WIND ENERGY

Wind Energ. (2014)

Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002/we.1778

RESEARCH ARTICLE

A finite element model for pre-stressed or post-tensioned

concrete wind turbine towers
A. Kenna and B. Basu
Department of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland

ABSTRACT
Wind turbine support towers have been traditionally formed of structural steel tubular sections, being fabricated in large
sections under factory conditions before being transported to site for erection. Given the trend towards developing tur-
bines with hub heights in excess of 90 m, it is now necessary to develop towers of concrete and other materials that can
provide improved dynamic properties and ease transportation difficulties over the structural steel solutions. Concrete
towers of this height require pre-stressing to overcome high vertical stresses induced in bending, which would otherwise
lead to cracking in the concrete, with a resulting reduction in the tower’s natural frequency. In order to properly under-
stand the behaviour of concrete towers, it is necessary to take account of both material and geometric non-linearity.
Material non-linearity of concrete is well understood, and geometric non-linearity arises because of the imposition of
an initial stress into the concrete by way of the application of pre-stress. In this paper, a finite element model is proposed,
which will describe the concrete as a continuum of four-noded, two-dimensional Reisser–Mindlin shell elements. The
pre-stressing tendons are to be represented by one-dimensional bar elements, with an imposed pre-stress. For the numer-
ical examples considered in the paper, tendons are modelled to be post-tensioned and debonded. The effect of varying
the design parameter of magnitude of pre-stress and the time dependence of pre-stress force has been investigated using
the model described. The impact that concrete compressive strength had on overall tower stiffness was also investigated.
Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

KEYWORDS
wind turbine tower; pre-stressed concrete; finite element method; stress softening; shell element

Correspondence
B. Basu, Department of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2,
Ireland.
E-mail: basub@tcd.ie

Received 27 October 2013; Revised 26 May 2014; Accepted 31 May 2014

1. INTRODUCTION
Much work has been carried out in the area of wind turbines over the past number of years as the global economy has pro-
gressively moved towards more sustainable means of energy production. Of this work, the majority seems to have concen-
trated on the actual wind turbine blades and rotors as opposed to the tower structures that support them. There is now a need
to develop towers of materials other than structural steel given transportation difficulties1 and the inherently low natural
frequencies offered by tubular steel towers.
Given its mass and thickness as a shell, concrete can offer advantages in terms of the dynamic response of towers at these
heights.2 It is also usually a material that can be locally sourced and poured either on site or in precast segments that can be
connected into rings on site. One of the limitations involved in using concrete is that if concrete is allowed to crack during
the lifetime of the tower, this can lead to a change in the tower’s natural frequency, with the risk that its frequency may
come close to, or coincide with, a frequency of load application. As such, it is standard practice to apply a pre-stress to
concrete wind turbine towers to ensure that the concrete remains in net compression during its lifespan.2 This then leads
to design issues in the imposition of pre-stress into a composite structure composed of concrete and steel tendons. The
key issue of understanding a composite system with an initial stress condition leads to the requirement for these structures
to be described mathematically for the purposes of analysis and design.

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

FE model for pre-stressed/post-tensioned wind turbine towers A. Kenna and B. Basu

Existing numerical tools developed specifically for the wind energy industry from the point of view of studying wind tur-
bines include BModes, Modes and FAST,3,4 which have been made available by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory
(NREL), as well as HAWC2 and GH Bladed.5,6 The software codes BModes and Modes are used to derive the free-vibration
properties of towers or blades and are based on modelling these components as a series of Bernoulli–Euler beam elements.
An initial stress condition is allowed for in these models to simulate the effects of centrifugal stiffening of the blades. The
other three software codes, FAST, HAWC2 and GH Bladed, are all simulation models for complete wind turbine assemblies.
They allow for interaction between the vibrating blades, the hub and the tower by way of coupled equations of motion.
Outside of industry-specific tools, the option is available to designers of wind turbine towers to use more general-purpose
software packages such as ANSYS or ABAQUS. These computer programs could be used to model post-tensioned concrete
towers as will be modelled in this paper; however, this requires an in-depth knowledge of finite element (FE) modelling from
the users. Whilst initially investigating post-tensioned towers, one of the key purposes of this work is to present a model that
can be readily adopted for the wind industry in the study of these towers, allowing the user to enter a minimal amount of
information to achieve results to a high level of accuracy.
The numerical modelling of pre-stressed concrete structures has been of great interest to civil engineers for many years.
The structures examined in the literature were of historical importance in construction and remain of importance today—
consisting mainly of pre-stressed simply supported beams, pre-stressed bridge decks and containment structures. Many pa-
pers written on the subject include investigations into the behaviour and system identification of pre-stressed concrete
beams. The effect of a varying magnitude of pre-stress on the dynamic properties of these beams is a central theme in most
of these works. Lu and Law7 modelled a pre-stressed concrete beam for the purpose of system identification using
Bernoulli–Euler assumptions. In this work, the elastic and geometric stiffness matrices of the beam element were defined,
with geometric stiffness being a function of the pre-stress force. The tendon was not included in terms of the overall system
stiffness, and pre-stress is accounted for as an externally applied load. This work proposes a method for identifying pre-
stress present in the beam by using forced analysis results and then working backwards using a new numerical technique.
The work is interesting in that the authors show that the magnitude of pre-stress force does affect the member’s natural
frequency and that the level of pre-stress can be derived from inspection of physical vibrations. A paper by Saiidi
et al.,8 written in 1994, was an important piece of work into the subject. Here, the authors carried out laboratory and field
testing of pre-stressed beams. It was found that contrary to simple ‘compression-softening’ estimations, the first bending
frequency of the beams increased with increasing pre-stress force. This is attributed to the fact that micro-cracks present
in the physical beams are closed as a result of pre-stress, leading to stiffer sections. This non-linear behaviour of the con-
crete, the presence of the tendon and also the magnitude of pre-stress were thus shown to influence the dynamic properties
of the section. These factors are all to be built into the model proposed here. Kerr9 studied the dynamic response of pre-
stressed beams and concluded that, where the pre-stressing cable passes through the centroid of the member and where
the cable is supported by the member laterally, the magnitude of pre-stress does not affect its natural frequency. This
was mathematically shown to be the case by using beam-bending theory and assuming linear elastic material properties.
Although it could be argued that this analogy fits that of a tower with a tubular cross section, the fact that the pre-stressed
tendons do not pass through the centroid of the member and, as such, cannot be ignored in the stiffness formulation in the
same way Kerr put forward makes this comparison void. Grace et al.10 studied post-tensioned girders with web openings,
both experimentally and numerically using the FE method. It was found that for girders with parabolic-shaped cables, the
natural frequencies increased with increasing pre-stress, whereas with straight cables, the natural frequencies decreased
with increasing pre-stress. The elements used to describe the concrete web and flanges is one that has membrane and bend-
ing capabilities, but it is not clear if the element has linear or non-linear properties. The linear-like rate change in frequency
with increasing pre-stress force suggests linear material properties were used. Chan and Yung11 proposed a method of
identifying axle loads of moving vehicles from responses of pre-stressed concrete bridges. Their work included forward
and inverse methods to identify either axle loads or displacements. It was concluded that compression softening due to
pre-stressing decreased the stiffness of these bridges, with the effect most pronounced for lower modes. It was also
concluded that ignoring the effects of pre-stress in the identification process introduces inaccuracies that increase with in-
creasing pre-stress. Material non-linearity was not included in the study, nor was the pre-stressed tendon(s) included in the
model stiffness descriptions. Hamed et al.12 studied the effects of pre-stressing on beams with bonded and debonded cables.
The authors developed a non-linear model with the concrete represented as a Bernoulli–Euler beam element and the tendon
as a rod. The authors concluded that regardless of the bond and shape of cable, the natural frequencies of such beams do not
vary with varying levels of pre-stress. In the case of elements subject to bending, where large-deformation theory can be
applied to a prismatic member in bending (as was the case in this work), these conclusions can be drawn, whereas in the
case of a stressed membrane where stiffness is described in two perpendicular directions, the same conclusions cannot read-
ily be drawn.
In terms of the FE modelling of towers as shell continuums, studies have been presented in papers by Lavassas et al.13
and Bazeos et al.14 Lavassas et al. modelled the tower and foundation as a meshed FE continuum, with 5208 four-noded
quadrilaterals used to represent the tower. Bazeos et al. modelled the tower using eight-noded quadrilateral shell elements.
These models were used in static analysis of the tower in question and led to resulting membrane stresses around the tower

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A. Kenna and B. Basu FE model for pre-stressed/post-tensioned wind turbine towers

continuum. They were also used to determine free-vibration properties of the towers. These FE models were effective and
accurate in providing free-vibration properties of the towers. However, both of these studies were focused on steel tubular
towers.
Because of growing industry demand, detailed FE-based dynamic analysis of pre-stressed and post-tensioned wind
turbine towers has become an important area of focus. This paper proposes to address this research problem by developing
a shell-based FE model for carrying out dynamic analysis of pre-stressed or post-tensioned concrete wind turbine towers.
The results from the model can be used as input to specialized wind turbine analysis codes without the need for a complex
interface requirement, which would be the case if a commercial FE program is used instead.

2. OVERVIEW OF THE MODEL

A FE model is proposed in this paper, which consists of a tower shell and pre-stressing tendons described by using shell
elements and bar elements, respectively. In order to first outline how the shell is represented, the basis for formulating
the elemental stiffness matrix is given—that being to use the principle of stationary potential energy. When the global shell
matrix is in place, vertical bar elements are superimposed to represent the tendons. The model is to be used for unbonded,
post-tensioned concrete shells or towers, and so the tendon stiffness will be superimposed onto the shell stiffness at the
nodes where anchorages are simulated. At intermediate vertical nodes, link spring elements will be used to enforce lateral
displacement compatibility between the tendon and concrete nodes, but this will not allow for vertical transfer of strain. The
effect of the initial stress, i.e. compression in the shell, reducing its out-of-plane stiffness owing to ‘compression softening’
is also included. This is incorporated by way of geometric element stiffness matrices, and this inclusion completes the FE
description of this form of composite tower.

3. POTENTIAL ENERGY FORMULATION

A well-established means of generating the elemental stiffness of FEs in engineering is to follow a variational functional
approach commonly used in structural mechanics based on the potential energy functional.15 This results in an integral ex-
pression that implicitly contains the differential equations and is known as the weak form of the problem statement.
The total potential energy of any structural system is equal to the strain energy of the system, less the work performed
owing to the applied loads. Once an external force has been applied to a body, under the condition that the variation in the
potential energy is zero, the strain energy in the body is equal to the work performed by the applied loads. This stationary
condition of the total potential energy of the system is found by differentiating the potential energy with respect to the sys-
tem degrees of freedom. In simple terms, at equilibrium, the strain energy generated in a body will be equal to the work
performed by the applied loading (leading to the distortion of the body, which is stored in the form of strain energy).
The total potential energy of any system is described symbolically by the following equation, including terms for strain
energy U and potential due to applied loads Ω.

Π¼UþΩ (1)

The strain energy held in a linear elastic body integrated over the volume V is defined as

1
Ue ¼ ∫v fεgT ½CfεgdV (2)
2

The matrix [C] is the material constitutive matrix. By relating the strain to the displacement by way of a strain–displace-
ment relation, [ε] = [B]{d}, this equation can be written as

1
Ue ¼ ∫v fdgT ½BT ½E½BfdgdV (3)
2

where {d} is the element degrees of freedom.

This can alternatively be written as

1
U e ¼ fd gT ½kfdg (4)
2

with [k] being defined as the element stiffness matrix.

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FE model for pre-stressed/post-tensioned wind turbine towers A. Kenna and B. Basu

4. SHELL ELEMENT ELASTIC STIFFNESS

The elemental stiffness matrix [k] is extracted from the elemental strain energy equation and is expressed as

k ¼ ∫v ½BT ½C½BdV (5)

The element form used in defining the tower continuum in this paper is an isoparametric bilinear quadrilateral, with
membrane and plate bending properties to give the element shell capabilities.
In order to numerically integrate each element over its area, Gauss–Legendre integration is used, where the element is first
mapped to a local ordinate system. The element stiffness matrix expressed in the Cartesian co-ordinate space of x and y is

T
km ¼ t ∬ fBm g ½C m fBm gdxdy (6)

where t is the thickness of the shell element. This principle is outlined by Moaveni,16 explaining numerical implementation
of the FE method. The subscript ‘m’ here denotes the application to the membrane degrees of freedom of the element. In
local co-ordinates, where it is mapped in ε and η, the element stiffness matrix is

T
km ¼ t ∬ fBm g ½Cm fBm g det½J dεdη (7)

where [J] denotes the Jacobian matrix, used to transform derivatives of displacements with respect to x and y to those with
respect to ε and η.
Notwithstanding the requirement for transformation to a local axis system in order to numerically integrate, mapping the
element to a local system with nodes at ε = ±1 and η = ±1 also means that the element does not need to be rectangular and
can take any quadrilateral shape. This suits the case of a tapered cylinder where elements will become truncated towards the
top of the tower.
In defining the membrane part of the element stiffness matrix, the degrees of freedom used are the in-plane nodal dis-
placements, such that {d} = {u1, v1, u2, v2, …, v4}. As such, there are coefficients for eight degrees of freedom defined
for the membrane action. For the out-of-plane bending and transverse displacement degrees of freedom, a separate portion
of the element stiffness matrix must be set up as outlined in a text by Zienkiewicz.17 This is achieved using Mindlin plate
bending theory and setting up a 12 × 12 square matrix of out-of-plane properties. The degrees of freedom are {d} = {w1, θ1x,
θ1y, w2 … w4, θ4x, θ4y}. Essentially, the same form of integral is used to define the element stiffness matrix in this section as
was used to define the membrane part. One important difference is that separate strain–displacement matrices need to be
used for the bending and shear degrees of freedom.
The Mindlin plate stiffness matrix is thus defined as

kp ¼ ∬½Bb T ½C b ½Bb  det½J dεdη þ ∬½Bs T ½C s ½Bs  det½J dεdη (8)

where the subscripts ‘b’ and ‘s’ relate to the bending and shear strain–displacement, respectively. It is noted that although
the strain–displacement matrices are slightly lengthier to set up, the same shape functions are used throughout to generate
all coefficients used.
Once the membrane and plate coefficients are in place for each element, they are then combined to form the shell element
elastic stiffness matrix as follows:
" #
½km 88 ½0 
k elastic ¼
812 (9)
½0128 kp 1212

Note that there are no coupling terms between the membrane and bending coefficients in this matrix. The material elas-
ticity matrices used in defining the membrane and plate coefficients are as follows:
2 3 2 3
1 v 0 1 v 0  
Ec 6 6v 1 0 77 Ec t3 6v 1
6 0 77 E c t5=6 1 0
Cm ¼ Cb ¼ Cs ¼ (10)
ð1  v2 Þ 4 1  v5 12ð1  v2 Þ 4 1  v5 2ð1 þ v Þ 0 1
0 0 0 0
2 2

Ec is the secant modulus of concrete, and v denotes Poisson’s ratio.

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A. Kenna and B. Basu FE model for pre-stressed/post-tensioned wind turbine towers

5. TENDON ELASTIC STIFFNESS

The tendons to be modelled in this paper are those of post-tensioned towers and are to be unbonded to the ducts they pass
through. Kwak and Filippou18 described how steel reinforcement can be mapped directly onto the nodes of a shell or mem-
brane element to include them in the overall structure stiffness. This method is used here, where the tendons are modelled as
bar elements, with their end nodes mapped onto the shell element nodes used as anchorage locations. These will be at the
base of the tower where tensioning is typically applied and some defined location at a higher level. In the case of examples
given in this paper, tendons are anchored at the ends of members and are assumed to be concentric. The tendon translation
degrees of freedom are mapped directly onto the tower nodes at these anchor points, whilst at all intermediate vertical
nodes, rigid spring elements are used to restrain the tendons laterally against the shell of the tower. These spring elements
will not allow for the transfer of any vertical load between the tendon and the tower.
The elastic stiffness matrix for each tendon bar element can be constructed by using linear shape functions to relate the
nodal displacements to the nodal degrees of freedom. The elastic stiffness matrix of such elements is given as

 
Ap Ep 1 1
kelastic;tendon ¼ (11)
lp 1 1

where Ap is the cross-sectional area of the tendon. The terms Ep and lp are the modulus of elasticity and elemental length of
the tendon, respectively.
The shell elements with tendon overlay is shown in Figure 1.

6. MATERIAL CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS

In order to model non-linear behaviour of the concrete, the modified Hognestad model was chosen, as described by Kwak
and Filippou.18 This model is based on the behaviour of concrete under uniaxial loading. The shell elements in this model
will generate biaxial stress results; however, as the principal stresses are not expected to be close to each other in magni-
tude, a constitutive model based on uniaxial loading will be applied. In tension, the concrete is assumed to have a linear
stiffness until the point of cracking at its tensile strength and then to exhibit strain softening until ultimate failure. A
strain-softening curve suggested by Vecchio19 for cracked membrane elements is used. Expressions for stress at various
levels of strain are shown in Figure 2. Values for the compressive strength f ′c , the tensile strength fcracked, the yield strain
ε0 and ultimate compressive strain εcu are available in Eurocode 2.20 The pre-stressed steel in the model is assumed to be-
have in an elastic–perfectly plastic manner, with a bilinear curve.

7. ELEMENT MASS MATRICES

In order to carry out free-vibration or force-vibration analysis of the tower, it is necessary to generate mass matrices for each
shell and bar element. The mass matrices are generated in a consistent manner using the same shape functions used to

Shell element nodes

with 6 DOF per node

Bar Element Tendons with

translation degr
ees of freedom
(3 DOF) mapped onto shell
element nodes at anchorages

Prestressed Shell
Tower

Bilinear Quadrilateral Shell

Elements for Concrete Shell

Figure 1. Shell elements with tendon overlay. DOF, degrees of freedom.

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FE model for pre-stressed/post-tensioned wind turbine towers A. Kenna and B. Basu

Figure 2. Concrete stress–strain model.

derive the stiffness matrices. The approach of using consistent mass matrices was decided upon in contrast to simpler
lumped-mass descriptions as the latter tend to lead to slight overestimations in the parameters. A consistent formulation
is more computationally expensive but more accurate. The mass matrix coefficients for the in-plane degrees of freedom
u1 and v1 are defined as follows:

T
mm ¼ ρt ∬½ϕ  ½ϕ dεdη (12)

where ϕ denotes the shape functions used and ρ is the density of concrete. The out-of-plane mass coefficients are defined as
2 3
0 1 0
6 t 2 7
60 0 7
mp ¼ ρt ∬½ϕ  ½Γ½ϕ dεdη ; Γ ¼ 6
T 6 12 7
7 (13)
4 t 2 5
0 0
12
" #
½mm 88 ½0 
m¼
812 (14)
½0128 mp 1212

Again, as was the case for the element stiffness matrix, the mass matrix is found numerically using Gauss–Legendre integration.

8. GLOBAL MATRIX ASSEMBLY

Prior to assembling the element matrices into the system global structure stiffness matrix, it is necessary to transform each
element to the system global axis from their local axes. A transformation matrix is used for each element, made up of co-
sines of the angles between each element’s local axes and the global axis system. The global version of each element matrix
is obtained as

½kG  ¼ ½T T ½kelastic ½T  (15)

where [T] is the transformation matrix. In order to transpose the appropriate portions of each element matrix to their global
location in the global stiffness matrix, a locating matrix [L] can be utilized such that

½K G  ¼ ½LT ½kG ½L (16)

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A. Kenna and B. Basu FE model for pre-stressed/post-tensioned wind turbine towers

The global matrix [K] is then simply the summation of all individual element matrices that have been transformed and re-
shaped as in the preceding equations:
NE
½K  ¼ ∑ ½K G i (17)
i¼1

where NE is the number of elements.

The same process is followed in order to find the global mass matrix [M]. It is noted that although this process of using
location matrices is straightforward, it can be computationally quite demanding given the large number and size of matrices
to be stored before summation. Other means of directly locating the relevant nodal coefficients are also available and should
be pursued where processing memory is an issue.

9. PRE-STRESS APPLICATION
The effect of applying a pre-stress now needs to be accounted for in terms of the stiffness of the shell continuum. Pre-stress
will be applied by externally applied loads to the concrete structure. The imposition of the pre-stress into the system will
have implications for the global stiffness of the tower in that it will result in a stress-stiffening effect on the tendons but
a stress-softening effect on the shell continuum. In order to describe how this is represented in a FE framework, a back-
ground is first given of the theoretical basis involved.
Stress stiffening is a phenomenon that relates the influence of membrane forces on the lateral deflection associated with
bending in an element. In terms of studying the softening behaviour of members under compression, there are a number of
ways to approach it from a modelling point of view. In the case of straight elements or plates, such elements are often as-
sumed to sustain compression with only small levels of lateral displacement up to the point of elastic buckling. No large lat-
eral displacements occur during the softening of the member. Buckling will occur where a member converts membrane strain
energy into bending strain energy without the increase of any externally applied load. In the study of frames or elements with
initial curvatures or expected imperfections, an appropriate approach would be to use large-displacement theory. This in-
volves the use of coupling terms in the stiffness matrices of the elements involved between bending and membrane actions
as they will interact through non-linear displacements of the structure. In terms of this paper, as the shell elements are used to
portray towers that are slender, single-member structures and that can be said to be initially straight, it can be concluded that
there is no requirement to use a large-displacement analogy. Softening of the elements will be assumed under the effect of
small displacements occurring under any compression condition that the tower or structure can safely withstand.
In terms of the energy in a system with initial stress, the total energy includes strain energy and potential energy of
applied loads Ω to do work as explained previously. The strain energy can be divided into components for in-plane and
out-of-plane strains or membrane Um and bending strains Ub.

Π ¼ Ub þ Um þ Ω (18)

When the change in total potential energy with respect to the system degrees of freedom is at zero, the system has
reached equilibrium. Thus, the static equilibrium condition is described as

½K elastic fDg þ ½K geometric fDg  fRg ¼ 0 (19)

where {D} is the displacement vector and {R} is the force vector. It is therefore seen that the global stiffness is simply the
direct sum of the global elastic stiffness and geometric stiffness matrices.

½K  ¼ ½K elastic þ ½K geometric (20)

In order to describe the lateral displacements of elements, Green strain is used. This is a measure of strain used in FE
methods where deformations lead to a change in stiffness of the structure, as described by Cook.15 The stiffness in such
global structures is directly related to the deformed shape of the structure/element. With this approach, strains are described
as follows in the normal and shear directions, respectively:

   2  2  2 !
∂u 1 ∂u ∂v ∂w
εx ¼ þ þ þ
∂x 2 ∂x ∂x ∂x
             (21)
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂w ∂w
γxy ¼ þ þ þ þ
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

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FE model for pre-stressed/post-tensioned wind turbine towers A. Kenna and B. Basu

where u, v and w are the displacements along the three orthogonal X, Y and Z directions, respectively. The membrane strain
energy for any element is equivalent to the work carried out by a membrane force (or axial force in the case of a one-
dimensional bar) in lengthening or shortening an element by an infinitesimal length described by the strain in that particular
direction. Thus, for a bar element, the strain energy reads

l
1
U m ¼ ∫ Pεm dx (22)
20

where εm is the axial strain. When the only displacement is through the in-plane degrees of freedom, Greens strain states
 
1 ∂v 2
εm ¼ (23)
2 ∂x

As such, the geometric stiffness is derived as follows

L  2 L   
1 ∂v 1 ∂v T ∂v 1
Um ¼ ∫P dx ¼ ∫ P dx ¼ fdgT ½kgeometric fdg (24)
20 ∂x 2 0 ∂x ∂x 2

In terms of a physical interpretation of the effect of stress stiffening/softening on the overall tower, it is assumed that the
out-of-plane stiffening experienced by the tendon is of no benefit to the concrete shell. As it is unbonded to the concrete, it
is free to vibrate laterally between restraint locations. Any increase in its out-of-plane stiffness does not therefore offset the
softening experienced by the concrete shell. As such, for the purpose of this paper, the geometric stiffness of the tendons
will not be included.

10. SHELL ELEMENT GEOMETRIC STIFFNESS

The principle of work performed by membrane forces carried through small changes in length owing to lateral displace-
ments describes the change in strain energy and is used in defining the geometric stiffness of the shell elements. The
membrane forces in the normal (i.e. X and Y) and shear (X–Y) directions are Nx, Ny and Nxy. The strain energy is thus

 2  2   !
1 ∂w 1 ∂w ∂w ∂w
Um ¼ ∫ Nx þ Ny þ N xy dA (25)
2 ∂x 2 ∂y ∂x ∂y

which alternatively can be written as

8 9T 8 9
>
> >
dw
>  >
>
dw >
>
1 < dx = N x N xy < dx =
U m ¼ ∫∫ dxdy (26)
2 > > dw >
> Ny > > dw >
>
: ; N xy : ;
dy dy

The lateral displacement is again described by the shape functions and degrees of freedom. The derivatives of the
displacement is expressed as
8 9
>
>
dw >
< > =
dx
¼ ½ G f d g (27)
>
> dw >
>
: ;
dy

where [G] is the matrix denoting the derivative of the shape function matrix. Substitution of equation (27) in equation (26)
leads to

 
1 Nx N xy
U m ¼ fdgT ½k geometric fdg; ½kgeometric ¼ ∫∫½G T
½Gdxdy (28)
2 N xy Ny

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A. Kenna and B. Basu FE model for pre-stressed/post-tensioned wind turbine towers

It can be seen from equation (27) that the only coefficients resulting from this description are those relating to the out-of-
plane displacements of each element node. Where the applied membrane loads are tensile or compressive in the shell ele-
ment, this will lead to an increase or reduction in the membrane stiffness of the shell.
As was the case for assembling the global elastic stiffness matrix, a global geometric stiffness matrix may now be
assembled for the shell elements. The global stiffness is, as mentioned, the sum of the global elastic stiffness and geometric
stiffness matrices.

½K  ¼ ½K elastic þ ½K geometric (29)

The first-order derivatives of the out-of-plane displacements have been used here to generate the geometric stiffness.
Other works on this subject, particularly in the area of large-displacement theory, have also included the first-order deriv-
atives of the bending degrees of freedom in describing the geometric stiffness. As the members to be analysed by this model
are assumed to develop small lateral displacements without coupling of bending and membrane actions at any point prior to
buckling, the bending degrees of freedom are not considered in the geometric stiffness matrices.

11. PRE-STRESS LOSSES

Losses will take place in the transfer of the tendon force to the concrete element, which needs to be accounted for in any
analysis of such structural members. Some of these losses will occur during construction, whilst others will occur slowly
over time. Some sources of loss occur only when tendons are post-tensioned, and others are specifically relevant to tendons
stressed prior to concrete being poured (pre-stressed). In the case of wind turbine towers, concrete sections are more likely
to be post-tensioned (either bonded or debonded) than pre-stressed, and so it is losses from this form of construction that
will be incorporated here.
Losses occur because of the following:

• Friction
• Anchorage draw-in
• Elastic deformation of concrete
• Shrinkage
• Creep
• Relaxation

In applying tension to the pre-stressed tendons, a certain amount of this force will be lost through friction between the
tendon and the duct that the tendon passes through. This will result in the force present in the tendon varying along the
length of the duct and thus along the height of the tower. In this work, it will be assumed that the tendon force is applied
at the base of the tower. During the tensioning operation, the pre-stress loss over a given interval is proportional to the pre-
stress force over that interval. The expression for calculating the change in tendon force due to friction at a distance x from
the base is given by Eurocode 220 as

ΔPðxÞ ¼ Pmax 1  eμðθþkxÞ (30)

where Pmax is the maximum value of the force, μ is the friction coefficient and θ is the change in tendon angle along its
length. The coefficient k is known as a ‘wobble’ coefficient. The values incorporated in this model for μ and k are taken
from a report by the Concrete Society21 and are 0.06 and 0.05 rad m1, respectively. Anchorage loss, which occurs as
the force is transferred from the tensioning device to the anchor, will change the force profile of the tendon, usually leading
to a local drop in force at the anchor end. Ayoub22 proposed a FE procedure for post-tensioned beams where friction and
anchorage loss was implicitly accounted for within the model. Anchorage elements at tendon ends and friction elements
between the tendons and the concrete were used to achieve this. Stressing and anchorage was carried out sequentially to
simulate real-life structures. In this work, losses will be accounted for by adjusting tendon loads separately rather than
building into the model.
Elastic deformation of the concrete as it takes up stress will lead to losses in tendon force. Time-dependent sources of
loss of force in the tendons include creep and shrinkage of the concrete and relaxation of the tendons themselves. Expres-
sions for all of the aforementioned losses are available in Eurocode 2 and will be used in this model. Figure 3 shows how
the tendon force would typically vary over the height of the tower.
In terms of creep, it is noted that creep strain under compressive load is partially recoverable with any reduction in the
imposed stress. There will be some reduction in stress because of long-term losses experienced by the tendons; however, as

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FE model for pre-stressed/post-tensioned wind turbine towers A. Kenna and B. Basu

Anchor

100

90

80

70

Elevation (m) 60

50

40

Tendon force
30 profile (with
Tendon force
friction losses)
profile (after long
20 term losses)

10

Anchorage
Loss
Anchor

Figure 3. Illustration of losses versus length/height.

these will be slow to develop and as the recoverable creep strain is small relative to the total creep, this effect is ignored.
Creep and shrinkage strains are calculated on the basis of external environments with an expected relative humidity of 80%
and with section thicknesses of the order of 600 mm.

12. IMPLEMENTATION OF FE MODEL

A series of steps are required in implementing the simulation code required to use the model as outlined. These can be best
summarized by a flow diagram as laid out in Figure 4.
It can be seen that a number of steps are repeated before the final description can be arrived at. For instance, after a set of
local element matrices is defined, it will always be necessary to transform these to the global axis system before assembling
them into a global matrix.

13. NUMERICAL EXAMPLE 1

Tao and Du23 conducted a series of laboratory tests to investigate the effects of varying amounts of non-pre-stressed rein-
forcement on the stress in unbonded pre-stressing tendons in partially pre-stressed concrete beams at the ultimate load. The
results of one of these tests, referred to as A9 in the literature, is considered for benchmarking. The geometry is shown in
Figure 5, and the results are shown in Figures 6 and 7. The beam was loaded at third points after having been pre-stressed,

Wind Energ. (2014) © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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A. Kenna and B. Basu FE model for pre-stressed/post-tensioned wind turbine towers

Figure 4. Flow diagram of model construction.

and its midspan deflection recorded. The concrete compressive strength was f ′c = 33.1 MPa; the area of unbonded post-
tensioned reinforcement was Ap = 156.8 mm2; the area of non-pre-stressed reinforcement was As = 804 mm2; and the
effective pre-stress of the unbonded tendon after losses was fpe = 920 MPa. An FE model consisting of shell elements to
represent the concrete and bar elements to represent the post-tensioned tendon and non-pre-stressed reinforcement was con-
structed with a view to simulating the load–displacement response found by Tao and Du. The tendon modelled was
unbonded to the surrounding concrete. Anchorage at the tendon ends is assumed to be perfectly rigid. A total of 70 shell
elements, 14 tendon elements and 14 non-pre-stressed reinforcement elements were used. The concrete behaviour is

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FE model for pre-stressed/post-tensioned wind turbine towers A. Kenna and B. Basu

160

Non-stressed Rebar, As = 804mm2

Point Loads

14 tendon bar elements, Ap = 156.8mm2

70 shell element

Figure 5. Numerical example 1, geometry.

Camber at midspan
after prestress applied

0 1 2 3 4 5

Deflected shape at yield of

non-prestressed rebar

0 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 6. Deflected shape of beam first (a) at pre-stress application and then (b) at yield of non-pre-stressed rebar.

160

140 Yielding of FE Model

nonprestressed Du & Tao, A9 Beam
reinforcement
120

100
Load (kN)

80

60

First cracking of
40
concrete

20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Midspan Deflection (mm)

Figure 7. Plot of load–displacement for the proposed model and Tao and Du results.

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A. Kenna and B. Basu FE model for pre-stressed/post-tensioned wind turbine towers

modelled using the modified Hognestad model, with tensile strength until cracking and then a region of strain softening after
cracking. The reinforcement was modelled using a simple elastic–perfectly plastic stress–strain relationship. Geometrical
stress-softening effects were included for the shell elements, but not for the post-tensioned tendon. The non-linear analysis
was carried out using a Newton–Raphson iterative procedure whereby the global stiffness matrix was updated as required
using a secant modulus for the concrete or steel elements. Upon convergence of displacements or failure of the beam,
iterations for a given load were concluded.

13.1. Results

A load–displacement plot is shown in Figure 7 for both the Tao and Du beam A9 and the FE model developed in this paper.
The results show good agreement between the two cases. Locations of first cracking of the concrete and then yielding of the
non-pre-stressed reinforcement can be identified at similar loads in the cases of both plots. From plots of the beam displaced
shape (Figure 6) after applying a pre-stress, it is evident that the beam reacts as expected, with a midspan upwards camber.

14. NUMERICAL EXAMPLE 2

Here, the model will be used to investigate post-tensioned towers. Before this, a study of the effect mesh density has on
results for wind turbine towers will be carried out. The tower studied was based on an example tower put forward by
the NREL as a possible fully concrete wind turbine tower designed to support a 5 MW turbine.24 The geometry and material
properties of the tower described by the NREL were used in this study. The said tower is 100 m in height (Figure 8) and has
a base and top diameter of 7.62 and 3.658 m, respectively. The shell thickness varies from 762 mm at the base to 457 mm at
the top. The concrete compressive strength is given as 48 MPa. Although not provided in the literature, a density of 2450 kg
m3 and a Poisson ratio of 0.15 are assumed for the concrete.
As is the case with any FE model, there will be a certain amount of error in the results, which comes from a number of
sources. Generating some field quantity or strain energy within the element or within an overall model is affected by the
three important features of the model. These include mesh refinement, the order of the element and the arrangement of
nodes within the model. In the case of this model, the first parameter may be varied, but not the latter two. The effect of
mesh refinement will be carried out using traditional h-convergence error estimation. A study was carried out on several
shell models having varying element mesh densities and hence element number, and the results were then compared with
results gathered from the NREL software code BModes. The FE model has a mesh that varies by varying the number of
vertical slices along the tower. The number of circumferential divisions is held constant at 10. Figure 9 shows the results
and identifies that with an increasing number of elements, the results from the FE model become closer to those of the
BModes module, which was found to be much less sensitive to the number of elements used. The number of elements Nels
of the FE model is 10 times the number of vertical tower divisions. Given that at 200 elements, the result was within 2.5%
of that of BModes, this number of elements is to be used as a minimum for future work presented here. Some of the three-
dimensional (3D) mode shapes of the tower considered are also shown in Figure 10.
A post-tensioned concrete wind turbine tower was then studied. Post-tensioned tendons are to be unbonded to the sur-
rounding concrete. The tendons are defined by the NREL as having a modulus of elasticity of 196.5 GPa and a yield stress
of 1860 MPa. The total mass for the turbine nacelle and hub is given as 480,000 kg. Again, concrete is modelled using a

Top Mass:
480,000kg

Tower Top:

Diameter = 3.658m
Thickness = 475mm

Tower Base:

Diameter = 7.62m,
Thickness = 762mm

Figure 8. Numerical example 2, tower geometry.

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FE model for pre-stressed/post-tensioned wind turbine towers A. Kenna and B. Basu

Normalized Natural Frequency

1.5

1.25

1.0

4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Vertical Tower Divisions

Figure 9. Mesh refinement study.

Figure 10. First fore-aft, second fore-aft and first torsion (typical 3D mode shapes).

non-linear stress–strain relationship, and post-tensioned tendons are modelled using an elastic–perfectly plastic relation-
ship. Non-pre-stressed reinforcement has not been included in the model. Losses have been incorporated in terms of
friction, anchorage and elastic deformation losses during construction. Long-term losses including creep, shrinkage and re-
laxation have also been included.
The model was used to determine the fundamental natural frequency of the structure under given design inputs. The de-
sign input varied in the case of the study including the magnitude of pre-stressing force, the time after pre-stressing at which
the frequency is analysed and the amount of actively stressed tendons around the circumference of the tower. Pre-stress
force is applied as a percentage of the critical buckling load of the tower, which was estimated using a Rayleigh–Ritz
energy formulation and an assumed deflected shape at the point of buckling. Table I gives the pre-stress force applied to
the tower. Although a concrete strength is proposed by the NREL for this particular tower, this parameter too was varied
in the study to examine its effects. Finally, the constitutive relationship of the concrete was varied to examine the effects of
changing from a linear to non-linear description. Where a non-linear relationship for concrete was used, an iterative
Newton–Raphson algorithm was used to check the shell strain level after initial tendon anchorage and, if necessary, update
shell element stiffness matrices using secant moduli such that the FE strain and the corresponding concrete stress were in
agreement. From here, the geometric stiffness of the shell elements is derived in the manner outlined earlier.

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A. Kenna and B. Basu FE model for pre-stressed/post-tensioned wind turbine towers

Table I. Pre-stress forces applied to the tower.

Ratio of applied pre-stress Area of pre-stressed Reinforcement

Pre-stress force to buckling load reinforcement stress ratio
2
P (kN) P/Pcrit Ap (mm ) fpe/fs

212,500 0.5 163,210 0.70

170,000 0.4 163,210 0.56
127,500 0.3 163,210 0.42
85,000 0.2 163,210 0.28
42,500 0.1 163,210 0.14
0 0 163,210 0.00

0.51
0 years
1 years
0.505 10 years
30 years

0.5

0.495
Frequency (Hz)

0.49

0.485

0.48

0.475

0.47
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
P/Pcrit

Figure 11. Pre-stress versus frequency, various times of analysis.

0.5

0.498

0.496

0.494
Frequency (Hz)

0.492

0.49

0.488

0.486

0.484 P/Pcrit = 0.5

P/Pcrit = 0.4
P/Pcrit = 0.3
0.482

0.48
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (years)

Figure 12. Time versus frequency.

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FE model for pre-stressed/post-tensioned wind turbine towers A. Kenna and B. Basu

14.1. Results

A number of different design variables were studied using the model. These included the effect of the magnitude of post-
tensioning force, the effect of long-term losses and the effect of varying the concrete compressive strength. The area of pre-
stressed reinforcement was selected so that at the highest pre-stress force, it would be stressed to 70% of its yield stress,
which is typical of post-tensioned concrete structures.
Figure 11 shows a plot of the first natural frequency versus pre-stress force with results shown for each point in time
considered. It can be seen that with increasing pre-stress, there is a relative softening of the tower stiffness. The maximum
softening for any given load is experienced immediately after pre-stress is applied. When time-dependent losses were taken
into account, the pre-stress force reduced, and so some recovery in stiffness occurred. In terms of a trend, it is also evident
that whilst there is a softening effect with increasing stress, this softening is non-linear in nature. This is attributed to the
non-linear stress–strain behaviour of the concrete as it was modelled. In this case, the difference in frequency from a tower
without any pre-stress to one with the maximum imposed pre-stress, analysed immediately at the time of stressing, is 4.8%.
Figure 12 shows a plot of frequency against time, where three different levels of stress were imposed and results gathered. It

1
fc’ = 30MPa
fc’ = 48MPa
fc' = 70MPa
0.99

0.98
Normalised Frequency

0.97

0.96

0.95

0.94

0.93
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
P/Pcrit

Figure 13. Pre-stress versus normalized frequency for various compressive strengths.

0.515
Modified Hognestad
Linear

0.51

0.505
Frequency (Hz)

0.5

0.495

0.49

0.485

0.48
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
P/Pcrit

Figure 14. Varied concrete stress–strain behaviour.

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A. Kenna and B. Basu FE model for pre-stressed/post-tensioned wind turbine towers

is evident from the results that for each stress level, the majority of losses and as such the greatest change in frequency as a
result of losses occur within the first year, with losses then continuing slowly over the 30 year time span considered.
In order to evaluate the effect of concrete strength and by extension concrete stiffness on the tower stiffness, analyses
were carried out whereby the same tower geometry and pre-stressing forces were used but concrete compressive strengths
were varied. Compressive strengths of f ′c = 30, 48 and 70 MPa were considered. Figure 13 shows a plot of tower frequency
versus compressive strength, with frequencies normalized to show the relative effect of increasing pre-stress. The analyses
were carried out at a time immediately after pre-stressing. This plot shows that at lower strengths, compression softening of
the tower is more significant than at higher strengths. A change in frequency of 6.9% was experienced by the tower having
a compressive strength of 30 MPa. Changes in frequency of 4.8% and 3.9% were experienced by towers with compressive
strengths of 48 and 70 MPa, respectively. Finally, an analysis was carried out to investigate further the non-linear effects
imposed by the concrete constitutive description in the model. The original tower model was re-analysed with the concrete
stiffness set as perfectly linear. Figure 14 shows the results of both the linear and non-linear models where pre-stress forces
are increased and where all the long-term losses are neglected. It is evident from this plot that at lower levels of pre-stress,
the reduction in stiffness is predominantly due to compression softening due to geometrical stiffness considerations.
However, at higher levels of pre-stress, the non-linear nature of concrete in compression then begins to affect the stiffness
to the same extent as the membrane forces within the shell.

15. CONCLUSIONS
The aim of this paper is to present an FE model that is capable of describing the properties of a post-tensioned pre-stressed
concrete wind turbine tower as a shell continuum. To this end, a composite model of shell concrete elements and bar tendon
elements has been presented, and its composition described.
From the parametric study carried out, it was found that compression softening in the concrete tower led to a reduction in
tower stiffness for the particular tower studied. This was to be expected considering that the shell of the tower carries an
initial compressive stress, which is known to lower the out-of-plane stiffness in shell structures. A softening was also ex-
pected considering that the tendons that would become stiffer (out of plane) by virtue of their tension do not contribute to
the stiffness of the structure given that they are debonded and as such could not offset the softening imposed on the
concrete.
It has been observed that for towers of the geometry studied, the effect of compression softening due to pre-stress is mar-
ginal where high-strength concrete is used but could become significant for lower concrete strengths. A maximum decrease
in stiffness of 6.9% was found where towers are stressed to a very high level for a tower having a compressive strength of
f ′c = 30 MPa.
It is evident that at higher stress levels, the non-linear material properties of concrete can play a significant part in
influencing the extent of the reduction in stiffness. At lower stress levels, softening is predominantly due to geometrical
stiffness considerations.
It is envisaged that this model may be used in the wind industry specifically as a numerical tool to model this form of
pre-stressed or post-tensioned wind turbine towers, and the results can be used as simple input parameters to wind turbine
analysis codes. The tool could also be used for 3D stress analysis applications, for generation of 3D mode shapes for
analysing complex vibration modes, for system identification and damage detection from observed changes in vibration
modes and for checking structural integrity in terms of potential shell cracking or tendon failure.

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Wind Energ. (2014) © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

DOI: 10.1002/we