Constituent College of Sindh Agriculture University Tandojam

(Theory Notes)

Subject Title: Industrial Chemistry

Teacher: Mr. Ajeet Kumar KakA

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Syllabus

BAS-305 Industrial Chemistry 3(2-1)

An introduction to chemical engineering principles. Topics to be covered will include (Mass Balance,
Energy Balance, Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer, Mass Transfer, Process Control, Mixing)
Industrial Skills - Chemical economics, ethics, and patents. A section that will introduce you to skills that
will be needed upon starting a career in industry. This section should cover 1/4 of the course.

Problem Solving in Industry - How problems arise, and are resolved in industry. The class will
subsequently break up into small groups and solve this problem as a group. This will constitute the final
take home project of the class.

Practical:

Practicals:

• Determination of carbonates and bicarbonates in industrial water

• Determination of chlorides and Sulphates in industrial water
• Determination of pH and TSS in water
• Estimation of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in fertilizers
• Analysis of an oil for acid, saponification and iodine value.
• Visiting sugar cane industry

Books Recommended:

1. Griskey R.G. 1997. Chemical Engineering for Chemists, , ACS Books, 1997.
2. Clausen C.A. and G. Mattson. 1978. Principles of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-Interscience, 1978.
3. White H.L. 1986. Introduction to Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-Interscience, 1986.
4. Maynard J.T. and H.M. Peters. 1991. Understanding Chemical Patents. ACS Books.
5. Gordon, T.T and A.S. Cookfair. 2000. Patent Fundamentals. Lewis Publishers.

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 INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY

What is industrial chemistry?

Industrial Chemistry is part of applied chemistry that deals with the development,
optimization and monitoring of fundamental chemical processes used in industry to
produce chemicals and chemical products.

Or

Industrial Chemistry is the branch of chemistry, which applies physical and

chemical processes towards the transformation of natural materials and their
derivatives to products that are of benefit to humanity.

Or

The development, optimization and monitoring of fundamental chemical processes

used in industry for transforming raw materials and precursors into useful
commercial products for society.

How is it important and relevant?

Industrial chemistry plays a vital role as an applied science in diverse areas that
influence human society ranging from economic, environmental and political
stability.

History
Although chemicals were made and used throughout history, the birth of the heavy
chemical industry (production of chemicals in large quantities for a variety of uses)
coincided with the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution in general.

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Industrial Revolution
One of the first chemicals to be produced in large amounts through industrial process was sulphuric
acid. In 1736, the pharmacist Joshua Ward developed a process for its production that involved
heating saltpeter and allowing the sulfur to oxidize and combine with water. It was the first practical
production of sulfuric acid on a large scale. John Roebuck and Samuel Garbett were the first to
establish a large scale factory in Prestonpans in 1749, which used leaden condensing chambers for
the manufacture of sulphuric acid.

In the early 18th century, cloth was bleached by treating it with stale urine or sour milk and
exposing it to sunlight for long periods of time, which created a severe bottleneck in production.
Sulphuric acid began to be used as a more efficient agent as well as lime by the middle of the
century, but it was the discovery of bleaching powder by Charles Tennant that spurred the creation
of the first great chemical industrial enterprise. His powder was made by reacting chlorine with
dry slaked lime and proved to be a cheap and successful product. He opened a factory in St Rollox,
north of Glasgow and production went from just 52 tons in 1799 to almost 10,000 tons just five
years later.

Soda ash was used since ancient times in the production of glass, textile, soap, and paper and the
source of the potash had traditionally been wood ashes in Western Europe. By the 18th century,
this source was becoming uneconomical due to deforestation and the French Academy of
Sciences offered a prize of 2400 livres for a method to produce alkali from sea salt (sodium
chloride). The Leblanc process was patented in 1791 by Nicolas Leblanc who then built a Leblanc
plant at Saint-Denis. He was denied his prize money because of the French Revolution .

However, it was in Britain that the Leblanc process really took off. ]William Losh built the first soda
works in Britain at the Losh, Wilson and Bell works on the River Tyne in 1816, but it remained on
a small scale due to large tariffs on salt production until 1824. When these tariffs were repealed,
the British soda industry was able to rapidly expand. James Muspratt's chemical works
in Liverpool and Charles Tennant's complex near Glasgow became the largest chemical production
centers anywhere. By the 1870s, the British soda output of 200,000 tons annually exceeded that of
all other nations in the world combined.

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Ernest Solvay, patented an improved industrial method for the manufacture of soda ash.

These huge factories began to produce a greater diversity of chemicals as the Industrial
Revolution matured. Originally, large quantities of alkaline waste were vented into the environment
from the production of soda, provoking one of the first pieces of environmental legislation to be
passed in 1863. This provided for close inspection of the factories and imposed heavy fines on
those exceeding the limits on pollution. Methods were soon devised to make useful byproducts
from the alkali.

The Solvay process was developed by the Belgian industrial chemist Ernest Solvay in 1861. In
1864, Solvay and his brother Alfred constructed a plant in the Belgian town of Charleroi and in
1874, they expanded into a larger plant in Nancy, France. The new process proved more economical
and less polluting than the Leblanc method, and its use spread. In the same year, Ludwig
Mond visited Solvay to acquire the rights to use his process, and he and John Brunner formed the
firm of Brunner, Mond& Co., and built a Solvay plant at Winnington, England. Mond was
instrumental in making the Solvay process a commercial success; he made several refinements
between 1873 and 1880 that removed byproducts that could slow or halt the mass production of
sodium carbonate through use of the process.

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 Introduction to Chemical Engineering

Chemical engineering is a scientific-technical branch of the chemical industry and

applicates scientific, technical and mathematical knowledge to produce chemicals
and chemical products.

or

Chemical engineering is the branch of engineering concerned with the design &
operation of industrial chemical plants.

or

Chemical engineering is the branch of engineering that applies natural sciences &
life sciences together with mathematics & economics to produce, transform, transport
& properly use chemicals, materials & energy.

The Roles and Responsibilities of Chemical Engineers

Many chemical engineers design and operate large-scale and complex chemical production
facilities to supplying diverse chemical products to society. In performing these functions, a
chemical engineer will likely assume a number of roles during a career. The engineer may become
involved in raw materials extraction, intermediate materials processing, or production of pure
chemical substances; in each activity, the minimization and management of waste stream will have
important economic and environmental consequences. Chemical Engineers are involved in the
production of bulk and specialty chemicals, petrochemicals, integrated circuits, pulp and paper,
consumer products, minerals, and pharmaceuticals. Chemical engineers also find employment in
research, consulting organizations, and educational activities. The engineer may perform functions
such as process and production engineering, process design, process control, technical sales and
marketing, community relations, and management.

As engineers assume such diverse roles, it is increasingly important that they be aware of their
responsibilities to the general public, colleagues and employers, the environment, and also to their
profession. One of the central roles of chemical engineers is to design and operate chemical
processes yielding chemical products that meet customer specifications and that are profitable.
Another important role is to maintain safe conditions for operating personnel and for residents in
the immediate vicinity of a production facility. Finally, chemical process designs need to be
protective of the environment and of human health. Environmental issues must be considered not
only within the context of chemical production but also during other stages of a chemical’s life
cycle, such as transportation, the use of chemicals by customers, recycling activities, and ultimate
disposal.

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History of chemical Engineering

Chemical engineering as a discipline that was developed out of those practicing

"industrial chemistry" in the late 19th century. Before the Industrial Revolution (18th
century), industrial chemicals and other consumer products such as soap were mainly
produced through batch processing. Batch processing is labour-intensive and
individuals mix predetermined amounts of ingredients in a vessel, heat, cool or
pressurize the mixture for a predermined length of time. The product may then be
isolated, purified and tested to achieve a saleable product. Batch processes are still
performed today on higher value products, such as pharmaceutical intermediates,
specialty and formulated products such as perfumes and paints, or in food
manufacture such as pure maple syrups, where a profit can still be made despite batch
methods being slower and inefficient in terms of labour and equipment usage. Due to
the application of Chemical Engineering techniques during manufacturing process
development, larger volume chemicals are now produced through
a continuous "assembly line" chemical processes.

The Industrial Revolution was when a shift from batch to more continuous
processing began to occur. Today commodity chemicals and petrochemicals are
predominantly made using continuous manufacturing processes whereas specialty
chemicals, fine chemicals and pharmaceuticals are made using batch processes.

The First Chemical Engineer

Industrial Chemistry was being practised in the mid-1800s, but it was not until the
1880s that the engineering elements required to control chemical processes were
being recognized as a distinct professional activity. Chemical engineering was first
established as a profession in the United Kingdom when the first chemical
engineering course was given at the University of Manchester in 1887 by George E.
Davis in the form of twelve lectures covering various aspects of industrial chemical
practice

As a consequence George E. Davis is regarded as the world's first chemical engineer.

Today, chemical engineering is a highly regarded profession. Chemical engineers

with experience can become licensed Professional Engineers in the United States,
aided by the National Society of Professional Engineers, or gain "Chartered"
chemical-engineer status through the UK-based Institution of Chemical Engineers.

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 Chemical Engineering Principles

❖Mass Balance

❖Energy Balance

❖Fluid Flow

❖Heat Transfer

❖Mass Transfer

❖Process Control

❖Mixing

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 Mass balance

Introduction
The mass balance (also called material balance) is the fundamental tool of chemical engineering.
It is the basis for the analysis and design of chemical processes. So it goes without saying that
chemical engineers must thoroughly master its use in the formulation and solution of chemical
processing problems.

In chemical processing we deal with the transformation of raw materials of lower value into
products of higher value and, in many, cases unwanted byproducts that must be disposed of.

In addition many of these chemical compounds may be hazardous. The material balance is the
Chemical engineer's tool for keeping track of what is entering and leaving the process as well as
What goes on internally. Without accurate material balances, it is impossible to design or operates
chemical plant safely and economically.

Material balances are important first step when designing a new process or analyzing an
existing one. They are almost always prerequisite to all other calculations in the solution of process
engineering problems.

Material balances are nothing more than the application of the law of conservation of mass, which
states that mass can neither be created nor destroyed. Thus, you cannot, for example, specify an
input to a reactor of one ton of naphtha and an output of two tons of gasoline or gases or anything
else. One ton of total material input will only give one ton of total output,
i.e. total mass of input = total mass of output.

Definitions

• A material balance is an accounting for material. Thus, material balances are often
compared to the balancing of current accounts. They are used in industry to calculate mass
flow rates of different streams entering or leaving chemical or physical processes.

• A mass balance is an accounting of a material for a specific system boundary. In other

words, you are keeping track of all sources of the material that enter the system, all sinks of
the material that leave the system, and all storage of the material within the system.

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The General Balance Equation.

For a defined system and a specified quantity:

Accumulation = Input – Output + Generation – Consumption

in system to system from system in system in system

Where:
Accumulation = [final amount of the quantity – initial amount of the quantity] inside the system boundary.

Input = amount of the quantity entering the system through the system boundary. (input)

Output = amount of the quantity leaving the system through the system boundary. (output)

Generation = amount of the quantity generated (i.e. formed) inside the system boundary. (Source)

Consumption = amount of the quantity consumed (i.e. converted) inside the system boundary. (Sink)

The general balance equation) is a powerful equation, which can be used in various ways to solve
many practical problems. Once you understand general balance equation the calculation of material
balance is simply a matter of bookkeeping.

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 The Material Balance Equation

The fact that matter and energy cannot be lost nor gained can be extrapolated into the
basic, most general form of the equation, which is as follows:
INPUT- OUTPUT = ACCUMULATION
If the process is at steady-state, there is no accumulation of mass within the process.
Thus
INPUT = OUTPUT
When we apply this equation to a process, it is best to write it as
XMasses entering via feed streams = XMasses exiting via product streams
We understand that we must include the mass of every element in every stream. The
above equation can applied to batch and continuous processes as
XMass in = XMass out ...................... for a batch process, and

XMass in by flow = XMass out by flow for a continuous process.

When mass balances are written for specific process involving chemical reaction(s),
we must account for the formation of product chemicals and the consumption of feed
chemicals. We must remind ourselves that the law of conservation of mass means
total mass. For this case, we must write a mass balance for each chemical and account
its formation and consumption as follows
XMass in + Mass formed by reaction = XMass out + Mass used by reaction

Or, written more simply as

Input + generation = output + consumed
The generation term may then describe chemical reaction rates, which might be
positive or negative, just as for accumulation.

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 Types of Mass Balances

Mass balances are either 'Integral mass balances' or 'Differential mass balances'.

a. Differential Balance is a balance taken at one particular instant in time. It is generally applied
to a continuous process. If the process is at steady state, a differential balance applied at any
time gives the same result. Each term in a differential balance represents a process stream and
the mass flow rate of the material(s) (i.e. it uses mass per time [kg/s] and not mass).
b. Integral balance is a balance taken at two specific instants in time or the entire time of the
process at once. It describes what has happened over the time period between the two points.
An integral balance is generally applied to the beginning and the end of a batch process and it
accounts for what happens to the batch of material. Therefore an integral balance is a simplistic
option for batch processes but may also be used for continuous or semi-batch processes when
it is integrated from t| to t2 (typically very difficult). Each term in an integral balance represents
a process stream and the mass of the material(s) (so it uses amounts rather than rates: e.g., mass
NOT mass/time).
An integral mass balance is a black box approach which focuses on the overall behavior of a
system.

Whereas a differential mass balance focuses on mechanisms within the system (which in turn
affect the overall behavior). To make a differential mass balance one must also describe the interior
of the system. It is generally applied to a continuous process.

Classification of Processes

A. Based on how the process varies with time.

1. Steady-state process is one where none of the process variables change with time. Every time
We take a snapshot; all the process variables have the same values as in the first snapshot.

2. Unsteady-state (Transient) process is one where the process variables change with time.
Every time we take a snapshot, many of the variables have different values than in the first
snapshot.

(One class of unsteady-state processes is oscillatory, where the process variables change with
time in a regular way. All other unsteady processes may be called Transient meaning that the
process variables continuously evolve overtime).

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B. Based on how the process was built to operate.

1. A Continuous process is one that has the feed streams and product streams
moving into and out of the process all the time. Examples are an oil refinery, a power
grid, pool filter and a distillation process.

2. A Batch process is a process one, where the feed streams are fed to the process
to get it started.

The feed material is then processed through various process steps and the finished
products are taken out at specific times. Steps:

■ Feed is charged into vessel

■ Process is started

■ No mass is added or removed from vessel (temperature and pressure are

usually monitored and controlled)

■ At some conditions or fixed time, products are removed.

In a batch process no material is exchanged with the surroundings during the

process.

Examples: baking cookies, fermentations, small-scale chemicals

(pharmaceuticals).

3. A Semi-batch process (also called semi-continuous) is a process that has some

characteristics Continuous and batch processes.

Examples: washing machine, fermentation with purge etc.

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Types of Material Balance Problems

First let us look at the types of material balance problems that arise in chemical
engineering. There are four basic types of problems:

(1) Flow sheet material balance models for continuous processes operating in the
steady state,
(2) Mixing and blending material balances,
(3) Flow sheet material balances for non-steady state processes, either continuous or
batch, and
(4) Process data analysis and reconciliation.

1. A flow sheet is a schematic diagram of a process which shows at various levels of

detail the equipment involved and how it is interconnected by the process piping .

A flow sheet material balance shows the flow rates and compositions of all streams
entering and leaving each item of equipment.
Most of the emphasis on material balance problems has been on continuous processes
operating in the steady state. Again one might ask why. The reason is simple. Of the
total tonnage of chemicals produced, the vast majority is produced using continuous
steady-state Processes. This includes oil refineries as well as chemical plants
producing large tonnage products such as sulfuric acid, ethylene, and most of the
other commodity chemicals, petrochemicals and polymers. It has been found that the
most economical and efficient way to produce such chemicals on a large scale is via
the continuous process operating in the steady-state. This is the reason for the
emphasis on this type of material balance problem.

2. Mixing and blending material balances:

Another class of material balance problems is those involving blending and mixing.
A substantial number of the products produced by the chemical processing industries
are blends or mixtures of various constituents or ingredients.

Examples of blends are gasoline and animal feeds; of precise mixtures,

prescription drugs and polymeric resins.

Dynamic material balance problems arise in the operation and control of continuous
Processes. Also, batch processes, by their very nature, are dynamic. In either case we
must consider how the state of the process varies as a function of time. In addition to
determining the flow rates and compositions of the interconnecting streams, we must
also follow the changes in inventory within the process itself.

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3. In the three types of problems just discussed, we are interested in predicting the
Performance of the process or equipment. Our models start by assuming that the law
of Conservation of mass is obeyed.

4. Process data analysis and reconciliation:

A fourth type of problem, which encountered by engineers in the plant, starts with
actual operating data, generally flow rates and compositions of various streams.
The problem is to determine the actual performance of the plant from the available
data.
This, in many ways, is a much more difficult problem than the first three. Why?
Simple.
The data may in error for one reason or another. A flow meter may be out of
calibration or broken entirely. A composition measurement is not only subject to
calibration errors but sampling errors as well. Thus the first thing one must do when
dealing with plant data is to determine, if possible, whether or not it is accurate. If it
is, then we can proceed to use it to analyze it to determine process performance. If
not, we must try to determine what measurements are in error, by how much, and
make the appropriate corrections to the data. This is known as data reconciliation
and is possible only if we have redundant measurements.

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 Mass Balance Technique

The law of conservation of matter states that matter is conserved--that is, neither
created nor destroyed. Thus, if we know the amount of material that enters a chain
of processes, and keep an account of all the amounts in different paths, we can
calculate quantities of materials that are hard to measure. For example, we can
calculate the amount of material entering the atmosphere if we know the amounts
that went in, the transformations, and the waste streams to land and water. This
method is called the Mass or Material Balance technique.

An example of a process from everyday life is sewage treatment (Figure 2).

Wastewater is generated in your homes and is collected with the sewer system and
transported to a treatment plant. When asked what happens to the sewage at the
plant, most people say that the pollutants are removed from the water and the
relatively "clean water" is then discharged to a water body. But what happens to the
pollutants that are removed? In the treatment process, these pollutants are
transferred from the water to the air, and to solid material known as sludge, or
biosolids. And, a small amount remains in the "clean water." These waste products
must be taken care of so that they do not affect the environment. A mass balance
can be used to determine how much pollutant is in each of its various forms.

Figure : Schemes of a waste water sewage treatment plant.

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Mass Relations in Balanced Equations Example Problem
Example: 01

Material balance on water in a reservoir.

A water reservoir initially contains 100 tonne of water. Over a period of time 60 tonne of water
flow into the reservoir, 20 tonne of water flow out of the reservoir and 3 tonne of water are lost
from the reservoir by evaporation. Water is not involved in any chemical reactions in the
reservoir.

Problem:
What is the amount of water in the reservoir at the end of the period of time? [Answer in tonnes
of water]

Solution:
Define the system = the reservoir

Specify the quantity = mass of water [conserved quantity]

Write the balance equation:

ACC of water = IN of water – OUT of water + GEN of water – CON of water

in system to system from system in system in system

Interpret the terms:

Accumulation of water = final mass of water – initial mass of water = unknown = X
in system in system in system

Input of water to system = 60 tonne

Output of water from system = 20 (flow) + 3 (evaporation) = 23 tonne
Generation of water in system = 0 (water is conserved) tonne
Consumption of water in system = 0 (water is conserved) tonne

Substitute values for each term into the general balance equation
X = 60 – (20 + 3) + 0 – 0

Solve the balance equation for the unknown.

X = 37 tonne
Final mass of water in system= Initial mass of water in system + X = 100 + 37 = 137 tonne

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Example 02

Material balance on the population of a country.

A country had a population of 10 million people in 1900 AD. Over the period from 1900 to 2000
AD, 4 million people immigrated into the country, 2 million people emigrated from the country, 5
million people were born in the country and 3 million people died in the country.

Problem:
What is the population of the country in the year 2000 AD?

Solution:
Define the system = country
Specify the quantity = number of people
[A non-conserved quantity]

Immigration 1--►- Country -- 2-------► Emigration

5E6 births
3E6 deaths
Write the balance equation:

ACC of people = IN of people – OUT of people + GEN of people – CON of people

in system to system from system in system in system

Interpret the terms:

Accumulation = Final no. of people in system – Initial no.of people in system = unknown = X

Input of people to system = immigration = 4 million people

Output of people from system = emigration = 2 million people
Generation of people in system = born = 5 million people
Consumption of people in system = died = 3 million people

Substitute values into the general balance equation

X = 4 – 2 + 5 – 3 = 4 million people

Final number of people in 2000 AD:

Initial no. of people in 1900 + X = 10 + 4 = 14 million

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Example 03shows a slightly more difficult case of a non-conserved quantity involving
chemical reaction stoichiometry.

Material balances on carbon dioxide from an internal combustion engine.

An automobile driven by an internal combustion engine burns 10 kmol of gasoline5 consisting

of 100% octane (C8H ) and converts it completely to carbon dioxide and water vapour by a
combustion reaction, whose stoichiometric equation is:

2C8H18 + 25O2->16 CO2 + 18H2O Reaction 1

All CO2 and H2O produced in the reaction is discharged to the atmosphere via the engine’s
exhaust pipe (i.e. zero accumulation).

Assume CO2 content of input combustion air = zero

Problem: What is the amount of carbon dioxide discharged to the atmosphere from 10
kmol octane? [Answer in kg of CO2]

kmol= kilomole= molar mass (molecular weight) expressed as kilograms.

1 kmol C8H18 = (12.01)(8) + (1.008)(18) = 114.22 kg = 162 litre = 43 US gallons, i.e. about 3 tanks of
gasoline (a.k.a. petrol)for a family car.

Solution: First note that the amount (mass or moles) of CO2 is not a conserved quantity. Chemical
reactions involve the consumption of reactant species and the generation of product
species, so that no species appearing in the stoichiometric equation is conserved when a
reaction occurs.

Define the system = automobile internal combustion engine

Specify the quantity = mol (kmol) of CO2 [mole quantities give the simplest calculations for
chemical reactions]

(Gasoline + air)- IC ►Exhaust gas out

in Engine

Write the balance equation:

ACC of CO2 = IN of OUT of CO2 + GEN of CON of

CO2 CO2 CO2 in
system
in system to system from system in system

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Interpret the terms:

Accumulation of CO2 in system =0 kmol (all CO2 is discharged)

Input of CO2 to system = 0kmol(zero CO2 enters engine)

Output of CO2 from system = unknown =X kmol

Generation of CO2 in system = (16/2)(consumption of C8H18 in system)= (16/2)(10 kmol)

= 80kmol(from stoichiometry of Reaction 1)

Consumption of CO2 in system = 0kmol(CO2 is a product, not a reactant)

Substitute values for each term into the general balance equation.

0 = 0 – X + 80 – 0

Solve the balance equation for the unknown “X”.

X = 80 kmol CO2 discharged to atmosphere

= (80 kmol)(((1)(12.01) + (2)(16.00)) kg/kmol) = 3521 kg CO2

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Example 04

The balanced equation for the synthesis of ammonia is 3 H2 (g) + N2 (g) → 2 NH3 (g).

Calculate:
a. the mass in grams of NH3 formed from the reaction of 64.0 g of N2
b. the mass in grams of N2 required for form 1.00 kg of NH3

Solution:

From the balanced equation, it is known that:

1 mol N2 ∝ 2 mol NH3

Use the periodic table to look of the atomic weights of the elements to calculate the weights of
the reactants and products:

1 mol of N2 = 2(14.0 g) = 28.0 g

1 mol of NH3 is 14.0 g + 3(1.0 g) = 17.0 g

These relations can be combined to give the conversion factors needed to calculate the mass in
grams of NH3 formed from 64.0 g of N2:

mass NH3 = 64.0 g N2 x 1 mol N2/28.0 g NH2 x 2 mol NH3/1mol NH3 x 17.0 g NH3/1 mol NH3

mass NH3 = 77.7 g NH3

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To obtain the answer to the second part of the problem, the same conversions are used, in a series
of three steps:

(1) grams NH3 → moles NH3 (1 mol NH3 = 17.0 g NH3)

(2) moles NH3 → moles N2 (1 mol N2 ∝ 2 mol NH3)

(3) moles N2 → grams N2 (1 mol N2 = 28.0 g N2)

mass N2 = 1.00 x 103 g NH3 x 1 mol NH3/17.0 g NH3 x 1 mol N2/2 mol NH3 x 28.0 g N2/1 mol
N2

mass N2 = 824 g N2

Answer

a. mass NH3 = 77.7 g NH3

b. mass N2 = 824 g N2

22
Example 05
Air Pollution Mass Balance Calculation

A fabric filter (bag filter) is used to remove the dust from the inlet gas stream so that outlet gas stream
meets the required emission standards in a chemical industry. During an air pollution monitoring study, the
inlet gas stream to a bag filter is 169,920m3/hr and the dust loading is 4577 mg/m3. The outlet gas stream
from the bag filter is 185040m3/hr and the dust loading is 57 mg/m3. What is the maximum quantity of ash
that will have to be removed per hour from the bag filter hopper based on these test results?

Solution:

Based on dust balance,

Mass (in) = Mass (out)

Inlet gas stream dust = outlet gas stream dust + Hopper Ash

1) The inlet and outlet dust quantities in kg per hour

Inlet dust quantity = 169920 (m3/hr) x4577 (mg/m3) x 1/1000000 (kg/mg) = 777.7 kg/hr

Outlet dust quantity = 185040 (m3/hr) x 57 (mg/m3) x 1/1000000 (kg/mg) = 10.6 kg/hr

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2) Quantity of ash that will have to remove from the hopper per hour

Hopper ash = Inlet gas dust quantity - Outlet gas dust quantity

= 777.7 kg/hr-10.6 kg/hr

= 767.1 kg/hr

Example 06
Batch Mixing Process
200 kg of a 40% w/w methanol/water solution is mixed with 100 kg of a 70% w/w methanol/water
solution in a batch mixer unit.

What is the final quantity and composition?

Solution:

Total initial mass = total final mass = 300 kg

Initial methanol mass = final methanol mass

80 + 70 = final methanol mass = 150 kg

Therefore final composition of batch is (150/300) x 100 = 50 % by wt.

24
Example 07

In a drying process moisture is reduced from 60% to 30%. Initial weight of the material is 200 kg.
Calculate the final weight of the product.

Solution:

Initial mass = 200 kg

Initial moisture = 60%

Dry product = 200 - 200 * 0.6 = 80 kg

Let the mass of final product after drying is Y

Moisture in final product = 30% or 0.3Y

Applying mass balance equation:

Dry product + Moisture mass in final product = Mass of final product

80 + 0.3Y = Y

Or

Y= 114.3 kg

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Example 08

In a textile mill, an evaporator concentrates a liquor containing solids of 6% by w/w (weight by weight) to
produce an output containing 30% solids w/w. Calculate the evaporation of water per 100 kg of feed to the
evaporator.

Solution

Inlet solid contents = 6%

Outlet solids contents = 30%

Feed = 100 kg

Solids content in kg in feed = 100 x 0.06 = 6 kg

Since mass in = mass out, the outlet solid content should be = 6 kg

Quantity of water evaporated = [100 - (100/30) * 6] = 80kg

26
 Energy Balance
Introduction:

Energy is the capacity to do work or to transfer heat.

The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed. The total energy in the materials entering the processing plant, plus the
energy added in the plant, must equal the total energy leaving the plant. This is a more
complex concept than the conservation of mass, as energy can take various forms such
as kinetic energy, potential energy, heat energy, chemical energy, electrical energy and
so on. During processing, some of these forms of energy can be converted from one to
another; say for instance mechanical energy in a fluid can be converted through friction
into heat energy or chemical energy in food is converted by the human body into
mechanical energy. It is the sum total of all these forms of energy that is conserved.
Example: Consider the pasteurizing process for milk, in which milk is pumped through
a heat exchanger and is first heated and then cooled. The energy affecting the product
is the heat energy in the milk. Heat energy is added to the milk by the pump and by the
hot water passing through the heat exchanger. Cooling water then removes part of the
heat energy and some of the heat energy is also lost to the surroundings. The heat
energy leaving in the milk must equal the heat energy in the milk entering the
pasteurizer plus or minus any heat added or taken away in the plant.
Heat energy leaving in milk = initial heat energy
+ heat energy added by pump
+ heat energy added in heating section
- heat energy taken out in cooling section
- heat energy lost to surroundings.
The law of conservation of energy can also apply to part of a process.
For example, considering only the heating section of the heat exchanger in the
pasteurizer, the heat lost by the hot water must be equal to the sum of the heat gained
by the milk and the heat lost from the heat exchanger to its surroundings.

27
Energy flow diagrams

An energy flow diagram is a good way to show what happens to the energy in a
system that is changing. To make an energy flow diagram, first write down the
different forms that energy takes in the system. For example take a case of battery
operated drill machine. Chemical energy, stored in the battery, is converted to
electrical energy flowing through wires. The motor converts electrical energy to
mechanical energy. The rotation of the motor is transferred to the drill bit by gears.
The output work of the drill is force turning the drill bit and cutting wood. The
energy balance for this application is illustrated below:

The diagram shows that input energy is 100J out of which the useful work is 28J and 72J is wasted
energy due to friction and heat.

28
Steady State Energy Balance

Unlike mechanical systems, energy flow in natural systems tends to be in a steady state.
Steady state means there is a balance between energy in and energy out so that the total
energy remains the same.

For example, on earth, radiant energy from the sun is energy input. This energy is
converted into many different forms through different processes. Much of the energy
from the sun is absorbed by oceans and lakes and used to drive the water cycle. Some
water evaporates into the air, carrying energy from the warm water into the atmosphere.
The water vapor goes up into the atmosphere and cools, releasing its energy to the air.
The cooled water condenses into droplets as precipitation, which falls back to the
ground. Eventually, the rainwater makes its way back to the ocean through rivers and
groundwater and the cycle begins again. The water cycle moves energy from the oceans
into the atmosphere and creates weather.
However, the average energy of the earth stays about the same because energy input
is balanced by energy radiated back into space (energy output).

29
 Energy Balance in Chemical Engineering
A calculation used in designing industrial processes in which all energy flows
&transformations, such as changes in temperature, heats of reaction, use of steam or
other sources of heat, etc., are accounted for.

Usually called a mass and energy balance because both are necessarily part of the
calculation because of multiple materials involved, chemical reactions, phase changes,
etc. and partial treatment of some of the materials.

Energy balances are widely used in the chemical, petroleum, pulp and paper
industries.

A balance occurs when the energy input equals energy expenditure.

Law of Conservation of Energy:

30
ENERGY BALANCE may refer to:

First law of thermodynamics, according to which energy cannot be created or destroyed, only
modified in form.

Energy balance (biology), In biology, energy homeostasis, or energy balance, are an aspect
of bioenergetics concerning the energy flow through living systems, by metabolism. Energy
homeostasis involves the human body using chemical and neural signals to adjust the amount of
energy flows; and to regulate caloric intake by signaling the brain to regulate the sensation of hunger.
Fifty percent of the energy from glucose metabolism is immediately converted to heat .

Energy balance (energy economics),Energy balance in terms of energy economics is concerned

with all processes within an organization, that have an reference to energy. It derives from the Eco
balance and has the ambition to analyze and verify the emergence, transformation and use of energy
resources in an organization in detail. Energy balances serve as a major statistical data base
for energy policy and energy management decisions. They contain important information such as the
amount and composition of energy consumption, its changes or the transformation of energy.
Energy economics, where the energy balance of a country is an aggregate presentation of all human
activities related to energy, except for natural and biological processes.

Groundwater energy balance, The groundwater energy balance is the energy balance of
a groundwater body in terms of incoming hydraulic energy associated with groundwater inflow into
the body, energy associated with the outflow, energy conversion into heat due to friction of flow, and
the resulting change of energy status and groundwater level.
Energy returned on energy invested (EROEI), In physics, energy economics and ecological
energetics, (EROEI ); is the ratio of the amount of usable energy acquired from a particular energy
resource to the amount of energy expended to obtain that energy resource. [1][2] When the EROEI of a
resource is less than or equal to one, that energy source becomes an "energy sink", and can no longer
be used as a primary source of energy.

Energy accounting, a system used within industry, where measuring and analyzing the energy
consumption of different activities is done to improve energy efficiency.

31
Steps in Solving Energy Balance Problems

Now let's try some illustrative examples to see how to apply the energy balance to
common engineering situations. The general procedure is this:

• Draw and label the diagram

• Decide which terms are negligible in the general energy balance equation
• Simplify the energy balance by dropping out negligible terms
• Do a DOF(Degree of freedom) analysis to see if the problem is solvable and the
order in which to solve the problem
• Solve as much of the mass balance as possible
• Plug masses into the energy balance and solve it

Simplification of the energy balance equation for your particular problem is a key step that
you should always do. There are very few cases where every term in the general energy
balance equation would be significant to the problem. Try these examples to get a handle
on when certain terms can be discarded.

32
Types of Energy
In order to write an energy balance, we need to know what kinds of energy can enter or
leave a system. Here are some examples (this is not an exhaustive list by any means) of
the types of energy that can be gained or lost.

1. A system could gain or lose kinetic energy, if we're analyzing a moving system.
2. Again, if the system is moving, there could be potential energy changes.
3. Heat could enter the system via conduction, convection, or radiation.
4. Work (either expansion work or shaft work) could be done on, or by, the system.
The total amount of energy entering the system is the sum of all of the different types
entering the system. Here are the expressions for the different types of energy:

1. From physics, recall that . If the system itself is not moving, this is
zero.
2. The gravitational potential energy of a system is where g is the
gravitational constant, m is mass in kg and h is the height of the center of mass of
the system. If the system does not change height, there is no change in GPE.
3. The heat entering the system is denoted by Q, regardless of the mechanism by
which it enters (the means of calculating this will be discussed in a course on
transport phenomenon). According to this book's conventions, heat entering a
system is positive and heat leaving a system is negative, because the system in
effect gains energy when heat enters.
4. The work done by or on the system is denoted by W. Work done BY a system is
negative because the system has to "give up" energy to do work on its
surroundings.
5. For example, if a system expands, it loses energy to account for that expansion.
Conversely, work done ON a system is positive.

33
Energy Flows due to Mass Flows
Accumulation of anything is 0 at steady state, and energy is no exception. If, as we
have the entire time, we assume that the system is at steady state, we obtain the energy
balance equation:

This is the starting point for all of the energy balances below.
Consider a system in which a mass, such as water, enters a system, such as a cup, like
so:

The mass flow into (or out of) the system carries a certain amount of energy,
associated with how fast it is moving (kinetic energy), how high off the ground it is
(potential energy), and its temperature (internal energy). It is possible for it to have
other types of energy as well, but for now let's assume that these are the only three
types of energy that are important. If this is true, then we can say that the total
energy carried in the flow itself is:

34
However, there is one additional factor that must be taken into account. When a mass
stream flows into a system it expands or contracts and therefore performs work
on the system. An expression for work due to this expansion is:

Since this work is done on the system, it enters the energy balance as a positive
quantity. Therefore the total energy flow into the system due to mass flow is as
follows:

Now, to simplify the math a little bit, we generally don't use internal energy and the PV
term. Instead, we combine these terms and call the result the enthalpy of the stream.
Enthalpy is just the combination of internal energy and expansion work due to the
stream's flow, and is denoted by the letter H:

35
Enthalpy is a defined thermodynamic potential, designated by the letter "H", that consists of
the internal energy of the system (U) plus the product of pressure (p) and volume (V) of the system:[1]

Since enthalpy, H, consists of internal energy, U, plus the product of pressure (p) and the volume (V)
of the system, which are all functions of the state of the thermodynamic system, enthalpy is a state
function.

The unit of measurement for enthalpy in the International System of Units (SI) is the joule, but other
historical, conventional units are still in use, such as the British thermal unit and the calorie.

The enthalpy is the preferred expression of system energy changes in many chemical, biological, and
physical measurements, because it simplifies certain descriptions of energy transfer. Enthalpy change
accounts for energy transferred to the environment at constant pressure through expansion or heating.

The total enthalpy, H, of a system cannot be measured directly. The same situation exists in classical
mechanics: only a change or difference in energy carries physical meaning. Enthalpy itself is a
thermodynamic potential, so in order to measure the enthalpy of a system, we must refer to a defined
reference point; therefore what we measure is the change in enthalpy, ΔH. The change ΔH is positive
in endothermic reactions, and negative in heat-releasing exothermic processes.

For processes under constant pressure, ΔH is equal to the change in the internal energy of the system,
plus the work that the system has done on its surroundings. [2] This means that the change in enthalpy
under such conditions is the heat absorbed (or released) by the material through a chemical reaction or
by external heat transfer. Enthalpies for chemical substances at constant pressure assume standard state:
most commonly 1 bar pressure. Standard state does not, strictly speaking, specify a temperature
(see standard state), but expressions for enthalpy generally reference the standard heat of formation at
25 °C.

Enthalpy of ideal gases and incompressible solids and liquids does not depend on pressure,
unlike entropy and Gibbs energy. Real materials at common temperatures and pressures usually closely
approximate this behavior, which greatly simplifies enthalpy calculation and use in practical designs
and analyses.

36
SYSTEM

A system is a collection of matter within defined boundaries.

There are two types of system: closed system and open system.

Closed System:

In closed systems, nothing leaves the system boundaries. A truly closed system would have to be
completely insulated or completely isolated. As an example, consider the fluid in the cylinder of a
reciprocating engine during the expansion stroke. The system boundaries are the cylinder walls and the
piston crown. Notice that the boundaries move as the piston moves.

This system does not exist in nature; however, our solar system can be considered an essentially closed
system.

Examples of closed systems:

Mixtures of water and steam in a closed vessel

Gas expanding in a piston- cylinder

Open System:

In open systems there is a mass transfer across the system's boundaries; most systems are open - they
interact with their environment. For instance the steam flow through a steam turbine at any instant may
be defined as an open system with fixed boundaries.

37
A candle imports oxygen and it exports carbon dioxide, carbon particles and heat. The more
complicated example of a pond takes in air, water and sediment, while yielding insects, fish and water
plants. Most human-designed organizations are open - they have inputs and outputs.

Examples of open systems:

Water entering boiler and leaving as steam

Gases flowing through turbine

Gas expanding from pressurized container, through a nozzle.

Isolated system

A system is termed as isolated system if neither matter nor energy is allowed to transfer across the
boundary. A truly isolated system can only be obtained ideally.

38
Conservation of Energy:

Here is a fundamental principle of physics, known as the first law of thermodynamics -

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only be transformed. In a closed
system or tank, the energy remains constant i.e. if the energy at the start is Q0 then it
remains at Q0. In an open system, if the storage does not change, the ingoing and outgoing
energy must be equal.

If the storage changes, this must be reflected in the energy balance and the energy input
to a system might not balance the energy that goes out. For instance as in fig below, the
system on the left, the input is 75 units of energy but only 60 units go out. Since the first
law requires that the energy be conserved, system had to gain 15 units of energy. In the
right system the input is short 15 units of energy so we can infer that the system must
have lost 15 units.

The sinks are depositories of leakage or rejected energy. It is usually low-grade heat, as
in respiration, an engine exhaust, or a non-insulated hot water heater. The outputs
represent useful work.

39
How can energy be lost in a system?

As discussed before, energy can manifest itself in many forms such as heat, kinetic
energy, chemical energy, potential energy but because of inter-conversions, it is not
always easy to isolate separate constituents of energy balances. Saying energy is "lost"
really means it changes into a form you are not counting. Most often the "uncounted" energy
is work done against friction. This work changes other forms of energy into heat and wear.
If you could measure every form of energy, you would find that the tires of the car and the
track became a little warmer. Some rubber was worn off the tires and some wood was worn
off the track. Wear means grinding away molecules from surfaces. This means breaking
bonds between molecules, which takes energy. If you could add it all up you would find
that all the energy at the start is still there at the end, just in different forms. This loss of
usable energy is due to many causes -

• In mechanical systems it is friction

• In electrical systems it is resistance
• In fluid systems it is turbulence, viscosity or mixing
• In communication systems it is noise
We are seldom concerned with internal energies in manufacturing industry and for all
practical approaches to energy conservation, the application of energy balances tend to
focus on "heat balances". When unfamiliar with the relative magnitudes of the various
forms of energy (oil, gas, coal, steam, chilled water or electricity) entering and exiting a
particular processing situation, it is best to put them all down and convert them to
equivalent "Heat Energy".

40
Energy Transfer Diagram

Most of the machines or devices we use transfer energy from one form to another. Input
energy is taken in by the device in one form and transformed to output energy in another
form.

The basic data needed for an energy analysis is an energy balance of each process section.
The objective is to define in detail the energy input, energy utilized, and the energy
dissipated or wasted. This is best represented by a Sankey diagram.

An energy transfer diagram or a Sankey diagram is used to show the transfer of energy
across a process or a device. It is a flow diagram in which the widths of the arrows show
the relative amounts of each type of energy.

Or

The Sankey diagram is very useful tool to represent an entire input and output energy
flow in any energy equipment or system such as boiler, fired heaters, furnaces after
carrying out energy balance calculation.

Usually the flows are represented by arrows. The width of the arrows is proportional to the
size of the actual flow. Better than numbers, tables or descriptions, this diagram represents
visually various outputs (benefits) and losses so that energy managers can focus on finding
improvements in a prioritized manner.

41
 Fig: 1

An energy transfer diagram for a power station along with a Sankey diagram is shown in fig: 1.

42
 Fig: 2

Figure .2 shows a Sankey diagram for a reheating furnace.

From the Figure 2, it is clear that exhaust flue gas losses are a key area for priority
attention.

Since the furnaces operate at high temperatures, the exhaust gases leave at high
temperatures resulting in poor efficiency. Hence a heat recovery device such as air
preheater has to be necessarily part of the system. The lower the exhaust temperature,
higher is the furnace efficiency.
Having identified the individual energy uses and wastes, the engineer can determine if
these energy wastes could be recovered economically.

43
Device Light Bulb Energy Saving Light Bulb

Energy Electrical Energy Heat and Light Electrical Energy Heat and Light Energy
Transfer Energy
Diagram
Sankey
Diagram

Efficiency Efficiency = 5/100 x 100 Efficiency = 15/60 x 100

Efficiency = 5% Efficiency = 25%

Explanation Energy cannot be created nor destroyed. It Energy saving light bulbs work on the
can only be transformed from one form to principle of fluorescence. Here the electrical
another. Thus the 100J of electrical energyenergy is supplied to electrodes which
is transformed to 5 J of light energy and generate fast moving electrons that pass
95J of heat energy. In the case of the light
through a tube containing mercury gas. On
bulb the 95J of energy transferred as heat
collision with the mercury atoms ultraviolet
is wasted energy as it is not useful because
the purpose of the device is to produce light is produced which then collides with
light. the phosphor atoms coated around the tube
converting the ultraviolet to visible light.
An ordinary light bulb works on the Here a greater proportion of the electrical
principle of a thin wire (filament) being energy is converted to useful light, thus the
heated by the resistance to the electrical energy saving light bulb is a more efficient
current. At a temperature of about 1100°C device.
it glows with a bright white light. As the

44
 electrical energy is required in heating the
wire hence this is why most of the energy
is given off as heat. Lamps which give of
light when hot are called incandescent.

Tip

Energy cannot be created nor destroyed. It can only be transformed from one form to
another (the law of conservation of energy).

When energy is transformed or transferred only part of it can be usefully transformed

or transferred. The energy which is not usefully transformed or transferred is referred
to as wasted energy.

Both the useful energy and the wasted energy which is transformed or transferred are
eventually transferred to their surroundings which become warmer. As the energy
spreads out it becomes more difficult to use for further energy transformations.

The greater the percentage of the energy that can be usefully transformed by a device
the higher its efficiency.

45
 Energy Balance Problems

A few Problems for energy generation, distribution and utilization are illustrated
below:

Problem #1: Combustion Analysis

A boiler uses coal as primary fuel for raising steam. The manufacturer recommends
air-fuel ratio of 1:12 for optimum combustion i.e. 12 kg of air is required per kg of
coal. Calorific value of coal is 4200 kCal /kg with ash content of 22%. What is the
quantity (in kg) flue gas generated by burning 5 kg coal?

Flue gas quantity (per kg of coal) = combustion air + quantity of fuel- ash

= 12 + 1 -0.22 = 12.78 kg

Quantity of flue gas by burning 5 kg of coal: 5 x 12.78 = 63.9Kg

46
Problem #2: Fuel Analysis

A sample of coal from the mine is found to contain 67.2% carbon and 22.3% ash.
The refuse obtained at the end of combustion is analyzed to contain 7.1% carbon and
the rest is ash. Compute the % of the original carbon un burnt in the refuse.

Data:

Coal - 67.2% carbon

Ash- 22.3%

Refuse-7.1%

Carbon Ash - 92.9%

Solution:

Basis: 100 kg of coal

Ash remains the same in refuse and coal

Mass of carbon in coal = 67.2 kg

Mass of ash in coal = 22.3 kg

Mass of ash in refuse = 22.3 kg

Mass of refuse = 100/92.9 x 22.3 = 24 kg

Quantity of carbon in refuse = 7.1/100 x 24 = 1.704 kg

% of original carbon remaining un burnt in the refuse = 1.704/67.2 x 100 : 2.53%

47
Problem #3: Heat Exchanger

A shell and tube heat exchanger is cooled with stream of demineralized water.
Evaluate the total heat rejected to cooling water (kcal/hr), if the water flow rate is
200m3/hr and the temperature rise is 7°C.

Solution:

Heat rejected to the cooling water (Q) = m * Cp * AT

Where

m = mass of water (kg /hr) = 200 x 1000 = 200000kg/hr

Cp = Specific heat of water = 1 kcal/kg °C

AT = Temperature rise = 7°C

Therefore

Q = 200000 * 1 * 7 = 1400000 Kcal/hr

48
Problem #4: Furnace

A furnace shell has to be cooled from 90°C to 55°C. The mass of the furnace shell is
2 tonnes; the specific heat of furnace shell is 0.2 kCal/kg °C. Water is available at
28°C. The maximum allowed increase in water temperature is 5°C. Calculate the
quantity of water required to cool the furnace. Neglect heat loss.

Solution:

Energy Stream #1

Mass of furnace shell (m) = 2000 kg

Specific heat (Cp) = 0.2 kCal/kg °C

Initial furnace temperature (T1) = 90°C

Desired furnace shell temperature (T2) = 55°C

Total heat that has to be removed from the furnace = m x Cp x (T1 - T2) = 2000 x 0.2
x (90- 55) = 14000 kCal

Energy Stream #2

Quantity of water required =

X kg Specific heat of water =
1 kCal/kg °C

Inlet cooling water temperature (T3) = 28°C

Maximum cooling water outlet temperature (T4) = 33°C

Heat removed by water = X * 1 * (33 -28) = 5X Kcal

For energy balance: Energy Stream #1 = Energy Stream #2

Or quantity of water required (X) = 14000/5 = 2800 kg

49
Problem #5: Boiler Blow down

A boiler is fed with soft water containing 120 mg/l dissolved solids. As per IS
standards the maximum dissolved solids in the boiler should not exceed 3500 mg/l
for boilers, operating up to 2 MPa. In order to maintain the specified level, a
continuous blow down system is adopted. Find the percentage of feed water which
will be blown down.

Solution:

Basis 1 kg of feed water

Let blow down quantity = X kg

Dissolved solids in blow down= 3500 mg/l

Per mass balance equation:

X* 3500 = 120*1

X = 0.0343 kg or

% blow down = 0.0343/1 x 100 = 3.43%

50
Problem #6: Dryer heat balance

A textile dryer is found to consume 4 m3/hr of natural gas with a calorific value of
800 kJ /mole. If the throughput of the dryer is 60 kg of wet cloth per hour, drying it
from 55% moisture to 10% moisture, estimate the overall thermal efficiency of the
dryer taking into account the latent heat of evaporation only.

Solution:

1) Initial moisture in wet cloth =60 x 0.55 = 33 kg moisture

2) Bone dry cloth = 60 x (1 -0.55) = 27 kg bone dry cloth
3) Final product moisture content 10% = 27/9 = 3 kg
4) So moisture removed /hr = 33 - 3 = 30 kg/hr
5) Latent heat of evaporation = 2257 kJ/k
6) Heat necessary to supply = 30 x 2257 = 6.8 x 104 kJ/hr

7) Assuming the natural gas to be at standard temperature and pressure at which 1

mole occupies
8) 22.4 liters
9) Rate of flow of natural gas = 4 m3/hr = (4x1000)/22.4 = 179 moles/hr
10)Heat available from combustion = 179 x 800 = 14.3 x 104 kJ/hr
11)Approximate thermal efficiency of dryer = heat needed / heat used = 6.8 x 104
/14.3 x 104 = 48%

To evaluate this efficiency more completely it would be necessary to take into

account the sensible heat of the dry cloth and the moisture, and the changes in
temperature and humidity of the combustion air, which would be combined with the
natural gas. However, as the latent heat of evaporation is the dominant term, the
above calculation gives a quick estimate and shows how a simple energy balance
can give useful information.

51
Problem #7: Autoclave heat balance in canning

An autoclave contains 1000 cans of pea soup. It is heated to an overall temperature

of 100 °C. If the cans are to be cooled to 40 °C before leaving the autoclave, how
much cooling water is required, if it enters at 15 °C and leaves at 35 °C? Note the
additional information below:
The specific heats of the pea soup and the can metal are respectively 4.1 kJ/ kg °C
and 0.50 kJ/ kg °C.

The weight of each can is 60g and it contains 0.45 kg of pea soup.

Assume that the heat content of the autoclave walls above 40 °C is 16000 kJ and that
there is no heat loss through the walls.
Solution

Let w = the weight of cooling water required; and the datum temperature be 40°C,
the temperature of the cans leaving the autoclave.

Heat entering

1) Heat in cans = weight of cans x specific heat x

temperature above datum = 1000 x 0.06 x 0.50 x (100-
40) kJ = 1800 kJ
2) Heat in can contents = weight pea soup x specific heat x
temperature above datum = 1000 x 0.45 x 4.1 x (100 - 40) =
110700 kJ
3) Heat content in the autoclave = 16000 kJ
4) Heat in water = weight of water x specific heat x temperature
above datum = wx4.186 x (15-40) =-104.6 wkJ.
5) Total Heat Entering = 1800 + 110700 + 16000 - 104 w = 128500-104.6 w

52
Heat leaving

1) Heat in cans = 1000 x 0.06 x 0.50 x (40-40) (cans leave at datum temperature) =
0
2) Heat in can contents = 1000 x 0.45 x 4.1 x (40-40) = 0
3) Heat leaving the autoclave = 0
4) Heat in water = w x 4.186 x (35-40) = -20.9 w
5) Total heat leaving = -20.9 w
Heat- Energy balance of cooling process; 40°C as datum line

Total heat entering = Total heat leaving

127800-104.6 w =-20.9 w or

w= 1527 kg

Therefore amount of cooling water required = 1527 kg

53
Problem #8- Refrigeration load

It is desired to freeze 10,000 loaves of bread each weighing 0.75 kg from an initial room
temperature of 18°C to a final temperature of-18°C. The bread-freezing operation is to be carried
out in an air-blast freezing tunnel. It is found that the fan motors are rated at a total of 80
horsepower and measurements suggest that they are operating at around 90% of their rating,
under which conditions their manufacturer's data claims a motor efficiency of 86%. If 1 ton of
refrigeration is 3.52 kW, estimate the maximum refrigeration load imposed by this freezing
installation assuming (a) that fans and motors are all within the freezing tunnel insulation and (b)
the fans but not their motors are in the tunnel. The heat-loss rate from the tunnel to the ambient air
has been found to be 6.3 kW.

Extraction rate from freezing bread (maximum) = 104 kW

Fan rated horsepower = 80

Now 0.746 kW = 1 horsepower and the motor is operating at 90% of rating,

And so (fan + motor) power = (80 x 0.9) x 0.746 = 53.7 kW

(a) With motors + fans in tunnel

Heat load from fans + motors = 53.7 kW Heat

load from ambient = 6.3 kW Total heat load =
(104 + 53.7 + 6.3) kW= 164 kW = 46 tons of
refrigeration

(b) With motors outside, the motor inefficiency = (1- 0.86) does not impose a load on the
refrigeration

Total heat load = (104 + [0.86 x 53.7] + 6.3)

= 156 kW

= 44.5 tons of refrigeration

In practice, material and energy balances are often combined as the same stoichiometric information is needed for both.

54
Problem #9 - Evaporation Rate

Production rate from a paper machine is 340 tonnes per day (TPD). Inlet and outlet dryness to
paper machine is 40% and 95% respectively. Evaporated moisture temperature is 80 °C. To
evaporate moisture, the steam is supplied at 3.5 kg/cm2. Latent heat of steam at 3.5 kg/cm2 is
513kCal/kg.

Assume 24 hours/day operation a) Estimate the quantity of moisture to be evaporated b) Input

steam quantity required for evaporation (per hour). Consider enthalpy of evaporated moisture as
632kcal/kg.

Solution

Production rate from a paper machine: 340 TPD or 14.16 TPH (tonnes per hour)

Inlet dryness to paper machine: 40%

Outlet dryness from paper machine: 95%

Estimation of moisture to be evaporated

Paper weight in final product: 14.16 x 0.95 = 13.45 TPH

Weight of moisture before dryer: [(100-40) / 40] = 20.175 TPH

Weight of moisture after dryer: [(100- 95) / 95] = 0.707 TPH

Evaporated moisture quantity: 20.175 - 0.707 = 19.468 TPH

Input steam quantity required for evaporation

Evaporated moisture temperature: 80 °C

Enthalpy of evaporated moisture: 632kCal/kg

Heat available in moisture (sensible & latent): 632 x 19468 = 12303776kCal/h

For evaporation minimum equivalent heat available should be supplied from steam

Latent Heat available in supply steam (at 3.5 kg/cm2 (a)) = 513 kCal/kg

Quantity of steam required: 23984 kg or 23.98 MT/hour

55
Problem #10- Compressor Heat Balance

Almost all the electrical energy consumed by a compressor is changed into heat. On
screw compressors, approximately 94% of this heat is given up to the cooling
system, approximately 4% remains in the compressed air and approximately 2% is
radiated from the compressor into the immediate surroundings. Further the 94% of
the overall electrical energy loss consists of heat dissipated in the fluid cooler (72%),
the after-cooler (13%) and heat radiated from the drive motor (9%). Refer to the heat flow Sankey
diagram below:

Because of the high cost of electricity today, it is important to minimize this loss or
to recover it efficiently by transferring the heat into a medium and then transporting
it to where the heat can be utilized. If water is to be heated, the oil in the fluid cooler
is chosen as the transfer medium so that only 72% of the overall power consumption
is available for water heating. If a combination of hot water and space heating is
chosen then a maximum of 72% is available for water heating and at least 22% for space heating.
56
 Fluid Flow

Introduction

Fluid mechanics, a special branch of general mechanics, describes the laws of liquid
and gas motion. Flows of liquids and gases play an important role in nature and in
technical applications, as, for example, flows in living organisms, atmospheric
circulation, oceanic currents, flows in rivers, wind- and water loads on buildings and
structures, gas motion in flames and explosions, aero- and hydrodynamic forces acting
on airplanes and ships, flows in water and gas turbines, pumps, engines, pipes, valves,
bearings, hydraulic systems, and others.

OR

The natural science of fluids (liquids & gases) in motion is called fluid flow.

Importance of Fluid mechanics in chemical Engineering

The Fluid Mechanics is essential in Chemical Engineering because the majority of

chemical –processing operations are conducted either partly or totally in the fluid
phase.

Examples of such operations abound in the Biochemical, chemical, energy,

fermentation, materials, petroleum, pharmaceutical, polymers and waste-processing
industries.

57
What is fluid?

A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the application of shear stress,
no matter how small the shear stress may be.

A fluid may be a liquid, vapor, or gas.

Liquids, in contrast, have strong intermolecular forces and tend to retain constant
volume.
A liquid occupies only its own volume and forms a free surface which is at the same
pressure as any gas touching it.

The term vapor denotes a gaseous substance interacting with its own liquid phase, for
example, steam above water. If this phase interaction is not important, the vapor is
simply termed a gas.

Gases have weak intermolecular forces and expand to fill any container. Left free,
gases expand and form the atmosphere of the Earth. Gases are highly compressible;
doubling the pressure at constant temperature doubles the density.

58
Terms used in fluid flows:

1) Path line: - The path traced by a single fluid in motion over a period of time is called its path line.
If an individual particle of fluid is coloured, it will define its path line. Thus the path line shows the
direction of the velocity of the same particle at successive instant of time.

(2) Streak line or filament line :-It is instantaneous picture of all the fluid particles in the flow
which have passed through a given fixed point. Injecting a stream of dye into a liquid, or smoke into a
gas, the result will be streak line.

(3) Stream line: - A streamline is an imaginary line drawn through the flow field in such a way that
the velocity vector of the fluid at each and every point on the streamline is tangent to the stream line
at that instant. Since at any point on a stream line the velocity is tangential to the streamline, so the
component of velocity at right angles to the stream line is always zero. Thus there can be no flow
occurring across any streamline. Streamlines cannot ever cross each other. If they cross, the fluid
particle will have two velocities at the point of intersection and that is physically impossible.

(4) Stream tube: - It may be defined as a tubular space formed by the collection of streamlines
passing through the perimeter of a closed curve. Since there is no flow across a streamline, the fluid
inside the stream tube cannot escape through its walls, and behaves as if it were contained in an
imaginary pipe.

Types of fluid flows:

(1) Steady flow :- It is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid characteristics like pressure,
velocity, density, etc. at a point do not change with respect to time.

(2) Unsteady flow :-It is defined as the flow in which the fluid characteristics like pressure, velocity,
density, etc. at a point changes with respect to time.

(3) Uniform flow :- It is defined as that type of flow in which the flow parameters like pressure,
velocity, density, etc. at a given time do not change with respect to space.

(4) Non-Uniform flow: - The flow in which the flow parameters like pressure, velocity, density, etc.
at a given time change with respect to time.

(5) Laminar flow: - The flow in which the fluid particles move in layers or lamina with one layer
sliding over another is called laminar flow.

(6) Turbulent flow: - The flow in which the fluid particles move in zigzag way is called the turbulent
flow.

59
60
Measurement of fluid flow:

❖ Venturi meter
❖ Orifice meter

Venturi meter
The Venturi meter is a device used to measure the speed of a fluid traveling through a pipe.

The Venturi meter was invented by Clements Hershel in 1887 and has been named in the honour of
an Italian Engineer Venturi.

The venturi meter consists of three parts:

(i) A short converging part

(ii)Throat

(iii)Diverging part

61
Working Principle of venturi meter:

Two cylinders are inserted in small holes in the pipe, since the cross-sectional area is
different at the two places, the speed and pressure will be different there also. The
difference (h) in the heights of the two columns can easily be measured, as can the
cross-sectional areas and. Notice that points A1 and A2 in the figure are both at the
same vertical height.

Fig: 1 Fig: 2

62
 Orifice meter
Pipe orifice is a device used for measuring the rate for measuring the rate of flow of a
fluid through a pipe.

It is also called orifice plate.

The orifice meter consists of a thin, circular plate with a hole in it.

The plate is held in the pipeline between two flanges.

Pipe orifice is a cheaper device as compared to venturi meter.

It also works on the same principle as of venturi meter.

OR

An orifice plate is a device used for measuring flow rate, for reducing pressure or for
restricting flow (in the latter two cases it is often called a restriction plate). Either a
volumetric or mass flow rate may be determined, depending on the calculation
associated with the orifice plate. It uses the same principle as a Venturi nozzle, namely
Bernoulli's principle which states that there is a relationship between the pressure of the
fluid and the velocity of the fluid. When the velocity increases, the pressure decreases
and vice versa.

Working Principle of orifice plate:

An orifice plate is a thin plate with a hole in it, which is usually placed in a pipe. When
a fluid (whether liquid or gaseous) passes through the orifice, its pressure builds up
slightly upstream of the orifice but as the fluid is forced to converge to pass through the
hole, the velocity increases and the fluid pressure decreases. A little downstream of the
orifice the flow reaches its point of maximum convergence, the vena contracta (see
drawing below) where the velocity reaches its maximum and the pressure reaches its
minimum. Beyond that, the flow expands, the velocity falls and the pressure increases.
By measuring the difference in fluid pressure across tappings upstream and downstream
of the plate, the flow rate can be obtained from Bernoulli's equation using coefficients
established from extensive research.

63
Vena contracta:
Vena contracta is the point in a fluid stream where the diameter of the stream is the least,
and fluid velocity is at its maximum, such as in the case of a stream issuing out of
a nozzle, (orifice).
It is a place where the cross section area is minimum.

Modern orifice meters

64
 Heat transfer

What is Heat?

Heat is form energy (thermal energy).

How heat creates?

All matter is made up of molecules and atoms. These atoms are always in different types
of motion (translation, rotational, vibrational). The motion of atoms and molecules
creates heat or thermal energy.

All matter has this thermal energy. The more motion the atoms or molecules have the
more heat or thermal energy they will have.

Heat transfer:

Heat transfer is a basic science that deals with the rate of transfer of thermal energy.

OR

Heat transfer describes the exchange of thermal energy, between physical systems
depending on the temperature and pressure, by dissipating heat.

How is heat transferred?

Heat can be transferred from one system to another as a result of temperature difference.

The heat transfer continues until the two objects have reached thermal equilibrium and
are at the same temperature.

Modes of Heat transfer

The fundamental modes of heat transfer are:

Conduction or diffusion, convection, &Radiation.
All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature difference.

65
1. Conduction or diffusion:

The transfer of energy between objects that are in physical contact or the transfer of
energy from one part of body to another part of same body is called conduction.

In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules
during their random motion.

In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in a lattice and the
energy transport by free electrons.

e.g. Picking up a hot cup of coffee

Touching a metal spoon that is sitting in a pot of boiling water

Using a heating blanket to get warm

A pot sitting on a hot burner.

2. Convection:

The transfer of energy between an object and its environment, due to fluid motion.

or

The mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that
is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion.

The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heats transfer.

In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between a solid surface and the
adjacent fluid is by pure conduction.

E.g. Macaroni rising and falling in a pot of boiling water

A heater, boiling water.

66
Types of convection:

1. Forced convection:
If the fluid is forced to flow over the surface by external means such as fan, pump, or
the wind.

2. Natural (or free) convection: If the fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces that
are induced by density differences due to the variation of temperature in the fluid.

Fig showing cooling of a boiled eggby forced and natural convection.

3. Radiation

The transfer of energy from the movement of charged particles within atoms is
converted to electromagnetic radiation.

The transfer of heat by radiation involves the carrying of energy from an origin to the
space surrounding it.

e.g. The sun on your skin

A person placing their cold hands over a warm fire

67
Figures showing modes of heat transfer

68
 Mass transfer

Mass transfer is the net movement of mass from one location, usually meaning a stream,
phase, fraction or component, to another. Mass transfer occurs in many processes ,such
as absorptionevaporation, adsorption, drying, precipitation, membrane filtration,
and distillation.

Mass transfer is used by different scientific disciplines for different processes and
mechanisms. The phrase is commonly used in engineering for physical processes that
involve diffusive and convective transport of chemical species within physical systems.

Mass transfer finds extensive application in chemical engineering problems. It is used in

reaction engineering, separations engineering, heat transfer engineering, and many other
sub-disciplines of chemical engineering.

Some common examples of mass transfer processes are the evaporation of water from a
pond to the atmosphere, the purification of blood in the kidneys and liver, and the
distillation of alcohol.

In industrial processes, mass transfer operations include separation of chemical

components in distillation columns, absorbers such as scrubbers, absorbers such as
activated carbon beds, and liquid-liquid extraction. Mass transfer is often coupled to
additional transport processes, for instance in industrial cooling towers. These towers
couple heat transfer to mass transfer by allowing hot water to flow in contact with hotter
air and evaporate as it absorbs heat from the air.

69
DISTILLATION COLUMNS:

Distillation columns are one of the most often used types of separation equipment in
industry.

ABOUT DISTILLATION

Distillation is one of the most common liquid-liquid separation processes, and can be
carried out in a continuous or batch system.

Distillation works by the application and removal of heat to exploit differences

in relative volatility. The heat causes components with lower boiling points to be
vaporized, leaving less volatile components as liquids. This makes separations of close-
boiling and azeotropic feeds difficult, so special distillation techniques have to be used
to separate these mixtures.

Distillation can be used to separate binary or multi-component mixtures. Many

variables, such as column pressure, temperature, size, and diameter are determined by
the properties of the feed and the desired products.

Distillation column

70
ABSORBERS

Absorbers bring gas and liquid phases in contact, so that contaminants in the gas phase absorb into
the liquid phase as a result of their interaction.

ABOUT ABSORPTION

During absorption, soluble components of a gas mixture dissolve into a liquid. The animation below
demonstrates that as the two streams contact, mass transfer of the soluble components takes place.

Scrubber
Scrubber systems are a diverse group of air pollution control devices that can be used to remove
some particulates and/or gases from industrial exhaust streams. Traditionally, the term "scrubber"
has referred to pollution control devices that use liquid to wash unwanted pollutants from a gas
stream.
Recently, the term is also used to describe systems that inject a dry reagent or slurry into a dirty
exhaust stream to "wash out" acid gases. Scrubbers are one of the primary devices that control
gaseous emissions, especially acid gases. Scrubbers can also be used for heat recovery from hot gases
by flue-gas condensation.
ADSORBERS

Adsorption involves the separation of a substance from one phase, accompanied by the accumulation
of that substance at the surface of another phase.

ACTIVATED CARBON
Activated carbon is used to remove pollutants from air or water streams, both in the field and in
industrial process such as spill cleanup, groundwater remediation, drinking water filtration, air
purification, and the capture of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Activated carbon filters and
carbon filter media are also used in odor control and reverse osmosis applications.

71
Process control

Process control is an engineering discipline that deals

with architectures, mechanisms and algorithms for maintaining the output of a specific
process within a desired range.

OR

Activities involved in ensuring a process is predictable, stable, &

consistently operating at the target level of performance with only normal variation.

for instance, the temperature of a chemical reactor may be controlled to maintain a

consistent product output.

Process control is extensively used in industry and enables mass production of

consistent products from continuously operated processes such as oil refining, paper
manufacturing, chemicals, power plants and many others.

Process control enables automation, by which a small staff of operating personnel can
operate a complex process from a central control room.

72
Types of processes using process control

In practice, processes can be characterized as one or more of the following forms:

1. Discrete – Found in many manufacturing, motion and packaging applications.

Robotic assembly, such as that found in automotive production, can be characterized as
discrete process control. Most discrete manufacturing involves the production of
discrete pieces of product, such as metal stamping.

2. Batch – Some applications require that specific quantities of raw materials be

combined in specific ways for particular durations to produce an intermediate or end
result. One example is the production of adhesives and glues, which normally require
the mixing of raw materials in a heated vessel for a period of time to form a quantity of
end product. Other important examples are the production of food, beverages and
medicine. Batch processes are generally used to produce a relatively low to
intermediate quantity of product per year (a few pounds to millions of pounds).

3. Continuous – Often, a physical system is represented through variables that are

smooth and uninterrupted in time. The control of the water temperature in a heating
jacket, for example, is an example of continuous process control. Some important
continuous processes are the production of fuels, chemicals and plastics. Continuous
processes in manufacturing are used to produce very large quantities of product per
year (millions to billions of pounds).

Applications having elements of discrete, batch and continuous process control are
often called hybrid applications.

73
 Mixing

In industrial process engineering, mixing is a unit operation that involves manipulation

of a heterogeneous physical system with the intent to make it more homogeneous.

Or

“Mixing is the process of thoroughly combining different materials to produce a

homogenous product”.

The mixture is generally a combination of dissimilar materials.

In other cases, a chemically homogenous material may be mixed to produce a uniform

lot of a desired weight/volume with consistent particle size distribution, color, texture,
and other required attributes.

Familiar examples include pumping of the water in a swimming pool to homogenize

the water temperature, and the stirring of pancake batter to eliminate lumps (DE
agglomeration).

Some classes of chemical reactors are also mixers.

With the right equipment, it is possible to mix a solid, liquid or gas into another solid,
liquid or gas.

A biofuel fermenter may require the mixing of microbes, gases and liquid medium for
optimal yield; organic nitration requires concentrated (liquid) nitric and sulfuric
acids to be mixed with a hydrophobic organic phase; production of pharmaceutical
tablets requires blending of solid powders.

The opposite of mixing is segregation.

A classical example of segregation is the Brazil nut effect.

74
Importance of Mixing

Mixing is a critical process because the quality of the final product and its attributes are
derived by the quality of the mix. Improper mixing results in a non-homogenous product
that lacks consistency with respect to desired attributes like chemical composition, color,
texture, flavor, reactivity, and particle size.

The wide variety and ever increasing complexity of mixing processes encountered in
industrial applications requires careful selection, design, and scale up to ensure effective
and efficient mixing. Improved mixing efficiency leads to shorter batch cycle times and
operational costs. Today's competitive production lines necessitate robust equipment
that are capable of fast blend times, lower power consumption, equipment flexibility,
ease of cleaning, and a gamut of customized features. In addition to blending
components, many modern mixers are designed to combine different process steps in a
single equipment, e.g. coating, granulation, heat transfer, drying, etc.

A mixer is no longer a generic production tool, but a critical and decisive business tool.
This is because profitability and competitive advantage are dependent upon subtle
improvements in Product Quality through gains in mixing performance and efficiency.
A recently published handbook on industrial mixing estimates the cost of poor mixing
to be as high as US $ 100 million/yr.

75
 Unit operation

In chemical engineering and related fields, a unit operation is a basic step in a process.
Unit operations involve a physical change or chemical transformation such as
separation, crystallization, evaporation, filtration, polymerization, isomerization, and
other reactions.
For example, in milk processing, homogenization, pasteurization, chilling,
and packaging are each unit operations which are connected to create the overall process.
A process may require many unit operations to obtain the desired product from the
starting materials, or feed stocks
The unit operations form the fundamental principles of chemical engineering.
Chemical engineering unit operations consist of five classes:

1. Fluid flow processes, including fluids transportation, filtration, and solids

fluidization.
2. Heat transfer processes, including evaporation, condensation, and heat exchange.
3. Mass transfer processes, including gas
absorption, distillation, extraction, adsorption, and drying.
4. Thermodynamic processes, including gas liquefaction, and refrigeration.
5. Mechanical processes, including solids transportation, crushing and
pulverization, and screening and sieving.

Chemical engineering unit operations also fall in the following categories which
involve elements from more than one class:

• Combination (mixing)
• Separation (distillation, crystallization, chromatography)
• Reaction (chemical reaction)
Furthermore, there are some unit operations which combine even these categories, such
as reactive distillation and stirred tank reactors.
Chemical engineering unit operations and chemical engineering unit processing form
the main principles of all kinds of chemical industries and are the foundation of
designs of chemical plants, factories, and equipment used.

76
Mixing classification:
The type of operation and equipment used during mixing depends on the state of materials being mixed
(liquid, semi-solid, or solid) and the miscibility of the materials being processed. In this context, the
act of mixing may be synonymous with stirring-, or kneading-processes.

Liquid-liquid mixing
Mixing of liquids is an operation which occurs frequently in process engineering. The nature of the
liquid(s) to be blended determines the equipment used for mixing; single-phase blending tends to
involve low-shear, high-flow mixers to cause liquid engulfment, while multi-phase mixing generally
requires the use of high-shear, low-flow mixers to create droplets of one liquid in another. Liquid-liquid
mixers operate in laminar, turbulent or transitional flow regimes, depending on the Reynolds
number of the flow. Turbulent or transitional mixing is frequently conducted
with turbines or impellers; laminar mixing is conducted with helical ribbon or anchor mixers.
Single-phase blending
Mixing of liquids that are miscible or at least soluble in each other occurs frequently in process
engineering (and in everyday life). An everyday example would be the addition of milk or cream to tea
or coffee. Since both liquids are water-based, they dissolve easily in one another. The momentum of
the liquid being added is sometimes enough to cause enough turbulence to mix the two, since the
viscosity of both liquids is relatively low. If necessary, a spoon or paddle could be used to complete the
mixing process. Blending in a more viscous liquid, such as honey, requires more mixing powerper unit
volume to achieve the same homogeneity in the same amount of time.
Multi-phase mixing
Mixing of liquids that are not miscible or soluble in each other often necessitates different equipment
than is used for single-phase blending. An everyday example would be the mixing of oil into water (or
vinegar), which necessitates the use of a whisk or fork rather than a spoon or paddle mixer. Specialized
mixers for this purpose, called high shear devices, or HSDs, rotate at high speeds and generate
intense shear which breaks up liquid into droplets.

Solid-solid mixing
Blending powders is one of the oldest unit-operations in the solids handling industries. For many
decades powder blending has been used just to homogenize bulk materials. Many different machines
have been designed to handle materials with various bulk solids properties. On the basis of the practical
experience gained with these different machines, engineering knowledge has been developed to
construct reliable equipment and to predict scale-up and mixing behavior. Nowadays the same mixing
technologies are used for many more applications: to improve product quality, to coat particles, to fuse
materials, to wet, to disperse in liquid, to agglomerate, to alter functional material properties, etc. This
wide range of applications of mixing equipment requires a high level of knowledge, long time
experience and extended test facilities to come to the optimal selection of equipment and processes.
One example of a solid-solid mixing process is mulling foundry molding sand, where
sand, bentonite clay, fine coal dust and water are mixed to aplastic, moldable and reusable
mass,applied for molding and pouring molten metal to obtain sand castings that are metallic parts
for automobile, machine building, construction or other industries.

77
Mixing mechanisms
In powder mixing two different dimensions in the mixing process can be determined: convective
mixing and intensive mixing. In the case of convective mixing material in the mixer is transported from
one location to another. This type of mixing process will lead to a less ordered state inside the mixer,
the components which have to be mixed will be distributed over the other components. With
progressing time the mixture will become more and more randomly ordered. After a certain mixing
time the ultimate random state is reached. Usually this type of mixing is applied for free-flowing and
coarse materials. Possible threat during macro mixing is the de-mixing of the components, since
differences in size, shape or density of the different particles can lead to segregation. In the convective
mixing range, Hosokawa has several processes available from silo mixers to horizontal mixers and
conical mixers. When materials are cohesive, which is the case with e.g. fine particles and also with
wet material, convective mixing is no longer sufficient to obtain a randomly ordered mixture. The
relative strong inter-particle forces will form lumps, which are not broken up by the mild transportation
forces in the convective mixer. To decrease the lump size additional forces are necessary; i.e. more
energy intensive mixing is required. These additional forces can either be impact forces or shear forces.

Liquid-solid mixing
Liquid-solid mixing is typically done to suspend coarse free-flowing solids, or to break up lumps of
fine agglomerated solids. An example of the former is the mixing granulated sugar into water; an
example of the latter is the mixing of flour or powdered milk into water. In the first case, the particles
can be lifted into suspension (and separated from one another) by bulk motion of the fluid; in the
second, the mixer itself (or the high shear field near it) must destabilize the lumps and cause them to
disintegrate.
One example of a solid-liquid mixing process in industry is concrete mixing, where cement, sand,
small stones or gravel and water are commingled to a homogeneous self-hardening mass, used in
the construction industry.
Solid suspension
Suspension of solids into a liquid is done to improve the rate of mass transfer between the solid and the
liquid. Examples include dissolving a solid reactant into a solvent, or suspending catalyst particles in
liquid to improve the flow of reactants and products to and from the particles. The associated eddy
diffusion increases the rate of mass transfer within the bulk of the fluid, and the convection of material
away from the particles decreases the size of the boundary layer, where most of the resistance to mass
transfer occurs. Axial-flow impellers are preferred for solid suspension, although radial-flow impellers
can be used in a tank with baffles, which converts some of the rotational motion into vertical motion.
When the solid is denser than the liquid (and therefore collects at the bottom of the tank), the impeller
is rotated so that the fluid is pushed downwards; when the solid is less dense than the liquid (and
therefore floats on top), the impeller is rotated so that the fluid is pushed upwards (though this is
relatively rare). The equipment preferred for solid suspension produces large volumetric flows but not
necessarily high shear; high flow-number turbine impellers, such as hydrofoils, are typically used.
Multiple turbines mounted on the same shaft can reduce power draw.

Solid DE agglomeration
78
Very fine powders, such as titanium dioxide pigments, and materials that have been spray
dried may agglomerate or form lumps during transportation and storage. Starchy materials or those
which form gels when exposed to solvent may form lumps which are wetted on the outside but are dry
on the inside. These types of materials are not easily mixed into liquid with the types of mixers preferred
for solid suspension because the agglomerate particles must be subjected to intense shear to be broken
up. In some ways, deagglomeration of solids is similar to the blending of immiscible liquids, except for
the fact that coalescence is usually not a problem. An everyday example of this type of mixing is the
production of milkshakes from liquid milk and solid ice cream. The type of mixer preferred for solid
deagglomeration is a high-shear disperser or a low-power number turbine that can be spun at high speed
to produce intense shear fields which rip agglomerates into particles.

Liquid-gas mixing
Liquids and gases are typically mixed to allow mass transfer to occur. For instance, in the case of air
stripping, gas is used to remove volatiles from a liquid. Typically, a packed column is used for this
purpose, with the packing acting as a motionless mixer and the air pump providing the driving force.
When a tank and impeller are used, the objective is typically to ensure that the gas bubbles remain in
contact with the liquid for as long as possible. This is especially important if the gas is expensive, such
as pure oxygen, or diffuses slowly into the liquid. Mixing in a tank is also useful when a (relatively)
slow chemical reaction is occurring in the liquid phase, and so the concentration difference in the thin
layer near the bubble is close to that of the bulk. This reduces the driving force for mass transfer. If
there is a (relatively) fast chemical reaction in the liquid phase, it is sometimes advantageous to disperse
but not recirculate the gas bubbles, ensuring that they are in plug flow and can transfer mass more
efficiently.
Rushton turbines have been traditionally used do disperse gases into liquids, but newer options, such
as the Smith turbine and Bakker turbine are becoming more prevalent. One of the issues is that as the
gas flow increases, more and more of the gas accumulates in the low pressure zones behind the impeller
blades, which reduces the power drawn by the mixer (and therefore its effectiveness). Newer designs,
such as the GDX impeller, have nearly eliminated this problem.

Gas-solid mixing
Gas-solid mixing may be conducted to transport powders or small particulate solids from one place to
another, or to mix gaseous reactants with solid catalyst particles. In either case, the turbulent eddies of
the gas must provide enough force to suspend the solid particles, which will otherwise sink under the
force of gravity. The size and shape of the particles is an important consideration, since different
particles will have different drag coefficients, and particles made of different materials will have
different densities. A common unit operation the process industry to separate gases and solids is
the cyclone which slows the gas and causes the particles to settle out.

79
Multiphase mixing
Multiphase mixing occurs when solids, liquids and gases are combined in one step. This may occur as
part of a catalytic chemical process, in which liquid and gaseous reagents must be combined with a
solid catalyst (such as hydrogenation); or in fermentation, where solid microbes and the gases they
require must be well-distributed in a liquid medium. The type of mixer used depends upon the
properties of the phases. In some cases, the mixing power is provided by the gas itself as it moves up
through the liquid, entraining liquid with the bubble plume. This draws liquid upwards inside the
plume, and causes liquid to fall outside the plume. If the viscosity of the liquid is too high to allow for
this (or if the solid particles are too heavy), an impeller may be needed to keep the solid particles
suspended.

Laboratory mixing

A magnetic stirrer

At a laboratory scale, mixing is achieved by magnetic stirrers or by simple hand-shaking. Sometimes

mixing in laboratory vessels is more thorough and occurs faster than is possible industrially. Magnetic
stir bars are radial-flow mixers that induce solid body rotation in the fluid being mixed. This is
acceptable on a small scale, since the vessels are small and mixing therefore occurs rapidly (short blend
time). A variety of stir bar configurations exist, but because of the small size and (typically) low
viscosity of the fluid, it is possible to use one configuration for nearly all mixing tasks. The cylindrical
stir bar can be used for suspension of solids, as seen in iodometry, deagglomeration (useful for
preparation of microbiology growth medium from powders), and liquid-liquid blending. Another
peculiarity of laboratory mixing is that the mixer rests on the bottom of the vessel instead of being
suspended near the center. Furthermore, the vessels used for laboratory mixing are typically more
widely varied than those used for industrial mixing; for instance, Erlenmeyer flasks, or Florence
flasks may be used in addition to the more cylindrical beaker.

80
Types of Industrial mixing equipments /Mixers:

• Close clearance mixer

• High shear disperser
• Turbines (Rushton turbine, pitched blade turbine, hydrofoil, marine
propeller)
• Static mixer
• Ribbon Blender
• V Blender
• Continuous Processor
• Cone Screw Blender
• Screw Blender
• Double Cone Blender
• Double Planetary
• High Viscosity Mixer
• Counter-rotating
• Double & Triple Shaft
• Vacuum Mixer
• High Shear Rotor Stator
• Dispersion Mixers
• Paddle
• Jet Mixer
• Mobile Mixers
• Drum Blenders
• banbury mixer
• Intermix mixer

81
Chapter # 02
Industrial skills
What is Industry?
Industry is the production of an economic good or service within an economy.

Classification of industry:
Industries can be classified in a variety of ways,

Sector Definition

This involves the extraction of resources directly from the Earth; this includes farming
Primary , mining and logging.
They do not process the products at all. They send it off to factories to make a profit.

This group is involved in the processing products from primary industries.

Secondary This includes all factories—
those that refine metals, produce furniture, or pack farm products such as meat.

This group is involved in the provision of services. They include teachers, managers
Tertiary and other service providers.

This group is involved in the research of science and technology.

Quaternary
They include scientists.

Some consider there to be a branch of the quaternary sector called the quinary
sector, which Includes thehighest levels of decision making in a society or economy.
Quinary
This sector would include the top executives
Sector or officials in such fields as government, science, universities, nonprofit, healthcare, culture,
and the media.

There are many other different kinds of industries, and often organized into different classes or sectors by a
variety of industrial classifications.

Market based classification systems such as the Global Industry Classification Standard and the Industry
Classification Benchmark are used in finance and market research. These classification systems commonly
divide industries according to similar functions and markets and identify businesses producing related
products.

Industries can also be identified by product, such as: chemical industry, petroleum industry, automotive
industry, electronic industry, meat packing industry, hospitality industry, food industry, fish industry, software
industry, paper industry, entertainment industry, semiconductor industry, cultural industry, and poverty
industry.

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 Skills are often described as:

Job-Specific - Skills necessary to do a particular job such as the ability to use CNC machines or to use
power tools or to do federal tax returns.
Adaptive - basic skills such as reading, writing, and getting to work on time; these skills are often
referred to as school-to-work transition skills
Transferable - skills that can be used in many different job settings; the ability to speak before a group, to
organize and schedule, to research, and to solve problems

1. Job-Specific Skills - are those skills necessary to do a specific job. For example, if you were
to hire someone for a typist position, a necessary skill would be typing. You probably would
qualify typing by adding a speed requirement (e.g. 50 wpm). Are there job-specific skills that
both a medical doctor and a veterinarian have in common? Yes, both professions require the
ability to examine, diagnose and treat disease, dispense medication, perform surgery, etc. The
set of skills in both occupations is similar, but the patient is different. However, it is important to
remember that some jobs use the same or similar skills, but because of the client, or the
environment or industry, the job requirements may be different. The following is a list of some
job-specific skills:

operating fork lift repairing products reading

soldering engraving blueprints
filing data entry etching
customer service plastering taking
bricklaying preparing working stenography
designing drawings siding
hand-assembling setting up drill presses instructing
marketing hand-packing goods welding
barbering telemarketing filling orders from
producing video desktop publishing stock
cost accounting office cleaning
editing copy
analyzing budgets

2.Adaptive Skills - may be referred to as school-to-work transition skills or basic skills

necessary for acquiring and keeping a job. As we enter the 21st century, the workplace will be
more dependent on technology. Not only must people in the workforce know how to read, write,
and do math, they must also be able to use computers. The SCANS Report for America 2000
lists the competencies effective workers have as:

"... productively use resources, interpersonal skills, information, systems, and technology.
Competence requires a foundation of basic skills (reading, writing, arithmetic and mathematics,
speaking and listening); thinking skills (thinking creatively, making decisions, solving problems,
seeing things in the mind's eye, knowing how to learn, and reasoning); and personal qualities
(individual responsibility, self-esteem, sociability, self-management, and integrity)."

The following list is an example of the kinds of skills termed adaptive:

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 • Getting along with fellow employees
• Professional telephone technique
• Listening to and following directions
• Dependability
• Obeying safety regulations
• Ability to work independently

Transferable Skills - are skills that are useful in many job situations. Employers often ask for
good communication skills. This includes the adaptive skills of reading and writing, as well as the
transferable skills of public speaking, training, writing reports, etc. The following is a list of
several transferable skills:

• Synthesize data and concepts

• Analyze
• Make decisions
• Identify problems and provide solutions
• Delegate
• Persuade and lead
• Plan and organize projects and/or people
• Assess performance
• Train others
• Observe and evaluate things and/or people

Industrial Skills - work in a manufacturing setting to produce goods

Examples: setting up and operating machines, inspecting, managing inventory,

weighing/measuring/sorting objects.

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 Industry Specific Skills:

Attribute or Skill Definition Why employers want this?

Where you know how to do a
specific skill and often have a
qualification in it.
E.g. Using graphics tablets as a
Technical Knowledge graphic designer
Knowing how to do standard
stuff in an organization
usually can be found in the
staff handbook. Such as the
data protection act, how to
save files, backup files and
using the computer misuse
Working Procedures act.
There is a law you’re your
employer has to stick to keep you
safe. You have things to keep you
save and fit. Such as chairs to keep
you correctly postured, or laser
printers being correctly ventilated
Health and safety and the space around them.
So you can do your job
properly and do not need
to be told how to do
everything
So the company does not
end up being in trouble
or you lose all your work
and they have been
paying you for the
equivalent to nothing.
So you do not become ill
or injured and can work
effectively. They also
want you to know it so
you do not put others at
risk.

Other industrial skills are discussed below:

Math and reasoning skills Counts items in inventory & based on consumption rates
determines reorder amounts.
Inspection Inspects finished products for defects before preparing them for
shipment
Assembly Assembles products based on specific assembly instructions.

Reliability Consistently performs all job tasks as specified with little or no

supervision
Illegal drug use attitudes Operates forklift in a safe & proper manner

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 Ethics
What is meant by Ethics?

Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing,
defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct.

Or

The study of standards of conduct and moral judgment; moral philosophy.

Or

The system or code of morals of a particular person, religion, group or profession.

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 Ethics in Engineering
Ethics is part of engineering for two main reasons:

• Engineers need to be socially responsible when building products and processes

for society.

• Social responsibility requires professional responsibility.

SCOPE OF ENGINEERING ETHICS

Engineering as
Social
Experimentation
The Engineer’s
Moral Reasoning Responsibility for
and Ethical Theories Safety

Engineering
Engineers and Ethics Responsibility to
Manager, Consultants Employees
and headers

Rights of Engineers
Global Issues

Code of Engineering Ethics

Engineers in the fulfillment of their professional duties shall:

➢ Conduct themselves honorably, responsibly, ethically, and lawfully,

➢ So as to enhance the honor, reputation, and usefulness of the profession.
➢ Avoid deceptive acts.
➢ Issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner
➢ Perform services only in areas of their competence.
➢ Hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public

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 Typical Ethical Issues that Engineers Encounter

➢ Safety
➢ Acceptable risk
➢ Compliance
➢ Confidentiality
➢ Environmental health
➢ Data integrity
➢ Conflict of interest
➢ Honesty/Dishonesty
➢ Societal impact
➢ Fairness
➢ Accounting for uncertainty, etc.

Difference between Ethical behavior & Un Ethical behavior (in industrial basis)

Ethical behavior Un Ethical behavior

❖ Quality products ➢ Shoddy products
❖ Conservation of resources ➢ Waste, fraud, greed
❖ Pride in work ➢ Abuse of expertise
❖ Public safety ➢ Guilt, fear
➢ Lack of safety
❖ Timeliness ➢ Cutting corners (poor design &
rushed testing)

❖ Good Business ➢ Disasters

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 Chemical Economics
Economics is study of nature, composition, properties, laws and classification of wealth. Chemistry is
study of nature, composition, properties, laws and classification of matter. In simple words
economics is chemistry of wealth. Both are mirror images of each other. Every principle or law in
chemistry holds good for economics too. For example: Law of demand and supply, Quantity Theory,
Law of Diminishing Marginal returns/utility of economics are other way of putting chemistry's Law
of Mass Action.

A variety of costs involved! Sociological, environmental issues etc.

• The greater the amount of starting materials (reactants) the greater amount of new substances
(products) formed.

• However in the real world chemical processes are not 100% perfectly efficient!

The amount that you actually make is called the yield.

The percentage % yield = actual yield x 100 / predicted yield

The predicted yield assumes there is no loss of product, i.e. no waste, and the reaction goes 100% in
the desired direction.

If no product is obtained then the yield is 0%!

In reality, yields can typically range from 5% to 95% for a variety of chemical processes.

The lower the yield, the less efficient is the manufacturing process.

The atom economy is another important consideration.

% atom economy = mass of useful product x 100 / total mass of products

The larger the atom economy the less waste is produced.

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 Why aren't processes 100% efficient?

Typical reasons are:

Loss in filtration of a solid product, i.e. some may get through as very fine particles or more likely
dissolved in the liquid residue.

Loss in evaporation if the product is a volatile liquid.

Loss in transferring liquids, i.e. traces left on the sides of containers.

The reaction may be an equilibrium, so it’s impossible to get 100% yield anyway and this means
that the yield of an equilibrium reaction depends on the conditions used.

• The costs of making new substances depends on several factors and these days the idea of
'sustainable development' is really important and increasingly so!

1. Factors such as atom economy and % yield have already been discussed above.

2. Price and quantity of energy used (e.g. gas, electricity etc.).

▪ Manufacturing processes should be designed to work on the minimum possible

energy, it reduces costs and ultimately the impact of the manufacturing process
on the environment e.g. less energy used, less carbon dioxide produced.

3. Starting materials (reactants).

▪ We should recycle as much as possible e.g. plastics and metals, so that the
basic resources from the earth e.g. oil and mineral ores, goes as far as possible
into the future and minimising the impact on the environment.

4. Labour (wages).

5. Equipment (chemical plant e.g. machines, reactors, heat transfer systems).

6. Speed of manufacture (time efficiency).

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 These cost factors can be analysed in more detail e.g.

7. The higher the operating pressure of the reactor, the higher the cost. The
engineering is more costly due to e.g. thicker steel reaction vessel, higher health and
safety standards require.

8. The higher the temperature the higher the energy cost. Fortunately this cost is
reduced if the reaction is exothermic and the reaction does go faster at higher
temperature.

9. Time is money! so catalysts save time and money by speeding up the reaction.

10. The rate of reaction must be high enough to give a reasonable yield in reasonable
time e.g. at least within 24 hours for a continuously working plant.

11. Often with equilibrium reactions, it is possible to recycle unreacted starting

materials back through the reactor. The % yield must be high enough at least per
day, but an initial low yield is quite acceptable if the unreacted starting materials can
be recycled many times on a continuous basis through the reactor.

12. Optimum reaction conditions are geared to the lowest cost situation. This often
means 'balancing' the rate of reaction versus the highest % yield. It is often best to get
a low yield fast and recycle!

13. Automating the chemical plants with sensors, controls, computer software etc.
significantly reduces the wages bill.

14. Using an effective catalyst can reduce costs by increasing the rate of reaction (more
efficient) and lowering the energy requirements if the process can be done at lower
temperatures.

• Batch and continuous processes :

A batch process in chemical manufacturing is where the reactant chemicals (raw

materials/feedstock) have to me mixed in a reactor vessel or furnace etc. When the reaction is
completed as far as it will go, the product is then extracted.

▪ The reactor must then be cleaned out before it can be re-used to make the
next 'batch' by re-filling the reaction vessel with more reactants.

▪ It is generally less economic than continuous processes (see below). Typically

salts, drugs, alcohol from fermentation, making specialised steel alloys etc. are
examples of chemicals made by batch processes.

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In a continuous process the reactants are continuously fed into the reactor vessel or reaction
chamber and the products are continuously extracted and removed.

▪ This is usually more economic than batch processing because the is no

stopping and starting situation and the chemical plant may run for 6-12 months
before shutting down for essential maintenance or replenishing damaged
catalysts etc.

▪ Another advantage of a continuous processes is that unreacted chemicals can

usually be separated from the product and recycled through the reactor, so ALL
the chemical feedstock (the reactants) are eventually used up to form the
desired product.

Examples are: Blast furnace extraction of iron ,

Haber synthesis of ammonia,

Manufacturing sulphuric acid by the Contact process.

Factor Continuous Batch

Cost of factory equipment High Low

Rate of production High Low

Shut-down times Rare Often

Workforce Few people needed Many people needed

Ease of automation Relatively easy Relatively difficult

Locating a chemical works: Many factors need to be considered.

Good transport links to bring raw materials in and products out.

e.g. you need at least good road links and possibly rail or even water links

e.g. if factory was located on an estuary for importing iron ore to a steel works.

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 Environmental, and health and safety issues:

 e.g. how does the factory impact on the local population from the point of increase in road
traffic, dangers from chemicals and pollution from the chemical processes involved?
 How might it affect the surrounding natural environment e.g. the flora (plants) and fauna
(animals) of the locality if adjacent or close to 'green land'?
 Is the land suitable and planning permission granted?

e.g. the land well drained, stable, maybe a brown site of previously used land so as not to use
protected 'green belt' land.

Availability of suitable workforce:

➢ Are there enough people locally to operate the works & with the requisite skills?

The availability of raw materials and energy requirements:

✓ Are the raw materials available locally or are they readily imported in?
✓ Can the energy demands of the factory and offices be met by the e.g. the electricity grid?
✓ Is the supply of water sufficient for the chemical processes involved?

Recycling - way of saving on costs

❖ Recycling metals like aluminium and iron/steel saves on costs & allows a mineral resource
like iron ore to last a lot longer.
❖ Recycling metals may use as little as 5% of the energy used to transport ore, extract the metal
and process into a useful product either as the pure metal or alloy.

Therefore savings include, transport costs may be less, but more importantly

• Mining costs are omitted - mining, crushing all use energy and machinery, and the
• Cost of actually extracting the metal from its finite ore resource - eg the chemical and
processing plants costs etc.
• So, scrap metal merchants are doing a roaring trade at the moment.
• The savings are partly reduced by the cost off collecting waste/scrap metal and purifying them
for further use.
• Quoted figures from the 1990s (and some for 2008) for the UK (Britain), all are probably
increasing at the moment, but the data I have found at the moment - % of metal recycled in
metal products was
• Al aluminium 28% (39% in 2008), Cu copper 18% (32% in 2008), Fe iron 40% (42% in
2008), Pb lead 60%, tin 30%, zinc 30%
• As you can see, for a country with little economic metal mineral ore deposits, the percentages
are quite (and should be) high.

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 Chemical patent
❖What is a patent?
❖What is chemical patent?
❖Importance of chemical patent?
❖What is patenting process?
❖Why patent?
❖What can be patented?
❖What cannot be patented?
❖What are the requirements of a patent?

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Patent Definitions:

❖ A patent is an agreement between an inventor and a country or government.

The agreement permits the owner to exclude others from making, using or
selling the claimed invention.

❖ A Patent is a form of: “Intellectual property” which is a creation of the human

mind.

Intellectual property rights include:

✓ Patents

✓ Copyrights

✓ Trademarks

✓ Industrial designs

✓ Geographical indications

✓ Trade Secrets

✓ Trade dress

❖ A patent is Exclusive right for being the true and first inventor of a product or
process, granted by the govt. for a limited period, to exclude others from
making, using, selling or importing the patented product or process without his
consent, in exchange of full disclosure of his invention .

❖ A patent is an exclusive right granted for a product, process or an improvement

of a product or process which is new, inventive and useful.”

❖ A patent has a term of protection of twenty (20) years providing an inventor

significant commercial gain.” from the earliest filing date to which the invention
is entitled.

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Types of intellectual property with brief meaning:

1. Patent:

A patent is an exclusive right granted for an invention. Generally speaking, a patent

provides the patent owner with the right to decide how - or whether - the invention can
be used by others. In exchange for this right, the patent owner makes technical
information about the invention publicly available in the published patent document.

2. Copyright:

Copyright is a legal term used to describe the rights that creators have over their
literary and artistic works. Works covered by copyright range from books, music,
paintings, sculpture and films, to computer programs, databases, advertisements, maps
and technical drawings.

3. Trademark:
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A trademark is a recognizable sign, design or expression which distinguishes products
or services of a particular trader from the similar products or services of other traders.

Or

A trademark is a sign capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one enterprise

from those of other enterprises.

4. Industrial design:

An industrial design right protects the visual design of objects that are not purely
utilitarian.

An industrial design constitutes the ornamental or aesthetic aspect of an article. A

design may consist of three-dimensional features, such as the shape or surface of an
article, or of two-dimensional features, such as patterns, lines or color.

5. Geographical indications:

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Geographical indications and appellations of origin are signs used on goods that have a
specific geographical origin and possess qualities, a reputation or characteristics that
are essentially attributable to that place of origin. Most commonly, a geographical
indication includes the name of the place of origin of the goods.

6. Trade secret:

A trade secret is a formula, practice, process, design, instrument, pattern, commercial

method, or compilation of information which is not generally known or reasonably
ascertainable by others, and by which a business can obtain an economic advantage
over competitors or customers. In some international jurisdictions, such secrets are
referred to as "confidential information", but are generally not referred to as
"classified information" in the United States, since that refers to government secrets
protected by a different set of laws and practices.

7. Trade dress:

Trade dress is a legal term of art that generally refers to characteristics of the visual
appearance of a product or its packaging (or even the design of a building) that signify
the source of the product to consumers.

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Chemical patent
A chemical patent, pharmaceutical patent or drug patent is a patent for an
invention in the chemical or pharmaceuticals industry.

Strictly speaking, in most jurisdictions, there are essentially no differences between the
legal requirements to obtain a patent for an invention in the chemical or pharmaceutical
fields, in comparison to obtaining a patent in the other fields, such as in the mechanical
field.

A chemical patent or a pharmaceutical patent is therefore not a sui generis right, i.e. a
special legal type of patent.

Importance of chemical patent

In the pharmaceutical industry, the patent protection of drugs and medicines is

accorded a particular importance, because drugs and medicines can easily be copied or
imitated (by analyzing a pharmaceutical substance) and because of the significant
research and development spending and the high risks associated with the development
of a new drug.

Chemical patents are different from other sources of technical information because of
the generic, Markush structures contained within them, named after the inventor
Eugene Markush who won a claim in the US in 1925 to allow such structures to be
used in patent claims. These generic structures are used to make the patent claim as
broad as possible.

❖ Markush structures (-R) are chemical symbols used to indicate a collection of

chemicals with similar structures. They are commonly used in chemistry texts,
and also in patent claims.
In describing a chemical, a Markush structure allows the patent-holder to be
deliberately vague as to the most active/effective structural formula, concealing that
information from competitors.

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❖ Chemical inventions:

(1) They are not mechanical inventions

❖ Relatively tough to claim.

Where Claims (defines the invention being protected)

2) They encompass a broad range of inventions.

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 Why patent
➢ Patenting is Prestigious
o I did it!
o And I was first!
➢ Easy Publication – no editors.
➢ Licensing possibilities.
➢ Recoup dollars spent on R&D
➢ Expanded collaborations.
➢ Commercial advantage over competitors
➢ Provide valuable trading assets to help assure freedom to operate
&

To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for

limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their
respective writings and discoveries.

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The Patenting Process
An inventor or organization (the patent assignee) files a patent application in each
country in which patent protection is sought. Each country’s patent office puts the
application through an examination process to determine if the invention meets that
country’s criteria for a patent.

For example, in the U.S., a patent must represent an invention that is

(1) Novel, (2) non-obvious, and (3) has utility.

If the invention disclosed in the application meets the country’s criteria for a patent,
the patent is granted and the inventor has patent protection in that country.

• In each patent office in which an application is filed, an Application

Number and an Application Date are assigned to the document.
• The first filing application is considered the Priority Application and
the date of this application is the Priority Application Date.

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 What can be patented?

Anything that is made by man.

Or
Any technical solution of a problem in any field of human activity which is new,
involves an inventive step and is industrially applicable shall be Patentable.

Or
Whoever invents or discovers any new and useful process, machine,
manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement
thereof, may obtain a patent therefor,” subject to certain conditions.

Specific Examples of Patentable Subject Matter:

❖ Machine – screwdriver
❖ Improved machine – better screwdriver
❖ Compositions – new drugs
❖ Methods of making
❖ Methods of Using
❖ Methods of Treatment, e.g., a method for treating a disease
❖ Business Methods

What cannot be patented?

Few limitations are as under:

 An algorithm

 A theory or scientific principle,

e.g. the Theory of Relativity

 A human being

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Other limitations are also described below:

1. An invention which is frivolous, or claims anything contrary to existing natural

laws.

2. An invention whose use would be contrary to public order or morality, or which

will be prejudicial to health or environment.

3. Discovery of a scientific principle or the formulation of an abstract theory.

4. Discovery of any living thing or nonliving substance occurring in nature.

5. Discovery of a new property or use of a known substance, unless it results in a

new product.

6. A substance obtained by mere admixture.

7. Arrangement or rearrangement or duplication of known devices.

8. A method of agriculture or horticulture, seeds, etc.

9. Any process of medicinal, surgical application on human beings or a

animals to render them free of disease.

10. Plants, seeds, animals and biological processes for production or

propagation of plants and animals.

11. Computer program, per se, other than its application to industry or combination
with hardware (embedded software).

12. A mathematical method or a business method.

13. Literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, aesthetic creation including cinematic

work or television production.

14. A method of playing game, presentation of information.

15. Integrated circuits.

16. Traditional knowledge or aggregation of traditionally known components.

17. Atomic energy.

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 When to Patent?

1) Identify Innovation

2) Evaluate Research, Product Development, etc.

What are the Requirements for a Patent?

❖ New or Novel (Not already known)

e.g. that no other inventor has obtained a patent for the same invention.

❖ Not Obvious (an inventive step)

e.g. that the subject matter of an invention was not obvious at the time the
invention was made to a person having ordinary skill in the art to which the said
subject matter pertains.

❖ Utility (Useful or Capable of industrial application)

❖ Written Description (Details of the invention)

❖ Enabled (Must describe how to make and use the invention)

❖ Best Mode (The preferred way of practicing the invention known to the
inventors as of the filing date).

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