J Fail. Anal. and Preven.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11668-019-00662-6
TECHNICAL ARTICLE—PEER-REVIEWED
Research on Remaining Life Evaluation Method of T92 Steel
for Superheater Tube Based on Oxide Layer Growth
Jiansan Li . Haitong Wei . Zhou Yuan
Submitted: 29 October 2018 / in revised form: 9 May 2019
 ASM International 2019
Abstract T92 steel is widely used in high-temperature
superheater of supercritical power station boiler, and the
researches on its remaining life have always been the hot
spot of scholars around the world. In this paper, based on
the analysis of high-temperature creep rupture strength
data, the optimum C value of Larson–Miller parameter
formula for T92 steel is obtained by using isothermal
extrapolation method. On this basis, combining the rela-
tionship between the thickness of the oxide layer and the
operating time, the relationship between the thickness of
the oxide layer and the temperature of the tube wall and the
relationship between the thickness of the oxide layer and
the stress of the tube wall, a new remaining life evaluation
formula is deduced. Finally, based on the cumulative creep
damage life evaluation method, the service life of super-
heater tube is divided into three stages, which provides a
new reference for the service life evaluation of superheater
tube of ultra-supercritical boiler.
Keywords Larson–Miller parameter  Superheater 
Oxide layer growth  Remaining life evaluation 
Cumulative creep damage
Introduction
Due to the large heat transfer resistance of the oxide layer,
the heat exchange between the steam medium and the wall
metal is blocked, which leads to the increase in the
J. Li  H. Wei (&)  Z. Yuan
School of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering, South China
University of Technology, Guangzhou 510641, Guangdong,
People’s Republic of China
e-mail: 469713239@qq.com
temperature of the wall metal. Relevant calculations show
that for every 0.025 mm oxide increase, the superheater
wall temperature increases by about 1.67 C. At the same
time, exfoliated oxide skin will block the steam flow and
cause superheater tube over-temperature explosion. This
has become the second major cause of boiler tube failure in
the world [1]. T92 steel is widely used in high-temperature
superheater of supercritical power station boiler. Therefore,
it is of great significance to evaluate the remaining life of
T92 steel for superheater tubes. Rolf Sandström et al. [2]
combined the precipitation hardening model to derive the
life assessment model for ductile fracture of austenitic
heat-resistant steel. Purbolaksono et al. [3] found that the
major contributor which results in the failure of the tube
was interaction between the excessive scale formation on
the inner surface and outer wall thinning due to coal-ash
corrosion. Kapayeva et al. [4] presented the method that
considers a combined effect of overheating and wall thin-
ning. They used LMP method for creep evaluation, while
adding the effect of wall thinning. The actual data for the
thickness of tube wall and thickness of internal oxide layer
were taken from measurements using nondestructive test-
ing methods. Ilman et al. [5] found the cause of failure was
overheating due to deposit buildup inside the superheater
tube. In this paper, based on the LMP formula, considering
the relationship between the thickness of the oxide layer
and the operating time and the relationship between the
thickness of the oxide layer and the temperature and stress
of the tube wall, a new remaining life evaluation formula is
derived to evaluate the use of the ultra-supercritical boiler
superheater tube life.
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Establishment of Remaining Life Assessment Method
Under Ideal Conditions
In order to simplify the analysis, the derivation of the
remaining life assessment method under ideal conditions
mainly considers the following aspects and makes relevant
assumptions:
1. Considering the formula for the growth rule of the
oxide layer with the boiler operating time.
2. Considering the effect of oxide layer thickness on tube
temperature and the relationship between them.
3. Considering the effect of oxide layer thickness on tube
stress and the relationship between them.
4. It is assumed that the oxide layer is structurally
continuous and isotropic and will not fall off during the
growth process.
Considering the influence of tube operating temperature,
high-temperature corrosion and operating stress state on
the remaining life of the superheater tube, the LMP for-
mula with temperature and stress as the parameter variables
is selected as the basic formula for evaluating the
remaining life of superheater tube. By studying the influ-
ence and law of the oxide layer generated by the high-
temperature corrosion of the superheater tube on the tem-
perature and stress of the tube, the relationship between
each influencing factor and the operation time is derived
and the life prediction formula is obtained by combining
the LMP formula. Then, using the cumulative creep dam-
age life assessment method from the perspective of safe
operation of the tube, the formula is transformed again to
obtain a new remaining life assessment method. Finally,
the derived formula is synthesized to evaluate the
remaining life of the superheater tube. The specific
derivation process of the remaining life assessment method
is shown in Fig. 1.
Establishment of the Basic Model of the Life
Assessment Method
The life evaluation formula model of T92 steel has been
widely concerned at home and abroad. The Larson–Miller
parameter method based on creep damage life evaluation is
a time–temperature parameter (TTP) method. The method
comprehensively considers the stress and temperature
during the operation of the boiler superheater tube. And
after a lot of verification, the C value in the formula is
constantly revised [3], which has played a good guiding
role in the life evaluation of the superheater tube of the
power station boiler for many years [6].
The Larson–Miller parameter model is as follows:
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J Fail. Anal. and Preven.
PðrÞ ¼ TðC þ lg tr Þ ðEq 1Þ
or
PðrÞ
lg tr ¼ C ðEq 2Þ
T
where tr is the fracture time; T is the absolute temperature
(K); C is the material constant; P(r) is a stress function,
when the stress is determined and the corresponding P(r) is
also determined.
In the TTP model, the parameter P(r) is generally taken
as the cubic function of lgr:
PðrÞ ¼ a þ b lg r þ cðlg rÞ2 þ dðlg rÞ3 ðEq 3Þ
For convenience, Eq (3) can be deformed as follows:
lg r ¼ a þ bPðrÞ þ cPðrÞ2 þ dPðrÞ3 ðEq 4Þ
where a, b, c, d are constants.
Based on LMP model, this paper calculated the C value
of LMP formula of T92 steel under different stress con-
ditions by isotherm extrapolation method according to the
data of high-temperature creep persistent strength of T92
steel published by Japan National Institute of Materials in
2012, as given in Table 1.
Table 1 shows the calculation results of C values under
10 stress values and the average values under 10 condi-
tions, a total of 11 C values, and fit equation of lgr and
P(r). The degree of fit between lgr and P(r) is determined
by the coefficient of determination (COD) R2 and the
adjustable decision coefficient Adj. R2. The closer to 1, the
better the degree of fit. The fitting results are given in
Table 2.
As given in Table 2, when C = 29.40979, the coefficient
of determination (COD) R2 is higher than when other C
values are taken and when C = 20.91966, the coefficient of
determination (COD) R2 is lower than when other C values
are taken. These two C values are selected and substituted
into the actual equation to make the relation diagram of
fracture time and stress, and the results were compared
with the experimental test data of creep fracture of T92
steel, as shown in Fig. 2. It can be found that the LMP
equation with parameter C = 29.40979 is very close to the
measured data in the range of 550–675 C. It coincides
basically with the measured data and has a high degree of
fitting. However, the LMP equation under parameter
C = 20.91966 is far from the measured data, which basi-
cally does not coincide with each other. Therefore, when
C = 29.40979, the equation is closest to the experimental
data point, and the agreement degree is the highest.
So the LMP model of T92 steel is as follows:
J Fail. Anal. and Preven.

Fig. 1 Derivation process of remaining life assessment method

Table 1 Linear fitting results of lgtr and temperature 1/T under by the European Creep Collaborative Committee (ECCC)
different stress values database [7]. It can be seen from the figure that the life
r/Mpa T/C Fitting equation C value prediction equation derived from the LMP method when
the parameter C = 29.40979 is selected is relatively accu-
80 625–650–675 y =  20.92 ? 23159.23x C1 = 20.92 rate for the life prediction of T92 steel.
90 625–650–675 y =  24.89 ? 26614.63x C2 = 24.89
100 625–650–675 y =  27.29 ? 28551.98x C3 = 27.29
110 625–650–675 y =  32.30 ? 32905.4x C4 = 32.30 Relationship Between Growth Thickness of Oxide
130 600–625–650 y =  29.41 ? 29714.09x C5 = 29.41 Layer and Operation Time of Boiler
140 600–625–650 y =  26.76 ? 27209.87x C6 = 26.76
160 600–625–650 y =  24.98 ? 25100.97x C7 = 24.98 The oxide layer on the inner wall of the ultra-supercritical
180 550–575–600 y =  35.29 ? 33641.73x C8 = 35.29 boiler superheater tube is formed by chemical reaction
190 550–575–600 y =  33.96 ? 32126.39x C9 = 33.96 between the inner wall of the high-temperature tube and the
210 550–575–600 y =  38.91 ? 35803.57x C10 = 38.91 high-temperature and high-pressure steam. In the high-
Average value C = 29.47 temperature and high-pressure steam environment, the
formation of oxide layer in the tube is a natural process.
The thickness and growth rate of oxide layer are the result
lg r ¼ 8:64311  8:5289  104 P of multiple factors. According to the study of Wright and
ðEq 5Þ
þ 3:97613  108 P2 þ 6:2093  1013 P3 Pint of oak ridge national laboratory (ORNL), the thickness
growth of the oxide layer is as follows [8]:
P ¼ Tð29:40979 þ lg tr Þ ðEq 6Þ
e ¼ A  eQ=RT  t1=n ðEq 7Þ
where r is stress; T is temperature (K); and tr is fracture
time where e is the thickness of oxide layer; A is the Arrhenius
Figure 3 shows a comparison between the life prediction constant; Q is the process rate control activation energy; R
results of the T92 steel LMP model and the data published

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Table 2 Fitting results of LMP principal curve equation of T92 steel

lgr = a?b 9 P?c 9 P2 ? d9P3
C value a b c d R2 Adj. R2

C1 = 20.92 14.97876 0.00216 8.23746E8 8.9505E13 0.97927 0.97739

4 8
C2 = 24.89 6.81824 8.6542E 2.09939E 2.80638E14 0.99065 0.9898
5 8 13
C3 = 27.29 0.85624 4.96756E 1.36089E 3.6646E 0.99317 0.99255
C4 = 32.30 20.10741 0.00187 6.81892E8 8.4807E13 0.99235 0.99165
C5 = 29.41 8.64311 8.5289E4 3.97613E8 6.2093E13 0.99362 0.99304
C6 = 26.76 0.95225 1.53245E4 6.42646E9 2.8983E13 0.99283 0.99217
C7 = 24.98 6.58054 8.37503E4 1.9729E8 1.25266E14 0.99078 0.98994
8 13
C8 = 35.29 32.40352 0.00281 8.96105E 9.7377E 0.98949 0.98853
C9 = 33.96 26.91026 0.00241 8.09986E8 9.9158E13 0.99092 0.99009
C10 = 38.91 47.11671 0.00375 1.06526E7 1.0262E12 0.98474 0.98335
4 8
C = 29.47 8.8808 8.75846E 4.0458E 6.2715E13 0.99361 0.99303

Fig. 2 Comparison of the stress–endurance life prediction curve of

T92 steel under different LMP constants C with experimental data
is the gas constant; T is absolute temperature (K); and t is
operation hours.
In general, the index n is related to the actual working
condition, and the value ranges from 1 to 2. When the
reaction kinetics curve shows linear oxidation, the index
n = 1; when the reaction kinetic curve shows parabolic
oxidation, the index n = 2. According to the experimental
study of high-temperature steam of T92 steel, the reaction
kinetic curve of steam oxidation of T92 steel is parabolic
oxidation [9], so the index n in the formula is 2.
The Arrhenius constant A is related to the composition
of the metal alloy material. When the Cr content in the
alloy is 0–2%, A = 3.70; when the Cr content in the alloy is
9–12%, A = 230.5, so A of T92 material is 230.5 [10].
The process rate control activation energy Q is related to
the metal material and operating conditions. In the 9–12%
Fig. 3 Prediction results of the LMP model of T92 steel and results
of ECCC database
Cr alloy, when the temperature is between 290 and 700 C,
Q is about 146 kJ/mol.
The gas constant R is the ratio of the product of the
absolute pressure p of the ideal gas and the specific volume
v to the thermodynamic temperature T, and R is 8.314 J/
(mol*K).
The maximum temperature T of tube operation is 953 K
according to the T92 steel manual.
Therefore, the growth formula of the oxide layer inside
the superheater tube of ultra-supercritical boiler (T92 steel)
is as follows:
e ¼ 2:29094t0:5 ðEq 8Þ

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J Fail. Anal. and Preven.

The Formula of Remaining Life is Obtained formation of the oxide layer is stable, the rate of decline
by Combining L–M Formula tends to moderate, but, at this time, the remaining life of
the superheater tube has been greatly reduced, and the
Through the analysis of the operating stress of superheater safety risk of the unit operation has intensified.
tube, the initial stress value of tube wall is about 47 MPa.
The initial stress value is taken into Eq 5 to obtain
P(r) = 32215.8 and bring P(r) into the LMP formula to get Remaining Life Assessment Method Based
the remaining life of T92 steel as follows: on Cumulative Creep Damage
tr ¼ 10ð Þ
32215:8
T 29:40979 ðEq 9Þ
The life assessment method for cumulative creep damage is
The equation between the thickness of oxide layer and to consider the problem from a dynamic perspective.
the maximum wall temperature (outside wall temperature) During the operation of the unit, the temperature and stress
is obtained by numerical simulation as follows: of the tube are varied. In order to adapt to this change,
Robinson’s life fraction rule [11] proposed a cumulative
T ¼ 917:78 þ 0:072e ðEq 10Þ
creep damage life assessment method. For the calculation
where T is the highest wall temperature of the tube (K) and of cumulative creep damage, each damage unit is calcu-
e is thickness of oxide layer. lated according to each temperature and stress level. When
Substituting Eq 10 into Eq 9 yields: the sum of these damages reaches 1, it can be deemed as
the failure of the pressure tube. The cumulative creep
tr ¼ 10ð917:78þ0:072e29:40979Þ
32215:8
ðEq 11Þ
damage formula is as follows:
And substituting Eq 8 into Eq 11 yields: X n
ti
  D1 ¼ 1 ðEq 13Þ
32215:8 29:40979
t
i¼1 ri
917:78þ0:16494768t0:5
tr ¼ 10 ðEq 12Þ
where ti is the operating time of the pressurized tube under
where tr is fracture time an t is operation hours. ith stress and temperature and tri is the creep rupture time
Thus, the relationship between the remaining life of of pressure tube under ith stress and temperature.
superheater tube of ultra-supercritical boiler and the oper- From Eq 12, it is known that the remaining life of the
ating time of the unit can be obtained. According to Eq 12, superheater tube is different under different operating times,
the relation diagram of remaining life of tube with unit that is, the remaining life of the tube is time-varying under
operation time is made, as shown in Fig. 4. As the unit’s different temperatures and stresses. So Eq 13 can be
operating time increases, the remaining life of the super- expanded as shown in Eq 14. Since the operating conditions
heater tube decreases gradually and approaches zero. Since are constantly changing, the corresponding t1, t2…tn are
the growth of the oxide layer exhibits a parabolic law, the consecutive infinitesimal instantaneous time periods, and
remaining life of the tube in the initial stage of service these instantaneous times can be represented by Dt. Equa-
declines drastically, and the rate of decline is large. As the tion 14 can be transformed into Eq 15. Since tr is a function
of the unit operating time t and is continuous, 1/tr can be
regarded as a function of the unit operating time t, denoted as
f(t). Then, Eq 16 can be regarded as the definite integral of
the integrand function f(t), so that Eq 17 can be obtained.
X n
ti t1 t2 t3 tn
¼ þ þ þ  þ ðEq 14Þ
t
i¼1 ri
tr1 tr2 tr3 trn
X
n
ti X
n
1
¼ lim Dt ðEq 15Þ
t
i¼1 ri
Dt!0 t
i¼1 ri

X
n Z t
1
lim Dt ¼ f ðtÞdt ðEq 16Þ
Dt!0 t
i¼1 ri 0
Z t
D1 ¼ f ðtÞdt ðEq 17Þ
0

According to Eq 17, the value of the integral upper limit

Fig. 4 Relationship between residual life and running time of
t of f(t) can be calculated when the pressure tube is
random group of superheater tube in a power plant

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identified as cumulative creep damage failure, that is, when
D1 = 1. After the calculation of Mathematica1 1.2
software, when the operating time of a power plant unit
is t = 49202.1, D1 = 1. It means that the boiler superheater
tube has been identified as cumulative creep damage failure
after the unit has been running for 49,202.1 h. From the
perspective of safe operation of the boiler, this situation
requires the replacement of a new superheater tube to
ensure safe operation of the units.
According to Eq 12, when the unit runs for 49,202.1 h,
the remaining life tr of the superheater tube is 22,213.4 h.
Combined with the boiler overhaul work, the service life of
superheater tube made of T92 steel for an ultra-supercrit-
ical unit of a power plant can be divided into three stages,
as shown in Fig. 5. The first stage is the normal operation
phase of the superheater tube. (The unit’s operation time is
about 0–50,000 h.) When the superheater tube system does
not have a safety accident such as a squib, the maintenance
work can be carried out normally. The second stage is the
critical aging stage of the superheater tube. (The unit’s
operation time is about 50,000–72,000 h.) In this stage, the
operation state of the superheater tube needs to be closely
monitored. The sampling density can be increased appro-
priately in the maintenance work, and the operation state
and remaining life of the tube can be evaluated by various
testing methods. The third stage is the dangerous stage of
the superheater tube. (The unit’s operation time is over
72,000 h.) From the point of view of the safe operation of
the unit, the condition of replacing the new tube has been
reached. Even if there is no similar squib accident, the
subsequent service time of the tube should be carefully
considered, and the parameters of these long-serving tubes
should be closely monitored.
Fig. 5 Three life stages of superheater tube made of T92 steel in an
ultra-supercritical unit of a power plant
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J Fail. Anal. and Preven.
Conclusion
This paper is mainly based on the creep fracture data of
superheater tube T92 steel, using the isotherm extrapola-
tion method to complete the required data, and deduces the
optimal C value of the LMP formula of T92 steel. The
formula is validated using data published by the European
Creep Collaborative Committee (ECCC). Then, a new
method for predicting the remaining life of superheater
tube is derived by combining the variation law of wall
temperature and stress along the growth of oxide layer, the
LMP formula and the creep damage life evaluation
method. At last, the remaining life of the T92 steel used in
the superheater tube of a power plant is evaluated and the
operation and maintenance opinions are put forward.
Conclusions can be drawn as follows:
1. It is deduced that the optimum C value of LMP
formula based on T92 steel is 29.40979.
2. According to the remaining life assessment method
derived in this paper, in the practical situation, the
power plant operators detect the oxide thickness of the
tubes and then substitute the measured data into Eq 8
in the text to calculate the running time. Finally, the
calculated running time is substituted into Eq 12 in the
text to get the remaining time.
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