Chapter 2 – Review of Literature

The purpose of present chapter is to give an overview of some of earlier studies

on commercial aspect of waste management in India. This help in providing a
meaningful direction and thought for appropriate research questions and
policymaking. A review of literature is nothing but a review of theoretical,
empirical and methodological issues on the subject. In recent years, there has
been tremendous growth in the literature on waste product. Keeping in view the
limitation of research scholar in terms of time and resources, it is impossible to
examine all these literature and present a summary of the same in this Chapter.
The following paragraphs highlight these in the chronological order. We briefly
review some of the earlier studies on waste management in India to identify
gaps in research, if any, which would help in formulating the methodology of
present study.

2.1 Reviews on Waste Management Practices

CCME, (1996)1 in this study on waste management play a central role in

educational campaigns that are used to increase support and motivation for
waste diversion initiatives. The results of ongoing studies are also useful for
measuring progress towards achieving goals and objectives of a waste
management plan, and also in helping to review previously established targets.

Thøgerson & Grunert-Beckmann, (1997)2 In his study on waste management

concluded that focus on Participation and perception towards different waste
management plans can be affected by a variety of factors including: the level of
knowledge regarding the impacts of current and suggested actions; access to
adequate facilities; adequate knowledge and expertise to carry out what is
being asked; concern for the community; and knowledge of the results or
benefits of their actions.

53
McDougall, (2001)3 Reviewed in his study that waste collection is a critical
management of wastage. The environment and economic performance of the
entire system can be impacted by the way that materials are collected and
sorted. In many cases the collection point will be an interface where waste
generators and collectors that must be carefully managed if the system is to be
effective. Waste generators require waste collection with minimum
inconvenience, while collectors must be able to collect waste in a way that is
compatible with the planned treatment and processing methods if the waste
management system is to be sustainable.

Tchobanoglous & Kreith, (2002)4 In his study of solid waste management

concluded that Municipal solid wastes (MSW) is often described as the waste
that is produced from residential and industrial (non-process wastes),
commercial and institutional sources with the exception of hazardous and
universal wastes, construction and demolition wastes, and liquid wastes (water,
wastewater, industrial processes).

Bolaane, (2006)5 in his research focus on behavioural instruments. How they

play a vital role in waste management strategies through initiatives which
inform and educate. Waste audits, school programs, advertising, training, and
competitions are examples of these types of initiatives. Education has been
shown to be a critical component in encouraging public participation in
recycling programs.

Spiegel man, (2006)6 in his study on zero waste management concluded that
the, zero waste is on eliminating waste from the outset, it requires heavy
involvement primarily from industry and government since they are presented
with many advantages over individual citizens. In fact, zero waste will not be
possible without significant efforts and actions from industry and government.
Industry has control over product and packaging design, manufacturing
processes, and material selection. Due to the heavy involvement of industry in
eliminating waste, extended producer responsibility is often an essential

54
component of zero waste strategies. Meanwhile, governments have the ability
to form policy and provide subsidies for better product manufacturing, design
and sale; and the ability to develop and adopt comprehensive waste
management strategies, which seek to eliminate waste rather than manage it.

UC Davis, (2008)7 in his study focus on waste management and states that all
waste products can be displaced and even reusable products will eventually
need to be replaced. Glass, plastic and paper products are commonly collected
and reformed into new materials and products. Recycling products offer many
of the benefits of waste reduction efforts (displacing new material usage,
reducing waste generated and the costs associated with disposal) but recycling
requires energy and the input of some new materials, thus placing it lower on
the waste hierarchy than reduction and reuse.

Timlett & Williams, (2009)8 in his study focus on successful implementation

of a waste management plan. Raising awareness about different waste
management programs can have positive effects, but there are several methods,
which can be used to change behaviour to improve participation or correct
problems. Once new initiatives are introduced, people will need time to adjust
until the new plan becomes normal behaviour, but once this behaviour is
established, it is difficult to break. Educational and promotional tools such as
staff education, event promotion and training are essential for the successful
implementation of a waste management plan.

Smyth, (2010)9 in his study about waste management is completely focus on

education awareness regarding wastage utilisation. Information and education
can shift behaviour and help garner public support for waste management
initiatives and can help to build expertise. There are wide ranges of activities,
which may take place to further educational efforts. Waste characterization
studies and waste audits are critical to the process of designing and
implementing a waste management plan.

55
Townend, (2010)10 in his study focuses on restructuring production and
distribution systems to reduce waste. Zero waste provides guiding principles
for continually working towards eliminating waste and there are many
successful cases around the world, which resulted from the implementation of
the zero waste philosophy. An important consideration of the zero waste
philosophy is that it is more of a goal, or ideal rather than a hard target. Even if
it is not possible to eliminate waste due to physical constraints or prohibitive
costs, the zero waste philosophy has been adopted as a guiding principle by
several governmental organizations as well as industries.

USEPA, (2010)11 this study is centralize on prevention of wastage. Common

examples of waste reduction include using a reusable coffee mug instead of a
disposable one, reducing product packaging, and buying durable products,
which can be repaired rather than replaced. Reduction can also be achieved in
many cases through reducing consumption of products, goods, and services.
The most effective way to reduce waste is by not creating it in the first place,
and so reduction is placed at the top of waste hierarchies. Efforts to take action
to reduce waste before waste is actually produced can also be termed pre-
cycling. It is sometimes possible to use a product more than once in its same
form for the same purpose; this is known as reuse. Reusing products displaces
the need to buy other products thus preventing the generation of waste.
Minimizing waste through reduction and reuse offers several advantages
including: saving the use of natural resources to form new products and the
wastes produced in the manufacturing processes; reducing waste generated
from product disposal; and reducing costs associated with waste disposal.

2.2 Review on Adverse Affected of Rubber Waste in Construction

Kaush Kal Kishor (1993)12 in his study concluded that the rubber concrete
reduces the concrete strength; however, this may be used where M10 and M15
grade concrete is needed. According to study with proper mix design, about 20

56
percent density will be reduced in comparison to control mix when 30 percent
rubber aggregate is replaced with coarse aggregate of control mix.

Ramesh (2003)13 in his study reported that the part replacement of cement with
fly ash is accepted and pointed out further that approximately 25% of the
volume of cement of actual consumption is expected to be saved; thereby 15%
of cost of construction could be saved if fly ash is collected properly. He
indicated in their studies that the replacement of cement with high volume fly
ash up to 20% has been in practice for several years for durability and economy
for concrete roads.

Huang, (2004)14in his study concluded that that rubberized concrete has very
high toughness and pointed out further that its strength decreases significantly
as the rubber content increases. Revealed that the use of rubber 0-10% in
concrete gives good results for workability, density, cube compressive strength
after 28-days.Beyond that, use of rubber in concrete has negative results.

Barai (2005)15 in his research study reported for correction in water content is
necessary to obtain properties of normal concrete and found and reported 15%-
20%of recycled aggregates by volume can be used to achieve all the properties
of normal concrete.

Sagar (2007)16 in his study reported that fly ash concrete possessing higher
flexural strength and concluded that the fly ash can be utilized for constructing
semi-rigid pavements in the form of lime-fly ash concrete.

Dhir and Kevin (2010)17 in his study reported that the use of recycled
aggregates in construction is beneficial; with a certain limit of 3 %- 40% by
volume without altering the properties of concrete. Recycled and secondary
aggregates maximum 20%-30% by volume can be used without changing w/c
ratio for achieving all the required characteristics of normal concrete.

Sharma, (2010)18 in his study reported that the fly ash as a filler from different
power plants demonstrated good potential for their use in Bitumen Concrete

57
mixes. The durability of the concrete structures could be improved by using fly
ash as a mineral admixture and further concluded that up to 35% of the cement
could be replaced with fly ash without affecting the mechanical properties of
the concrete.

Sara, (2010)19 found that incorporation of rubber aggregates in concrete

obtained from waste tires, is a suitable solution to decrease the weight in some
engineering applications and underscored the necessity of further extensive
research in order to investigate the durability, toughness, etc. of rubberized
concrete. Based on the literature germane to the use of the different types of
waste materials that has been reviewed and its subsequent summarized
findings, it is seen that there are many studies carried out in India on the
utilization of these waste materials as the construction materials

Malagavelli and Paturu (2011)20 carried out an experimental investigation on

the performance of the concrete using solid waste fibres and found that the
increase in the load carrying capacity of concrete. It was reported that the
maximum 2% of fibres could be used for strength purpose and that up to 6%,
for disposal purpose.

2.3 Review on use of waste product in concrete

H.M.L. Schuura, (2007)21 in his study focus on the suitability of crushed

building and demolition waste as a raw material for the production of calcium
silicate products has been determined. The mechanical properties of the bricks
made with these wastes are comparable even better than those of bricks with
natural sand. Therefore, calcium silicate bricks have been produced by
replacing natural sand with crushed building and demolition waste of different
sources.

P. Aggarwal, Y. Aggarwal, S.M. Gupta, (2007)22 in his research studied the

effect of use of bottom ash (the coarser material, which falls into furnace
bottom in modern large thermal power plants and constitute about 20% of total

58
ash content of the coal fed in the boilers) as a replacement of fine aggregates.
An experimental investigation of various fresh and hardened properties of
concrete was reported. Tests were conducted on mixes of natural sand (known
as control mix), bottom ash and mixes having equal volumes of natural sand
and bottom ash. In addition, mixes were developed using high range water
reducing admixtures. The strength development for various percentages (0-
50%) replacement of fine aggregates with bottom ash can easily be equated to
the strength development of normal concrete at various ages. The results
indicated that the mixing water requirement increases rapidly when bottom ash
is used in the concrete, also inclusion of bottom ash has no significant influence
on the entrapped air content and setting times of fresh concrete. Due to the
higher water requirement and yield, the compressive strength properties of the
bottom ash and combined bottom ash and natural sand mixtures are lower than
those of the control samples.

L. A. Pereide Oliveira1 (2008)23 in his study focus on the possibility of using

ground waste glass as partial natural sand replacement in concrete. The results
showed a very significant compressive strength improvement with the
increasing of percentage replacement of natural sand by ground waste glass. A
higher compressive strength was obtained with a lower expansion verified by
the bar tests.

Ashok. H. Gurjar, (2010)24 found that used screenings i.e. fines produced as a
result of aggregate crushing as a substitute for natural sand in PCC and
concluded that screening can be used safely in blended form where durability is
not the main concern.

M. Mageswari1, and B.Vidivelli (2010)25 They studied that the sheet glass
powder (SGP) is suitable for use in concrete making when replaced in fine
aggregate for concrete in various sections as the tensile strength of cubes and
cylinders of the concrete for all mix increases than that of conventional
concrete.

59
Patitapaban Sahu, (2010)26 focus on the characterization of coal combustion
by-products (ccbs) for their effective management and utilization in concrete
and concluded that intermixing the fly ash with cement for civil construction
work, manufacture of bricks, and utilization as a road pavement material and
application as soil amendment medium for the plant growth.

Bahoria, D.K.Parbat, P.B.Naganaik and U.P.Waghe (2013)27 This paper

present literature review on replacement of natural sand by by-products and
recyclable waste materials which includes current and future trends of research
on the use of manufactured fine aggregate (MFA) in Portland cement concrete.
With natural sand deposits the world over drying up, there is an acute need for
a product that matches the properties of natural sand in concrete. In the last 15
years, it has become clear that the availability of good quality natural sand is
decreasing. With a few local exceptions, it seems to be a global trend. Existing
natural sand deposits are being emptied at the same rate as urbanization and
new deposits are located either underground, too close to already built-up areas
or too far away from the areas where it is needed, that is, the towns and cities
where the manufacturers of concrete are located. Environmental concerns are
also being raised against uncontrolled extraction of natural sand. The
arguments are mostly in regards to protecting riverbeds against erosion and the
importance of having natural sand as a filter for ground water. The above
concerns, combined with issues of preserving areas of beauty, recreational
value and biodiversity, are an integral part of the process of most local
government agencies granting permission to aggregate producers across the
world. This is the situation for the construction industry today and most will
agree that it will not change dramatically in the near future. Crushed aggregate,
bottom ash, foundry sand and various by-products are replacing natural sand
and gravel in most countries.

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2.4 Review on Wood Products Management

Rynk (1992)28 in his study on wood management states that the wood usually
generate a uniform product than grinders, but they may not have the throughput
capacity of grinders. Horizontal shredders are typically used for primary size
reduction. Further grinding and screening may be required for the production of
higher quality wood chips. This may not be necessary for the manufacture of
compost, as a range of particle sizes will facilitate the decomposition process.

Eaton and Hale, (1993)29 in his research paper mention that materials are
classified as „composite wood products‟ have wide-ranging chemical and
physical properties. In general, terms however, composite wood products may
construct using wood fibres, flakes, chips or shavings, veneers or paper. During
the manufacturing process, these materials are often combined with different
glues, resins, water repellents and preservatives to produce sheet boards. Some
examples of major composite wood products include. This variation originates
from the fast-paced development of technologies that aim to make these
products more resilient to physical, chemical and biological stresses.

Block, (1997)30 this review is wood product utilization of blending materials

that may not be readily available in city based composting facilities (e.g.
agricultural manures). For example, an on-farm manufacturer of compost in the
United States (Green valley Enterprises) blends crop residuals from corn,
soybean and wheat straw with wood chips, saw dust, other wood residuals (not
specified), cardboard and egg cartons.

McKeever, (1999)31 in his study observed that composite wood material

originating from new construction sites may be more predictable and
manageable than material from the demolition of older buildings, where (older)
lead-based paints or toxic banned chemicals (e.g. pentachlorophenol) may be
present. There are very few instances where composting operators have solely
worked with composite wood materials. In many instances, they receive a mix
of composite and solid wood products from C&D, C&I and municipal sources.

61
Merz (1999)32 in his study states that putting chemical issues of composite
wood residuals aside, compost produced from these feed stocks can be used for
the production of a variety of products. Composite wood composts comply
with Australian Standard AS 4454 (1999) for soil conditioners and mulches,
composite wood-based composts should attract similar markets to other
composts made from more traditional feed stocks. Manufacturers such as
Universal Wood Recycling (U.S.A.) and Weaver Industries Inc. (U.S.A)
process wood and timber residuals (with other feed stocks) for composts and
mulches (in addition to a number of other products) that are used for a range of
products. The manufacture of compost can be targeted towards low and high
value markets depending upon the composting process and quality of feedstock
used.

Warnken (1999)33 in his study observed that approximately 19 000 tones/year

of wood and timber residuals were generated by small timber related
businesses in western Sydney, of this material, 67% comprised composite
wood products. The report alluded to the potential re-use of these materials by
adopting size reduction and composting procedures. Unfortunately, at present,
detailed scientific information on the composting of composite wood material
is limited, as the majority of information is presented as case studies in industry
based journals. The absence of solid information has significant implications,
as composite wood products often possess a range of physical attributes and
chemical ingredients that may affect handling requirements and end-product
application. Consequently, significant caution and awareness of feedstock
variability is required prior to establishing an operation for the composting of
composite wood products.

University of New South Wales Sydney Australia Second Edition (2006)34

this review examines issues relating to the size reduction and composting of
composite wood products. The composting of these materials is not
widespread, possibly due to concerns pertaining to the potentially toxic effects
of some constituent chemicals (resins and preservatives) used during the

62
manufacture of composite wood products. Although many of these fears are
understandable, existing practices of placing these materials into landfill do not
exploit the highest net resource value of composite wood products.
Consequently, it is important to develop economic and environmentally
appropriate methods of recycling these materials, while at the same time
alleviating stresses on landfill sites. The size reduction of composite wood
materials requires similar machinery to that used for non-treated wood and
timber residuals. However, additional safety measures are required, as size
reduction, procedures may expose operators of machinery and nearby workers
to contaminated particulates or aerosols from the composite wood feedstocks.
Scientific literature and case studies indicate that composting wood and timber
residuals in combination with other materials is possible, subject to the
adoption of a number of safety measures throughout the manufacturing process
(principally during size reduction and composting stages). These precautions
are required to mitigate possible human, animal and plant health problems
during the composting process and from products.

2.5 Reviews on Solid Waste Management

Linnas, (2001)35 the Estonian Government had carried out an audit to assess
the necessary conditions for successful implementation of the waste policy.
Questionnaires and reports were used for the audit and concluded that the
management had serious shortcomings, such as lack of finance, in comparison
to the goal, lack of organisation in the management and no national waste
management plan and poor monitoring.

Ramachandra and Varghese (2003)36 in his study concluded that solid waste
generation is a continually growing problem at global, regional and local
levels. The problem is more acute in developing nations than in developed
nations, as their economic growth as well as urbanization is more rapid. Solid
wastes are those organic and inorganic waste materials produced by various
activities of the society, which have lost their value to the first user. Improper

63
disposal of solid wastes pollutes all the vital components of the living
environment (i.e., air, land and water) at local and global levels. Urban society
rejects and generates solid material regularly due to rapid increase in
production and consumption. This necessitates management of solid waste at
generation, storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal
stages in an environmentally sound manner in accordance with the best
principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics
and environmental considerations. Thus, solid waste management includes all
administrative, financial, legal, planning, and engineering functions

Ramachandra, T.V. and Bachamanda, S. (2007)37 in his study observed the

management of municipal solid waste has become an acute problem due to
enhanced economic activities and rapid urbanization. Increased attention has
been given by the government in recent years to handle this problem in a safe
and hygienic manner. In this regard, Municipal Solid Waste Management
(MSWM) environmental audit been carried out for Bangalore city through the
collection of secondary data from government agencies, and interviews with
stakeholders and field surveys. Field surveys were carried out in seven wards
(representative samples of the city) to understand the practice and identify the
lacunae.

Dewan J.M. and K.N. Sudarshan, (2010)38 In their study concluded that solid
wastes are unwanted materials disposed of by man, which can neither flow into
streams nor escape immediately into the atmosphere. These cause pollution in
water, soil and air. Solid waste is a statutory term that encompasses among
garbage refuse, or sludge from a waste treatment plant, water supply treatment
plant or air pollution control facility or other discarded material including solid
and semi-solid materials resulting from industrial operations, commercial
mining, agricultural operations and community activities. Solid Waste is the
term now used internationally to describe non-liquid waste materials arising
from domestic trade commercial, industrial, agricultural and mining activities.

64
Mohd Kasim (2013)39 Organizations that manage the solid waste at certain
designated areas. However, sometimes neglect the environmental elements
when they carry out their collection of solid waste activities. For instance, the
leach ate that sips out from the garbage collected either of residential or
commercial area. Therefore, implementation of ISO 14001 standards in solid
waste management companies are vital especially in Malaysia to protect the
environment, prevent pollution and improve environmental performance. ISO
14001 been implemented widely however in Malaysia; the percentage of
organizations implementing this standard is excessively small which only
0.46% is. This study was carried out to determine and analyze the adoption of
ISO 14001 standard especially in Malaysian organization. Both certified and
uncertified companies will be compared as to identify the difference of the
implementation of ISO 14001. Qualitative research was carried out through
personnel interviews and questionnaires. Visual Basic expert system will be
used as a tool to aid the company to achieve their environmental mission step
by step. The objectives had been achieved. Expert system that had been
developed is a tool that will ease the organization in assessing the level of
compliance according to the ISO 14001 standard. Strategies have been
recommended for the ease of implementing ISO 14001 in the organization.

2.6 Review on Electronic Waste Management

Schmidt (2002)40 Researcher adds challenge to the commercialization of e-

waste recycling: The recycling industry is composed of a veritable jungle of
overlapping specialists: primary recyclers that refurbish products for resale;
secondary recyclers that „remanufacture‟ equipment to extract raw materials
such as metals, plastic, and glass; smelters that use CRT glass as inputs to
produce raw metals; and so-called „third party‟ resellers – typically nonprofits
organizations – that sort and repair obsolete products for resale or donation.”
The lack of structure in the industry leads to confusion and hence very little
action.

65
European Union (2003)41 Union describes the objectives of its Waste
Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) directive: “The purpose of this
Directive is, as a first priority, the prevention of waste electrical and electronic
equipment (WEEE), and in addition, the reuse, recycling and other forms of
recovery of such wastes so as to reduce the disposal of waste. It also seeks to
improve the environmental performance of all operators involved in the life
cycle of electrical and electronic equipment, e.g. producers, distributors and
consumers and in particular those operators directly involved in the treatment
of waste electrical and electronic equipment.”

The Santa Clara County Department of Environment Health (2004)42

observed that a consumer level barrier is sometimes government-imposed
recycling fees, with a positive correlation evident between recycling fees and
illegal disposal. Illegal disposal is a large problem in rural areas, which are at a
disadvantage due to longer transport distances to processing centres (Santa
Clara County) Department of Environment Health.

California Integrated Waste Management Board (2005)43 board studies that

E-waste is a popular for electronic products nearing the end of their useful life.
Computers, televisions, VCRs, stereos, copiers, and fax machines are common
electronic products. There is no clear definition for e-waste; for instance
whether or not items like microwave ovens and other similar „appliances‟
should be grouped into the category has not been established.

Puckett (2005)44 African nations and other developing countries state that
primary destination of e-waste; do not understand the hazards associated with
e-waste. They continue consequently almost all of the discarded imported
electronic waste is thrown into formal or informal dumpsites, all of which are
unlined, unmonitored, close to the groundwater and routinely set afire.

Kahhat (2006)45 this review describes about electronic covering household

monitors, televisions and laptops. Maine‟s e-waste system mandates that
municipalities and manufacturers share the responsibility. Municipalities cover

66
collection and process costs, while manufacturers cover consolidations,
transportation from consolidators to processors, and processing costs.

Reinhard and Fisher,(2009)46 researcher observed that responsible recycling

of e-waste is costly due to the number of steps involved, many of which must
be done manually. All of the e-waste generated in the U.S. is sent to smelters in
Europe for metal recovery. Traditional automated recycling processes are
capital intensive systems which require significant financial incentives,
regulatory support, formal recycling infrastructure and a skilled workforce.
Therefore, it is not financially feasible or practical to build these types of
systems in every country.

STEP, (2009)47 Over the years there has been a linear trend for PC‟s, TV‟s and
refrigerators, while mobile phones have shown exponential growth, and there is
a trend towards new, small, inexpensive IT items such as iPad and tablets.
Successful recycling systems must be able to adapt to the evolving electronic
types and material compositions. As electronics become more complex, it often
becomes more difficult to separate materials from one another. New polymers
used in electronics, such as grapheme, will pose new issues moving forward.

J. Cui and L. Zhang (2012)48 In his study observed that hydrometallurgy

processing of e-waste has become more popular in the last two decades, due to
the fact that hydrometallurgical methods are more exact, predictable and more
easily controlled. Hydrometallurgy can be broken down into three general
areas; leaching, solution concentration and purification, and metal recovery.
The general process is as 1. Mechanical Treatment. Prior to chemical treatment,
mechanical processing is often necessary in order to convert waste material
into a granular form.

2. Leaching. E-waste goes through a series of acid or caustic leaches, which is

a process whereby a soluble component is extracted from a solid by means of a
solvent. The most efficient leaching agents are acids, due to their ability to
leach both base and precious metals.

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2.7 Research Gap

Solid waste is a by-product of human beings, which tend to increase with rapid
urbanization, changing consumer pattern and improved living standards.
Management of increasing amount of waste has become a major challenge in
developing countries. Waste management is an important aspect of urban
governance because it reflects not only on the consequences of the authorities
dealing with waste but also the responses of the society on the performance of
the systems used by these authorities. Management of municipal solid waste
has become an acute problem due to enhanced economic activities and rapid
urbanization. Increased attention has been given by the government in recent
years to handle this problem in a safe and hygienic manner (Ramachandra,
T.V). Study of various review literature gives us ideas for further research.
From the previous studies, it was analyzed that so many former researcher had
studied management of waste material concerned to different states of India but
no any researcher had been done study related to commercial aspects of waste
management in Gwalior Region (Madhya Pradesh), so researcher found out a
gap for the study in this region.

******

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