DIFFERENT TYPE OF STRESSES

Axial stress: A stress that tends to change the length of a body. For example, along the
direction of the axis of a cylinder.

Bending stress is the normal stress that is induced at a point in a body subjected to loads
that cause it to bend. When a load is applied perpendicular to the length of a beam (with two
supports on each end), bending moments are induced in the beam.

Normal Stress:
A normal stress is a stress that occurs when a member is loaded by an axial force. The value
of the normal force for any prismatic section is simply the force divided by the cross sectional
area.

When a member is being loaded similar to that in figure one bending stress (or flexure
stress) will result. Bending stress is a more specific type of normal stress. When a beam
experiences load like that shown in figure one the top fibers of the beam undergo a normal
compressive stress. The stress at the horizontal plane of the neutral is zero. The bottom
fibers of the beam undergo a normal tensile stress. It can be concluded therefore that the
value of the bending stress will vary linearly with distance from the neutral axis.

Shear Stress
Normal stress is a result of load applied perpendicular to a member. Shear stress however
results when a load is applied parallel to an area. Looking again at figure one, it can be seen
that both bending and shear stresses will develop. Like in bending stress, shear stress will
vary across the cross sectional area.

Shear Stress in Shafts

Twisting can be produced in the shaft when two equal and opposite couples acting in parallel
planes.

What is the couple?

A couple is Two equal and opposite parallel forces acting upon a body with a different line of
acting points said as a couple. (the Following figure represents how a twisting is produced
when tightening of a nut with a wrench)

When a machine member is under the twisting force then it is said to be the shaft is
subjected to torsion.
Due to this torsion in the shaft, the stresses induced in the shaft are known as the Torsional
shear stress or simply Torsional stress.
Torsional Shear stress/ Torsional Stress
Consider a shaft is fixed at one end and another end is subjected to the torque as shown in
the figure. As a result, each and every cross section of the shaft is subjected to the Torsional
shear stress.
Due to the Circular section of the shaft, It has been considered that the shear stress at the
centre axis will be zero and it is maximum at the outer surface of the shaft.
From the Torsion equation for a circular member is

Where

τ = Torsional stress induced at the outer surface of the shaft (Maximum Shear stress)
r = Radius of the shaft
T = Twisting Moment or Torque
J = Polar moment of inertia
C = Modulus of rigidity for the shaft material.
l = Length of the shaft
θ = Angle of twist in radians on a length “l”
Torsion Equation Assumptions

This torsion equation is base on the following assumptions

1. Uniform material through the shaft. (The material should be homogeneous, isotropic
and elastic)
2. Uniform distribution of twisting force along the length of the shaft.
3. Twisting force under elastic limit
4. The cross-section of the shaft is considered as the planar and circular both before and
after twist.
5. The distance between the two normal sections is the same in both before and after the
twist.

From Torsion Equation we can assume

We can calculate the Torsional shear stress from this form

We can also find other unknown factors like the twist in the shaft, torsion force or the polar
moment of inertia from the Torsion equation.

Circumferential stress or hoop stress:

A normal stress in the tangential (azimuth) direction; Axial stress, a normal stress parallel
to the axis of cylindrical symmetry; Radial stress, a stress in directions coplanar with but
perpendicular to the symmetry axis.

Circumstantial stress is the stress in a pipe wall, acting circumstantially in a plane

perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the pipe. It is produced by the pressure of the fluid in
the pipe. It is also called as Hoop stress.

When a thin-walled tube or cylinder is subjected to internal pressure a hoop and

longitudinal stress are produced in the wall. For the thin walled equations below the wall
thickness is less than 1/20 of tube or cylinder diameter.

No shear stresses act on these faces because of the symmetry of the vessel and its
loading. Therefore, the stresses and are principal stresses. Because of their directions,
the stress is called the circumferential stress or the hoop stress, and the stress is called
the longitudinal stress or the axial stress.

Code stresses are those that are specifically addressed by the Code. The B31 Pressure
Piping Codes address the BENDING stresses (and torsional stresses) due to thermal
expansion/contraction and they also address the longitudinal BENDING stress (due to
weight) added to the longitudinal pressure stress (the sum of these stresses is called the
"sustained stresses" or the "additive stresses").

The proper analysis of a piping system involves analyzing a number of different load cases
(for primary, secondary, and occasional loads). The piping codes define how the stresses are
to be computed for each of these load cases. In the CAESAR II output report, the column
labeled code stress is the stress obtained using the particular code's equation for the
particular load case in questioned.
The biggest limitation is that piping programs utilize the 3D Beam Element. This means the
computer sees your model as a series of infinitely thin sticks. In addition, the behavior of the
piping system is assumed to be dominated by bending, limited to small deflections and
rotations. You can't ask (or expect) the program to give you something that can't be
described within these limitations. Hence your results for the beam between two anchors.
There was no movement of the nodes, therefore there were no forces or moments, and
consequently no stress. (Buckling and other 2nd order effects are beyond the scope of the
3D Beam element, and therefore beyond the scope of typical Pipe Stress Analysis).

Load Cycles

Indicates the anticipated number of applications of this load on the system for load cases
using the Expansion (EXP) or Fatigue (FAT) stress types. The software uses this value to
determine the allowable stress from the fatigue curve for the material or the cyclic reduction
factor for an Expansion case. For static cases, the software calculates stresses at full range.
For dynamic cases, the software calculates stresses at half range, which is the amplitude of
the full stress range.
For load cases with an Expansion (EXP) stress type, you can enter a value of 1 in the Load
Cycles field (for B31.1 jobs) to indicate that the stress range is caused by noncyclic
movements. In this situation, the software replaces the allowable stress range value (Sa)
with a special noncyclic allowable calculation, as per the B31.1 code standard. The software
continues to calculate the displacement stress range (Se) as defined by the applicable piping
code.

Output Status
Controls the disposition of the load case results. The available options are Keep or
Suppress.
Use Keep when the load case is producing results that you want to review. The default
for all new cases (except for HGR load cases) is Keep.
Use Suppress for artificial cases such as the preliminary hanger cases, or intermediate
construction cases. Load cases used for hanger design, that is, the weight load case and
hanger travel cases designated with the stress type HGR, must be designated as Suppress.

For example, a wind only load case could be designated as Suppress because it was built
only to be used in subsequent combinations and has no value as a standalone load case.
For all load cases created under previous versions of CAESAR II, all load cases except the
HGR cases are converted as Keep.

Output Type
Designates the type of results available for load cases that have a Keep status. Use this field
to help minimize clutter on the output and to ensure that only meaningful results are retained.
The available options are:
Disp/Force/Stress
Provides displacements, restraint loads, global and local forces, and stresses. This is a good
choice for operating cases where you are designing to a code which does a code check on
operating stresses, because the load case is of interest for interference checking
(displacements) and restraint loads at one operating extreme (forces).

Disp/Force
Provides displacements restraint loads, global and local forces. This is a good choice for
OPE cases where you are designing for those codes which do not do a code check on OPE
stresses.
Disp/Stress
Provides displacements and stresses only.
Force/Stress
Provides restraint loads, global and local forces, and stresses. This is a good choice for the
Sustained (cold) case, because the load case would be of interest for restraint loads at one
operating extreme (forces), and code compliance (stresses). FR combination loads cases
developed under previous versions of CAESAR II are converted with this force/stress type.
Disp
Provides displacements only.
Force
Provides restraint loads, global, and local forces only.
Stress
Provides stresses only. This is a good choice for a sustained plus occasional load case (with
Abs combination method), because this is an artificial construct used for code stress
checking purposes. ST combination load cases developed under previous versions of
CAESAR II are converted with this stress type.
Combination Method
Specifies the combination method to use for combination cases only. Load cases to combine
are designated as L1, L2, and so on. Select the combination method from the list.
Load case results are multiplied by any associated scale factors before performing the
combination and comparison.
The available methods are:
Algebraic
Indicates a signed algebraic combination of displacement and force level. This method
combines the displacement vectors and the force vectors algebraically and then calculates
the stresses from the combined forces. Displacements are the algebraic combination of the
displacement vectors. Forces are the algebraic combination of the force vectors. Stresses
are not combined. Stresses are calculated from the algebraically combined forces. The
Algebraic method would typically be used to calculate EXP code stresses.
The obsolete CAESAR II combination methods DS and FR used an Algebraic combination
method. Therefore, load cases built in previous versions of CAESAR II using the DS and FR
methods are converted to the Algebraic method. Also, new combination cases automatically
default to this method, unless you change them.
Algebraic combinations can be built only from basic load cases. Basic load cases are non-
combination load cases or other load cases built using the Algebraic combination method.
Scalar
Indicates a signed combination of displacement, force, and stress level. This method
combines the displacement vectors, force vectors, and stress scalars. Displacements are the
algebraic combination of the displacement vectors. Forces are the algebraic combination of
the force vectors. Stresses are the scalar combination of the stress scalars.
The combination of displacements and forces are the same for ALG and Scalar methods.
The combinations of stress levels are different between ALG and Scalar methods because
the stresses are calculated from the combined forces in the ALG method and summed in the
Scalar method.
For example:
Load Case 1: bending stress = 100 psi, due to X-moment Load Case 2: bending stress - 100
psi, due to Z-moment
Algebraic (vectorial) sum = square root of (100*100 + 100*100) = 141.4 psi Scalar sum = 100
+ 100 = 200 psi
Scalar is typically used to sum (SUS + OCC) code stresses.
The obsolete CAESAR II combination methods ST used a Scalar combination method.
Therefore, load cases built in previous versions of CAESAR II using the ST method are
converted to the Scalar method.
SRSS
Indicates a combination of the square root of the sum of the squares of quantities, such as
the displacements of the forces or the stresses. Displacements are the square root of the
sum of the squares of the displacements of all cases included in the combination. Forces are
the square root of the sum of the squares of the forces of all cases included in the
combination. Stresses are the square root of the sum of the squares of the stresses of all
cases included in the combination. This method is typically used to combine seismic
directional components.
ABS
Indicates a combination of the absolute values of quantities, such as the displacements, the
forces, or the stresses. Displacements are the sum of the absolute value of the
displacements of all cases included in the combination. Forces are the sum of the absolute
value of the forces of all cases included in the combination. Stresses are the sum of the
absolute value of the stresses of all cases included in the combination. This method is
typically used to combine SUS cases with OCC cases for occasional stress code check.
For flange checks that use the ABS load case combination method (specified in CAESAR II
piping input), the software uses the following calculated (local) values:
The axial force and torsion, which is the absolute sum of these values from all load cases
included the combination.
The bending moment, which is the sum of resultant bending moments from all load cases
included in the combination.

The flange pressure, which is the maximum pressure defined in the load cases included in
the combination.

MAX
Indicates a combination that reports the maximum displacement, the maximum force, and
the maximum stress value of the cases combined. This method retains the original sign.
Displacements are the displacements having the maximum absolute values of all the load
cases included in the combination. Forces are the forces having the maximum absolute
values of all the load cases included in the combination. Stresses are the stresses having the
maximum absolute values of all the load cases included in the combination. This method is
typically used to report the greatest restraint loads from among a selected set of load cases.
For flange checks that use the MAX load case combination method (specified in CAESAR II
piping input), the software uses the following calculated (local) values:
The axial force and torsion, which is the maximum magnitude of these values from all
load cases included the combination.
The bending moment, which is the maximum resultant bending moment from all load
cases included in the combination.
The flange pressure, which is the maximum pressure defined in the load cases included in
the combination.

MIN
Indicates a combination that reports the minimum displacement, the minimum force, and the
minimum stress value of the cases combined. This method retains the original sign.
Displacements are the displacements having the minimum absolute values of all the load
cases included in the combination. Forces are the forces having the minimum absolute
values of all the load cases included in the combination. Stresses are the stresses having the
minimum absolute values of all the load cases included in the combination.

SIGNMAX
Indicates a combination that reports the maximum displacement, the maximum force, and
the maximum stress value of the cases combined. The sign is considered in the comparison.
Displacements are the maximum signed values of all the displacements from each case
included in the combination. Forces are the maximum signed values of all the forces from
each case included in the combination. Stresses are the maximum signed values of all the
stresses from each case included in the combination. This method is typically used in
conjunction with SignMin to report the envelope of restrain loads from among a selected set
of load cases.

SIGNMIN
Indicates a combination that reports the minimum displacement, the minimum force, and the
minimum stress value of the cases combined. The sign is considered in the comparison.
Displacements are the minimum signed values of all the displacements from each case
included in the combination. Forces are the minimum signed values of all the forces from
each case included in the combination. Stresses are the minimum signed values of all the
stresses from each case included in the combination. This method is typically used in
conjunction with SignMax to report the envelope of restraint loads from among a selected
set of load cases.

Liberal Stress Allowable

Indicates whether or not to use liberal stress allowable. Conservative formulation of the
allowable expansion stress range for many codes in CAESAR II is calculated from:

f ( 1.25 Sc + .25 Sh )

When select this option, the difference between Sh and Sl, provided Sh > Sl, is added to the
term inside the parenthesis. That is:

SA(Liberal) = f[ 1.25 Sc + .25 Sh + ( Sh - Sl) ]

The liberal expression is only used when there is at least one sustained stress case in the
load set. If there is more than one sustained stress case in a single problem, then the largest
of Sl, considering all of the sustained cases, for any single element end is chosen to subtract
from Sh. Because the sustained stress varies from one pipe to another, the allowable
expansion stress also varies.
By default, CAESAR II uses the liberal stress allowable setting in the configuration file in its
computation of the expansion stress allowable. New models are created using this
configuration setting. If you do not want to use this default setting for calculating the
expansion, clear this check box.

Perhaps it would be of some benefit to review the meaning of the term “Liberal allowable
stress range”. First of all, this is not a term that is used by the ASME B31 Pressure Piping
Codes. Caesar II (C2) uses the term as a sort of “short-hand” for referring to the increase in
thermal (displacement) allowable stress range that is allowed in B31.1 [paragraph
102.3.2(D)] and B31.3 [paragraph 302.3.5(d)]. In these paragraphs, the B31 Codes allow the
positive difference between the calculated combined longitudinal stresses (due to weight,
bending and longitudinal pressure) and the maximum allowable stress, Sh, to be added to
the term “0.25 Sh” (the second term) in the equation for calculating the maximum allowable
stress range, SA. The B31 Codes say that it “MAY” be added into the “0.25Sh” term, thereby
making it optional. If the analyst elects to ignore the additional allowable stress range the
decision (all other things being equal) would be judged conservative. If the analyst elect to
employ this additional allowable stress range, the resulting allowable stress range is
sometimes termed “liberal”. It is, of course, all semantics. The Code allows the additional
allowable stress range for a very good reason. The concept underlying this rule is very well
described in the famous book by S.W. Spielvogle (Piping Stress Calculations Simplified, Fifth
Edition, 1955). Spielvogle explains that the B31 rules intend for the analyst to be able to use
the entire range of stress from the material yield point at the operating (hot) temperature to
the material yield point at the ambient (cold) temperature (less a factor of safety). Since Sh
(neglecting the possibility of creep) is set at 2/3 Sy for both the hot and cold conditions, we
can calculate the hot yield stress as Sh*1.5 and we can calculate the cold yield stress as
Sc*1.5. Taken together the total allowable stress range for the combined loadings of weight
(bending), longitudinal pressure (tension) and thermal expansion (displacement) would be
(1.5*Sc) + (1.5*Sh), or 1.5(Sc + Sh). This range of allowable stress has been reduced slightly
to allow for the vagaries of material and for other “real world” inaccuracies. The Code
philosophy would then permit the total allowable stress range (after the factor of safety is
applied) for all the combined loading described above to be 1.25(Sc + Sh) (if ,in this
discussion, we neglect the stress range reduction factor ,”f”, for simplicity). But the Code
uses 1.0Sh for the sustained loadings of weight and longitudinal pressure and this leaves
1.25*Sc + 0.25*Sh for the allowable thermal expansion (displacement) stress range (but you
wondered where that came from). Because the Code intends for the entire strength of the
material (from hot yield to cold yield) to be used (except for the “adjustment” made for
vagaries), it follows that the rule in the paragraphs cited above allows the analyst to put the
unused (difference between 5/4/2019 CHARLIE's :: Liberal Allowable Stress Range
https://charliestory.tistory.com/41 2/3 calculated sustained longitudinal stresses and the
allowable 1.0*Sh) portion to use in increasing the allowable thermal expansion
(displacement) stress range. You will recognize that the “excess” sustained case allowable
stress will vary across the system being analyzed and that the variation will directly reflect
how well supported the system is (bending stresses will have the greater effect). This
variation in “excess” sustained case allowable stress from node to node in the model will
(when the “liberal” option is used) result in the allowable stress range, Sa, being different at
every node when the Code compliance report is viewed. So, one might ask, why would an
analyst opt to not use the “liberal” allowable stress range for comparison to calculated
expansion (displacement) stress range? This is an engineering judgment. For example, if the
sustained stresses were calculated as 80 or 90 percent of Sh and the system were operated
in the material’s creep range, the designer might want to take the conservative decision to
not use the “liberal” allowable stress range when evaluating thermal (displacement) stress
ranges. Another example might be offered as a case when the system is in severe cyclic
service (see B31.3 paragraph 300.2 for the definition) and the designer is looking for a longer
fatigue life. Going the “conservative” route might also appeal to the designer (or owner) if the
system would be operating within the pressure/temperature variations described in
paragraph 302.2.4 in B31.3 or paragraph 102.2.4 in B31.1. If we have some degree of
uncertainty, we employ an additional measure of conservatism.

The stress RANGE is calculated as the algebraic difference between the value at MAXIMUM
metal temperature and that at MINIMUM metal temperature for the cycle under analysis. You
must calculate the full thermal displacement stress RANGE and compare that to the Code
maximum allowable displacement stress RANGE (see B31.3 paragraph 302.3.5(d)). That is
to say (in the case that you cite), the calculated full displacement stress RANGE is the SUM
of the displacement stress that results from the thermal excursion from the installed
temperature (say 21 degrees C) down to -140 degrees C ADDED TO the displacement
stress that results from the thermal excursion from the installed temperature (say 21 degrees
C) up to 50 degrees C. Each of these is a "zero to peak" stress and the RANGE (the sum of
the two) is a "peak to peak stress RANGE". According to B31.3 paragraph 319.3.1(a), the
value of this sum (the "peak to peak stress RANGE") must be less than the value of the Code
maximum allowable displacement stress RANGE s calculated in accordance with B31.3
paragraph 302.3.5(d).

The equation from see B31.3 paragraph 302.3.5(d) is of the form:

Sa f * ((1.25 * Sc) + (0.25 * Sh)

Sa is the calculated maximum allowable stress RANGE

Sc is the cold allowable stress at temperature from App. A
Sh is the hot allowable stress at temperature from App. A

So, where does this equation for maximum allowable stress RANGE come from?

The stress RANGE concept was introduced into the B31 Pressure Piping Code in the early
1950's. The concept underlying this rule is very well described in the famous book by S.W.
Spielvogle (Piping Stress Calculations Simplified, Fifth Edition, 1955). When you read
Spielvogle's explanation please understand that in the original form in which this concept was
introduced into the Code allowed Sc and Sh to be either 1/4 of the tensile strength of the
material or 5/8 of the yield strength of the material (whichever is smaller). In the modern
B31.3 the Code allows Sc and Sh to be either 1/3 of the tensile strength of the material or 2/3
of the yield strength of the material (whichever is smaller).

Spielvogle explains that the B31 rules intend for the piping engineer (analyst) to be able to
use the entire range of stress from the material yield point at the operating (hot) temperature
to the material yield point at the ambient (or coldest) temperature (less a factor of safety).
Since Sh (neglecting the possibility of creep) is set at 2/3 Sy for both the hot and cold
conditions, we can calculate the hot yield stress as Sh*1.5 and we can calculate the cold
yield stress as Sc*1.5. Taken together the total allowable stress range for the combined
SUSTAINED loadings of weight (bending), longitudinal pressure (tension) AND thermal
expansion (displacement) would be (1.5*Sc) + (1.5*Sh), or 1.5(Sc + Sh). This range of
allowable stress has been reduced slightly to allow for the vagaries of material and for other
"real world" inaccuracies. The Code philosophy would then permit the total allowable stress
range (after the factor of safety is applied) for all the combined loading described above to be
1.25(Sc + Sh) (if ,in this discussion, we neglect the stress range reduction factor ,"f", for
simplicity). However the Code uses 1.0Sh for the sustained loadings of weight and
longitudinal pressure (so we then must subtract this from the maximum allowable stress
range for thermal displacement alone) and this leaves 1.25*Sc + 0.25*Sh for the allowable
thermal expansion (displacement) stress range alone.

Because the Code intends for the entire strength of the material (from hot yield to cold yield)
to be used for the total loading (except for the "adjustment" made for vagaries), it follows that
the rule in the Code paragraphs cited above allows the analyst to put the unused (difference
between calculated sustained longitudinal stresses and the allowable 1.0*Sh) portion to use
in increasing the allowable thermal expansion (displacement) stress range (this is sometimes
referred to as the "liberal allowable stress RANGE) . You will recognize that the "excess"
sustained case allowable stress will vary across the system being analyzed and that the
variation will directly reflect how well supported the system is (bending stresses will have the
greater effect). This variation in "excess" sustained case allowable stress from node to node
in the model will (when the "liberal" option is used) result in the allowable stress range, Sa,
being different at every node when the Code compliance report is viewed.

The concept of allowable stress RANGE addresses the piping at its coldest and at its hottest
so the maximum allowable stress RANGE can only be compared to the calculated stress
RANGE (peak to peak) from the RANGE from its coldest to its hottest. However, there
should be really very few of these full RANGE temperature excursions in the life of the
system - perhaps only one. All the other RANGES of temperature excursions (e.g., ambient
to operating and operating to ambient) will be "partial cycles" and the Code describes the
method of addressing these in B31.3 paragraph 302.3.5(d), equation (1d). Remember we are
addressing many cycles as this is a fatigue based approach. This method of addressing
thermal displacement stress RANGE (peak to peak) differs significantly from the way
"sustained" stresses are addressed. The stresses due to sustained weight and pressure
(Sustained Stresses) are zero to peak.

Again, the Code allows the "peak to peak" stress to be nearly as high as 1.25(Sc + Sh), but
no higher. If you just look at the zero to peak stress of only one of the two constituents that
one constituent still "usually" cannot exceed 0.66 of the yield strength of the material at
temperature (I hedge there because under occasional loadings we can take it up to 0.80 of
the yield strength). So, if the "half" of the "peak to peak" thermal displacement stress (as you
say from ambient to -140 degrees C) exceeds the yield strength of the material you have a
problem. We know that when we apply these concepts to cycling piping systems (especially
to hot pipes) there may be a little plastic deformation in the first few cycles and then the
system will "shake down" to purely elastic behavior. As long as we do not see continuous
plastic deformations (yielding of the material) in opposite directions at the hottest condition
and the coldest condition of each cycle (ratcheting) the system will "relax" into a sustaining
level of stress ("completely shaken down") where subsequent temperature excursions will not
result in additional plastic deformation at either temperature extreme throughout its cycle
life. So if you calculate that the ambient to -140 degrees C temperature excursion will
exceed 100 percent of the yield strength of the material you had better find a design solution
to that problem.