CYBERPSYCHOLOGY, BEHAVIOR, AND SOCIAL NETWORKING

Volume 17, Number 3, 2014

ª Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
DOI: 10.1089/cyber.2013.0024

Impulsivity and Related Neuropsychological Features

in Regular and Addictive First Person Shooter Gaming

Olivia Metcalf, PhD, and Kristen Pammer, PhD

Abstract

Putative cyber addictions are of significant interest. There remains little experimental research into excessive use
of first person shooter (FPS) games, despite their global popularity. Moreover, the role between excessive
gaming and impulsivity remains unclear, with previous research showing conflicting findings. The current study
investigated performances on a number of neuropsychological tasks (go/no-go, continuous performance task,
Iowa gambling task) and a trait measure of impulsivity for a group of regular FPS gamers (n = 25), addicted FPS
gamers (n = 22), and controls (n = 22). Gamers were classified using the Addiction-Engagement Questionnaire.
Addicted FPS gamers had significantly higher levels of trait impulsivity on the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale
compared to controls. Addicted FPS gamers also had significantly higher levels of disinhibition in a go/no-go
task and inattention in a continuous performance task compared to controls, whereas the regular FPS gamers
had better decision making on the Iowa gambling task compared to controls. The results indicate impulsivity is
associated with FPS gaming addiction, comparable to pathological gambling. The relationship between im-
pulsivity and excessive gaming may be unique to the FPS genre. Furthermore, regular FPS gaming may improve
decision making ability.

Introduction title alone sold more than 27 million units within the first
year of release.9 Excessive gaming has been found in com-

T here have been numerous cognitive and neuroimaging

studies showing that excessive gamers are displaying
signs consistent with an addiction.1 However, the American
Psychiatric Association has stated that Internet Use Disorder,
with online gaming as a potential subtype, requires further
study before it can be recognized as a psychiatric disorder.2
Subsequently, terms such as excessive, problematic, and
pathological have been used interchangeably throughout the
literature to refer to a putative gaming addiction and to dis-
tinguish such gamers from regular video gamers, who may
play as frequently but do not suffer negative consequences as
a result. The majority of research in excessive gaming has
focused on a popular genre of online games known as mas-
sively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs), or
has not distinguished between different genres of games.3,4
However, there is accumulating evidence indicating that
motivations to game and the effects of gaming differ signifi-
cantly between genres3–8 and that different genres of games
warrant individual investigation.
First person shooter games
First person shooter (FPS) games are part of the action
genre and are immensely popular worldwide. One recent FPS
parable frequency and severity in FPS gamers compared to
MMORPG gamers.3,6 In FPS games, gamers typically control
the game character from a first person view, and the game-
play is violent and fast paced. While studies have explored
specific game characteristics of MMORPGs that contribute to
addictive potential, little research has investigated these as-
pects of FPS games.6 There has been suggestion that the
highly immersive nature of FPS games and the potential for
online competition may contribute to high rates of excessive
FPS gaming.6 Furthermore, research has shown that aspects
of games that can contribute to excessive gaming include
reward features, achievements in-game, and social aspects of
gaming,6,10,11 which are all central features of FPS games.
Thus, there is evidence that FPS games have addictive fea-
tures and that excessive gaming occurs in FPS gamers.
However, more detailed investigation into excessive FPS
gaming is needed.
Impulsivity and gaming
As empirical evidence accumulates to support the classi-
fication of excessive gaming as an addiction, the factors that
influence the development of the disorder are of considerable
interest. The role of impulsivity in the development of

Research School of Psychology, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.

147
148
addiction is thought to be integral12–14 and particularly im-
portant in the development of pathological gambling.15–17
Impulsivity is defined as the predisposition for rash and
unplanned actions without forethought for future conse-
quences.18 Impulsivity is typically measured either as a per-
sonality trait through psychometric scales, or behaviorally in
laboratory tasks. Behavioral indicators of impulsivity mani-
fest in a number of ways and are considered the result of
neuropsychological deficits in executive function and atten-
tion. The most common neuropsychological indicators of
impulsivity are: disinhibition, or the inability to withhold an
inappropriate response; inattention/distraction, or the ten-
dency to drift off during a task and fail to respond; and poor
decision making.19 Laboratory tasks that tap into these ele-
ments of impulsivity have been used extensively in addiction
research, particularly for pathological gambling. Results in-
dicate pathological gamblers have higher levels of disinhibi-
tion, more inattention, and poorer decision making in risky
situations19,20 Importantly, these neuropsychological deficits
and trait levels of impulsivity have been linked to the de-
velopment of pathological gambling.
Despite the strong relationships between impulsivity and
addiction, research investigating the role of impulsivity in
putative cyber addictions has revealed mixed results. Given
the tendency for cyberpsychology to group Internet addiction
as the same disorder as gaming addiction, research into In-
ternet addiction will also be discussed. Trait impulsivity will
be discussed first followed by neuropsychological studies.
Research has found mixed results for the relationship be-
tween Internet use and trait impulsivity. Internet addiction has
been positively correlated with impulsivity,21 and there are
also studies that have found no relationship.22,23 Focusing on
gaming specifically, earlier research found a negative correla-
tion between impulsivity and excessive gaming,24,25 whereas
more recent research has found a positive relationship.26–31
These conflicting findings might be due to a failure to distin-
guish between different genres of games. Studies that have
specifically focused on certain genres of gaming indicate that
the relationship between impulsivity and excessive gaming
differs depending on genre. When specifically investigating
MMORPG gamers, Collins et al. found a negative correlation
between gaming addiction and impulsivity.5 MMORPG use
has also been associated with social withdrawal and anxiety,7
consistent with lower levels of impulsivity.
In comparison, there have been proposals that regular FPS
gaming might be associated with higher impulsivity.26,32 It has
been suggested that because FPS games contain fast paced, vi-
sually demanding, violent game play that is stimulating in na-
ture, this may increase impulsivity.32 Regular FPS use has been
associated with externalizing behaviors such as aggression and
delinquency, behaviors that are commonly associated with im-
pulsivity.7 Regardless,onlyonestudyhasfocusedspecificallyon
excessive FPS gaming, and results showed no relationship be-
tween FPS addiction and impulsivity.33 In sum, there is signifi-
cant scope to investigate trait impulsivity in FPS gamers.
Behavioral research has shown that excessive Internet
users have higher levels of disinhibition on a go/no-go task.34
However, other research has shown no differences in levels of
disinhibition,35 and one study found that excessive Internet
users had lower levels of disinhibition.36 In assessing decision
making, Sun et al. found that excessive Internet users per-
formed poorer on the Iowa gambling task (IGT),37 whereas
METCALF AND PAMMER
another study found they performed significantly better.38
Again, these conflicting findings could be due to the charac-
teristics of the sample. Most studies use a sample of excessive
Internet users that use the Internet primarily for gaming,38 or
they do not report their specific uses of the Internet. However,
researchers are now recommending that excessive Internet
use be treated as a heterogeneous sample,39 and gamers may
need to be distinguished based on genre of game played.
Current aims
In sum, there is significant scope to investigate impulsivity
in both regular and addicted FPS gamers, with the additional
aim of contributing meaningfully to the evolving concept of
gaming addiction. The current study investigates FPS gaming
addiction and impulsivity by measuring personality and be-
havioral measures of impulsivity in addicted FPS gamers
compared to regular gamers and nongamers.
Method
Participants
A total of 69 males were recruited from gaming stores from
around university campus and through social networking
sites. Exclusion criteria included a previous diagnosis of at-
tention disorders or medication currently being taken to treat
an attention disorder. Gaming participants (n = 47, Mage =
22.82, age range = 18–35 years) were required to have played
in excess of 5 hours per week in the preceding 6 months.
Nongamers (n = 22, Mage = 24.86, age range = 18–36 years)
were required to have no FPS gaming experience. All par-
ticipants had normal or corrected-to-normal vision to enable
optimum performance in the tasks.
Materials
Go/no-go task. Green and red squares were presented in
the center of the screen against a white background for 2,000
milliseconds. Participants were required to respond to green
squares only, which occurred 80% of the time in random order.
Participants completed 200 trials, which lasted for approxima-
tely8minutes.Participantswereinstructedtorespondasquickly
as possible and to make as few errors as possible. No practice
trials were used, and no feedback was given during the task.
Iowa gambling task. The IGT was designed to measure
decision making.37 A computerized version of this task was
used in which participants selected cards from four decks.
Participants began with $2,000. Turning a card always re-
sulted in a reward and sometimes a loss. Decks C and D gave
smaller rewards ($50) but had fewer penalties, whereas decks
A and B gave larger rewards ($100) but had greater penalties,
meaning selecting cards from decks A and B would ulti-
mately result in an overall loss.40 Participants were told their
final financial reimbursement for the study would depend on
their performance in the IGT, as real financial motivation has
been found to improve motivation on the task.
Continuous performance task. The continuous perfor-
mance task (CPT)41 was used to measure sustained attention
and disinhibition. Individual letters were presented for 690
milliseconds in the center of the screen in a 16 point font size. For
the first half of the task, participants were required to respond
IMPULSIVITY IN FPS GAMING 149

Table 1. Addiction-Engagement Questionnaire items pertaining to behavioral salience, withdrawal, craving,

Core Items
My social life has sometimes suffered because of the time I
spend playing FPS games.
Arguments have sometimes arisen at home because of the
time I spend playing FPS games.
Playing FPS games has sometimes interfered with my work.
When I am not playing FPS games, I often feel agitated.
I never miss meals because of playing FPS games.
I have made unsuccessful attempts to reduce the amount
of time I spend playing FPS games.
I often fail to get enough sleep because of playing FPS games.
Note. Participants must endorse four or more of the core criteria to
be identified as addicted.
when the letter X was presented. This part comprised 480 trials
during which the X was present 25% of the time. For the second
half, participants were required to respond whenever the letter
X immediately followed the letter A. Of 480 trials, the letter A
appeared 25% of the time, and the letter X appeared directly
after the A 80% of the time. The letter X also appeared at times
without A preceding it. The total task duration was approxi-
mately 16 minutes. Participants were given a 60 second rest
between tasks. Participants were told to respond as fast as
possible while making as few errors as possible and maintain-
ing their performance over the duration of the task.
and consequences; and engagement, which comprises 12
items pertaining to cognitive salience and tolerance. Highly
engaged gamers are considered to be regular gamers who
may engage with games at the same frequency as addicted
gamers but who do not display any problematic behavior as a
result. Addiction was determined by the endorsement of four
or more of the seven core addiction criteria (Table 1).
Procedure
Computer tasks were coded using Inquisit (Millisecond
Software, Seattle, WA). Participants were tested individually,
completing the go/no-go, IGT, CPT, BIS-11, and AEQ in that
order. The study took approximately 1 hour to complete, and
participants were reimbursed AUS$20. Participants were classi-
fied post hoc into groups of addicted, engaged, and nongamers.
Results
Go/no-go task
Reaction time for correct responses, misses, and errors for
addicted, engaged, and nongamers were calculated and are
presented in Table 2. Addicted gamers made significantly
more errors on the task compared to highly engaged and
nongamers.
IGT

Barrett Impulsiveness Scale. The Barratt Impulsiveness
Scale Version 11 (BIS-11)42 is a 30-item self-report question-
naire that has three subfactors: attentional impulsiveness,
which refers to the characteristic of hectic thinking and hasty
decisions; motor impulsiveness, which refers to fast reactions
and restlessness; and nonplanning impulsiveness, which re-
fers to a need for immediate outcomes and failure to assess
long-term consequences.
Scores were calculated by subtracting the total number of
disadvantageous decks selected (A + B) from the total number
of advantageous decks selected (C + D). Higher scores indi-
cated more advantageous decks were selected. Scores are
presented in Table 2. Highly engaged gamers (M = 36.52,
SD = 34.96) made significantly more selections from the ad-
vantageous decks compared to nongamers (M = 7.95,
SD = 36.36), p = 0.036.

CPT
Addiction-Engagement Questionnaire. The Addiction-
Engagement Questionnaire (AEQ)43 is a 24-item self-report Reaction time was calculated for each half of the task.
questionnaire with two scales: addiction, which comprises 12 Omissions were calculated as misses to the letter X, and

Table 2. Neuropsychological and Impulsivity ANOVA Results for Highly Engaged,

Addicted, and Nongamers

HE (n = 25) A (n = 22) NG (n = 22) F Post hoc

BIS Total 64.44 (9.5) 68.05 (8.8) 61.23 (8.1) 3.196* NG < A*
BIS Attention 17.68 (3.2) 20.29 (2.9) 16.55 (2.4) 9.552*** NG < A***; HE < A**
BIS Motor 23.76 (4.4) 23.71 (3.6) 22.6 (4.1) 0.541
BIS Non-Plan 23 (5.3) 24.1 (4.4) 22.1 (4.1) 0.983
GNG RT 342.17 (27.9) 340.03 (47.4) 353.77 (43.1) 0.763
GNG Miss 0.04 (0.20) 0.10 (0.44) 0.05 (0.21) 0.231
GNG Error 3.08 (2.8) 5.05 (2.9) 2.14 (1.9) 6.817** NG < A**; HE < A*
IGT Total 36.52 (34.9) 10.10 (42.2) 7.95 (36.36) 4.216* HE > NG*
CPTX RT 399.53 (25.0) 398.39 (46.5) 399.55 (29.6) 0.008
CPTX Miss 0.88 (1.0) 2.05 (2.2) 2.00 (3.0) 2.172
CPTX Error 1.60 (1.3) 2.71 (3.7) 1.59 (1.7) 1.539
CPTAX RT 325.16 (43.4) 299.32 (59.1) 324.33 (46.7) 1.901
CPTAX Miss 0.92 (1.2) 3.24 (4.0) 1.27 (1.8) 5.219** NG < A*; HE < A**
CPTAX Error 3.80 (2.8) 5.67 (7.1) 3.05 (3.7) 1.722

Note. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

HE, highly engaged; A, addicted; NG, nongamers; BIS, Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-11; GNG, go/no-go task; IGT, Iowa gambling task;
CPTX, continuous performance task X half; CPTAX, continuous performance task A-X half.
150
commissions were calculated as responses to letters other
than X. Reaction times, omissions, and commissions for the X
and A-X parts of the task are presented in Table 2. Addicted
gamers made significantly more misses than highly engaged
and nongamers in the A-X portion of the task.
Demographics and correlations
There were no differences in age between the addicted
(n = 22, Mage = 22.81, SD = 4.03), highly engaged (n = 25,
Mage = 22.92, SD = 3.89), and nongamers (n = 22, Mage = 24.86,
SD = 5.78), F(2, 65) = 1.385, p = 0.258. Addicted FPS gamers
had significantly higher levels of BIS total impulsivity and
attentional impulsivity compared to controls (see Table 2).
Pearson’s product–moment correlations were run between
degree of addiction and engagement and total impulsivity.
Addiction was positively correlated with impulsivity (n = 68,
r = 0.310, p = 0.010), as was engagement (n = 68, r = 0.245,
p = 0.044).
Discussion
The current study set out to investigate the role of impul-
sivity in FPS gaming and the relationship with gaming ad-
diction. We employed a trait measure of impulsivity and a
number of neuropsychological tasks associated with impul-
sivity. FPS addiction was positively correlated with trait im-
pulsivity, and FPS addicts also had significantly higher levels
of trait impulsivity compared to controls. There is almost no
empirical research into genres of gaming other than
MMORPGs, despite high prevalence of excessive FPS gaming
and evidence for significant heterogeneity amongst gaming
genres. Only one study has addressed trait impulsivity spe-
cifically in FPS gaming addiction, and failed to find a rela-
tionship.33 The authors used a measure of general Internet
addiction to identify FPS gaming addiction, which they ac-
knowledged may not have captured the disorder accurately.
While the scale used in this study was developed on
MMORPGs, it has previously been validated on FPS gam-
ers.44 Furthermore, the previous study used a single item to
represent impulsivity,33 whereas the BIS-11 used in the this
sample is a 30-item, well-established psychometric measure
of trait impulsivity.
This is also the first study to include laboratory measures of
impulsivity in FPS gamers. The results showed greater dis-
inhibition and higher levels of inattention in addicted FPS
gamers compared to controls, whereas highly engaged FPS
gamers had no differences compared to controls. Previous
research has shown that children with pathological levels of
impulsivity (i.e., attention deficit hyperactivity disorder,
ADHD) have higher levels of gaming addiction than non-
ADHD children.45 The current study also showed that high
levels of trait and behavioral impulsivity distinguish addicted
FPS gamers from highly engaged (i.e., nonaddicted) gamers.
Thus, impulsivity may be a risk factor that determines whe-
ther a gamer will progress into gaming addiction, consistent
with substance and gambling addiction research. Previously,
research has produced conflicting findings regarding the re-
lationship between cyberaddiction and impulsivity. In part,
these findings might be attributable to a failure to distinguish
between genres and the tendency for cyberpsychology to
treat excessive usage of Internet functions as a homogenous
group. Previous research has shown that excessive MMORPG
METCALF AND PAMMER
use is associated with lower levels of impulsivity,5 whereas
the current study indicates excessive FPS gamers have higher
levels of impulsivity. There is now significant evidence indi-
cating that excessive gaming is a highly heterogeneous group.
While addicted FPS gamers showed higher levels of dis-
inhibition and inattention compared to controls, they showed
no differences in decision making. However, highly engaged
FPS gamers made significantly better choices on the IGT
compared to controls, indicating a potential beneficial effect
on decision making skills due to regular FPS gaming. Regular
FPS gaming has been shown to improve lower level cognitive
functions such as visuo-spatial attention,46–50 insofar as the
visuo-spatially demanding FPS game play is thought to train
superior visuo-spatial skills by rewarding games for re-
sponding appropriately to visually presented stimuli.51,52 In
addition, FPS gameplay rewards gamers for making advan-
tageous game decisions and often contains situations in
which the gamer has to assess risk and benefit. Thus, regular
FPS gaming may also improve higher level executive func-
tions, such as decision making in risk situations. While the
current study found better decision making in a computer-
based task, it would be worthwhile to investigate how this
effect maps onto real world decisions, as in whether regular
FPS gaming has the capacity to train gamers to assess risk in
decision making in real world situations. A training study is
needed to determine whether the better decision making
found in highly engaged FPS gamers is a result of game ex-
perience. Additionally, the higher levels of impulsivity found
in FPS addicts may inhibit any potential benefits from regular
FPS gaming to decision making ability, which can account for
the similar performance on the IGT this study found between
FPS addicts and controls. This is the first study to compare
nongamers, regular, and addicted FPS gamers on the IGT,
which may account for previous conflicting findings regard-
ing decision making in gamers.38,40
Despite better decision making in risky situations and no
differences in inattention and disinhibition compared to
controls, engagement with FPS games was positively corre-
lated with impulsivity. Some researchers have proposed that
regular FPS gaming has a bidirectional effect on impulsivi-
ty27,29 and may increase levels of disinhibition, inattention,
and risk taking associated with impulsivity.32 Yet, there re-
mains no empirical evidence that regular FPS gamers have
neuropsychological deficits associated with impulsivity. Re-
cent empirical research has found no evidence for behavioral
impulsivity in regular FPS gamers.51 Our findings confirm
there are no neuropsychological deficits in regular FPS
gamers and indicate that FPS gamers have superior executive
function in regards to decision making. Any relationship
between impulsivity and regular FPS gaming might be lim-
ited to impulsive individuals displaying a preference for FPS
gaming, and correlational research indicating a negative ef-
fect of FPS gaming on impulsivity levels might be attributable
to gaming addiction.
Limitations
The sample size was limited to males only and was rela-
tively small, although the majority of FPS gamers are male.7
Research that encompasses excessive users of different genres
of games and from different uses of the Internet, such as
gambling, social networking, and pornography, are needed
IMPULSIVITY IN FPS GAMING
to capture the differences between these groups and their re-
lationships with impulsivity. While the AEQ adequately cap-
tured FPS gaming addiction and engagement, future research
may consider developing scales specific to certain game genres.
Conclusion
FPS gaming addiction is associated with trait impulsivity
and neuropsychological deficits associated with impulsivity
such as disinhibition and inattention. Addicted FPS gamers
did not display the same superior decision making skills
found in regular FPS gamers. These findings are consistent
with previous pathological gambling research, indicating
impulsivity is a risk factor for FPS addiction.19,20 Moreover,
regular FPS gaming may result in improvements to decision
making under risk situations.
Acknowledgment
The authors thank an anonymous reviewer who helped
significantly with revisions of this manuscript.
Author Disclosure Statement
No competing financial interests exist.
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Address correspondence to:
Dr. Olivia Metcalf
Room 125F
Research School of Psychology (Building 39)
The Australian National University
Canberra
Australia 0200
E-mail: olivia.metcalf@anu.edu.au