122, Di’?. I, p. 50
93. S. v. p. 398
94. A. v., p. 15

In conclusion, it may be said that the environment is polluted due to sensual enjoyment
and the thirst for power. Environmental problems can be solved through man being
intelligent and moral etc. According to Buddhism, it may be accepted that restraint in
sensuality imposing limitations on one’s desires, will bring about environmental harmony
and cause the avoidance of destruction of environmental pollution.
149
CHAPTER SIX
THE BUDDHIST ATTITUDE TOWARDS ENVIRONMENTAL
CONSERVATION
The Buddhist Attitude Towards Enviornmental Conservation 15.1
In the preceding chapters enough light has been thrown on environmental problems and
their solutions through Buddhist ethical views. Here, it is intended to deal with the
Buddhist attitude towards environmental conservation. Man is protected and nurtured by
the environment. Man’s highest legacy is the physical environment reflecting naturalness
and is not contaminated by air- pollution, water-pollution, sound-pollution and soil-
pollution. There is no dispute about its attitude to conservation in all respects. A number
of examples for protecting the environment, can be seen in the discourses of the Buddha.
Buddhism teaches that it is meritorious to grow flora that keeps the balance of the
physical environment, creates beauty and helps man in different ways. When one day a
deity asked the Buddha the following questions : “Whose merit grows by day and night,
who is the righteous, virtuous person that goes to the realm of bliss ?“
The reply of the Buddha helps us understand the importance of conservation and nurture
of the environment. According to the reply of the Buddha, the merit of those people who
plant groves, parks, build bridges, make ponds, dwelling places, troughs, etc. grow by
day and night, such religious people go to heaven. The upasampanna monks (monks who
have higher ordination) are prohibited from the destruction of trees and creepers. The
reason for this was that Buddha loved the environment. There is an occasion of the
destruction of Sila, in the Sutta-pitaka, 2 according to which, destruction of the organic
environment is not appropriate. Being a monk one should lead an ideal, exemplary life.
Monks were ordered to spend the rains retreat at a particular place, so that even the
smallest grass and creature could be protected. They had to remember that their dwelling
place was the foot of a tree (rukkharnüla) etc. Trees
help men in manifold ways. The Subhäsita states that trees bear fruits for the benefit of
others.
Environmental factors like, rain, flora, the earth, the wind etc. are interrelated and
interdependent, just like a web. All these factors should exist properly for environmental
equilibrium. Just like trees and creepers, the above mentioned factors also are for the
benefit of others. The Milinda pañha that belongs to the post Pãli canonical literature of
Buddhists describes how trees and creepers help man. According to it, (i) It is called a
tree because it bears flowers and fruits. (Rukkho nãma puppha phala dharo). Flowers
generate beauty, and show the reality and transitoriness of life. (“Puppham milãyati
yathtã idam me kayo tathã yãti vinâ sabhãvam. “)
Fruits supply savour and energy, similarly they carry on the continuity of trees. (ii) Trees
provide shade to those who approach them. (Rukkho upagatamanupavitthanam janãnam
chãyã deti). The shade of a tree is a natural comfort.
(iii) The tree provides its shadow equally to everybody. (Rukkho chãyã vemattam
nakaroti). The tree that gives its shadow to both friend and foe, teaches a lesson of true
loving-kindness.
According to this, protection and nurture of trees and creepers, would be of great benefit
to man. Therefore, Buddhism points out a path of devotion and conservation of trees and
creepers. Just as a mother takes special care of her child, just so the rain nourishes both
the active person and indolent person. According to the Paj iota Sutta, all earthly living
things live due to the rain.6 Thus the Buddha who appreciated both rain and water, did
not tolerate their pollution. The Vinaya states that water should be preserved in its purity.
4. VS. Apte, The student Sanskrit English Dictionary p.. 383. “Paropakñrãya drmãh
phalanti.”
5. Milinda-Panha-Rukkhapanha, p. 354
6. S. I, Pajjota Sutta, p. 28.
1. S. i, (B.TS.). Vanaropa Sutta, p. 60.

2. D. I, Sanzannaphala sutta, p. 112.
3. M. i, p. 238.
The Buddhist Attitude Towards Enviorninental Conservation 153
The trees, and the creatures, whether they depend upon them or not, belong to the
environment. Most creatures live dependent on trees. They have their interdependent
nourishment. Buddhism provides fearlessness to all creatures. The first precept of
Buddhist morality, is to refrain from killing. (Pãnãtipãtã veramani sikkhã padam
samãdiyãni). Similarly, it teaches us to develop compassion and loving kindness towards
all living things. The first stage of the moral precepts is to be ashamed of wrong doing
(hiri) and to live being compassionate and friendly towards all beings. Killing of living
things which is one of the ten unwholesome deeds, results in worldly sorrow. According
to Buddhist teachings a person who avoids punishment is a true brahmin, a true samana
(ascetic), and a true bhikkhu (a monk). 8
Buddhist religious activities were directed to non-violence and non-detriment of the
environment.9 Buddhism points out that it is the responsibility of the government to
protect trees and other organic life. It has been shown in the Sutta on Buddhist polity
named, ‘The Ten Duties of the King’, (Dasarãjadhamma). The second of the ten duties
deals with slia, (morality) and the eighth one deals with avihisã, The Kütadanta Sutta
points out that the state administration should provide protection to flora and fauna”. The
Buddha always admired the environmental purity and beauty as well as the hygienic
conditions of the environment. All these factors are elaborated in the Vattakkhandha of
the Cullavaggapãli.
A good understanding of the significance of the environment and its influence on human
life, influences the society to conserve it. Similarly, men should have devotion towards
the environment.
7. D. i, Sãmannaphala Sutta, p. 110
8. Dh. Dan&davagga, V 14
“Sabbesu bhütesu nidhãya dandam
9. D. i, Küta.danta Sutta, p. 264
10. J. i, pp. 260, 399, ii, p. 400, iii, pp. 274, 320 V pp. 119, 378
11. D. i, Kãtadanta Sutta, p. 264
It is evident from the above statements that the Buddha pointed out to his followers the
loss caused by the misuse of the environment, water pollution, sound pollution, air
pollution. Water that helps man diversely, is a natural resource. Pure water is essential for
flora and fauna. Therefore, the teachings of Buddhism are important as they guide people
to avoid water-pollution and to protect the natural water resources.
As has been pointed out above, a man must have the highest moral conduct if he wants to
create an amicable, cordial, empathetic attitude towards the physical environment. In the
absence of such attitudes, they may cause harm to the environment. Being contented or
desiring little, is an important Buddhist teaching, because it enables the environmental
protection. So, Buddhism expects of people that they should be contented, easily
maintainable, frugal, well-composed in their senses, and intelligent. 12
It is clear from the Dhammapada that one should live in the environment without causing
any harm to it. It is also evident from the following statement of the Dhammapada,
“Even as a bee gathers honey from a flower and departs without injuring the flower or its
colour or its fragrance, so let a sage dwell in his village.”3
According to the Ratthapãla Sutta, such a person, being freed from craving, considers
that his life is subjected to decay and death. He further thinks that everything is
impermanent, and so lives having little desire, and being contented. ‘ Buddhist thought
expects man to get used to such thinking. A person who has the least desires, uses the
available resources moderately, eats moderately, uses only required clothes, uses
dwelling places just to protect himself from flies and mosquitoes and takes medicine just
to cure his diseases. Environmental resources are well-protected in such a society.
12. Sn. Metta Sutta, p. 44 “Sanrussako ca subharo ca appakiccoca sallahukavutti-
sanrindriyo ca nipako Ca.”
13. Dh. Pupphavagga, V. 6
14. M. ii, Ratthapãla Sutta, p. 420
15. Vsm. pp. 23-27
The Buddhist Attitude Towards Enviornmental Conservation 155
The Buddha and Similes on the Environment

Forty five years of the life span of the Buddha were spent in calm and beautiful forests on
the bank of rivers, on the mountains and in valleys, fields, etc. He spent most of his time
preaching by day and night in the natural environment. Several such occasions are
recorded. While the Buddha was dwelling at a calm, lovely grove that was situated near
the village of Icchãnangala, he preached the Ambattha sutta to the young Ambatta. 16
The Tevijja Sutta was preached by the Buddha, at the mango-grove, on the bank of the
river Aciravati, that flowed to the North of Mãnasãtaka village in the kingdom of
Kosala.’7 The Mahãsihanãda Sutta was preached by the Buddha to Sariputta Thera, at
the forest adjoining Vesãli. 18 The Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (Setting the wheel of
righteousness in motion), was preached at the Deer Park near Varanasi. 19 The Maha
Moggallãna Sutta was preached at the lovely woodland, named Kalandakanivãpa where
protection was offered to squirrels.2° The Buddha is said to have gone to the forest of
Ghosinga, to see his disciples named Anuruddha, Kambila, Nandiya and preached to
them the Cülaghosinga Sutta.21 The Simsapã Sutta was preached by the Buddha at the
Simsapã grove.22
Similarly, the Buddha preached his doctrine on the banks of rivers, ponds etc. The
Soiyadan4a Sutta was preached at the Gaggara pond near the city of Campã.23 The
Dhaniya Sutta was preached to Dhaniya Gopãla, in the evening, on the bank of the river
Mahi.24 The Kasibhâradvãja sutta was preached to Kasibhãradvãja brãhmana, in the
field.25 The events in Mahãparinibbãna Sutta began from the Gijjhakãa mountain near
the city of Rajagriha.26
Once, while the Buddha was staying alone, in a dense forest, a certain goddess appeared
and said to the Buddha. “At the resounding of the entire forest, when birds make terrible
sound at midday, I feel greatly afraid.” Thereupon the Buddha says, “At the resounding
of the entire forest when birds make lovely sound my mind is delighted.27
The Buddha frequently used the natural environment for the purpose of similes. The Pãli
Suttas reveal the fact that the Buddha often used trees for giving similes. He said, “Oh,
monks, there are four kinds of trees, viz., (i) barren trees surrounded by a barren tree, (ii)
fruitful trees surrounded by a barren tree, (iii) barren trees surrounded by a fruitful tree,
(iv) fruitful trees surrounded by fruitful trees. Similarly, there are four kinds of
corresponding men. Some men are evil and their company is evil, some men are good
and their company is evil, some men are evil and their company is good, some men are
good and their company is good. 28
16. D. i, (B.TS) Ambatta p. 150.

17. Ibid. (B. TS) Tevtjja Sutta. p. 594
18. M. i, (B. T.S) Mahãsihanãda Sutta, 164
19. S. (B.TS) Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, p. 270
20. Ibid. iv, (B.TS) Mahâ Moggall.ãna Bojjhariga Sutta; p. 126
21. M. i, (B. TS) Cãlaghosinga Sutta, p. 484
22. S. (B.TS) Sinsapã Sutta, p. 294
23. D. i, (B. TS) Son,adand,a Sutta, p. 222

24. Sn. (B.TS) Dhaniya Sutta, p. 12
25. Ibid., (B. TS) Kasibhãradvãja sutta, p. 110
26. D. (B.TS) Mahàparinibbàna Sutta, p. 110
27. S. i, (B.TS) Sanamãna Sutta, p. 140
28. A. i, (RTS), Rukicha Sutta, p. 109

The Buddhist Attitude Towards Envjornmental Conservation 157
On another occasion, the Buddha applied a simile of rain, in which he says, “Oh, monks,
when it rains torrentially on the summit of the mountain, it fills up the slopes, small pits,
etc., then it fills up great pits, rivulets, big rivers, and the ocean. In like manner, mental
formation is conditioned by ignorance. 29
The Dhammapada which is full of similes, gives the following simile. As rain breaks
through an ill-thatched house, so passion makes its way into an unreflecting mind.30 The
rivers that present beauty of the natural environment, have been used in similes, on
several occasions.3’
As the river finds repose only in the ocean, so do the followers of the Buddha find repose
only in nibbãna.32 The confluence of the Ganga and the Yamunã is frequently referred to
and is used as a simile for perfect union.33 Flowers that are the product of the
environment, have been used in several similes in the Dhammapada. Sometimes, wild
beasts have been used in similes.35 On several occasions, mountains, peaks have been
used in similes.36 In this way, the Buddha used most things of the natural environment,
in his similes.
Having been born in a delightful natural environment, the Buddha lived happily in it,
became enlightened, preached his doctrine and passed away in it.
So, people can get a good example from the biography of the Buddha.
Buddhism And Environmental Devotion

Here, it is proposed to find out how far devotion towards environment can affect its
conservation. Both man and environment are inseparable factors. The ancient people
seem to have had certain awareness of the above mentioned factors. As a matter of fact,
this awareness was a natural occurrence and not a created thing. Enough evidence can be
found to prove the fact that they had empathetic devotional attitudes toward their
environment.
Ascetics did not like an environment that was distorted, restless and polluted due to
settlements. Therefore such ascetics who sought the truth, were fond of an environment
which was secluded and unpolluted. They also lived in those forests which were free
from air-pollution and sound-pollution. Even the ancient Aryan Indian Civilization
reveals how those truth-seeking ascetics availed themselves of the blessings of the natural
environment. The later Aranyakas and Upanishadas reveal the above mentioned facts
which caused the origin of the Sramanic tradition.
Eastern poets have seen the aesthetic beauty of the natural environment from time
immemorial. Moreover, it gave rise to a great poetic literature, like the Meghadàta, a
noted work of Kãlidãsa. These poets praised natural phenomena, like water, rivers,
streams, brooks, flora, groves, etc. Describing the natural beauty was considered by poets
as their indispensable duty.
Farmers got energy and nourishment from the natural environment. They reaped rich
harvests through the growth and protection of flora. Even rivers, streams, were useful to
them. Cows were regarded as the greatest wealth. Fertile soil and great rain satisfied
them. Thus eastern people have been enriched by the environment, from time
immemorial.
29. S. ii, (B.TS) Upanisâ Sutta, p. 50
30. Dh. Yamakvagga. v. 13p. 62
31. M. i, (B. TS) Alagaddupana Sutta, p. 324
32. M. i, P.TS. p. 493
33. J. vi, pp. 412, 415
34. Dh. Pupphavagga, p. 74ff
35. Sn. (B. TS), Khaggavisâna Sutta, p. 22
36. Dh. Pan,d,ita vagga, v. 77, p. 84
The Buddhist Attitude Towards Enviornmental Conservation 159
Eastern kings who were materially opulent and powerful, greatly appreciated the natural
beauty of the environment. The Pãli Canonical texts bring out the fact that the hearts of
rulers were filled with novel ideas.37
The above mentioned facts become quite clear from the Dhammacetiya sutta. According
to this sutta, King Pasenadi Kosala, while strolling in a charming, enchanting, secluded
park, saw the foot of a solitary tree and remembered the Buddha 38• In this way, kings
awakened their hearts through the solitary, noiseless, calm, beautiful natural environment.
Indian thought systems like Buddhism and Jainism respected all living things headed by
man. Compassion to all living things was emphasized by these religious thoughts. They
did not distinguish significantly between man and animals. This fact is made evident by
the Metta-Sutta, according to which all creatures must be loved and pitied. “Sabbe sattã
bhavantu sukhitattã.”39 These religious thoughts have shown a great deal of respect for
the conservation of flora and fauna. According to contemporaneous Jam teachings, man
who has six sense organs is the supreme vital principle.
Vegetation possesses only one vital principle. The nonviolence preached by Jainism was
not only for living beings but also for vegetation. The disciples of the Buddha who led a
celibate life, in accordance with the ideals and teachings of the Buddha, lived in close
proximity to the environment. Those disciples were directed to the forest, foot of a tree
and empty places. The Pãli Canon reveals how the worthy ones attained purity in the
wonderful places like mountains, caves, banks of the rivers, which were aesthetically
beautiful, unpolluted and sacred. The Ordination of a monk was preceded by his dwelling
at the foot of a tree.
Such noble ones praised the natural environment. The monks who were fond of the
environment led a monastic life without destroying the environment. The commentators
show that as the monastery pleases the mind so it is called ãrãma, similarly, it pleases the
mind through flowers, fruits, shadow, charming scenes etc.4’ Thus the Buddha who loved
the unpolluted natural beauty of the environment, was a great Master. He himself set a
good example. The doctrine and discipline of the Buddha guide mankind to continue the
environment without polluting it, using it properly and working with it empathetically.
Disciples who followed the doctrine and discipline saw unique natural beauty in the
environment, were fond of it, did not pollute water, air and regarded noiselessness as a
supreme thing. This is a result of a certain environmental devotion. The biography of the
Buddha, Buddhist doctrine and fourfold assembly, reveal pragmatic, enchanting,
environmental devotion. Thus environmental devotion becomes a special guidance for
the modern world.
37. D. Sãmannaphala Sutta, p. 88

38. M. ii, Dhammacetiya Sutta, p. 550
39. Sn. Metta sutta, p. 44
40. Mu. p. 347. “Rukkhamüla senàsanam nissäya pabbajjä.”
41. Thag. A p. 132
161
CHAPTER SEVEN
CONCLUSION
Conclusion 163
So far, diverse matters on Buddhism and environment have been discussed in the
preceding chapters. In the present chapter which is entitled ‘Conclusion’, it is hoped to
draw alternative conclusions on the foregoing chapters. It may be said that the prime
expectation of Buddhist thought, on the one hand, is to make mankind aware of the
reality of life as well as the problems revealed through this awareness; the term dukkha
(Sorrow) used in the Pãli canonical texts, reveals the reality of life and problems
confronted by man; according to this, it is considered that a Buddha appears in this world
in order to make mankind fully conscious of Dukkha (Sorrow); besides this Buddhism
intends to show the path that leads to the elimination of sorrow.1
Accordingly, an ethico-psychological path which has been directed at this interpretation
indicates Buddhism as a philosophy of passionlessness as well as passionless conduct.
One may wonder how the physical environment can be thought to reveal such a path of
righteousness. Nevertheless, it may be directly said that the Buddha did not propound
either philosophy or conduct without environment. Buddhism itself is a study of man as
well as the study of the strange complex environment which is around him. It can be
considered that Buddhist theoretical and pragmatic teaching bear a direct relevance to the
physical environment. The whole expectation of this study is to reveal such a relevance.
The present thesis which is entitled “The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and
Individual”, is divided into seven chapters. The first chapter deals with an investigation
into environmental studies. The first chapter primarily introduces environment and
discusses the eastern and western, and world philosophical views; all these views have
been discussed here. The Second Chapter throws light on the philosophical views of man.
In this chapter, other philosophical ideas about man have been cursorily examined, in
which the Buddhist concept of man has been given a prominent place.
1. S. 1’ Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, p. 420ff
J
Similarly, the relationship between man and environment has been discussed. The third
chapter discusses the loss of resources and their influence on man. It points out what are
the natural resources and how man is affected through their loss.
The fourth chapter deals with the interrelationship between mind and the environment.
Here, the nature of the dispassionate mind, the mode in which it is developed and the
environmental influence on it, are discussed. Similarly, an adequate study of the
environment seen through the passionless mind and its evaluation, has been made on the
basis of primary sources of Buddhism. The fifth Chapter is on Buddhist ethical views on
environmental problems. Facts like what is Buddhist ethics, its importance in overcoming
crises, have been discussed in this chapter. The Sixth Chapter throws light on
environmental facts like conservation, devotion etc. The last chapter presents the
Buddhist philosophical conclusion of the present study.
The main objective of the above mentioned chapters has been to point out the fact that
Buddhism explicitly and scientifically focuses on environment, theoretically as well as
pragmatically, compared to other religions. While investigating into both non-Bramanic
and Brahmanic traditions that were contemporaneous with the Buddha in India, they can
be considered as the two main philosophical streams, i.e. (i) eternalism that accepted
eternal soul and (ii) Annihilationism which admitted no-soul declaring that everything
ends at death.
These two theories were declared as two extremes, by Buddhism.2 Buddhist philosophy,
which does not fall into such extremes, clarifies facts about the organism and the world,
on the basis of the theory of middle path, i.e., the Dependent Origination, (Paticca
samappãda). According to the Pãli Suttas, “He who sees Dependent Origination, he sees
the Dhamma. and he who discerns
2. Dialogues of the Buddha, part 1, p. 46

the Dhamma discerns Dependent Origination” . All the basic teachings of Buddhism, like
three characteristics (Ti-Lakkhana), four noble truths (Cattãri ariyasaccãni), action
(Kamma), transmigration (Samsãra), etc. can be correctly defined in accordance with
Dependent Origination.
It is justifiable to say that no other teaching is more important and more central than it.
According to it, by analyzing the basic physical and mental factors and their causal
mutual interrelationship, they can be synthetically denoted. Buddhism analyzes both
being and the world, as aggregates, elements, spheres, etc. These factors do not exist
independently, but they do exist relatively. This is clarified through the synthesis of the
above mentioned facts. It is not justifiable to say that Dependent Origination points out
only the origin and cessation of sorrow, in this world. Apart from the above main
objectives, Dependent Origination has been used in various suttas, for other purposes.
Different problems like economic, political, social, cultural etc., have been studied in
accordance with the theory of Dependent Origination, which can be seen in various Pãli
suttas ‘. Thus, Dependent Origination reveals the universal timeless truth which is
relevant to both man and environment. The above mentioned principle persists whether
Tathãgatas arise or not. In accordance with Dependent Origination, the environment can
be subjected to analysis and synthesis. According to it the environment is a
conglomeration of physical factors. When they are separately considered we primarily
notice, pathavi or solidity, ãpo or fluidity, dampness, tejo or heat, vãyu or mobility, ãkãsa
or space. This is the analysis of the physical environment. According to modern
environmental studies, the entire environment can be analyzed as developing and
undeveloping,
3. M. I. (RTS.)D. III (RTS.) p. 191
4. Bauddha Darshanaya Saha Samãja Darshanava (in Sinhala), pp. 28, 29.
5. S. ii. Nidãna Samyutta, p. 25.
“Uppãdâ vã Tathagatãnanz anuppãdãvà Tathãgatãnam, thitã va sä dhàtu
dhamma
thitatã, dharnma nivãmatä, idapaccayatã
Conclusion 165
exhaustible and inexhaustible etc. Conventionally speaking, the spatial surroundings like
the sun, the moon, the stars, the wind, clouds, rain and other planets, etc., the earthly
surroundings like flora, mountain, hills, rivers, sea, men, animals, minerals etc, can be
used for the analysis of the environment. Thus, to seek the truth, Buddhism introduces the
analytical method through Dependent Origination. In the light of this, a great deal of
encouragement can be obtained to study the environment.
So, there is no doubt about the scientific study of the environment through the synthetic
method taught in Dependent Origination. Several occasions can be noticed in the Pãli
canonical suttas in which analytical as well as synthetic factors of the environment are
taught. The Upanisã sutta of the Sam yutta Nikãya is an example of this.6 The
Aggivacchagotta Sutta of the Majjhima Nikãya explains causality by giving a simile of
fire and its relationship with fire-wood, dry-leaves, straw etc. ‘ The Agganna Sutta of
Digha Nikãya shows the relative conditions of the earliest environmental factors like the
earth, Badalatã, (a kind of creeper), rice, etc. indicates the interrelationship between
natural forces like wind, rain, agricultural products etc. and their influence on man! The
entire present thesis has been influenced by both analytical methods of Dependent
Origination, as well as by the above mentioned suttas.
The essence of the Buddhist pragmatic path is the noble eightfold path. The eternalists
who were contemporaneous with the Buddha, followed the practice of self-mortification .
They believed that life is painful, miserable and hard, and so, they practised the arduous
path of penance in order to get rid of the soul. Annihilationists on the other hand did not
believe in the next world, so they seem to have followed self-indulgence 10; whereby
they could by all means enjoy permanent happiness. The above mentioned two
6. S. II (RTS) Upanis_ sutta, p. 29f
7. D. I (RTS) Aggañña sutta p. 80f
8. D. III (RTS) Aggañna sutta p. 80f
9. S. iv. P TS Dhammacakkappavatana Sutta, p. 330
10. Ibid.
Conclusion 167
extremes have been rejected in Buddhism which preached the Middle Path .
Buddhism strongly recommends that the correct attitude to the environment should be the
Middle path. If that is so, being a slave to the environment in its extremes, and being
contrary to it in its extreme, are said to be erroneous.
The noble eightfold path can be divided into three categories, namely, (i) Sila (morality),
(ii) Samâdhi (concentration), (iii) Paññâ (wisdom) 12 The Buddhist moral path inspires
altruistic, compassionate friendly attitudes towards mankind as well as the environment.
The teaching about being non-violent towards flora and fauna can be found in the
Sãmañnaphala Sutta of Digha Nikaya,’3 the Dukkatãpati of Bhikkhu Pãtimokkha Apart
from this, non violent, altruistic attitudes towards water, air and the organisms dependent
on the environment, are found in the earliest sources of Suttapitaka and Vinayapitaka. A
number of such examples have been presented in the present study.
The facts relevant to the above mentioned factors have been comparatively discussed
specially in the fifth chapter. The psychological inclinations are considered to be taints in
Buddhism which often discusses man’s development or decline, on the basis of mind.’5
The noble eightfold path denotes the gradual mental culture of man. For example, mental
concentration (Samatha) and its objects of meditation (Kammatthãna)’6, which contain
loving- kindness (Mettã), compassion (Karunã) sympathetic joy (Muditã) and equanimity
(Upekkhã). Thus inspiration is given to develop friendly and cordial attitudes towards
man and the environment. Similarly,
11. Ibid.
12. Vsm. p.
13. D.N. 1, S_mannaphaki Sutta, p. 47-86
14. P_cittiya P_li Bhikkhu vibhanga (B.TS), p. 154
15. Dh. Yamakavagga, Vs. 1, 2
16. P.E.D, (P.TS) p. 193
it is expected through meditation to diffuse loving thought towards all beings.’7 In

addition to this, Buddhist teachings on the conservation of environment can be included
in the threefold training of morality, concentration and wisdom. The reciprocal co-
operation between mental culture and the environment has been examined especially in
the fourth chapter. The environment inspires man to practise dispassionate thinking.
The individual who is free from defilements does not harm the existence of the
environment. All these facts have been illustrated and studied in the light of both the
Thera and Therigathã of the Sutta pitaka. Wisdom (paññã) which is the third part of the
divisions of the noble eightfold path, explains how to discern the reality of the world in
which insight (vipassanã) is included, and through which, the three characteristics are
taught. They are common to both human life and environment. In this way, the pragmatic
path of Buddhism does not conflict with the environment. Buddhism inspires one to
understand the values of the environment as well as its conservation.
While reviewing all the facts of this thesis, which are found in the early and later
Buddhist sources, I have attempted to explain the following.
An attempt has been made in the Second Chapter to point out the relationship between an
individual and the environment; it has been carried out in accordance with Buddhism;
similarly, a study of eastern and western philosophy on man, has been comparatively
dealt with. The modern world, is facing the environmental crisis because man and
environment have been separately considered. Similarly, modem man does not consider
environment as a part of his life. In the second chapter it was pointed out that Buddhism
has understood it well.
Buddhist instructions on conservation of the environment:
attention is paid specially in the third and the fifth chapters, to dis 17 Sn. Metta Sutta,
(RTS) p. 8. S. Metta Sutta Vs. 11Sf
ouaanlst concept of the Environment and Individual
Conclusion 169
cuss the facts relevant to this subject derived from Buddhist sources. Ideas about the
protection of the flora, non-pollution and conservation of water, air and clay etc., were
revealed by the Buddha to his disciples who are classified as the fourfold assembly,
(Bhikkhu, Bhikkhuni, upãsaka, upãsikã).
In the fourth chapter, attention is focussed on environmental devotion that is reflected in
the buddhist sources.The exemplary society of Buddhism is the community of monks of
which the Arahant is a noble person, his ideal is unsurpassable. Their spotless devotion to
the environment has been pointed out here.
Emphasis on the religious teachings on the introduction to the environment, is laid out in
the first chapter. Here, it has been endeavoured to define the environment in the light of
science and other modern studies. Besides this, an introduction to the teachings of the
main world religions besides Buddhism, and their concern about the environment was
studied. It is intended to bring out the Buddhist teachings and their pragmatic aspects on
environment.
It may be affirmed that no other person has ever favourably and altruistically responded
to the environment, as much as the Buddha did, as a religious teacher through his
examples and instructions. These facts can be proven in the light of the Pãli sources.
Several important events associated with the biography of the Buddha and his residential
places, were connected with the natural beauty of the environment. Similes and
metaphors are often found in his sermons. A number of similes were applied to the
environment.
The environmental havoc and pollution which have given rise to a terrible crisis, needs to
be solved immediately by the people living at the start of the twenty first century. This
crisis which is caused by different conditions like urbanization, industrialization,
overpopulation, etc. can be successfully solved through religious teachings that take the
place of pride in the traditional knowledge of man. Religion is often considered to be
both belief and faith which according to some people are confined to the next world.
Nevertheless, such things cannot be said about Buddhism. According to this, it may be
concluded that Buddhist teachings can be used to find out a solution to the modern crisis.
If that is so, the adherents of Buddhism can hopefully and successfully conserve the
environment through the practice of the doctrines of the Buddha.
I
II
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The Buddhist Concept of Environment

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The Buddhist Concept of Environment

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THE BUDDHIST CONCEPT

Ven. Dr. K Sri Dhammananda

4 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual

ment. Principles cannot be fulfilled without a congenial environment and objectives

6 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and individual

materially beneficial to both monks and lay people.

8 ihe Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual

has been comparatively discussed in this chapter.

10 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual 11

12 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and individual

An Investigation Into Environmental Studies 13

14 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual An Investigation Into

16 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual

An investigation Into Environmental Studies 17

Hindus believed that the phenomenal world is a manifestation of a Supreme Being.

18 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual

An Investigation Into Environmental Studies 19

31. Varâhcj Purãna, 172.39.

20 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual

An Investigation Into Environmental Studies 21

Substances : Existence which is characterized by origination, disappearance (destruction)

22 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual

An Investigation Into Environmental Studies 23

24 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual

An Investigation Into Environmental Studies 25

26 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and individual

An investigation Into Environmental Studies 27

28 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual

An Investigation Into Environmental Studies 29

30 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual

An Investigation Into Environmental Studies 31

32 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual

An Investigation Into Environmental Studies 33

World Religions and the Environment, p. 299

36 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual

A Critique of the Concept of Man 37

The Concept of Man in Greek Thought

and to perfect existence with which they are originally endowed.

42 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual

A Critique of the Concept of Man 43

The Concept of Man in Indian Thought

44 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual

A Critique of the Concept of Man 45

organs, of organs of action, and of their corresponding objects.

46 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual

A Critique of the Concept of Man 47

40. Bg. Ch. 18, V. 6, p. 262.

48 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual

A Critique of the Concept of Man 49

According to Indian schools of thought, man is a spiritual and psychophysical individual.

Vital Pnnciple Gross Time

Sense Organs Organs of

41. Ibid. pp. 283, 284, 285.

A Critique of the Concept of Man 51

iii) Problems of Classification

58 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual

A Critique of the Concept of Man 59

60 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual

A Critique of the Concept of Man 61

Although a distinctive difference is observable in vegetation and insects, yet such a

Tato pakkhipi jãnâtha pattayâne vihangame

77. Ibid Sutta, p. 704.

62 The Buddhist Concept of the Environment and Individual

A Critique of the Concept of Man 63