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Studies in Psychology
Adam O. Horvath
To cite this article: Adam O. Horvath (2016) Emerging trends in psychotherapy process research /
Tendencias�emergentes�en�la�investigación�del�proceso�psicoterapéutico, Estudios de Psicología,
37:2-3, 226-259, DOI: 10.1080/02109395.2016.1189208
body of scientists share many common goals — the work on solving this puzzle
proceeds using a great variety of methods, and our collective efforts are spread across
many theoretical and cultural divides. Progress in our field does not move in an
uninterrupted straight line; the questions we focus on, as well as the methods we use
to better understand psychotherapy processes, shift from time to time. My goal in this
paper is not to divine the future (futurists’ track record is poor) but to put some of the
current research trends in the context of the historical developments, and highlight
some of the most promising lines of inquiry.
As it is often the case in clinical practice, in order to understand the direction
forward, we need to examine our past. Accordingly, I will start by reviewing
briefly some of the signal events that steered the course of therapy research over
the last seventy-five years. I have chosen the 1930s as a starting point because
1937 was the inaugural publication of the Journal of Clinical Psychology (JCP).
Much has been written about psychological problems and psychotherapy before
this date, but JCP (later Journal of Clinical and Consulting Psychology; JCCP)
was the first periodical, still standing, dedicated to the empirical study of psycho-
logical treatment. The reason to consider the publication of such a journal a
‘signal/defining event’ is because I believe that psychotherapy research, as we
know it today, is the product of the synergy of the application of empirical
methods to understanding therapy data and the peer-reviewed1 publication system
that provides an efficient way to monitor and at the same time widely distribute
results of research. Scientific research requires a community of researchers inter-
acting on the bases of shared standards of proof and, in effect, JCP and its
growing numbers of peers generated such community and gave a professional
identity to psychotherapy researchers.
Carl Rogers’ publication of Client-Centered Therapy in 1951 was the next
seminal event influencing the course of therapy research (Rogers, 1951). The
impact of this book on the profession was twofold: first, the theoretical bases of
Rogers’ work was the last of the grand/comprehensive theories providing a new
philosophical and developmental model, including schemata of ill as well as good
functioning, and an inclusive framework for treatment of all forms of mental
illness (and much else). Second: Rogers explicitly formulated testable hypotheses
arising out of his theory and challenged the research community to examine his
propositions in the light of empirical evidence.
At this point clinicians and researchers were confronted with the choice of
three apparently incompatible models of both the etiology and remedy of psy-
chological illness: the Freudian/psychodynamic theory (and its variants); learning
theory based (i.e., behavioural) theory; and client-centred/humanistic. A year later,
in 1952, in an article published in JCP by Hans Eysenck brought sharp focus on
this anomaly. In his article The effects of psychotherapy: An Evaluation (Eysenck,
1952) he made the claim that, based on his survey ‘[evidence] fail to show
favorable effects of psychotherapy’ (p. 333) and concluded that empirical evi-
dence ‘. . . fail[ed] to prove that Psychotherapy, Freudian or otherwise, facilitates
the recovery of neurotic patients’ (p. 322). This four-page article jolted the
psychotherapy community.
228 A. O. Horvath
of differential treatment effect) became pivotal and changed the foci of psy-
chotherapy research efforts moving forward.
The ‘psychotherapy works’ part of the conclusions was a relief, but not really
news to those inside the profession; the equivalence pronouncement certainly irritated
some with strong allegiances to a particular theory or treatment (e.g., Eysenck, 1992),
but this was not the aspect that shifted the research agenda. The challenge was the
plausible logical extension of the idea that radically different ways of doing therapy
do not make a difference in terms of the relief that can be achieved. Could this mean
that what we do in therapy makes no difference? And if what the therapist does
makes no difference, the project of therapy research and maybe the very notion of a
professional therapist might be questioned! Historically the reaction to the Dodo Bird
verdict (from the research perspective) was quite dramatic: work on investigating the
superiority of therapies based on one of the ‘grand theories’ (psychodynamic,
humanistic/person centred, behavioural) lost impetus — at least for a while.
The Dodo’s paradox acted, metaphorically, like a big rock in the middle of a
river; it divided the energy that flowed into therapy research in two general
directions: (1) to explain the errors of the extinct pigeons’ pronouncements, and
counter the potentially disastrous conclusions flowing from it; and (2) alterna-
tively, to buy into the evidence, and use it to build a ‘grand unified model’ of
psychotherapy. I will argue that these divided efforts have shaped much of where
research energies were focused over the last four decades, and likely will be
shaping much of what questions the therapy research community will focus on
moving forward. In the following section I will review the research agendas that
evolved from these different responses to the Dodo Bird crisis.
One way of tackling the Bird’s paradox was to take the position: ‘We asked the
wrong question: we naïvely assumed that there was “A” solution to psychological
problems based on the right theory; “one size fits al”. This is an un-warranted
assumption, they said; we should borrow a page from our cousins in medicine and
put therapy on a more scientific basis. Like physical medicine, we should consider
people with different diagnoses as distinct entities and find the most efficacious
ways to ameliorate these specific problems associated with each class of mental
illness. We need to find specific treatments required for specific kind of pro-
blems’. This approach, it was predicted, will uncover differential treatment effi-
cacies for different diagnostic problems.
This perspective has shifted the emphasis away from looking for resources
within a particular theory for a broad variety of problems, to a kind of pragmatism
that accommodated the selection of an eclectic range of interventions chosen for
their perceived efficacy in treating specific problems. The result was the devel-
opment of a cohort of empirical evidence based treatments (EBTs) targeting
specific diagnostic classifications. These EBTs are sometimes referenced to the-
ories, but coherent links between theory and treatment are no longer an essential
requirement. In fact, in practice, a credible rationale for why a particular treatment
should work (or be considered as an improvement on another treatment) is not a
core criterion for recognition as an EBT (Chambless & Holon, 1998).
230 A. O. Horvath
10%
40%
26%
23%
A great deal of research on common factors over the last 35 years was focused on
the therapist-client relationship (Norcross & Lambert, 2014). This made sense in
terms of the relatively large proportion of variance linked to the relationship, and the
fact that it is clearly a common element across different treatments. Several relation-
ship concepts (i.e., alliance, empathy, etc.) have been investigated and the evidence of
correlation with outcome to the tune of 20–27% is very well documented (Norcross,
2011). Some of these variables blur the line between process (i.e., relationship) and
intervention depending on treatment (e.g., alliance and empathy). But there is a lot of
overlap between the relational concepts: there are at least 17 different aspects of the
therapy relationship that have been reliably linked to outcome variance but the
linkages and overlap among these are still unclear (Horvath, 2011; Norcross, 2011).
Looking from the broader perspective, the overall direction of inquiries in psy-
chotherapy seems to mirror the ongoing tension between these two approaches to
resolving the treatment effect equivalence problem. The move towards the multiple
specific treatments model is advanced by solid economical arguments: globally health-
care is moving towards publicly funded systems. Mental health treatments are expen-
sive. Efficiency (more gain in shorter time) is a pressing issue. Looking from this
perspective, finding methods that reduce cost is prime concern. Governments and large
grant providers are inclined to favour (give funding to) research that promises to reduce
the growing costs of mental health services.
Moreover, rewards for ‘inventing’ new treatments are high intellectually, and
sometimes financially. Behaviourally oriented researchers (e.g., CBT) are more
inclined to investigate specific interventions for specific diagnoses, and CBT-influ-
enced treatment protocols are also better fit for gaining EBT status. On the other side,
the common factor approach pulls in a different direction: fewer curative factors, less
emphasis on specific symptom reduction. Researchers investigating factors shared by
232 A. O. Horvath
Meaning bridges
A more inductive style of approach to researching the moment or events of
therapeutic progress was developed by Stiles and colleagues (1990 to present).
It is based on the notion of meaning bridges, the achievement of linkage or
connection between two previously isolated or disconnected parts of the self.
Stiles proposes that ‘people’s experiences leave traces which can be re-activated
. . . [these traces] have agentic qualities’ (Stiles, 2011). These ‘voices’ can be re-
activated by similar (to the original) circumstances. Dissociated problematic
voices are the roots of symptoms. Forward movements in therapy are understood
as events when assimilation (incorporation/acceptance) of such problematic
experiences of self occur. Eight sequential stages of assimilation are built into
the model. The larger theoretical inspiration of the assimilation framework2 was
234 A. O. Horvath
Rogerian and humanistic, but one can identify some psychodynamic concepts
(e.g., trauma and catharsis) incorporated in the theory as well.
This group has also developed and validated an observer based measure:
Assimilation of Problematic Experiences APES (Leinman, 2004). This measure
facilitates empirical work on the assimilation process by providing the means to
track clinical events on a moment-to-moment basis. In addition to direct work on
assimilation, this theoretical model has also been utilized or incorporated by
researchers using different methodological approaches (Leinman & Stiles, 2001).
Innovative moments
A somewhat different perspective/definition of the instantiation of events of
change was developed by M. Gonçalves and colleagues (2009 to present). Their
work is rooted in a narrative theoretical perspective (White, 2007) and ‘Innovative
Moment’ or IM is the label given to these forward-moving events. The definition
for their formulation of the IM is ‘an emergence and expansion of [. . .] exceptions
to the problematic self-narrative’ (Gonçalves et al., 2014). The IM model provides
five sequential (progressive) stages in innovative movements: Action; Reflection;
Protest; Reconceptualization; Performing. This group developed and validated an
observer based coding procedure: the Innovative Moments Coding System
(IMCS) (Gonçalves et al., 2014).
While the language used in their publications reflects the narrative framework
that formed the context for the development of the concept and the research,
substantively the model is applicable to all kinds of therapy and the framework
also uses elements of the assimilation theory (Stiles, 2011) presented above.
relation between the alliance and outcome in various contexts (Bedi & Horvath,
2004; Norcross, 2011). The next wave of investigation focused on patterns of
alliance over time and consequences of what Bordin (1976, 1989) has identified
as ‘strains and repairs in the alliance’, but more commonly referred as alliance
ruptures and repairs. More recently, attention has turned to the examination of
these events from the perspective that considers the stresses and strains and their
repairs as an ongoing interactive dyadic process in therapy.
Much of the pioneering work, both theoretical and empirical, in this line of
research has been led by J. Safran and his colleagues (1999 to present). Their
foundational framework is grounded in psychodynamic theory using the more
recent relational constructs (e.g., Aron, 1996; Mitchell, 1997). Their core proposi-
tion of how [positive] change is generated in therapy may be summarized as the
process of transference-counter transference enactments (Safran & Muran, 2006).
Psychotherapy is: ‘. . . an ongoing cycle of enactment and collaborative exploration
of the therapist’s as well as the patient’s contributions to the interaction’ (Safran &
Kraus, 2014, p. 381). This group developed a measure: the Alliance Negotiation
Scale (ANS: Doran, Safran, & Muran, 2015) that can be applied to transcripts or
taped therapy sessions. This rating instrument yields two factors labelled Comfort
with Negative Feelings and Flexible and Negotiable Stance. While the group
involved in this research programme works mainly with treatments influenced by
psychodynamic theory, the instrument and methodology is applicable to a broader
range of interventions. The core question investigated is how the quality of therapist
client interaction dynamically influences therapy progress on the moment-by-
moment level (Safran, Muran, Samstag, & Stevens, 2001).
Responsiveness
Stiles and colleagues (1998 to present) critically examined the disconnect between the
quantity of productive interventions (dose effect) and therapy outcomes (Stiles,
Honos-Web, & Surko, 1998). More of the potentially effective interventions do not
always produce more or better effects. The answer to this apparent paradox is that the
usefulness and effectiveness of intervention is not a fixed quanta associated with an
intervention, as such. The beneficial potency of even some of the most universally
useful therapist effects, such as empathy, is dependent on whether the intervention is
provided at the appropriate time and manner, which in turn is hinged on the therapist’s
ongoing awareness and responsiveness to the client’s needs and capacities on a
moment-by-moment basis (Stiles & Horvath, in press). The way strategies are
executed, and interventions are delivered, is not a matter of putting in play a pre-
organized plan. The timing and negotiation, the adjustments and readjustments, the
interactive ‘dance’ therapists engage in with their clients, is at the very core of what
makes a therapy and therapist effective (or otherwise). From this perspective, therapy
is an act of interactive engagement. Understanding the responsiveness aspect of
therapeutic engagement is essential if we are to understand ‘how therapy works’.
This [appropriate] responsiveness is, therefore, the critical link between useful thera-
pist interventions and therapy effectiveness. The research programme lead by Stiles
Emerging trends in psychotherapy process research / Tendencias emergentes en la investigación del proceso psicoterapéutico 237
has been collecting evidence and building both a theoretical and empirical case for
incorporating the responsiveness construct in explanatory models of psychotherapy
effectiveness. The work is challenging; appropriateness is not a controversial idea and
is incorporated in well-designed training programmes and therapy manuals and is a
core component in supervision. But from a research perspective, what is appropriate
is ultimately dependent on the effect of what the therapist has done. It is not a ‘thing’
that can be measured or manipulated a priori. Nonetheless, empirical work has been
assisted by some instrument development (e.g., Therapeutic Responsiveness
Observational System, TROS (Sousa, Horvath, & Ribeiro, 2010), and the
Responsiveness Scale: RS (Elkin et al., 2014). But most of the work on appropriate-
ness as an interactive process linking therapist interventions and client capacities and
needs at the moment-to-moment level is still theoretical (Stiles & Horvath, in press).
Discussion
My aim in this paper was to identify medium to longer term research trends rather than
to provide a comprehensive and inclusive review of recent research publications in the
field. From this selective perspective, two broad trends seem apparent: psychotherapy
research in general, and psychotherapy process research in particular, is moving away
from the investigation and validation of broad comprehensive theories and towards
focusing on ever smaller units of the therapy process. The field, over time, largely
abandoned broad questions contrasting the validity of psychodynamic vs. behavioural
vs. person centred theories. There now appears to be a tacit understanding that no single
theory can provide a comprehensive framework for understanding all forms of psy-
chopathology, much less can claim to be the exclusive resource base for all helpful
interventions. The ‘grand comprehensive theories’ are still important and influential in
both training and clinical practice; their value as guidance at these levels is not likely to
diminish any time soon. However, as foci for research, the pursuit of validation of these
comprehensive framework and hypotheses addressing core theoretical propositions
appear to be both impractical and of low clinical benefit. Much of the current research
energy, it was argued, is focused on identifying validating ‘treatments’ (defined as
conditional sequences of specified interventions) that are evidentially effective in
providing client relief from specific symptoms. As well, there is a great deal of work
done on generic or ‘common factor’ variables that may be responsible for the beneficial
effects of therapy in most or all forms of treatment. Both of these lines of investigations
represent a narrowing of research focus and have yielded some significant practical
results. The analysis presented in this paper suggests, however, that these research
approaches may also have limited scope: the number of empirically supported treat-
ments is growing quite rapidly, but there is little evidence that the overall rate of
improvement or treatment efficacy is related to the burgeoning number of ESTs.
Moreover, the development of purportedly efficient treatments for specific symptoms
has contributed little to the core concern of psychotherapy process research: ‘how does
therapy work?’ Without making inroads on this larger question, the work on evidence
based treatments remains a growing mosaic of methods addressing an equally rapidly
increasing number of problem specifications. And, as noted before, methods still
account for a relatively minor proportion of outcome variance.
The work on generic variables common to a variety of treatment methods has
been somewhat more successful in accounting for outcome variances. Most of this
Emerging trends in psychotherapy process research / Tendencias emergentes en la investigación del proceso psicoterapéutico 239
affairs as healthy and even ground breaking. But it could be argued that some of
these methods lack proven evidence of generalizability in a clinical context.
Conclusion
The aim of this review was to identify some of the promising emergent trends in
empirical research in the field of psychotherapy process research. I followed a
roughly historical approach to put current developments in context, and project
some possible courses of developments. Notwithstanding the caveats presented
above, I would argue that the group of research identified here as ‘emerging’
represents a fresh approach to some of the oldest questions clinicians and
researchers have been asking themselves: what makes therapy work?
Notes
1. The peer review system actually took some time to reach the form we use today; but
the editorial system in JCP was the germ or initial form of the process.
2. In this paper I use the terms ‘the model’ or ‘framework’ to refer to these ‘mini-
theories’. They are ‘mini’ only in scope providing a coherent and logical (and
testable) hypothesis of how specific psychological processes are linked to result in
a class of events we surmise as ‘progress’ or forwards movement in therapy.
Emerging trends in psychotherapy process research / Tendencias emergentes en la investigación del proceso psicoterapéutico 241
10%
40%
26%
23%
orientación conductista (por ejemplo, CBT) se inclinan más por investigar interven-
ciones específicas para diagnósticos específicos, y los protocolos de tratamiento
influenciados por la CBT son también más adecuados para alcanzar el estatus de
Tratamiento basado en la evidencia. Por otra parte, el enfoque de los factores
comunes apunta a una dirección diferente: menos factores curativos, menos énfasis
en la reducción de síntomas específicos. Los investigadores que analizan los factores
compartidos por diferentes tratamientos están más interesados en descubrir el ‘proceso
subyacente’. En general, las teorías orientadas al proceso (en oposición a la
intervención) (por ejemplo, Psicodinámica, Centrada en la persona, Humanista) se
ajustan mejor a este tipo de investigación. ¿Cuáles son algunas de las tendencias que
podemos deducir de la historia pasada? Dos vectores principales parecen evidentes:
en primer lugar, se tiende a abandonar los intentos de validar las grandes teorías
comprehensivas. Dichos esfuerzos se basaron históricamente en la presunción de que
la eficacia evidente de los tratamientos basados en una teoría particular, aplicados a
diversas enfermedades psicológicas, reforzaría el respaldo de la validez de la teoría.
En otras palabras, si las intervenciones basadas en la teoría fueran efectivas, la ‘lógica
inversa’ argumentaría que la teoría que había apuntalado (respaldado) dichas inter-
venciones era válida. No obstante, tanto la lógica (las intervenciones no son exclu-
sivas para las teorías) como la implementación (los estudios de comparación se vieron
obstaculizados por la tendencia a la lealtad) fueron problemáticas (Luborsky et al.,
1999). En segundo lugar: históricamente, el ámbito de las hipótesis investigadas se ha
reducido progresivamente. Con el tiempo, el campo ha abandonado los intentos
pasados de validar amplias teorías generales para centrarse en investigar familias de
tratamientos basados en una teoría y, a partir de allí, desarrollar tratamientos
específicos definidos como secuencias de intervención dirigidas a síntomas
específicos. En la actualidad, la dirección de las investigaciones sobre la terapia en
general y la psicoterapia en particular, parece mostrar una tendencia a desarrollar
teorías trabajando en una perspectiva ascendente, utilizando análisis empíricos para
describir el proceso de cambio en una escala de tiempo más limitada, con la
expectativa implícita de que estas comprensiones ayudarán a crear una teoría cohesiva
(Horvath, 2003). Este esfuerzo es paralelo a una tendencia de la investigación que
hace hincapié en explicar los cambios terapéuticos a nivel de ‘evento’. Al capitalizar
la comprensión de que la parte de la torta de los factores ‘explicables’ que con-
tribuyen al cambio del cliente (o a su ausencia) cae en el ámbito de los factores cliente
y terapeuta, en oposición a las variables ‘método’ (Lambert & Ogles, 2004), la
atención se aparta de los métodos e intervenciones para centrarse más en alcanzar
una mejor comprensión de la forma en que interactúan los factores cliente y terapeuta
para crear momentos de progreso. En base a las premisas anteriores, en el resto de
este documento analizaré algunos de los programas de investigación emergentes que
parecen estar a la vanguardia de estos tipos de investigación. Aunque el análisis no es
en absoluto exhaustivo, su objetivo fue identificar algunos de los ejemplos más
claramente articulados de dos vectores de investigación que, en mi opinión, están
cobrando impulso: los programas que se centran en conceptualizar, localizar y
explicar los momentos de cambio del cliente en las sesiones, y aquellos que exploran
248 A. O. Horvath
Puentes de sentido
Stiles y sus colegas (1990–presente) desarrollaron un enfoque con un estilo más
inductivo para investigar los momentos o eventos de progreso terapéutico. Está
basado en la idea de los puentes de sentido, la capacidad de vincular o conectar dos
partes del ser previamente aisladas o desvinculadas. Stiles propone que ‘las expe-
riencias de las personas dejan rastros que pueden ser re-activados . . . [estos rastros]
tienen cualidades de agentes’(Stiles, 2011). Dichas ‘voces’ pueden ser re-activadas
por circunstancias similares (a las originales). Las voces problemáticas disociadas
son la raíz de los síntomas. Los avances en terapia se entienden como eventos
cuando se asimilan (incorporan/aceptan) las experiencias problemáticas del ser. El
modelo incorpora ocho fases secuenciales de asimilación. La mayor inspiración
teórica de la estructura de la asimilación2 fue Rogeriana y humanista, aunque
también es posible identificar en la teoría algunos conceptos psicodinámicos (e.g.,
trauma y catarsis).
Este grupo también ha desarrollado y validado una medida basada en el
observador: la Asimilación de experiencias problemáticas (Assimilation of
Problematic Experiences, APES; Leinman, 2004). Esta medida facilita el trabajo
empírico sobre el proceso de asimilación, ofreciendo los medios para rastrear
eventos clínicos en un enfoque de momento a momento. Además del trabajo directo
sobre la asimilación, los investigadores también han utilizado o incorporado este
modelo teórico utilizando diferentes perspectivas metodológicas (Leinman & Stiles,
2001).
Momentos innovadores
M. Gonçalves y sus colegas (2009–presente) desarrollaron una perspectiva/
definición en cierta forma diferente para ejemplificar los eventos de cambio. Su
trabajo se basa en una perspectiva teórica narrativa (White, 2007) y el título dado
a estos eventos caracterizados por el progreso es ‘Un momento innovador’, (en
inglés ‘Innovative Moment’ y, por tanto, abreviado como IM). La definición para
su formulación del IM es ‘una emergencia y ampliación de . . . excepciones para
una auto-narrativa problemática’ (Gonçalves et al., 2014). El modelo IM ofrece
cinco fases secuenciales (progresivas) de los momentos innovadores: acción;
reflexión; protesta; reconceptualización; actuación. Este grupo desarrolló y
validó un procedimiento de codificación basado en el observador: el Sistema de
codificación para momentos innovadores (Innovative Moments Coding System;
IMCS) (Gonçalves et al., 2014).
En tanto que el lenguaje utilizado en sus publicaciones refleja el marco narrativo
que formó el contexto para el desarrollo del concepto y la investigación, el modelo
250 A. O. Horvath
uso de preguntas fue estudiado por MacMartin (2008); Muntigl y Horvath (Muntigl
& Horvath, 2014) analizaron cómo se construyen las alianzas, las rupturas de las
alianzas, y la afiliación/desafiliación del terapeuta y del cliente; la naturaleza
interactiva de las interpretaciones fue investigada porPeräkylä (2004) y
Voutilainen, Peräkylä, y Ruusuvuori (2010) se ocuparon de estudiar las emociones.
El hilo común de estas investigaciones, además del uso de herramientas
analíticas CA, es que hacen hincapié en de qué forma la terapia, como proceso
interactivo dinámico, es clínicamente eficaz. Esta línea de investigación, igual que
los ejemplos previos, surgió de un encuadre teórico específico (en este caso la
etnometodología) que sirve de guía para el enfoque y dirige el interés hacia
aspectos específicos de la terapia aunque, en última instancia, cada una de esas
investigaciones tiene como objetivo una mejor comprensión del proceso de la
mejoría del cliente de momento en momento.
Discusión
Mi objetivo en este documento no fue ofrecer una revisión exhaustiva e inclusiva de
las publicaciones recientes de la investigación en el campo, sino identificar las
tendencias de la investigación a medio y largo plazo. Desde esta perspectiva selectiva,
hay dos tendencias generales que parecen evidentes: la investigación sobre psicote-
rapia en general y la investigación del proceso psicoterapéutico en particular, que
empiezan a apartarse de la investigación y la validación de teorías generales para
centrarse en unidades cada vez más pequeñas del proceso terapéutico. Con el tiempo,
se han abandonado en gran medida preguntas generales que contrastan la validez de
la teoría psicodinámica frente al conductismo y a las teorías centradas en la persona.
Parece existir ahora una comprensión tácita de que no hay una teoría que pueda
ofrecer un marco general para entender todas las formas de psicopatología, y mucho
menos reclamar ser el recurso exclusivo en el que se basan todas las intervenciones
útiles. Las ‘grandes teorías generales’ siguen siendo importantes e influyentes tanto en
el entrenamiento como en la práctica clínica; su valor como guía a estos niveles no
parece que vaya a disminuir en un futuro próximo. No obstante, como foco para la
investigación, la búsqueda de validación de estos encuadres e hipótesis generales que
se ocupan de proposiciones teóricas fundamentales no parecen ser prácticos y, por
otra parte, tienen escasos beneficios clínicos. Según se ha afirmado, gran parte de la
energía dedicada a la investigación actual está dirigida a la identificación y validación
de ‘tratamientos’ (definidos como secuencias condicionales de intervenciones
específicas) que son evidentemente efectivos para proporcionar al cliente un alivio
de síntomas determinados. Además, hay mucho trabajo realizado sobre variables
genéricas o de ‘factores comunes’ que pueden ser responsables de los efectos
beneficiosos de la terapia en la mayoría de las modalidades de tratamiento, o en
todas. Estas dos líneas de indagación representan un foco de investigación más
acotado, y han producido algunos resultados prácticos significativos. El análisis
presentado en este documento sugiere, sin embargo, que también este enfoque de la
investigación podría tener un ámbito limitado: el número de tratamientos apoyados
empíricamente está aumentando con bastante rapidez, pero existen pocas evidencias
Emerging trends in psychotherapy process research / Tendencias emergentes en la investigación del proceso psicoterapéutico 255
de que la tasa global de mejoría, o de eficacia del tratamiento, se relacione con una
proliferación de los ESTs. Más aún, el desarrollo de tratamientos presuntamente
eficaces para síntomas específicos ha contribuido poco a resolver la inquietud esencial
de la investigación sobre el proceso psicoterapéutico: ‘¿cómo funciona la terapia?’ Sin
adentrarnos en esta cuestión más amplia, el trabajo sobre tratamientos basados en la
evidencia sigue siendo un mosaico creciente de métodos que se ocupan de un número
igualmente creciente de especificaciones de problemas. Y, como he apuntado ante-
riormente, los métodos todavía representan una proporción relativamente pequeña de
la varianza de los resultados.
El trabajo sobre variables genéricas comunes a diversos métodos de tratamiento,
de alguna manera ha tenido más éxito al representar la varianza de resultados. La
mayor parte de dicho éxito implicó trabajar sobre las variables de la relación y del
terapeuta que influyen en el progreso terapéutico (Horvath, Del Re, Flückiger, &
Symonds, 2011; Norcross & Lambert, 2011). La línea de investigación de ‘factores
comunes’ se enfrenta a un desafío doble: por un lado, a pesar de que las variables de
la relación se han vinculado consistentemente a mejores resultados, existe una gran
cantidad de coincidencias relativamente no analizadas y una ausencia flagrante de
una teoría o modelo que pudiera asociar las 17 (o más) variables de la relación
vinculadas de forma consistente al resultado (Norcross, 2002). Del mismo modo, las
variables del terapeuta asociadas al resultado tienden a superponerse y carecen de
un encuadre teórico unificador que conseguiría que estas variables fueran
clínicamente útiles. Por otro lado, los vínculos consistentes entre todos esos factores
comunes respaldados empíricamente se basan casi exclusivamente en una evidencia
correlacional. Los intentos por desarrollar y validar un modelo causal se han
demorado en dar frutos (Lambert, 2013).
El argumento presentado en este análisis es que las tendencias emergentes impor-
tantes en la investigación del proceso terapéutico prometen trasladar la investigación a
una mejor comprensión de la forma en que funciona la terapia, una vez superados
algunos de estos obstáculos. Limitar el foco de la investigación para dedicarse a
analizar pequeños momentos de la terapia que son evidentemente significativos en
términos clínicos, permite conocer lo esencial de las realidades clínicas. Si la
investigación puede identificar procesos que consiguen avances en algunas clases
genéricas de situaciones terapéuticas, si estos estudios pueden describir más clara-
mente el o los procesos que resuelven los desafíos relacionales de forma interactiva, si
estos métodos pueden validar las secuencias de cambio progresivo (o de resistencia)
que operan en una variedad de enfoques de tratamiento, el campo podría llegar a
desarrollar un marco teórico que enlace el ‘qué’ y el ‘cómo’ de la terapia y nos acerque
más a una comprensión coherente del proceso terapéutico.
Advertencias y limitaciones
Una vez presentada la tesis optimista, es prudente reconocer que mis argumentos
tienen algunas limitaciones. La investigación sobre psicoterapia es una ‘hidra de
muchas cabezas’; miles de documentos de investigación se publican mensual-
mente, tanto en papel como en línea; por ello, resulta prácticamente imposible
256 A. O. Horvath
Conclusión
El objetivo de este documento fue identificar algunas de las tendencias emergentes
promisorias en la investigación empírica en el campo de la investigación del proceso
psicoterapéutico. He seguido un enfoque aproximadamente histórico para poner en
contexto los desarrollos actuales y proyectar algunos cursos posibles de desarrollo. A
pesar de las advertencias mencionadas previamente, diría que el conjunto de inves-
tigaciones identificado aquí como ‘emergente’ representa un nuevo enfoque para
algunas de las preguntas más antiguas que se han estado formulando clínicos e
investigadores: ¿qué es lo que hace que una terapia sea eficaz?
Notas
1. El sistema de revisión por colegas tardó algún tiempo en alcanzar la forma que
utilizamos actualmente; pero el sistema editorial del JCP fue el germen o la forma
inicial del proceso.
2. En este documento utilizo los términos ‘modelo’ o ‘encuadre’ para referirme a estas
‘mini-teorías’. Son ‘mini’ únicamente en ámbito, y ofrecen hipótesis lógicas y
coherentes (y comprobables) de cómo procesos psicológicos específicos se vinculan
a los resultados en una clase de eventos que consideramos como ‘progreso’ o avance
en la terapia.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author. / Los autores no han referido
ningún potencial conflicto de interés en relación con este artículo.
Emerging trends in psychotherapy process research / Tendencias emergentes en la investigación del proceso psicoterapéutico 257
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