Nutrition is the science that interprets the interaction of nutrients and other substances in relation to maintenance,

growth, reproduction, health and disease of an organism.

 Autotrophs - organisms that can make their own food using the inorganic materials from the environment
and sunlight.
 Heterotrophs – organisms that cannot manufacture their own food.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
.
 ( photo means light, synthesis means reaction )
 A complex reaction in which living things derive and use energy from the sun to
manufacture their own food.
 Photosynthesis can be summarized by the following equation:
6CO2 + 12H2O + light energy  C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Requirements for Photosynthesis
1. LIGHT- chlorophyll molecules capture energy from a range of varying wavelengths of light.
2. CHLOROPLAST- green spherical bodies located in the middle portion of the leaves.
 Stroma- a large, central compartment which contains fluids and enzymes.
 Grana- contains thylakoids, flattened disc-shaped bodies filled with chlorophyll and other pigments.
3. PIGMENT- Chlorophyll ( green pigment ) and carotenoids ( yellow to orange pigment ) are 2 groups important
in photosynthesis.
Phases of Photosynthesis
I. Light-Dependent Reactions involve the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and the reduction of
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP). It occurs in the thylakoid membrane where pigment
molecules ( chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoids) follow either of these 2 pathways: noncyclic and cyclic.
 ( NONCYCLIC PATHWAY) Excitation of Chlorophyll Molecules – chlorophyll
molecules enter photosystem II. In photosystem II (PS II),energy is transferred to a 680
chlorophyll b molecule, while in Photosystem I (PS I) energy is transferred to a 700 chlorophyll a
molecule.
 Photolysis of water – the excitation of chlorophyll molecules leads to the photolysis (photo-light,
lysis-breaking down)of water into hydrogen ions, electron and oxygen molecules.
 Photophosphorylation of adenosine diphosphate ( ADP )- Photophosphorylation is the
process of adding a phosphate group to a substance in the presence of light.This process is also
kown as chemisosmosis because the production of ATP is due to an electrochemical gradient.
 Reduction of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate ( NADP )- electrons leaving the
electron transport system enter Photosystem I. When photosystem I pigment complex absorbs
solar energy, high energy electrons leave the photocenter and are captured by an electron acceptor,
this time the electron acceptor passes the electrons to NADP where it takes H and becomes
NADPH>
 ( CYCLIC ELECTRON PATHWAY) starts from Photosystem I and goes back to photosystem
I. In contrast to the noncyclic pathway, only adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) is produced from this
pathway.
II. Light- Independent Reactions or Calvin Cycle ( Melvin Calvin ) can proceed even in the
absence of light, hence the name Dark Reaction was also given to it. In the stroma of the chloroplast,
3 principal events occur.
 Fixation of carbon dioxide- carbon dioxide enters the cycle by combining with a 5-carbon
organic molecule called ribulose 1-5 biphosphate ( RuBP ). With the aid of an enzyme, RuBP
carboxylase, a 6- carbon compound is formed.
 Synthesis of carbohydrate- 3 molecules of the 6-carbon intermediate product break down to
form 6 molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate ( PGA ). Further , the ATP and NADPH generated
during the light dependent phase supply energy and electrons needed to produced
glyceraldehydes 3-phosphate (PGAL). One for every six molecules is used in the synthesis of
glucose and other organic molecules.
 Regeneration of ribulose 1-5 biphosphate (RuBP)- in this process 3 ATP molecules are
dephosphorylated into ADP.
 The end product of the cycle is a 3-carbon organic compound, glyceraldehydes 3-phosphate.
Plants According to Their Mode of Photosynthesis
1. C3 plants- are plants w/c follow the Calvin cycle in fixing CO2 ( wheat, rice and oats).
2. C4 plants- whose bundles sheath cells and mesophyll cells arranged concentrically around the bundle sheath cells
contain chloroplasts.CO2 taken from the mesophyll cells is fixed to phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) to yiled a 4-carbon
oxaloacetate. This is reduced to malate w/c moves to the bundle sheath cells where it is decarboxylated to give off
CO2.. Carbon dioxide now enters the Calvin cycle. ( sugar cane, corn and Bermuda grass)
3. Crasselacean acid metabolism ( CAM ) plants- plants are considered CAM if their photosynthetic cells have
the ability to fix CO2 in the dark via activity of the phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) carboxylase. CAM plants are
largely dependent upon night time accumulation of carbon dioxide for their photosynthetic activity because their
stomata are closed during the day, retarding water loss. ( cacti, bromeliads and pineapple).

Digestion

 Unicellular organisms can directly take in nutrients from their outside environment.
 Multicellular animals have more developed and complete digestive systems, since they have specialized
structures for obtaining and breaking down food.
 Heterotrophs are animals that must absorb nutrients or ingest food from food sources.
Ingestive eaters- ingesting food through the mouth
Absorptive feeders- living in the digestive system of another animal and absorbing nutrients from the
animal directly through the animal’s body walls.
Filter feeders- collecting small organisms and particles from the surrounding water
Substrate feeders- eat the material dirt or wood they burrow into.
Fluid feeders- such as aphids, pierce the body of a plant or animal and withdraw fluids.

Nutritional Requirements

1. Carbohydrates- comprising about 60% or 100grms/day of our nutritional requirements. They provide metabolic
energy for the various activities of the body.

2. Lipids and fats- supply energy twice as much as carbohydrates do.

3. Proteins- they function for body growth and repair.

4. Vitamins – organic molecules w/c are either fat soluble or water soluble. They perform functions such as
formation of visual pigments , acting as coenzymes and formation of bones and teeth.

5. Minerals- inorganic substances needed for metabolism, muscle contraction, blood cell formation and nerve
coordination.

6. Water- provides medium in w/c all the body’s reactions take place. It bathes the cells and lubricates other tissues
and organs.

Mode of Nutrition Exhibited By Different Organisms

 Chemotrophs (derive energy from inorganic chemical reactions), phototrophs (convert light energy to
sugar), heterotrophs (obtain energy from the breakdown of organic molecules in food)
 May also be classified into carnivores( flesh-eaters), herbivores(plant-eaters) and omnivores(both plant
and flesh eaters.)

Types of Digestitve System

A. Incomplete- exhibited by many invertebrates that have a single common opening for food intake and discharge
of wastes.

B. Complete- all vertebrates w/c use the more efficient tube-within a tube plan with food entering through one
opening, the mouth and wastes are leaving through another, the anus.

Patterns of Digestion: Intracellular (within the cell ) and Extracellular ( outside the cell ).

Stages of Digestion

1. movement Food is propelled through the digestive system through

ingestion, mastication, deglutition and peristalsis.

2. Secretion Digestive juices are released in response to a specific

stimulus.

3. Digestion Food is broken down into molecular components small

(1. Digestion proper 2. Absorption enough to cross the plasma membrane.
3. Assimilation)
4. Absorption Molecules passed from the stomach and small intestine
into the blood or lymph then to the cells
THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM- a series of hollow organs joined in a long, twisting tube approximately 9m long,
extending from the mouth to the anus.

The Gastrointestinal Tract- Alimentary canal

The 6 Primary Processes of the Digestive System

1. Ingestion- ‘intake of food”.

2. Secretion- these includes saliva, mucus, hydrochloric acid, enzymes and bile.
3. Mixing and movements- swallowing, peristalsis and segmentation.
4. Digestion- process of turning large pieces of food into its component chemicals. Mechanical digestion
changes the physical form of food into smaller pieces(chewing/grinding). Chemical digestion changes
food with the aid of digestive enzymes.
5. Absorption- begins in the stomach particularly in the walls of small intestine.
6. Excretion- or defecation, it removes indigestible substances from the body.

Parts of the Digestive System and it’s Functions

1. Mouth

 Is the beginning of the digestive tract where digestion starts. It is also known as the “oral
cavity”.
Function: Responsible for mechanical and chemical digestion.
 3 Accessory Organs
a. Teeth- designed for cutting and grinding food into smaller pieces.
b. Tongue- mixes and rolls food into tiny mashed up bits called Bolus.
c. Salivary glands- produce saliva a mixture of water, mucus and a digestive enzyme
called Salivary amylase or ptyalin.

2. Pharynx

 An open area that begins at the back of the mouth.

 Function: serves as a passageway for both air and food.
 Epiglottis is a flap tissue that prevents food from entering the trachea, or windpipe during
swallowing instead the bolus passes into the esophagus.

3. Esophagus

 A straight muscular tube that is about 10 inches (25 cm) long which connects the mouth with
the stomach.
Functions: a. transport food and fluids from the pharynx to the stomach.
b. It’s walls contain muscles that contracts in wavy motion (Peristalsis).
Peristalsis propels food and liquid slowly down the esophagus into the stomach.

4. Stomach It is an elastic bag that is J-shaped when full and that lies in folds when empty.

Function: a.Stores food. It secretes a mixture of acid, mucus and digestive enzymes that help
to digest and sanitize our food while it is being stored.
 Cardiac sphincter is a circular muscle located between esophagus and the stomach.
 Chyme is the pulpy acidic fluid that passes from the stomach to the small intestine consisting
of gastric juices and partly digested food.
 Pyloric sphincter is a circular muscle between the stomach and the small intestine, and
regulates the flow of chyme.

5. Liver

 Is the body’s largest internal organ, weighing about 1.5 kg. (3 lb).
Functions: a. storing glucose
b. making proteins
c. breaking down toxic substances such as alcohol
d. secretes Bile (vital to digestion of fats).

6. Gallbladder

 A saclike organ that sits just beneath the right lobe of the liver.
Function: a. Stores and concentrates bile.
 When chime is present in the small intestine, the gallbladder releases bile through the
common bile duct into the small intestine.

7. Pancreas

 Organ lies behind the stomach, against the back wall of the abdominal cavity.
Functions: a. produces sodium bicarbonate which neutralizes stomach acid.
b. produces enzymes that break down carbohydrates ,lipids, proteins and nucleic
acid.

8. Small Intestine

 Site of greatest amount of digestion and absorption.

 Is a long thin tube about 1 inch in diameter and about 10 feet long that is part of the lower
gastrointestinal tract.
Function: a. Absorption of nutrients and minerals found in the food.
 has folded inner walls covered with fingerlike projections called villi which increases
the surface area of the small intestine for greater absorption.

Has 3 Parts :
1. Duodenum- upper part about 10 inches in length connected to the stomach.
2. Jejunum- about middle section that serves as the primary site of nutrient absorption. It
measures 3 feet in length.
3. Ileum- about 6 feet long and completes the absorption of nutrients that were missed in the
jejunum.

9. Large Intestine

 Also known as the Colon . It is a long, thick tube about 2 ½ inches in diameter and about 5
feet long.
 Final organ for digestion.
 Function: absorbs water from undigested food making the waste hard until it becomes solid.
Solid waste stays in the rectum until it is excreted through the anus as feces.

4 Major Parts of Colon

1. Ascending colon
2. Transverse colon
3. Descending colon
4. Sigmoid colon

 Rectum final portion of the large intestine.

Function: Acts as temporary site of feces.
 Anal canal is an opening at the opposite end of human digestive tract from the mouth.
Function: Passageway of feces.

The Regulation of Appetite

Two centers in the brain, the appetite center and the satiety center, control hunger while three hormones
regulate the stages of digestion: gastrin, secretin, and cholecytokinin. Gastrin, whose secretion is stimulated by
proteins in the stomach, causes an increase in stomach acid secretion and ability of the digestive tract to move food.
Food passing into the duodenum causes the production of secretin, which promotes release of alkaline secretions
from the pancreas and stops further passage of food into the intestine until the acid is neutralized. Cholecystokinin
(CCK) is released from intestinal epithelium in response to fats, and causes the release of bile from the gall bladder
and lipase ( a fat-digesting enzyme) from the pancreas.

Ulcers. Peptic ulcers result when the digestive mechanisms fail. Bleeding ulcers result when tissue damage is so
severe that bleeding occurs in the stomach.

Jaundice. Jaundice is a malfunctioning of the liver characterized by a yellow tint to the skin, caused by excess
hemoglobin breakdown in the blood.