Boiler Operation

Engineering
And Power Plant
A. R. Mallick
 Denett.

Practical
Boiler Operation
Engineering .
And Power Plant
A. R. Mallick

Denett & Co.

Nagpur I Delhi I Chennai I Puna
 g
/ /lee /act0-

Electricity figures every where in our lives. It is very important in our community because almost
everything we use is operated by electricity. No modern society exists without it. When we consider
electricity, we usually think of electric power. Contemporary society and our entire infrastructure
rely on electricity. Electric power is generated at Power Plants. Electric Power Generation Industry
remains a key factor for Industrialization and economic growth of any nation. Development of any
country depends upon the development of its Power Generation sector.

Practical Boiler Operation Engineering And Power Plant
A. R. Mallick
First Edition : August 2010
ISBN 978-81-89904-53-1
Copyright © 2010 by Publisher
This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired
out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior written consent in any form of binding or cover
other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this. condition being
imposed on the subsequent purchaser and without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above. No
part of this publications, may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior
written permission of both the author and the publisher of this book.
I am fortunate enough to be associated with Power generation for a quite long period and feel
proud to be a Power Engineer. I got opportunity to work at different Power Plants at different levels.
I decided to share my experience with people those who are interested to know about Power Plant.
This book is the collection of my experience. At the beginning, i prepared a note when I was
preparing myself for BOE Examination. Finally that small note took present shape after additions
and modifications. I have tried my best to cover all the areas of a Power Plant that a Power Plant
professional wants to know.
Initially I had planned to write up to chapter -15, to cover all areas of a Boiler. Then I added
remaining seven chapters to cover all the major areas of a Power Plant which includes Steam
Turbine, Generator, Maintenance, Commissioning and C&I. There may be same typographical or
technical error in this book. I request readers to give their valuable feed back to make this book
error less in future.
This book will be helpful to professional Engineers, BOE examinees and Engineering students. I will
be fortunate enough if this small book can satisfy the reader and this will be my little contribution
to Power generation industry.
I am thankful to respected Mr. D S D Pandey, who has made me a member of Power industry. I also
thank Mr. Ramakrishna Sahoo to whom I woe a lot. I can't forget the help of Mr. V K Jha during
initial days of the script.
My wife Mrs. Amita Mallick and Son Amitya R Mallick have sacrificed a lot for me. I have not given
enough time for them. Thanks for their understanding, co-operation and support.

Thanks to my colleagues, friends and critics who encouraged me to write this book.

Published by:

Denett &Co. Amiya R. Mallick

23 Farm Land, New Ramdaspeth, Central Bazar Road, Nagpur - 440010 (MS) India.
Visit us at : www.denett.com
email: amit@denett.com
 I dedicate this Book
to my Godlike Uncle

Sri Raghunath Mallick

Who has brought me from darkness and illuminated my life.



Chapter 1: Fundamentals 1to15

LI Introduction
1.2-Lawof conservation_ of Energy_
1.3 Temperature
1.3.1 Centigrade scale
1.3.2 Fahrenheit scale
13-.3--Kelvin scale- - -
1.3.4 Absolute Temperature
1.4 Pressure
1.4.1 Gauge pressure and Absolute Pressure
1.5 Heat
1.5.1 Specific Heat
1.6 Work
1.7 Power
1.8 Energy
1.9 Enthalpy
1.10 Law's of Thermodynamics
1.11 Specific heat of Gas
1.12 Thermodynamic Process of perfect Gas
1.12.1 Constant Volume Process
1.12.2 Constant pressure process
1.12.3 Constant Temperature process
1.12.4 Adiabatic process
1.12.5 Free expansion process
1.12.6 Throttling process
1.13 Thermodynamic cycle
1.13.1 Carnot cycle
1.13.2 Rankine cycle
1.14 Effect of Design Parameters on Rankine Cycle
Chapter 2 : Heat transfer methods 16 to 22
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Heat transfer by conduction
2.2.1 Fourier's law
2.2.2 Thermal conductivity
2.3 Heat transfer by convection
2.3.1 Newton's law of cooling
2.4 Heat transfer by Radiation
2.4.1 Stefan Boltzmann law
2.4.2 Absorption, Reflection,Emmission
2.4.3 Black body
2.4.4 White body
2.4,5 Gray and colored body
2.4.6 Transparent and opaque body
2.4.7 Emmissivity
2.4.8 Geometrical factor or configuration factor
Chapter 3 : Fuel and combustion 23 to 36
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Solid fuels
3.2.1 Wood
 3.2.1.1 Charcoal 5.5 External treatment of Feed water
3.2.2 Coal 5.5.1 Demineralising Water treatment
3.2.2.1 Peat 5.5.1.1 Process of Demineralisation
3.2.2.2 Lignite 5.5.1.2 Cation Exchanger
3.2.2.3 Bituminous coal 5.5.1.3 Degasser
3.2.2.4 Anthracite coal 5.5.1,4--Anion Exchanger
3.2.2.5 Cannel coal and Boghead coal 5.5.1.5 Mixed bed
3.2.3 Coke 5.5.2 Reverse osmosis
3.2.4 Solid waste 5.6 Removal of Dissolved Gasses from water
3.3 Liquid fuel 5 7 Some parameters of Boiler feed water -
3.4 Gaseous fuel Chapter 6 : Introduction to Boiler 55 to 65
3.4.1 Blast furnace Gas
6.1 Introduction
3.4.2 Coke oven Gas
6.2 Steam Generation in a Boiler
3.5 Proximate analysis and Ultimate analysis
6.3 Different types of Boiler
3.5.1 Proximate analysis
6.3.1 Fire tube and Water tube Boiler
3.5.2 Ultimate analysis
6.3.2 Straight tube, Bent tube, Horizontal, Vertical and Inclined Boiler
3.6 Calorific value of fuel
6.3.3 Waste Heat Recovery Boiler
3.6.1 Higher Calorific value
6.3.4 Package Boiler
3.6.2 Lower Calorific value
6.3.5 Sub critical and super critical Boiler
3.7 Combustion
6.3.6 Fuel fired Boiler
3.7.1 Chemistry of combustion
6.3.6.1 Oil fired Boiler
3.8 Some Important properties of Coal
6.3.6.2 Gas fired Boiler
3.9 Gradation of Coal
6.3.6.3 Coal fired Boiler
3.10 Combustion of Coal
6.3.6.3.1 Traveling Grate Boiler
3.10.1 Combustion of Pulverized coal 6.3.6.3.2 Spreader stoker fired Boiler
3.10.2 Combustion of Liquid fuel
6.3.6.3.3 Pulverized Boiler
3.11 Excess Air
6.3.6.3.4 Fluidized Boiler
Chapter 4 : Properties of steam 37 to 42 Chapter 7 : Fuel handling System 66 to 72
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Formation of steam 7.1 Introduction
7.2 Handling of liquid fuel
4.3 Terms associated with steam
7.2.1 Handling of HSD
4.3.1 Sensible heat
7.2.2 Handling of HFO, FO and LSHS
4.3.2 Latent Heat of Evaporation
7.3 Handling of Gaseous fuel
4.3.3 Wet steam
7.4 Handling of solid fuel
4.3.4 Dry saturated steam
7.4.1 Handling of Coal
4.3.5 Dryness fraction
7.4.2 Handling of other Solid fuel
4.3.6 Total heat of wet steam
4.3.7 Superheated steam Chapter 8 : Air path 73 to 81
4.3.8 Total heat of superheated steam 8.1 Introduction
4.3.9 Specific Volume of steam 8.2 FD fan
4.4 Steam Table 8.3 Air flow control
4.5 Mollier Diagram 8.3.1 Speed control method
Chapter 5 : Boller Feed Water chemistry 43 ' to 54 8.3.2 Damper control method
5.1 Introduction 8.4 Air heater
8.4.1 Steam air heater
5.2 Removal of undissolved materials from water
8.5 Primary and secondary air
5.2.1 Sedimentation
5.2.2 Filtration 8.6 Excess Air
5.2.3 Coagulation Chapter 9 Feed Water path 82 to 100
5.3 Dissolved salts and Minerals 9.1 Introduction
5.4 Internal Boiler water treatment 9.2 Deaerator
5.4.1 Soda ash treatment 9.2.1 Tray type Direct contact Deaerator
5.4.2 Phosphate treatment 9.2.2 LP Dosing
5.4.3 Colloidal treatment


9.3 Boiler feed pump 11.7.6 Water vapor

9.4 Boiler Drum level control 11.7.7 Volatile organic compounds
9.4.1 Single element control 11.7.8 Particulates
9.4.2 Two element control 11.7,9 Heavy metal toxics
9.4.3 Three element control 11.8 Flue Gas velocity
9.5 Feed control station 11,9_ Chimney
9.6 Economiser Chapter 12 : Ash Handling System 133 to 156
9.7 Evaporator
12.1 Introduction
9.7.1 Water Wall
12.7 Ash
9.8 Phosphate dosing
12.2.1 Bottom Ash
9.9 Blowdown
12.2.2 Fly Ash
9.10 Gauge Glass
12.3 Bottom ash removal system
9.11 Water side scaling and corrosion
12.3.1 Dry bottom furnace ash removal
9.11.1 Scaling
12.3.2 Wet bottom furnace ash removal
9.11.2 Corrosion
12.4 Ash handling system
9.12 Priming, foaming and carryover
12.4.1 Hydraulic ash handling system
Chapter 10: Steam Path 101 to 114 12.4.1.1 Low velocity system
10.1 Introduction 12.4.1.2 High velocity system
10.2 Steam Drum 12.4.2 Mechanical ash handling system
10.2.. Drum Internals 12.4.3 Pneumatic ash handling system
10.3 Superheat p 12.5 Selection of suitable ash handling system
10.3.1 Outlet temperature at various load for different type of superheater 12.6 Fly Ash separation system
10.4 Methods of Superheat temperature control 12.6.1 Inertial separation
10.4.1 Gas by pass method 12.6.1.1 Settling chamber
10.4.2 Excess Air control method 12.6.1.2 Baffle chamber
10.4.3 Tilting Burner control method 12.6.1.3 Centrifugal separator
10.4.4 Separately fired superheater method 12.6.2 Wet scrubber
10.4.5 Flue Gas recirculation method 12.6.3 Fabric separator
10.4.6 Coil immersion in Boiler Drum 12,6.4 Electrostatic precipitator
10.4.7 Attemperation method 12.6.4.1 Principle of operation
10.5 Start up vent 12.6.4.2 Factors affecting the performance of ESP
10.6 Safety valve 12.6.4.3 Removal of fly ash
10.6.1 Basic operation principle of safety valve 12.6.4.4 Advantages, disadvantages of ESP
10.7 Steam vent silencer 12.7 Utilization of Ash
12.7.1 Construction of Embankments and fills
Chapter 11 : Flue Gas path 115 to 132 12.7.2 Road construction
11.1 Introduction 12.7.3 Pozzolana cement manufacturing
11.2 Furnace 12.7.4 Cement concrete and mortar
11.2.1 Furnace dimension 12.7.5 Brick Manufacturing
11.3 Different Zones of Flue Gas path 12.7.6 Manufacturing building components
11.4 Refractory 12.7.7 Back filling of mines
11.4.1 Castable refractory
Chapter 13 : Operation of Boiler 157 to 179
11.5 ID fan
13.1 Introduction
11.6 Draft 11.6.1 Natural Draft 13.2 Feed water fill up in Boiler
11.6.2 Artificial Draft 13.3 Boiler start up
11.7 Flue Gas constituents 13.3.1 Cold start up
11.7.1 Carbon dioxide 13.3.1.1 Pre start up checking
11.7.2 Carbon monoxide 13.3.1.2 Light up
11.7.3 Oxygen 13.3.2 Hot start up
11.7.4 Nitrogen oxides 13.4 Boiler Load Increasing / Decreasing
11.7.4.1 Combustion control Technique 13.5 Shutdown of Boiler
11.7.4.2 Post combustion control method 13.5.1 Shutdown to cold
11.7.5 Sulpher oxides 13.5.2 Shutdown to Hot


Chapter 16 : Steam Turbine 216 to 255

13.6 Normal operation of Boiler
13.7 Abnormal operating conditions and Emergency situations 16.1 Introduction
13.7.1 Low water level 16.2 Impulse and Reaction Turbine
13.7.2 High water level 16.3 Classification of Steam Turbine
13.7.3 Master fuel trip 16.4 Main Components of Steam Turbine
13.7.4 High steam temperature 16.4..1 Casing
13.7.5 Furnace Explosion 16.4.2 Rotor
13.7.6 Boiler Tube failure 16.4.3 Moving Blade
13.8 Preservation of Boiler 16.4.4 Fixed Blades and Diaphragm
13.9 Hydrostatic test --16:4 5- Steam Sealing System -
13.10 Soot blowing 16.4.6 Bearings
13.11 Inspection of Boiler 16.4.7 Gland
13.11.1 Annual Boiler Inspection 16.4.8 Exhaust Hood
13.12 Efficiency calculation 16.4.9 Emergency Stop valve
13.12.1 Direct method 16.4.10 Governing valve and Control valve
13.12.2 Indirect method 16.5 Thermal Expansion of Turbine
16.6 Gland Sealing system
Chapter 14 : Pipes, Tubes and Fittings 180 to 197
16.7 Barring Device
14.1 Introduction 16.8 Governing system
14.2 Tube and Pipe 16.8.1 Mechanical Governor
14.2.1 Difference between Tube and Pipe 16.8.2 Hydraulic Governor
14.3 Pipe schedule 16.8.3 Electro hydraulic Governor
14.3.1 Nominal bore of pipe. 16.8.4 Control oil system.
14.4 Different standard specification for Tube and Pipe 16.9 Turbine Protection system
14.5 Carbon steel and Alloy steel 16.10 Turbovisory
14.6 Ferritic and Austenitic steel 16.11 Turbine Casing Draining system
14.7 Chemical properties of different standard Pipe and Tube 16.12 Extraction system
14.8 Flow through Pipe 16.13 Feed water heater
14.9 Pressure drop due to Pipe bend, valve etc.
Chapter 17 : Auxiliary system of Steam Turbine 256 to 276
14.10 Thermal expansion of Pipe
14.11 Pipe support 17.1 Introduction
14.12 Insulation of Pipe 17.2 Oil system
14.13 Pipe layout 17.2.1 Oil Tank
14.14 Water hammer 17.2.2 Oil Pumps
14.15 Pipe fittings 17.2.3 Oil Coolers
17.2.4 Oil Filters
Chapter 15 : Pipe fittings and Ancillaries 198 to 215
17.2.5 Oil Centrifuge
15.1 Introduction 17.2.6 Over head Tank
15.2 Flange 17.2.7 Oil Accumulators
15.3 Trap 17.3 Condensate System
15.3.1 Different type of traps 17.4 Gland sealing System
15.3.1.1 Thermodynamic trap 17.5 Steam Ejector and Vacuum system
15.3.1.2 Thermostatic trap 17.6 Condenser
15.3.1.3 Mechanical trap 17.6.1 Daltons law of Partial Pressure
15.3.2 Problems, losses and testing of traps 17.6.2 Condenser efficiency
15.4 Valve 17.7 Cooling water system
15.4.1 Different type of Valves 17.7.1 Cooling Tower
15.4.2 Stem sealing 17.7.2 Cooling water treatment
15.4.2.1 Gland packing material
Chapter 18: Operation of Steam Turbine 277 to 289
15.4.3 Valve standard and Material specification
15.5 Non return Valve 18.1 Introduction
15.5.1 Swing check valve 18.2 Heat up of Steam Pipe line
15.5.2 Lift check valve 18.3 Operation of Cooling water system
15.5.3 Disc check valve 18.4 Operation of Lube oil system
15.6 Strainers


18.5 Barring gear operation 20.4.2 Flushing and Passivation

18.6 Gland steam charging 20.5 Commissioning of Electrical system
18.7 Condensate system operation 20.5.1 Charging switchgear panels
18.8 Vacuum build up 20.5.2 Commissioning of Transformers
18.9 Turbine startup 20.5.3 Commission_i_ng- of Motor-s_
18.10 Turbine shutdown 20.5.4 Commissioning of Generator protection system
18.11 Emergency situations in Turbine 20.5.5 Commissioning of Generator
18.12 Losses in Steam Turbine 20.6 Performance guarantee (PG) Test
18.12.1 Externai loss ------20:6.-1 PG-Test-of Boiler
18.12.2 Internal losses 20.6.2 PG Test of Turbine
18.13 Heat Rate 20.6.3 PG Test of Generator
18.14 Some Latest Development in Power Generation Industries
Chapter 21 Maintenance of Power Plant 324 to 349
18.15 Capacity Selection of Generating Sets
21.1 Introduction
Chapter 19 : Generator 290 to 306
21.2 Types of Maintenance Practices
19.1 Introduction 21.2.1 Breakdown or Corrective or Reactive Maintenance
19.2 Important Parts of a Generator 21.2.2 Preventive or Schedule Maintenance
19.2.1 Cylindrical Rotor 21.2.3 Predictive Maintenance,
19.2.2 Stator 21.2.4 Condition based Maintenance (CBM).
19.2.3 Bearings 21.2.5 Proactive Maintenance
19.2.4 Enclosure 21.2.6 Total Productive Maintenance (TPM)
19.3 Cooling system of Generator 21.3 Failures in Power Plant
19.4 Excitation system 21.3.1 Boiler Tube leakage
19.5 Automatic voltage regulator 21.3.2 Failure Mechanism of Boiler Tube
19.6 Voltage Buildup 21.3.3 Failure of Aux. System of Boiler
19.7 Synchronization 21.3.4 Failure of Turbine Blades
19.8 De synchronization or Islanding 21.3.5 Failure of Turbine Shaft
19.9 Generator Protection 21.3.6 Failure of Turbine Bearings
19.10 Different Operating conditions of Generator 21.3.7 Wear out of Steam Seals of Turbine
19.10.1 Parallel mode of operation 21.3.8 Failure of Aux. system of Turbine
19.10.2 Isolated mode of operation 21.3.9 Problem in cooling Tower
Chapter 20 Commissioning of Power Plant 307 to 323 21.4 Non destructive (ND) test
21.4.1 Dye penetration (DP) test
20.1 Introduction 21.4.2 Fluorescent magnetic particle test
20.2 Commissioning of Boiler 21.4.3 Ultrasonic test
20.2.1 Leakage test in Pressure parts and Flushing 21.4.4 Radiographic test .
20.2.2 Hydro test of Pressure parts 21.4.5 Metallurgical test
20.2.3 Furnace leakage test 21.5 Different type of Maintenance Programme of Turbine
20.2.4 Chemical cleaning of Pressure parts 21.6 Annual Inspection of Boiler
20.2.5 Alkali Boil out 21.6.1 Procedure of annual inspection
20.5.6 EDTA Cleaning 21.6.2 Repair procedure of Boiler
20.2.7 Safety valve setting 21.7 Welding
20.2.8 Commissioning of Boiler feed pump . 21.7.1 Shield metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
20.2.9 Commissioning of fans 21.7.2 Gas tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
20.2.10 Commissioning of fuel handling system 21.7.3 Pre heating
20.3 Commissioning of Turbine 21.7.4 Post weld Heat treatment(PWHT)
20.3.1 Lube oil flushing 21.7.5 Defects in Welding
20.3.2 Steam Blowing 21.7.6 Testing of Weld joints
20.3.3 Turbine on Barring
Chapter 22: Control and Instrumentation 350 to 384 ,
20.3.4 Commissioning of condensate system-
20.3.5 Rolling of Turbine 22.1 Introduction
20.3.6 Over speed test 22.2 Process Measurement
20.4 Commissioning of Cooling water system 22.3 Measurement of Pressure
20.4.1 Commissioning of cooling tower 22.3.1 Pressure gauge


22.3.2 Manometer
22.3.3 Pressure Sensor / Transmitter
22,3.4 Smart Transmitter
22.4 Measurement of Temperature
22.4.1 Thermocouple
22.4.2 Resistance Temperature device (RTD) _FUNDAMENTALS_
22.4.3 Infrared Temperature measuring device
22.4.4 Liquid Expansion type
22.4.5 Temperature Transmitter
22.4.6 Thermo_Well
22.5 Measurement of flow
22.5.1 Mechanical flow meter
22.5.2 Differential pressure flow meter
22.5.3 Electromagnetic flow meter 1.1 Introduction
22.5.4 Ultrasonic type flow meter Before going in details about a Boiler and power plant some fundamental knowledge of Mechanical
22.5.5 Rotameter Engineering is essential. We will discuss some important points, which are essential for a Boiler operation
22.6 Measurement of level of liquid Engineer in his day to day job.
22.6.1 Sight glass
1.2 Law of Conservation of Energy
22.6.2 Magnetic level gauge
22.6.3 Float type level measurement Energy is the capacity to do work. It is available in many forms like- Mechanical Energy, Electrical
22.6.4 Pressure gauge method Energy, Chemical Energy, Heat energy, Light Energy, Kinetic Energy, Potential Energy etc. Energy can be
22.6.5. RF Capacitor method transformed from one form to another. But it can not be created.
22.6.6 Differential Pressure method
The law states "the Energy can neither be crated nor it can be destroyed. It only can be transformed
22.6.7 Ultrasonic method
22.6.8 Radar method
from one form to other". -
22.7 Measurement of level of Solids In a Boiler, chemical energy stored in fuel is converted in to heat energy during combustion. This
22.7.1 Ultrasonic method heat energy is utilised to convert water to steam. Heat energy is converted in to kinetic energy in steam.
22.7.2 Guided wave Radar method Kinetic energy of steam is used in Steam Turbine to convert in to mechanical energy. Turbine drives a
22.7.3 Laser method Generator to generate Electricity. In Generator, Mechanical Energy is converted in Lo Electrical Energy.
22.7.4 Load cell/Strain gauge method
1.3 Temperature
22.8 Continuous Weight Measurement
22.9 Measurement of Vibration Temperature of an object is the average energy of its molecules. Molecules moves faster when it
22.10 Process Control has more energy. Temperature is related to the average speed of the molecules. It is a measurement of the
22.11 PID Controller intensity of the heat. Heat is total energy of the object.
22.12 Actuator or Output Device
Temperature of a body means the warmth or coldness felt during contact with that body. The
22.12.1 Pneumatic operated Control Valve
22.12.2 Solenoid valve temperature is measured by a thermometer in quantitative way. Most materials expand when heated.
22.12.3 Motorized Valve Some material, like —Mercury, expands linearly with temperature. This principle is used to measure the
22.12.4 Pneumatic Cylinder temperature. Many thermometers use expansion of Mercury in a tube to measure temperature.
22.12.5 Hydraulic cylinder Also following principles are used to measure temperature.
22.12.6 Variable speed drive
22.13 Plant automation • Change of length, such as length of a mercury column.
22.13.1 Programmable Logic Control (PLC) • Change of volume, such as volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure.
22.13.2 Different Modules of PLC • Change of pressure, such as pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume.
22.13.2.1 Power supply Module
22.13.2.2 CPU
• Change in electric resistance, as in a thermistor.
22.13.2.3 I/O Module • Flow of electricity due to Seebeck effect, as in a thermocouple.
22.13.3 PLC Programming • Radiation, as in radiation pyrometers.
22.13.4 Other features of PLC There are three well known scales used to measure temperature. These are-
22.14 Distributed Control system (DCS)
22.15 Human Machine Interface (HMI) Centigrade or Celsius scale
Appendix • Fahrenheit scale
385 to 387
• Kelvin scale
0 0 0 [1]

2 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
Relationship exists between these three scales. Temperature in one scale can be converted in to
another scale.
1.3.1 Centigrade or Celsius Scale
This scale was devloped by Anders Celsius (1701-1744), a Swedish astronomer. Celsius divided
the difference in temperature between freezing and boiling points of water into 100 degrees (thus the name
centi, means one hundred, and grade, means degrees). The point at which water frizzes under atmospheric
pressure is considered as 0°C and where water boils is considered as 100 °C. The lower unit is 0 °C and
upper unit is 100 °C. Thescale is divided into 100 equal units. Oneunit is-°-C,-called-as degree centigrade.
This scale is widely used by Engineers in India.
1.3.2 Fahrenheit Scale
Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686-1"736), a German physicist, introduced a scale called as Fahrenheit
scale in 1724. Using this scale, Fahrenheit measured the temperature of boiling water as 212°F and freezing
point of water as 32°F. So in this scale, interval between freezing and boiling points of water is 180 degrees.
The distance between these two points are divided into 180 equal units. Each unit is called as degree
Fahrenheit or °E. Normal human body temperature is 98.6°E
Fahrenheit scale is commonly used to measure human body temperature.
1.3.3 Kelvin Scale
Lord William Kelvin (1824-1907) was a Scottish physicist who introduced Kelvin (K) scale in 1854.
The Kelvin scale is based on the
principle of absolute zero. The zero
point on the Kelvin scale is the lowest
possible theoretical temperature that
,rx exists in the universe i.e. -273.15°C
or 0 K. As the temperature goes
down, the average energy and speed
of the molecules decreases. There is
a temperature at which the molecules
stop moving. That temperature is
called Absolute Zero.
The freezing point of water is
therefore 273.15 Kelvin. Each
.Human body division in the scale is called Kelvin
tempera ire, and neither the term "degree" nor
Room. the symbol ° is used. 373.15 K is
t;? pe6atUre the boiling point of water. Since there
is no negative numbers on the Kelvin
scale, because theoretically nothing
can be colder than absolute zero, it
is very convenient to use Kelvin
)ec
when measuring extremely low
temperatures for scientific research.
Some time another absolute
temperature scale is used called as
° "Rankine Temperature scale".
Comparison of above scales is
shown in Figure.
FIG. 1.1 Comparison of different Temperature Scales
Fundamentals 3
The temperature measured in one scale can easily be converted to another by using simple
formula as given below.
From. To °C To °F To K
°C C (C X 1.8) + 32 C+ 273.15
°F (F - 32)/ 1.8 F (F - 32) 5/9 + 273.15
K- - --K = 273.15 (K - 273.15) 9/5 + 32 K
1.3.4 Absolute Temperature
It is the theoretical lowest temperature possible in universe. Absolute temperature is the theoretical
temperature at which all molecular motion stops and substances possess no thermal energy. Temperature
of any substance can not fall below this temperature. For all sort of calculation, absolute zero temperature
is taken as -273 °C or 0 Kelvin.
1.4 Pressure
Pressure is defined as "the force per unit area exerted by a body on its surface, in a direction
normal to the surface". It is caused by the ' collision of molecules of the substance with the boundaries of the
system. As molecules hit the wall, they exert forces and try to push the wall outward.
The unit of pressure depends upon the unit of force and unit of area. There are different units of
pressure, used in power plant.
o Kilogram per square centimeter (Kg/cm 2)
• Kilogram per square meter (Kg/m 2)
• Newton per square centimeter (N/m 2)
o Pound per square inch (psi)
• Millimeter of mercury column (mmhg)
o Millimeter of water column (mmwc)
o Atmospheric (ata)
o Barometric (bar)
• Kilo Pascal per square inch (kpsi)
Also there are many more pressure units. But only some important units are mentioned here.
Relation between all these units is given at end of the book.
1.4.1 Gauge Pressure and Absolute Pressure
Pressure gauges are mounted at different pipe lines and systems of a power plant.
In practice, pressure gauge of the system shows the difference betty n actual pressure of the system and
atmospheric pressure. Reading of pressure gauge is known as gauge pressure. The actual pressure or
absolute pressure of the system can be obtained by adding gauge pressure with atmospheric pressure.
Absolute pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure
Value of atmospheric pressure is taken as 1.0332 kg/cm 2 or 1.0132 bar absolute at sea level. If
height of the place is more than sea level, atmospheric pressure of that place is less. At the sea level the
height of mercury column is 760 mm with the density of mercury taken as 13.5951 g/cm3 .


4 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Fundamentals

Specific heat of some substances which are helpful to a Boiler Engineer is given below.
Substance Specific heat
Steel 0.117
----
Vacume or negative
Coal 0.241
— to-
gauge pressure Coke 0.200
Water 1.00
Steam 0.500
Air 0.237
Oxygen 0.221
FIG. 1.2 Absolute Pressure and Gauge Pressure
1.5 Heat 1.6 Work
When a force is applied on a body, the body undergoes a displacement and work is done. This
Heat is the amount of energy in a system. SI unit of heat is Joule. Heat energy is transferred is the product of force applied to a body and the displacement of the body in the direction of applied force.
from higher temperature object to lower temperature object through radiation, conduction and convection. If a force "F" acts on a body and produces displacement "X" in the direction of force. Then the work done
Heat of an object is the total kinetic energy of its molecules, while temperature of the object is the measurement is given by
of average energy of its molecules. Specific heat is a way to compare heat of different materials. Heat
energy can cause expansion in many materials. Heat is denoted by "Q". W=FxX
Depending 'upon the unit of force and displacement, unit of work is decided. In MKS system,
Heat is measured by, quantity required to raise the temperature of a known mass of water
when force is 1 kg and displacement is 1 meter, , the unit of work is kilogram meter
through some known temperature. Following three units are used to measure the amount of heat. (kg-m). In SI uni the unit of work is Newton meter (N-m).
• Calorie : 1.7 Power
It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water through 1 °C. Power is the rate of doing work. It is defined as, "work done per unit time".
Larger unit is kilocalorie (kcal). Kilocalorie is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1
Power = Work done / Time taken
kilogram of water through 1°C.
P=dW/dT
1 kcal = 1000 calorie
In metric system the unit of power is metric horse power. This is 4500 kg-m per minute.
• Centigrade Heat Unit (CHU) :
In SI system the unit of power is watt. Watt is equal to 1 N-M / sec or 1 Joule/ sec. Bigger unit of
One CHU is the amount of heat required to raise temperature of one pound of water
through 1 °C. power in this system is kilowatt (1 kw = 1000 watt).
1 pound = 453.6 gram . 1.8 Energy
So, 1 CHU = 453.6 calories . Energy is the ability or capacity to do work or to produce change. Different forms of energy like-
• British Thermal Unit (BTU) : Heat energy, Light energy, Chemical Energy, Electrical energy, Atomic energy etc. are available.
1^ Enthalpy
One BTU is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water
through 1°F.. Enthalpy is a thermodynamic function of a system, equivalent to the sum of the internal energy
of the system plus the product of its volume multiplied by the pressure exerted on it by its surroundings.
In SI unit, unit of heat is joule or kilo joule (J or KJ). When "m" kg of substance is heated up to
"T" Kelvin and specific heat is "C" KJ/kg °C. Then amount of heat required is given by Symbolically enthalpy, H, equals the sum of the internal energy, E, and the product of the pressure, P and
H=mCTKJ volume, V, of the system: H = E + PV.
lkcal = 4.1868 KJ 1.10 Laws of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a branch of science, concerned with nature of Heat and its conversion to
1.5.1 Specific Heat mechanical energy. Following three Laws are important in thermodynamics.

Specific heat of any substance is defined as "amount of heat required to raise the temperature • Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics :
of a unit mass of that substance through 1 °C". It is normally denoted by " C". This law speaks about thermal equilibrium. "If systems A and B are in thermodynamic equilibrium,
Heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water through 1 °C is lkcal. So the specific and systems B and C are in thermodynamic equilibrium, then systems A and C are also in
heat of water is one. thermodynamic equilibrium".

6
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
According to this law :
When two systems are put in contact with each other, there will be a net exchange of energy
between them till they are in thermodynamic equilibrium condition.
• First Law of Thermodynamics
First Law of Thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy. It states that "energy cannot be
created or destroyed. Instead it is converted from one form to another, for example from work to
heat, from heat to light, from chemical to-heat,-or such - -- -__-_
Alternately this law state- "a definite amount of heat energy is required to produce a definite
amount of Mechanical energy and vise versa".
According to the law :
WaH or W=JH
Where "J" is a constant called as Joule, Mechanical equivalent of heat. It is defined as "amount of
work done by unit quantity of heat " .
Total heat energy supplied is the sum of external work done and change in internal energy.
H=E+W
Where
H = Heat supplied
W = Work done
E = Change in internal Energy
Potential energy and Kinetic energy are macroscopic forms of energy. They can be visualized in
terms of position and velocity of the substance. In addition to these macroscopic forms of energy,
a substance poses several microscopic form of energy due to rotation, vibration, translation and
interaction among molecules of a substance. Sum of all these microscopic form of energy is called
as internal energy.
• Second Law of Thermodynamics
This law can be stated in following two ways.
1. Kelvin and Planck statement :
This is called as the first form of Second law of thermodynamics or Kelvin-Plank statement of
Second law. "It is impossible to convert,all the heat supplied to an engine to get equivalent
amount of work. Some portion of the heat supplied is rejected".
So the heat converted in to work is always less than heat supplied to engine. The ratio of heat
converted to work to heat supplied to engine is known as the thermal efficiency of the engine. So,
thermal efficiency of any engine is always less than unity.
2. Clausius statement :
"Without any external energy, heat can not flow from cold object to hot object". Heat can flow from
higher temperature to lower temperature. But in case of reverse situation i.e. heat flow from lower
temperature to higher temperature, some external energy is required.
Second law of thermodynamics also speaks about a useful state variable called as entropy,
denoted by "S". The change in entropy dS (delta S) is equal to the heat transfer dH (delta H)
divided by temperature T.
dS=dH/T
Fundamentals
1.11 Specific heat of Gas
As discussed in previous section, specific heat of any substance is defined as the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of unit mass of that substance through 1 °C. It is important to note that
all the solids and liquids have one specific heat. But the gas can have number of specific heats, depending
upon the condition under which it is heated.
Idea about following two types of specific heat of gas is helpful for a Boiler Engineer.
-Specific-Heat at Constant Volume (Cv)
It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a gas through 1°C, when
volume of the gas is kept constant.
If "m" kg of gas is heated from initial temperature of Tl °C to T2 °C at constant volume then heat
required is given by
H = mCv (TZ Tl)
•. Specific Heat at Constant Oressure (Ce)
It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a gas through 1°C,
when pressure is kept constant.
If "m" kg of gas is heated from initial temperature of Tl °C to T2 °C at constant pressure then
heat required is given by
H = mCp (T2 Tl)
For a particular gas, Cp and Cv are assumed to remain constant.
E Cp is always greater than Cv. As CP and Cv remains constant, so their ratio also remains constant
and is more than unity.
Y=C p/Cv
1.12 Thermodynamic Process of Perfect Gas
When one or more properties of a system change, a change in the state of the system occurs.
The path of the succession of states through which the system passes is called as thermodynamic process.
When flow of energy takes place, various properties of gas like- Pressure, Volume, Temperature, Specific
energy, Specific enthalpy are also change. Amount of work done during this process can be find out.
One example of a thermodynamic process is-increasing temperature of a fluid while maintaining
a constant pressure. Another example is increasing pressure of a confined gas while maintaining a constant
temperature.
There are different process like- cyclic process, Reversible process, Irreversible process.
!Cyclic Process
When a system moves from a given initial state, goes through a number of different changes in
states (going through various processes) and finally returns to its initial state, then Cyclic process
takes place. Therefore, at the end of a cycle, all the properties have the same value, they had
at the beginning.
Reversible Process
A reversible process of a system is a process that, once taken place, can be reversed, leaving
no change in either the system or surrounding. In other words the system and surrounding are
returned to their original condition. Practically, there is no truly reversible processes, however, for
analysis purposes, this is assumed to determine maximum theoretical efficiency.


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant 9

Fundamentals
Irreversible Process If "m" kg of gas is heated at constant pressure from initial temperature of "T 1 " ° C to "T2 " ° C,
An irreversible process is a process in which both the system and the surrounding cannot return to then the heat supplied is given by
their original condition. H=E+W
There are various processes. But the following are some important process, which will help a Boiler
Engineer in his practical field. Methods of heating and expanding of gas may be applied in case of Where
superheated steam also. Cp is the specific heat of gas at constant pressure.
This process is shown in P-V and T-S diagram.
1.12.1 Constant Volume or Isochoric Process — T
In this process, gas is heated at a constant volume. Temperature and pressure increases when
heat is added to the system. As there is no change in volume of the gas, so total heat supplied is stored in
the gas as internal energy. T2

If "m" kg of gas is heated at constant volume from initial temperature of "T l " °C
to "T2 " ° C, then the heat supplied which is equal to increase in internal energy of gas is given by
T1
H=mC v (T2 —T 1)

Where
Cv is the specific heat of the gas at constant volume.
Vi V2 0 S S2 S
H=E+W
(a) PV Diagram (b) TS Diagram
In this case work done is zero. So the heat supplied is equal to- Fig. 1.4 Constant Pressure Process
H = E = mCv (T2 — T1) Work (W) done during this process is the area below line 1-2.
This process is shown in the PV and TS diagram. PV diagram shows the change in volume and = Area of 12V 2V 1
pressure, where as TS diagram shows change in entropy and temperature of the gas. PV and TS diagrams = Area of P 1 2V2 0 —Area of P 1 1V 1 O
are used to visualize the process in thermodynamic cycle and it helps to understand changes in system
parameter. = P 1 V 2 — P 1V 1 = P1 ( V2 — V1)
P 1.12.3 Constant Temperature or Isothermal Process
PA
In this process heat is supplied to a gas in such a way that its temperature remains constant.
The volume of the gas increases. The expansion of the gas is called as "Isothermal expansion". When heat
P2
is taken out at constant temperature, volume of the gas decreases. As there is no change in the temperature
2 T2 2 .n,
of the gas, change in internal energy is zero. All the heat supplied is used for doing external work. In this
process P x V is constant.
This process is shown in P-V and T-S diagram below.
P1 Tj TA
P•

P1
0 V S^ S2 S
(a) PV Diagram (b) TS Diagram 1 2
P2
Fig. 1.3 Constant Volume Process
Work done

1.12.2 Constant Pressure or Isobaric Process

0 SI S2 S
0 VI V2
When a gas is heated at constant pressure, its temperature as well as volume increases. As the (a) TS Diagram
(b) PV Diagram
volume and temperature increases, heat supplied is utilised for doing some external work and increasing
internal energy. Fig. 1.5 Isothermal Process
Work done in this process, is equal to heat supplied, as there is no change in internal energy.


11
10 Fundamentals
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
1.13.1 Carnot Cycle with Steam as Working-fluid
1.12.4 Adiabatic Process or Isentropic Process
Sadi Carnot - a French scientist and engineer in1800, proposed an ideal cycle. In a heat engine,
In this process the system neither receives nor rejects any heat. Expansion and contraction of the heat is always rejected. Work done is the difference between heat absorbed and heat rejected. The maximum
gas depends upon the change in internal energy of the gas. As the internal energy changes in this process ; efficiency is limited by temperature difference. The most efficient theoritical thermodynamic cycle which is
so temperature of the gas also changes. External work is done in this process.
possible- between any-two temperatures is_giyen by Carnot cycle.
In this process PVY = constant
Carnot cycle is a four step process involving two isothermal processes and two adiabatic
Where
processes (i.e., without heat transfer). In the isothermal steps, there is no change in internal energy and
y = ratio of specific heats __the beat supplied is equal to work done. In two adiabatic processes, there is no heat exchange. No such
This process is shown in the P-V and T-S diagram. system can ever be built - since it is an idealized process. The importance of the cycle is that, it gives an idea
about upper limit of efficiency of any cyclic process between two temperatures.
TA A

Tt ---------------
T2
Tr=

Adiabatic
Compresor)

T2 --------------- 2 L_

3 T3= T4
4I
Isothermal
(a) PV Diagram (b) TS Diagram Compressor
Fig. 1.6 Adiabatic Process
I 1
Vt V4 Vy V3 V SI= S4 S2= S3
We know H= E + W
(B) TS Diagram
As there is no heat supplied, so H = 0 (a) PV Diagram
Fig. 1.7 Carnot Cycle
or E=—W
1 to 2 - Isothermal expansion
The first process performed is an isothermal expansion. Volume and Pressure of the fluid changes
1.12.5 Free Expansion Process from Vi to V2 and Pi to P2 respectively. This process is represented by curve 1-2.
In this process the gas is allowed to expand suddenly in to a vacuum chamber through an orifice 2 to 3 – Adiabatic expansion
of large dimension. No heat is added or no external work is done and no internal energy is developed. So The second process is adiabatic expansion. During this process, fluid is allowed to expand till
in this case H=0andW=O. point 3. At this point the volume, temperature and pressure drops to V3, P3 and T3. This process is
1.12.6 Throttling Process represented by curve 2 -3.
In this case, the gas is expanded through an aperture of small dimension like- a slightly opened 3 to 4 – Isothermal compression
valve. In this case there is no work done, no heat is supplied and no change in internal energy. The third process is isothermal compression. The fluid is compressed till point 4.
1.13 Thermodynamic Cycle This process is shown in curve 3-4.
As discussed earlier, any change in the system like- Compression, Expansion, Heating and Cooling 4 to 1 – Adiabatic compressions
etc. can be represented on a P-V diagram. When any working fluid of a system undergoes number of The forth process performed on the fluid is an adiabatic compression. The fluid is compressed
operations or process, which takes place in a certain order and finally returns to the initial state, then a adiabatically from point 4 to point 1. Pressure and temperature return back to original state as before
thermodynamic cycle takes place. In the P-V diagram each operation has its own curve and finally they starting of cycle. This process is represented as curve 4-1.
_form a closed figure. The work done during one cycle is given by the enclosed area of the P-V diagram. Work done during the cycle is given as – (S2 – Si) (Ti –T 3)
There are number of cycles in the field of Mechanical Engineering. But we will discuss about Efficiency of Carnot cycle is given as – 1 – T3/ Ti
"Carrnot cycle" and "Rankine Cycle" which is useful for a Boiler Engineer.
Carnot cycle is a theoretical cycle. No engine can be made on this cycle.


12 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Fundamentals 13

1.13.2 Rankine cycle

Rankine cycle was proposed by Scottish engineer W. J. M. Rankine (1820-70). O HP Turbine
This cycle is mostly used at the thermal power plants for power generation by steam Turbine. L P Turbine
Boiler
There are four processes in the Rankine cycle. During each process the state of the working fluid
changes. These states are identified by number in P-V and T-S diagram of a rankine cycle-using dry or super
heated steam. Dashed line is shown for rankine cycle using super heated steam.

T1=T2

Condenser
3 T4=T3 3.
iG i3
I
i
I
I Q
Y
V S4 Si S2.S3 S
Pump
(B) TS Diagram
(a) PV Diagram

Fig. 1.8 Rankine Cycle

Process 4-1:
First, the working fluid (feed water) is pumped from low to high pressure by a Boiler feed pump in
to the Boiler. Pumping requires power input (for example mechanical or electrical).
Process 1.2 :
The high pressure liquid (feed water) enters a boiler where it is heated at constant pressure by an
external heat source to convert it in to a superheated vapor. Heat is obtained by burning fuel.
Process 2-3 :
The superheated vapor expands in a Turbine to generate power. Ideally, this expansion is adiabatic.
Temperature and pressure of the vapor decrease upto condenser pressure. s
Process 3-4 :
The vapor then enters a condenser where it is cooled to make saturated liquid.
Fig. 1.9 Rankine Cycle with Reheat
This liquid then re-enters to Boiler through pump and cycle repeats.
To increase efficiency of rankine cycle following two methods are adopted at power Plants. Rankine cycle with Regeneration
These thermodynamic cycles are called as modified Rankine cycle. In rankine cycle,. considerable amount of energy input is required to heat high pressure feed
water from its normal temperature to its saturation temperature. To reduce this energy, the feed water is
Rankine cycle with Reheat preheated before it enters the Boiler. Preheating of feed water is done by Regeneration method. In regeneration
method some steam is extracted from various stages of the turbine and used to preheat feed water.
When steam is expanded at turbine it becomes wet at the exhaust end. Wet steam causes
erosion of turbine blades. To prevent this, steam is extracted from high pressure turbine, and then it is This results in:
reheated in the Boiler again and sent back to low pressure turbine for further expansion. There are two • Reduction in energy loss within the condenser, since less steam is-condensed.
turbines working in series. This arrangement improves efficiency of the cycle.
• Temperature of feed water to Boiler increases. So efficiency of the cycle increases.


14 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

Fundamentals 15
that minimum heat rate is achieved with allowable exhaust steam condition for a particular inlet steam
Turbine
temperature. Excessive moist steam can damage turbine blades. So to avoid excessive moist steam reheat
cycle can be considered.
Boiler
—-

©-
Bleed steam r
Feed water heater
...-
Condenser S

Fig. 1.11 Effect of Inlet steam Pressure on Rankine cycle

B) Effect of Inlet steam temperature
Pump-2 Pump-1
By increasing inlet steam temperature, efficiency of Rankine cycle Increases. This can be seen
from the figure below. Cycle area changes from 1-2-3 -4 to 1-2-3'-4'.

T4 TA

Ii!

Fig. 1.12 Effect of Inlet steam temperature on Rankine cycle

s C) Effect of Exhaust Pressure
Fig. 1.10 Rankine Cycle with Regeneration
If exhaust pressure decreases from 4 to 4', cycle efficiency increases. More work is done by the
Regeneration is achieved by open or closed feed water heaters. In closed system, the bled steam steam. Area of the cycle changes from 1-2-3-4 tol' -2' -3-4' .
from the turbine is not directly mixed with feed water, and therefore, the two streams can be at different
pressures. At practical steam power plants various combinations of open and closed feed water heaters TA
are used.
1.14 Effect of Design Parameters on Rankine cycle
Turbine is required to be designed for highest efficiency as far as possible and steam parameter
is selected accordingly. Rankine efficiency increases with increase in steam pressure and temperature.
Regenerative or reheat cycle is selected depending upon capacity of the set and other conditions. Increase
in superheated steam temperature by 20 °C increases efficiency roughly by 1%. Effect of parameters on
Rankine cycle efficiency is discussed below in details.
A) Effect of Inlet steam pressure
If inlet pressure of the steam is increased, efficiency of Rankine cycle in ;reases. It can be seen
from the figure. Cycle area changes from 1-2-3-4 to 1-2'-3'-4'. After expansion at turbine, steam condition Fig. 1.13 Effect of exhaust pressure on Rankine cycle
shifts towards left i. e. from 4 to 4'. So steam becomes more moist. So inlet pressure should be so selected


Heat Transfer Methods 17

Conduction method of heat transfer is mainly seen in solid objects. It can happen when any hot
material comes in contact with a cold material.
Some materials are better conductors of heat than others. For example, metals are good conductors
of heat, while a material like wood isn't. When Metal is heated at one end felt hot on the other end, while
that does not happen with a piece of wood. Good conductors of electricity are often good conductors of
HEAT TRANSFER METHODS heat.
Since atoms are closer together, solids conduct h, It better than liquids or gasses.This means
that two solid materials in contact would transfer heat from one to the other better than a solid in contact
with a gas or a gas with a liquid.
In 1822 Fourier, proposed a fundamental law of heat conduction. This law is called as Fourier's law.
2.2.1 Fourier's Law
2.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, we have discussed about law of conversion of energy. Energy is available The main condition of heat transfer by conduction is Temperature difference and always heat
flows from a hotter body to colder body.
in nature in various forms. We can use the energy stored in fuel to convert in to thermal energy and then this
thermal energy may be used to drive Turbine to produce Electrical energy. Fourier's law state that- "Yate of heat transfer is the product of Area normal to heat flow path,
In Boiler the heat energy released by burning of fuel is transferred to feed water. Thermal energy temperature gradient and thermal conductivity of the material". Mathematically this can be written as
can originate from any kind of energy according to first law of thermodynamics. Thermal energy can be q = dQ/dt = -KA dt/dx
transmitted from one system to another which is governed by second law of thermodynamics. Due to Where
difference of temperature, heat flows from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower temperature. In q = Rate of heat transfer
Boiler, heat transfer takes place from flue gas at higher temperature to Boiler tubes and then to feed water
K = Thermal conductivity of the Conducting material
which is at lower temperature.
A = Area normal to heat flow path
So the Boiler operation Engineer should have some idea about heat transfer methods.
Thermal energy is transferred from a hotter body to a colder body. Basic driving force of heat is dt/dx = temperature gradient or the rate of change of temperature with reference to the distance
in the direction of heat flow.
temperature difference or temperature gradient.
As the heat always flows in the direction of decreasing temperature, so temperature gradient dtl
Heat transfer is possible in three methods. These are dx is negative.
• Conduction
If area of the surface is in m2
o Convection k+,
T is in °C
• Radiation
There are three bask ways in which heat is transferred. In fluids, heat is often transferred by And q is in W or J/ s
convection. Motion of the fluid itself carries heat from one place to another. Another way to transfer heat Then unit of thermal conductivity is W/ m°C or W/ mK
is by conduction, which does not involve any motion of a substance, but rather is a transfer of energy within Equation 1 can be written as
a substance (or between subst aces in contact). The third way to transfer energy is by radiation, which
q = — KAAT/1
involves absorbing or giving offthermal waves. „'.
= — AT/R ---(2)
In a Boiler, heat transfer takes place by all these three methods. We will discuss about these
methods in subsequent sections Where R = 1/KA, called as the thermal resistance of the material.
Equitation 2 is similar to the basic law of flow of current, which is given by
2.2 Heat Transfer by Conduction
Heat energy can be transferred from one substance to another when they are in direct contact. I= — tV/R
This type of heat transfer takes place in solid objects. Heat transfer in this method is linearly related to the So, both electricity and heat flow system can be considered to be analogous. The electrical and
temperature difference. This method of heat transfer is called as conduction method. thermal quantities which are analogous to each other are -
When heat is transferred through conduction, the substance itself does not move; rather, heat is V = Voltage T = Temperature
transferred internally, by vibrations of atoms and molecules. Electrons can also carry heat. Metals have R. = Resistance R = Resistance
many free electrons, which move around randomly. They can transfer heat from one part of the metal to
another. So metals are generally good conductors of heat. I = Current q = Heat flow
Q = Charge Q = Heat
[16]


18 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

Heat Transfer Methods 19,
2.2.2 Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity is a physical property of a substance, which is responsible for heat transfer The heat transfer coefficient, defined in Newton's Law of cooling, depends on some properties of
by conduction. As discussed earlier the unit of thermal,conductivity is W/ m °C or W/m K. fluid. Some of the important properties are listed below.
Thermal conductivity is different for different material. It is highest for solids, lowest for gases • Fluid velocity (V). Which further depends upon Temperature difference AT, coefficient of volume
and lies in between in case of liquid. The thermal conductivity for gas lies between .005 to .5 W/m K. For expansion of the fluid " p" and acceleration due to gravity "g" (in case of natural circulation).
liquid it is .08 to .6 W/mK. Thermal conductivity of solids lies between .04 to 300 W/mK. • Fluid density "p"
As thermal conductivity of gas and liquid is less, so heat transfer in these mediums is negligible
= - Thermal-conductivity of fluid "k"
by conduction.
• Specific heat "Cr'
2.3 Heat transfer by Convection
• Fluid viscosity "If
Molecules of a liquid and gas are not confined to a certain point. They change their position. In
• Linear dimension of heat transfer surface
this case heat energy is transported from one point to another by the movement of these molecules. This
phenomenon of heat transfer is called as convection. 2.4 Heat Transfer by Radiation
Heat transfer in fluids generally done through convection. Convection current is set up in the Thermal energy is radiated in the form of Electromagnetic waves. When a body absorbs this
fluid. Hotter part of fluid is not as dense as the cooler part, so there is an upward buoyant force on the Electromagnetic wave then heat transfer takes place. This type of heat transfer is called as radiation. We
hotter fluid, making it rise while the cooler, denser, fluid sinks.
feel the hotness Of Sun through radiation transfer of heat.
Convection may takes place naturally through creation of convection current or applying some As discussed in earlier two methods of heat transfer, some medium is required for heat transfer.
external force. But in case of radiation no medium is required to transfer heat from one point to other. Heat transfer by
In 1701, Newton proposed the fundamental heat convection equation called as Newton's law of radiation can take place in vacuum also.
cooling.
2.4.1 Stefan Boltzmann Law
2.3.1 Newton's Law of cooling In 1879 "Stefan" proposed that the total emissive power of a radiating surface of a black body
is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of the surface. This was then proofed by
The rate of heat transfer by convection is product of heat transfer area, difference of temperature
"Boltzmann" in 1884.
between surface and that of fluid and a constant called as convective heat transfer coefficient.
Mathematically this law may be written as.
The equation can be written as
q = aAT4
q = hAMT
Where
Where q = rate of heat emission by radiation
q = average rate of heat transfer by convection (Watt or J/s)
A = Area of the emitting body (m 2)
A = heat transfer Area (m 2)
T = absolute temperature (K)
AT = difference of temperature between surface and that of the fluid (°C).
a = a constant known as Stafen — Botzmann constant,
h = convective heat transfer coefficient W/ (m2 K).
If heat transfer take place from a black body to another black body, then net transfer of heat by
From the fundamental of convection it is clear that heat transfer takes place due to movement
radiation is given by
of molecules. So to determine "h", knowledge of fluid mechanics is also required.
When any liquid, nearer to heat source, becomes hot, it becomes lighter than the cold liquid. q = aAF (T14 — T24)
Hotter liquid rises up and is replaced by colder liquid. So the convection is not only a heat transfer
"F" is a factor which depends upon the geometry of two surfaces.
mechanism. In this case law of liquid dynamics also plays role.
The fluid motion may be achieved by two processes. If the bodies are not black then
• Natural circulation — Caused by density difference produced by temperature gradient. q = aAFg (T14 - T24 )
• Forced circulation — By using some external source Where
Fg is a factor, which depends upon geometry, emissivites and relative location of the two surfaces.

To understand the equation it is required to know some thing about black body and emissivity.
These are discussed below.
 Heat Transfer Methods 21
20 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

2.4.2 Absorption, Reflection, Emission and Transmission of Radiation

When Electromagnetic wave falls on surface of a body, some part of the energy is reflected or
scattered, some part is absorbed and some part is transmitted. This is shown in Figure below.

Incident'
Radiation Incident radiation

Fig. 2.2 Concept of a black body

2.4.4 White Body

A body which reflects all the incident radiation and does not absorb or transmit is called as a
White Body.
In this case
Fig. 2.1 Total Radiation utilised in different ways
a=0
The fraction of incident radiation, which is absorbed by the body, is called as the absorptivity
"a". The fraction which is reflected is called as reflectivity "p" and the fraction which is transmitted is called p=1
as transmissivity "i " . =0
For any body a+ p+ ti =1 2.4.5 Gray and Colored Body
Different body has different absorptivity, reflectivity and transmissivity. Accordingly the body Gray body emits only a fraction of thermal energy emitted by an equivalent blackbody. By
may be classified as black body, white body and transparent body. They are discussed in subsequent definition, a gray body has a surface emissitivy less than 1, and a surface reflectivity greater than zero.
sections. If the absorptivity of the body varies with the wave length of the radiation, the body is called as
2.4.3 Black Body colored body.
2.4.6 Transparent and Opaque Body
When all the incident radiation is absorbed by the body and there is no reflection and transmission,
the body is called as Black Body. In this case- When part of the incident radiation is transmitted, the body is called as the transparent body.
a =1 When there is no transmitted radiation, the body is called as Opaque Body.

p=0 2.4.7 Emissivity

=0
Black Body plays a vital role in the study of radiation. But practically there is no black body.
Some part of the energy is reflected and transmitted. All the energy can not be absorbed. Theoretically the
heat retransfer equation by radiation is based upon black body and then it is refined according to situation.
Stafen- Boltzmann Law is based upon Black Body.
To have a clear idea about Black Body the figure 2.2 may be referred. If we make a small hole
in the wall of a hallow sphere and allow radiation to enter through this hole, it will be absorbed partially arid
will be reflected partially. The reflected radiation will again be absorbed partially and rest will be reflected.
Like this most of the radiation will be absorbed and finally the energy escaped through the hole is so
negligible that it can be considered as zero.
The emissivity of a substance depends upon the nature and characteristic of the surface of the
substance. The ratio of emissive power of the considered surface and that of a hypothetical black body is
called as Emissivity of a surface. It is denoted by "e".
By definition, a blackbody has a surface emissivity of 1. The emissivity is also equal to the
absorption coefficient, or the fraction of any thermal energy incident on a body that is absorbed.
2.4.8 Geometrical Factor or Configuration Factor
The radiation between two surfaces depends upon emission, absorption, reflection and
characteristic of two surfaces. Beside this another factor is important which needs to be considered. That
is the geometrical arrangement of two surfaces.


22 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

For two black bodies, the heat transfer equitation is given by

q = c AF (T14 – T24)
In this equation "F" is a factor which depends upon the geometry of two surfaces.
From this equation the heat transfer between Gray surfaces may be considered. -FUEL -AND--COMBUSTION-
If emissivity of two surfaces is considered as e 1 and E 2 another configuration factor Fg will replace the
geometric factor "F". Where Fg Depends not only on geometrical arrangement of two surfaces but also with
emissivity of two surfaces.
So the heat transfer equation for radiation for any body is given by
q = 6AFg (T 14 -T24)
In a Boiler the thermal energy obtained by burning of fuel is transmitted to the feed water by all 3.1 Introduction
the three methods of heat transfer. Main constituent of fuel is hydrogen and carbon. So fuel is also called as hydro-carbon. Energy
is stored in chemical energy form in fuel. Chemical energy can be released as heat by combustion or
oxidation. This heat can be used for various purposes. This heat energy can be used directly or can be
Radiation + converted in to mechanical energy.
Convection
Convection I
There are different types of fuels available in different form. Normally fuel is classified in to three
categories upon the state of availability. These are

• Solid fuel
Radiation
Convection • Liquid fuel
• Gaseous fuel
Also fuel is classified as
• Fossil fuel
• By product fuel

I • Chemical fuel
• Nuclear fuel

Fig. 2.3 Location wise Heat Transfer methods in a Boiler
Heat transfer surfaces are placed in suitable location to get efficient heat transfer.
In a Boiler these heat transfer elements are Evaporator, Super heater, Economiser and Air heater. These
heat transfer elements will be discussed latter on.
For a pulverised/ oil/ gas fired Boiler, the furnace lay out is shown in the above figure.
000
Fossil fuel is derived from fossil remains of plant and animals. These fuels are found at inside
layer of earth. It takes million years to convert those fossils of plants and animals in to fuel. Coal, petroleum
and natural gas etc. are example of this type of fuel.
Byproduct fuels are the co- product of some manufacturing process. Coke oven gas is the
example of this type of fuel. This gas is produced during producing coke from coal in coke oven. Blast
furnace gas is another example of this type of fuel.
Chemical fuel is not used in conventional Boilers. Hydrazine (rocket fuel), ammonium nitrate,
fluorine etc. are example of chemical fuel.
of fuel.
Nuclear fuel releases heat due to fusion. Uranium and plutonium are the example of this type

Further we may classify fuel as – primary fuel and secondary fuel. The fuel which is available
naturally like- Coal, Wood, Petroleum and Natural gas are called as primary fuel. Secondary fuel is derived
from primary fuel, like- Coke, Fuel oil, Petrol, Diesel, Kerosene etc.


24 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

Fuel And Combustion 25
Chemical fuel and nuclear fuel is out of scope of this book. So it is not discussed in details
further. We will discuss about some fuels which are normally used in Boilers, in the subsequent sections. Coal is formed in various stages from peat to anthracite. Different stages of coal formation is
given below.
3.2 Solid fuels
Plant debris -4 Peat —* Lignite —* Brown coal -4 Sub-bituminous coal --> Bituminous
Solid fuels are available in solid form. Wood, Coal, Charcoal etc. are the example of solid fuel. coal -4 Semi anthracite coal -3 Anthracite coal
3.2.1 Wood In this stage of coal formation, preceding stage is more mature and of higher rank, than previous
stage. Lignite is more mature and of higher rank than peat.
Wood is the-first-fuel known to man. Thousand years back, people discovered how to burn
wood. Today also wood is used as domestic fuel. In some cases wood is also used in Boiler to generate 3.2.2.1 Peat
steam.
Peat is the first stage in the formation of coal. It is a spongy substance. It contains large amount
.Main constituent of wood is cellulose and lignin, which are compound of carbon, hydrogen, of water. So it is to be dried to reduce moisture before utilizing it as fuel. When it is mined the moisture
oxygen, wax and water. As the percentage of water and oxygen is high in wood so, its calorific value is low. content is as high as 60%.
Proximate analysis of wood The ultimate analysis of air dried peat is
Cellulose 50% Lignin 30% Carbon 55% Nitrogen 3%
Resin+ wax 2% Moisture 15% Hydrogen 6% Sulpher 1%
Water soluble 1% Ash 2% Oxygen 35%
Calorific value 4500 kcal/kg Calorific value 5000kcaVkg
Ultimate analysis

Carbon 50%
Hydrogen 6%
Oxygen 44%

Wood chips, saw dust, baggase and Bio waste are used as fuel in Boiler.
3.2.1.1 Charcoal

Charcoal is produced by carbonization or by heating wood in absence of air or oxygen, up to

600°C. The composition of charcoal is given as
Carbon 80% Oxygen & Nitrogen 15%
Hydrogen 2% Ash 3%
Calorific value 75000 to 8000 kcal/kg
3.2.2 Coal Fig. 3.1 Avalability of different stage of Coal in Earth

Coal is the major fuel used in today's Boilers. Most of the power boilers use coal as fuel to 3.2.2.2 Lignite
generate steam. The firing process may be different for different boilers like- Stoker fired Boiler, FBC Boiler, Lignite contains high percentage of moisture. It exhibits woody structure. It occurs in thick seam
and Pulverised Boiler etc. As the main constituent of coal is carbon, coal is called as "Black Gold". (up to 30 meter seam) and nearer to the earth's surface. On exposure to air, moisture is reduced.
Coal is a fossil fuel and it is made from the remain of plants. Million years ago, the plants which Ultimate analysis of lignite is
were died, are covered by layers of mud and sediment. Then it is converted from peat to anthracite series. Carbon 70% Nitrogen 1%
This is initiated by anaerobic bacteria and continues under the action of temperature and pressure within Sulpher 1%
Hydrogen 6%
the earths crust for several million years. This process is called as coalification.
Oxygen 22%
Calorific value 5500 kcal/kg


Fuel And Combustion 27

26
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
3.2.3 Coke
3.2.2.3 Bituminous Coal Coke is produced by thermal decomposition of coal. It is produced when coal is heated in
The next stage of coalification series is Bituminous coal. Bituminous coal is divided in to three absence of air. This process is called as carbonization of coal.
groups depending upon moisture, carbon, and volatile material. These are : By heating, volatile matter is removed from coal. Coke is porous and it burns without smoke.
o Sub bituminous coal The carbon content is 85% to 90%. Its calorific value is higher than coal.
Semi bituminous coal 3.2.4 Solid Waste
In some industry, some combustible material is produced as waste. Like- baggase, saw dust, rice
• Bituminous coal
husketc. This waste can be used as fuel in Boiler.
Further bituminous coal is divided as In our day to day life, we generate appreciable quantities of waste. These wastes are normally
• Caking bituminous coal dumped in landfill sites. Due to shortage of land fill site and environmental pollution, it is creating problem.
• It is found that about 40% of the waste generated by us is combustible. The calorific value of this waste is
Non caking bituminous coal
1/5th that of coal. So this waste can be used as fuel. This waste can be separated and pulverised. Then this
Caking coal softens and swells on heating. The pieces of coal adhere together and form a pasty may be compressed in to briquettes and then it can be fired in Boiler.
mass. It burns with long flame.
3.3 Liquid fuel
Non caking coal burns with shorter flame. This coal is mostly used in Boiler. Most of the liquid fuel is derived from petroleum. Liquid petroleum is obtained from the bore
Ultimate analysis of Bituminous coal is hole in earths crust. This liquid fuel consists of Hydrogen and Carbon. Like coal, Petroleum is also a fossil
Carbon 80% – 92% Hydrogen 6% – 4% fuel. It is made from remains of animals that lived million years ago. It is believed, petroleum is formed by
Oxygen .5% -15% decay and decomposition of marine animals under high pressure and temperature.
Calorific value Typical composition of petroleum is mentioned below (by weight %)
8000 kcal/kg
Carbon 84-87.5% Hydrogen 11 – 15%
3.2.2.4 Anthracite coal
Sulpher .1– 3% Nitrogen .1 – 1.55%
Anthracite is the last stage of coalification. This type of coal is available in deeper surface of Oxygen .3 -1.8%
earth with narrow seam. This is most matured coal. This type of coal is having less volatile matter and high
^ LPG
carbon percentage. It has sub- metallic luster. Some time it appears like graphite. It burns without smoke
and with short non- luminous flame. As volatile matter is less it ignites with difficulty.
^ Gasoline or Petrol
Ultimate analysis of anthracite coal is
Carbon over 90% Oxygen .4% to 3%
^ Naphtha
Hydrogen 2.8% to 3.9% 11
Calorific value From petroleum, different fuels are obtained by
8600 kcal/kg
Kerosene distillation process. Petroleum is heated in oil refineries
3.2.2.5 Cannel coal and bog head coal to separate constituents. The product having low
boiling point and molecular weight is separated first.
Previously discussed coals are called as humic coal. The peat to anthracite stage took place in Diesel And the product having high boiling point having
case of higher plants. Another type of coal is there which is also derived from vegetable origin, but from
smaller plant organisms like- alge and spores. By their nature, this type of coal can not be fitted in to peat heavier molecular weight is separated at last.
to anthracite series.
This coal is having high volatile matter and higher hydrogen, corresponding to normal humic
coal. It burns with long and steady flame.
Ultimate analysis of this type of coal is
Bog head coal
Volatile matter 65-90% Hydrogen 6 – 10%
Oxygen 8–15% Calorific value 9500 kcal/kg
Cannel
Volatile matter 45-56% Hydrogen 6 - 10%
Oxygen 5 -12% ^ Wax
Calorific value 9500 kcal/kg Fig. 3.2 Distillation Process of petroleum


28 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant 29

Fuel And Combustion
Mainly, in Boiler, Naphtha, Diesel, Light fuel oil and Heavy fuel oil are used as fuel. These fuels
3.5.1 Proximate Analysis
are having high calorific value i.e. 10000 to 11300 kcal /kg. As these fuels are having high hydrogen content
(11.8 -14.5%), so the calorific value is high. They contain very low ash (.01 - .02%). Sulpher content increases In this analysis, the range of constituents like — Moisture, Volatile matter, Ash and carbon is
with increase in the boiling range. So in case of Naphtha it is .01% and for heavy fuel oil it is 2 — 4%. measured. These constituents play major role for design of Boiler. Some important effects of the constituents
In paper mill, during paper manufacturing process, some waste is obtained. This is called as are discussed here.
paper pulp mill waste or black liquor. This black liquor is used as fuel. Moisture :
3.4 Gaseous fuel Moisture is not desirable in fuel. Transporting, handling and storage cost of coal increases as the
- - -Some gas is obtained naturally and somegas is produced-duringsome other process.— weight increase due to increase of moisture. But heat value does not increase. Also the heat produced in
the furnace is carried out by moisture and goes out as vapor in exhaust gas.
Natural gas is found nearer to petroleum fields. It is also collected from oil wells. This gas
contains Methane, Ethane, Carbon dioxide and Carbon monoxide. Volatile matter :
Coal gas is obtained by carbonization of coal. Mainly this gas contains Hydrogen, Carbon Volatile matter in coal have combustible or incombustible gases. This volatile matter in the fuel
monoxide, Methane, and Ethane. Its calorific value is 5000 to 6000 kcal /M 3 . decides the volume of furnace. Mostly volatile matter contains, Methane, Carbon monoxide,
Blast furnace gas and Coke oven gas are obtained during preparation of steel in Blast furnace Hydrogen etc.
and making Coke in coke oven respectively. Ash:
3.4.1 Blast furnace gas Ash is undesirable in fuel. Presence of ash increases weight of fuel, not heating value. Ash is also
It is a by product gas and obtained during the process of making steel. It is a producer gas responsible for clinker formation. At higher temperature, (around 1000°C), clinker is formed by fusion of
(produced during some process). In a blast furnace, coke, iron ore, manganese, lime stone and dolomite is ash. Ash mainly contains Silica, Alumina, Iron oxide and Magnesium.
charged for manufacturing of pig iron. During processing pig iron, some hot, dust laden, lean and combustible
When ash is heated it first softens and finally fuses and melts. The temperature at which ash
gas is obtained. It contains 10 to 25 gms of dust per Nm3 gas. The dust particle size varies from .1 to 5mm.
fuses is called as fusion temperature of ash. Higher fusion temperature of ash indicates better quality of
The gas is cleaned at gas cleaning plant before using at Boiler. This gas is having low calorific value i. e. 800
coal. Fusion temperature increases with increase in alumina and silica content in ash.
— 900 kcal/m3 .
Composition of this gas is : Fixed Carbon :
Carbon monoxide 23 — 26% Nitrogen 51— 57% Fixed carbon content of coal is the carbon found after volatile matters are removed. Fixed
Oxygen .2 - .5% carbon is determined by removing the mass of volatiles from the original mass of coal sample.
Hydrogen 2—4.5%
Carbon dioxide 12—16%a This differs from the ultimate carbon content of coal because some carbon is lost with volatiles.
This gas is used in Boiler as fuel in steel Industries. 33.2 Ultimate Analysis :
3.4.2 Coke oven gas As discussed earlier, the ultimate analysis decides the heating value of the fuel. In this analysis
During making coke from coal, this gas is produced. During high temperature carbonization the range of constituent's like- Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Sulpher, Nitrogen and Ash is measured. Each
(heating coal in absence of air), volatile matter as well as hydrogen is removed from coal. So the coke oven constituent plays role in selection of fuel in Boiler.
gas contains volatile matter and hydrogen. Carbon, Hydrogen and Sulpher increases the heat value of the fuel. Nitrogen does not play any
The composition of coke oven gas is role in the heating value. Sulpher adds a little heat value. But it is undesirable as it is responsible for
Carbon dioxide 7.5 — 9% Nitrogen 2 — 3% clinkering, SOx formation, corrosion and air pollution.

Hydrogen 55 — 57% Carbon dioxide 2.5% Solid fuels are tested by taking sample under specific conditions. The result is expressed on basis
of the sample collection. Sampling is normally done as following basis.
Methane 24 - 26% Oxygen .3- .6%
Calorific value of coke oven gas is higher than that of Blast furnace gas. It is around 5000 to • As Received (ar) : includes Total Moisture (TM)
6000 kcal per Nm3 . This gas is used as fuel in Boiler. • Air Dried (ad) : includes Inherent Moisture (IM) only
3.5 Proximate Analysis and Ultimate Analysis of Fuel • Dry Basis (db) : excludes all Moisture
During discussion about fuel, we came across the term "proximate analysis" and "ultimate • Dry Ash Free (daf) : excludes all Moisture & Ash
analysis". These tWo analyses mainly determine the quality of fuel. Proximate analysis of fuel (mainly coal)
decides the adoption of coal and designing coal handling system. Like this, from ultimate analysis we know The Proximate Analysis of any coal i.e. % content of Moisture (M), Ash (A), Volatile Matter
the suitability of coal. The calorific value can be calculated from ultimate analysis. (VM), Fixed Carbon (FC) and Calorific Value (CV) can be expressed on any sampling bases.


30 Fuel And Combustion 31

Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
The Conversion table is given below. Energy content of the Indian Coal is expressed in "Useful Heat Value" (UHV) basis. UHV is
an expression derived from ash and moisture contents for non-cocking coals. UHV is defined by the
To obtain : Air Dry Dry Basis As Received formula.
- multiply UHV kcal/kg = (8900-138 x [percentage of ash content +percentage of moisture content])
ar by : (100-IM%)/ 100 / Empirical Relationship of GCV, UHV, and NCV
(100-TM%) (100-TM%) - UHV (Useful heat value) = 8900 - 138(A+M) kcal/kg
ad by: 100/ GCV (Gross Calorific Value) = (UHV + 3645 -75.4 M)/1.466 kcal/kg
(100-IM%) (100-TM%)/ NCV (Net Calorific Value) = GCV - 10.02M kcal/kg
(100 - IM%) Where "A' is percentage Ash and "M" is percentage Moisture.
ribby: (100-IM%)/ - (100-TM%a)/ 3.7 Combustion
100 100 Combustion is oxidation of fuel or chemical combination of oxygen with evolution of light and
3.6 Calorific value of Fuel heat. In fuel, mainly Hydrogen and Carbon is present. During combustion, this Carbon and Hydrogen
reacts with oxygen, forming Carbon dioxide and water vapor.
Energy is stored in fuel as Chemical energy, which can be released as heat when oxidation
reaction or combustion takes place. It is important to know the quantity of energy stored within a given For combustion following three things are required.
fuel. This heat value of fuel is known as calorific value of fuel. It is the heat released by complete combustion o Fuel
of unit quantity of that fuel. It is expressed as kcal/ kg for liquid and solid fuel.
• Oxygen
For gaseous fuel the calorific value is measured on volumetric basis. It is expressed as kcal/ m3.
^ 3 "Ts
Calorific value of fuel is expressed in various forms as discussed below.
Fuel:
3.6.1 Gross or Higher Calorific value (GCV or HCV)
We have discussed about fuel in previous sections. Mostly it contains Carbon, Hydrogen, some
From the ultimate analysis, it is found, fuel contains Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Sulpher.
amount of Oxygen and Sulpher. This is called as _Hydro carbons.
These are responsible for calorific value of the fuel.
Oxygen :
Higher calorific value of fuel is given as
For combustion process, oxygen, is obtained from air. Air contains 79% Nitrogen and 21%
HCV = 8080 C + 34500 (H2 – 0 2/8) + 2220 S kcal/kg Oxygen by volume or 77% Nitrogen and 23% oxygen by weight. As the Nitrogen percentage is more in air
Where C, H2, 02 and S represent the weight of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Sulpher respectively so large amount of air is required to get required amount of Oxygen. This Nitrogen does not take part in
in unit mass of fuel. The numerical value indicates their respective calorific value. combustion but is required to be heated during combustion.

When Hydrogen present in fuel oxidizes during combustion, it forms H 2 O. This H2O consume To obtain 1kg of oxygen we require 4.35 kg of air and for 1m3 of oxygen we require
100/21= 4.76 m3 of air.
some heat, released by fuel to convert in to steam. In this case heat taken out by H2O is not considered
3"T„S:
while calculating this calorific value of fuel. So this value is called as Gross calorific value (GCV) or Higher
Calorific value (HCV).
Time, Temperature and Turbulence are called as three "T's. These three `T's are important in
3.6.2 Net or Lower Calorific value (NCV or LCV) burning process.
The total heat released by fuel during combustion is not utilised. Some heat is taken out by Time :
water vapor, which is produced during combustion of hydrogen as discussed earlier. The heat value obtained For complete combustion of fuel sufficient time is required.
by considering the heat taken out by this water vapor is known as Net calorific value (NCV) or Lower
calorific value (LCV). Temperature :
The fuel should be at ignition temperature for burning. Different fuel is having different ignition
LCV = HCV – Heat taken out by water vapor to convert in to steam. temperature. Temperature at which, fuel starts to burn is called as ignition temperature.
Or
LCV = HCV – (9H 2 X 586) kcal/kg Turbulence :
Considering latent heat of steam = 586 kcal/kg For complete combustion, the fuel and air should mix properly. By creating turbulence the fuel
And, 9H2 is the amount of steam formation. can be burnt with less excess air. Turbulence ensures supply of oxygen to each molecule of fuel.


32 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Fuel And Combustion 33

In a Boiler the total air for combustion is divided in to two parts. One part is primary air which Or
supports burning of fuel initially. Second part of air is called as secondary air. This air is supplied in to Boiler 12 kg of carbon + 32 kg of Oxygen = 44 kg of carbon dioxide (by weight)
furnace to crate turbulence and ensure complete combustion. Or
Combination of Fuel, Heat and Oxygen is called as Fire triangle. Absence of any one from 1 kg of carbon + 8/3 kg of oxygen 11/3 kg of carbon dioxide
these three can extinguish fire.
It means 1kg of carbon requires 8/3 kg of oxygen to produce 11/3 kg of carbon dioxide gas: Also
3.7.1 Chemistry of Combustion 8137 kcal of heat is produced during this.
As discussed earlier, all fuel contains some basic element like- Hydrogen, Carbon and Sulpher. Like this it is found that
These elements react with Oxygen during burning. During this process, heaf is elease-. Some of the 1 kg of Hydrogen requires 8 kg of oxygen and 1 kg of Sulpher requires 1kg of Oxygen.
important chemical equation connected to combustion is given below.
If already oxygen present in the fuel, then net oxygen required for combustion of fu ,1 is given by
H2 +02 = H2O + 57810 kcal/kmol (28905 kcal/kg) 8/3 C + 8 H2 + S -02 kg
C+'/2 02 = CO + 29430 kcal/kmol (2452 kcal/kg) C, H2, S and 02 is the weight of Carbon, Hydrogen, Sulpher . and Oxygen respectively in 1 kg
CO+'½202 •= CO2 + 68220 kcal/kmol (2436 kcal/kg) of fuel.
C + 02 = CO2 + 97650 kcal/kmol (8137 kcal/kg) Air contains 77 % Nitrogen and 23% Oxygen by weight. Soto obtain 1kg:of Oxygen from air we
S + 02 = SO2 + 69800 kcal/kmol (2181 kcal/kg) require 100 / 23 = 4.35 kg of air.
Putting this value in above equitation- air required for combustion of fuel is:
CH4 + 202 = CO2 +2H2 0 + 192400 kcal/kmol (12025 kcal/kg)
4.35[( 8/3 C+ 8H2 + S) – 02] kg.
For combustion calculation, kilogram mole (kmol) is used as unit. The molecular weight of any
substance in kilogram represents 1 kilo mole. So 1 kg mole of hydrogen has a mass of 2 kg and 1 kmol of This is the theoretical air requirement for one kg of fuel. It is also called as "Stoichiometric
carbon has mass of 12 kg, 1 kilo mole, of methane has a mass of 16 kg. combustible mixture. In this case fuel and air is mixed in such a manner that no excess or deficiency of air
and fuel is found.
The molecul ao weight of some substance present in fuel is given below.
But practically some excess air is required for complete combustion of fuel. Otherwise due to
Substance Chemical Symbol Molecular weight shortage of oxygen, fuel may not burn completely.
Hydrogen H2 2 3.8 Some Important Properties of Coal
Carbon C 12 Idea on some important properties of coal will help the coal user to understand the coal better.
Sulpher S 32 As in most of the cases coal is used,as fuel in a Boiler, so it will be helpful to discuss these properties here.
Oxygen 02 32 • Weathering or Slacking Index of Coal :
Nitrogen N2 28 When coal is stored in open space, exposed to atmosphere, it has tendency to break into small
Carbon monoxide CO 28 pieces due to alternate dry and wet. This phenomenon is called as weathering. Weathering or
Methane CH4 16 Slacking Index is an indication of coal size stability when exposed to open atmosphere.
Ethane C2H6 30 Abrasiveness index
Acetylene C2H2 28 Abrasiveness index gives an idea about hardness of coal. This is responsible for wear-and-tear of
Ethylene C2 H4 28 equipments of coal handling plant. .
Carbon dioxide CO2 44 Grinding Index of Coal :
Sulpher dioxide SO2 64
Coal is required to be crushed in to required sizes to use in Boiler. In pulverised Boiler the coal is to
Steam or water H2O 18 be grinded. Coal is supposed to have easy grinding nature. Grinding Index gives us idea about the
relative ease of grinding of coal:
Carbon combines with Oxygen to form carbon dioxide, i. e. - C+ 02 = CO2
1 kilo mole of carbon + 1 kilo mole of oxygen = 1 kilo mole of carbon dioxide • Caking Index of Coal :
(by volume) Some coal softens and swells on heating. The pieces of coal adhere together and form a pasty
mass. This is called as caking of coal. Caking Index is the measure of binding property of coal.


34 - Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

Fuel And Combustion 35
• Swelling Index of Coal :
It is an Index which indicates the caking capacity of coal. Coal swells when heated. Coal having 3.10 Combustion of coal
more swelling index swells more and hence having more caking property. .
• Density : We will discuss how combustion of coal takes place on the grate of a Boiler. This will be easier
to understand coal burning process.
Density is a measure of how much mass is contained in a given unit volume (density = mass/
volume). It is usually expressed in kg/m3 . It is an indication about the weight of given volume of Total bed of the coal may be divided in to 4 zones. As shown in the picture. Fresh coal is feed
coal. It is required to decide the storage area required to store certain quantity of coal. from the top. Primary air from FD fan enters from bottom of the fuel bed. It cools down the grate as well.
• Angle of Repose as-ash and-get-heated-while passing over the grate.
Coal is stored in heap at Power Plant. The heap height depends on this Angle of Repose. It is the
maximum angle that a heap of coal can form with the horizontal. It is higher in case of higher size
coal. This angle plays important role for storage of coal. Flame
• Porosity :
It describe about the porous ness of coal. Liquid can easily enter in to highly porous coal.
VM C0+l0A2=00 2AW1I111111A1111111111AA11111111A111111 Secondary Air
• Reactivity of Coal : /l I I wAAlIIIII^/maIIIIIIIIIII n
-^ Fresh Coal
It is defined as the ability of coal to react with oxygen. It is the rate of reaction that determines the
ti 000000000 000 00 00000C
time required for combustion. ❑ 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -^ Reduction Zone
• Ash fusion temperature : ❑ 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0
„ r 1 0 . i
Ash fusion temperature gives an indication of the softening and melting behavior of ash. Coal CO2 + C = 2C0 '. ^. ' '.
having low ash fusion temperature is responsible for slagging or fouling in Boiler.
0..
-^ Oxidation Zone
C+ 02 = 2002
3.9 Gradation of Coal
t, ^ 1 V
5 1^^^1 V t^^^1V t^.^V V V -N-ASH
Coal is classified based on the degree of impurity, i.e., quantity of inorganic material or ash left tL% I, ,t ,t_,t, V.t h idot, ,t ^l^^a^h t.t i, t,tL
after burning.
Depending upon the ash content in Coal, Indian coal is grouped in to 7 groups.
Grade Useful Heat Value (UHV) Corresponding Gross Calorific Value
(Kcal/Kg) Ash% + Moisture % GCV (Kcal/ Kg)
UHV= 8900-138(A+M) at (60% RH & 40° C) (at 5% moisture level)
A Exceeding 6200 Not exceeding 19.5 Exceeding 6454 This heated air comes in contact with carbon, present in coal, at oxidation zone and forms CO2
B Exceeding 5600 but not 19.6 to 23.8 Exceeding 6049 but not gas. This CO2 gas further moves up in the bed and reacts again with carbon at reduction zone. When
exceeding 6200 Exceeding 6454 carbon dioxide reacts with carbon, carbon monoxide gas is formed (CO 2 + C = 2C0). This carbon
C Exceeding 4940 but not 23.9 to 28.6 Exceeding 5597 but not monoxide gas mixs with the volatile mater, removed from fresh coal and burns at the furnace. In the
exceeding 5600 Exceeding. 6049 furnace, secondary air is supplied to create turbulence and ensure complete combustion.
D Exceeding 4200 but not 28.7 to 34.0 Exceeding 5089 but not By same principle coal burns in under feed, traveling grate or chain grate Boilers.
exceeding 4940 - Exceeding 5597
3.10.1 Combustion of Pulverised Coal
E Exceeding 3360 but not 34.1 to 40.0 Exceeding 4324 but not
Coal is pulverised in Ball mill. This pulverised coal is blown in to Boiler furnace with the help of
exceeding 4200 Exceeding 5089
hot primary air. Secondary air is supplied in to furnace, where this coal burns like liquid fuel.
F Exceeding 2400 but not 40.1 to 47.0 Exceeding 3865 but not
exceeding 3360 Exceeding. 4324
G Exceeding 1300 but not 47.1 to 55.0 Exceeding 3113 but not
exceeding 2400 Exceeding 3865


36 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

PROPERTIES OF STEAM
Secondary air
Air-

.Flame

Pulverised Coal

Primary air
Fig. 3.4 Combustion of Pulverised Coal
First volatile matter bums and then the remaining coal particle. In this case carbon of the coal
reacts with oxygen and carbon dioxide gas is formed.
3.10.2 Combustion of Liquid fuel
liquid fuel is broken in to fine particles by atomization while admitting in to furnace. Atomization
is done mechanically by means of a rotary disc or by blast of air or steam in burner. Air and steam
atomization give better performance. The ratio of maximum to minimum heat in put rates (turn down
ratio) is high in this case.
In the furnace this atomized fuel comes in contact with heat, and evaporates. Carbon, Hydrogen
and Sulpher is released due to evaporation. These elements react with oxygen and combustion takes place.
For burning of oil, primary and secondary air is used to support the flame and complete combustion
process, respectively.
/Viscosity of heavy viscous oil is lowered by heating; to make it easier to flow in burner and pipe line.
-3.11 Excess Air
It is discussed earlier about theoretical minimum air required for complete combustion of any fuel.
Air contains . 79% Nitrogen and 21% Oxygen (by volume). Only Oxygen is required for combustion. So it is
required to handle large volume of air to get required quantity of oxygen. Large quantity of heat is required
to heat this total air. So efficiency of the system decreases. Also, if less air is supplied then complete
combustion of combustible materials may not take place. Efficiency decreases in this case also.
Heat loss in flue gas = FG X Sc (TG — TA)
Where
FG Flue gas weight per hour
Sc = Specific heat of the flue gas
T° = Flue gas 'exit temperature
TA = Combustion Air temperature
Stoichiometric combustible mixture is one in which no excess or deficiency exists in either fuel or
Oxygen. So it is the chemically correct mixture of fuel and oxygen.
' But in practice some excess air is supplied to ensure complete combustion of fuel. The amount of
excess air varies with type of fuel used and firing condition. It may vary from 10 % to 40%.
4.1 Introduction
Steam is used as a medium for conversion of heat energy in to mechanical energy. Heat energy
is carried out by steam and converted in to mechanical energy at Turbine. As we know in a Boiler chemical
energy of the fuel is converted in to heat energy. This heat energy is added to feed water to get steam. Easily
the heat energy of steam can be converted in to mechanical energy.
Steam is nothing but water vapor. When it is pure and dry it is invisible. Super heated steam
behaves like perfect gas to some extent.
In a Boiler, steam is generated at constant pressure process. Before discussing the properties of
steam it is required to know how steam is formed at constant pressure.
4.2 Formation of Steam
When water at atmospheric temperature is heated in a vessel, initially volume of water increases
slightly. Temperature of the water goes on increasing as heat is added to water till boiling temperature.
Boiling temperature of water varies with system pressure at which water is heated. At lower
pressure the boiling temperature is less and at higher pressure boiling temperature is more. At atmospheric
pressure (1.033 kg/cm 2); boiling temperature of water is 100°C.
Once water reaches at boiling temperature, temperature of water remains constant there even if
heat is added. He?', added does not increase the temperature of water but the water starts converted into
steam. Total heat required to raise the temperature of water up to boiling temperature is called as
sensible heat.
Temperature of water remains constant at boiling temperature till all the water is converted in to
steam. Any heat added to water after sensible heat, starts steaming of water. Initially the steam formed,
contains some water particle. This steam is called as wet steam. When further heat is added, all the water
is converted in to steam and the wet steam becomes dry, but still at boiling temperature. This steam is
called as dry saturated steam having no water particle. Heat added to water at boiling temperature to
convert dry saturated steam is called as latent heat of vaporization.


38 Boiler Operation. Engineering & Power Plant Properties of Steam 39

Temperature It can be seen that both the lines meet at point X. At this point latent heat of evaporation is zero.
At this point water is not converted in to saturated steam first and then to super heated steam. Water is
converted in to saturated steam directly. This point is called as critical point. When pressure of the system
increases, sensible heat increases and latent heat of vaporization decreases. At certain pressure latent heat
T sup -------------------------- ------
becomes zero. This pressure is called as critical pressure. This pressure is 225 kg/cm 2 or 221.2 bar and the
corresponding temperature is 374 °C. At critical point the liquid line and dry steam line merges.
At critical point both the state of water i.e. liquid state and gaseous state is possible. We know at •
"triple-point"–all-the three state of wateri.e. liquid state, solid state and gaseous state is possible.
Tsat
The combination of pressure and temperature at which water, ice and water vapour can exist is called as
"triple point" and it occurs at 273.16 K (0.01 °C) and a pressure of .006037 atm. At that point, it is
possible to change ice, water, or steam by making very small changes in pressure and temperature.
From the above discussion we came across some terms associated with steam formation. These
Sensible terms are discussed below in details.
Latent heat Heat of
heat of vaporisation Superheat 4.3 Terms associated with steam
.1 Total heat In day to day work, a Boiler Engineer come across all these terms related to steam. Solt is better
Fig. 4.1 Formation of Steam to discuss in details about these terms.
If further heat is added to dry saturated steam, temperature of steam starts increasing. This steam 4.3.1 Sensible heat
is called as super heated steam. The heat added to steam is called as heat of super heat. Difference This is the heat required to raise temperature of 1 kg of water from 0°C up to boiling temperature.
between temperature of saturated steam to super heated steam is called as degree of super heat. It is also called as total heat of water. It is represented by HW or ht .1kcal heat is required to raise the
If we will consider formation of steam at different pressure and draw a graph, this will be like the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C. For example 1kg water at 50 °C contains 50 kcal of heat.
figure shown below. 4.3.2 Latent heat of vaporization
Temperature
This is the heat required to convert 1kg of water at its boiling temperature to dry saturated steam
at corresponding pressure. While water receives latent heat its temperature remains constant. Latent heat
is represented by L or hf When pressure increases, latent heat of vaporization decreases.
4.3.3 Wet steam
When total latent heat has not been absorbed, evaporation is not complete.
Steam formed during this period contains water particle. This steam is called as wet steam. Wet steam is
visible to eye. By further adding heat, this steam becomes dry.
4.3.4 Dry saturated steam
When water absorbs total latent heat, the evaporation is complete. At this point the steam
produced does not contain any water particle. This Steam is completely dry and not visible. Dry steam
behaves like perfect gas. In Boiler Drum dry saturated steam is collected for further heating.
4.3.5 Dryness fraction
It is the ratio of weight of actual dry steam to weight of total steam. For example if kg of
Sensible Latent heat of Heat of
heat Vaporisation Superheat steam contains Wd kg of dry steam then the dry ness fraction is
Fig. 4.2 Temperature Vs Total heat during steam formation
Dry ness fraction = Weight of dry steam / Weight of total steam
It is said earlier, if the pressure increases, boiling temperature of water also increases. Latent heat X=W d /W
of vaporization decreases in this case. It can be seen in the fig. The line passing through point N,O and P Dry ness fraction lies between 0 to 1. For dry steam where there is no water particle, dryness
is called as dry saturated line. Because at these points, formation process of saturated steam is complete fraction is 1.
and beyond this line steam temperature starts increasing and steam become super heated. Region beyond Dryness fraction + wetness fraction = 1
this line is called as super heated, region. or wetness fraction = 1- dryness fraction
Line connecting point A,B, and C is called as liquid line. At these points water is at boiling 4.3.6 Total heat of wet steam
temperature and further addition of heat starts steaming of water. The region before this line is called as It is the quantity of heat required to convert 1 kg of water at 0°C at constant pressure to wet
water region. steam of certain dryness fraction. It is represented by H or h.


40 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Properties of Steam 41

If the dryness fraction of wet steam is X, then the total heat of wet steam is given by- Where
H=Hw +XL Vs = Specific volume of dry steam
Where Tsui' = Superheated steam temperature
Hw = sensible heat of water.
TS = Saturates steam temperature at given pressure
L = Latent heat of vaporization
For dry steam, dry ness fraction is 1, so the total heat of dry steam is 4.4 Steam Table
H = Hw _+L_ - -----Steam-is-formed at constant pressure in Boiler. For each pressure, the value like- saturation
4.3.7 Super heated steam temperature, sensible heat, latent heat, total heat of saturated steam and total heat of super heated steam
etc. varies. It is difficult to calculate these values. For convenience these quantities are experimentally
When dry saturated steam is further heated, its temperature increases. This steam is called as determined and recorded in tabular form. This table is known as steam table. The value of quantities is
super heated steam. The volume of super heated steam is more than that of dry steam at same pressure. given for 1 kg of steam.
Superheated steam is having following advantages.
The table is of two types. One is prepared on the basis of absolute pressure and other one is on
• Its capacity to do work increases without increasing its pressure as it contains more heat. the basis of temperature. _
• Due to high temperature, thermal efficiency increases. With the help of this table, calculation can be made easily. The table is made for saturated water
and steam as well as for super heatedsteatn. Example of the table is given below for understanding.
• This can be expanded considerably in Turbine before it condenses or became wet at last stage of
Properties of Steam and water
Turbine. (Pressure)
Temperature difference between superheated steam and dry saturated steam is called as degree
of super heat. Absolute pressure Temperature Specific volume Enthalpy Specific 'Entropy
4.3.8 Total heat of super heated steam kg/cm2 °C ' ' m3/kg kcal/kg kcal,lkg °K
This is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of water at 0°C to get superheated Water Steam Water Evaporation Steam Water Steam
steam at some desired temperature. It is represented by Hsui' or H. Tsar
(Vw) (Vs) (Hw) (L) (H) (Sw) (Ss)
HsuP = Total heat of dry steam + Heat of super heat
Hw + L + Cp (tsui' - tsAT ) 2 119.6 0.0011 0.9 ^ 19.9 526.4 646.3 0.364 1.704
Where 4 142.9 0.0011 0.47 143.7 510.2 653.9 0.423 1.649-
CP = mean specific heat at constant pressure for super heated steam. Its value normally lies 10 179 0.0011 0.198 181.3 482.1 663.4 0.509 1.575 ]
between .48 to .6 in MKS unit and 1.67 to 2.5 in SI units.
tsup = temperature of super heated steam Properties of steam and water
tsAT = temperature of dry saturated steam at given pressure (Temperature)
4.3.9 Specific volume of steam
This is the volume occupied by steam per unit mass at certain pressure. It is expressed in m3 /kg. Temperature Absolute Specific volume Enthalpy Specific
As the pressure of steam increases its specific volume decreases. Specific volume of wet steam is given by- °C pressure m3/kg kcal/kg Entropy
= XVS kcal/kg °K
VwFT kg/cm2
Where
T^1T Water Steam Water Evaporation Steam Water Steam
X is dryness fraction and Vs is the specific volume of dry steam at specified pressure.
For dry steam the specific volume is given by V. (Vw) (Vs) (Hw) (L) (H) (Sw) (Ss)
When temperature of gas increases its volume increases at constant pressure as per Charles law. 10 0.013 0.001 106.4 10 591.7 601.7 0.036 2.126
As superheated steam behaves like perfect gas we may write as per Charles law-
100 1.033 0.001 1.67 100.1 539 639.1 0.312 1.757
VsuF/ Tsui' = V s/Ts
150 4.854 0.0011 0.393 151 505 656 0.44 1.633
Or Vsup = Vs X Tsud Ts


42 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

Properties of Superheated steam

Temperature °C Pressure = 40 kg/cm2 Pressure = 45 kg/cm2 Pressure = 50 kg/cm2

Vs H Ss Vs H Ss Vs H Ss BOILER FEED WATER CHEMISTRY
320 0.063 719.6 1.542 0.0556 716 1.525 0.0493 712.5 1.509
500 0.088 823 1.695 0.078 821.7 1.681 0.07 820.3 _ 1.668__
650 0.107 905.1 1.792 0.0949 904.3 1.779 0.0853 903.4 1.767

5.1 Introduction
From the following example it will be easier to understand the use.of steam table.
Steam is formed in Boiler from feed water. The water used in Boiler is called as Boiler feed
Example : Calculate the total heat of 1kg of steam at a pressure of 10kg/cm 2 (ab) when - water. Water which is available from different natural sources like- River, Pond, Ground water and sea
I) The steam is wet having dryness fraction is .8 water, can not be used directly in Boiler as feed water. Depending upon the sources of water, it contains
II) Steam is dry saturated different impurities. Before using this water in Boiler, these impurities are removed by various methods.
III) The steam is at 200 °C. Considering specific heat of superheated steam C. is .55 Water available from natural resources contains following impurities.
Solution : ' Un-dissolved suspended materials, like- mud, sand, sediment etc.
I) H=HW +XL • Dissolved salts and minerals, like- carbonate, bicarbonate, sulfate, silicate and nitrate of Calcium/
In this case dryness fraction is .8 Magnesium / Potassium.
From the steam table (pressure) it is found that for steam at 10 kg/cm 2 , HW = 181.3 and • Dissolved gases, like- oxygen, carbon dioxide etc.
L=482.1 • Other materials, like- acid, oil etc.
Putting these values-
Above impurities can be removed by different methods. Depending upon the type of Boiler, feed
H = 181.3 + .8 X 482.1 = 566.98 kcal water quality is maintained. Permissible level of impurities are different for different Boiler. Feed water
II) For dry saturated steam impurities are responsible for corrosion and scale formation in the Boiler tube. Scale in the tube affects heat
H=HW +L transfer. So the quality of feed water is responsible for higher life of Boiler.
= 181.3 + 482.1 = 663.4 Kcal 5.2 Removal of un-dissolved suspended solid materials from water
H of dry steam can also be found from steam table directly. In rainy day, river water is muddy. It contains insoluble matter like- mud, sediment, sand etc.
III) From the steam table it is found that for steam at 10 kg/cm 2 the saturation temperature is 179 °C. Turbidity of this water is high. When less insoluble matter is present in water then its turbidity is less. These
undissolved matters can be removed from water by following three methods.
Total heat of super heated steam is given by- H+ CP( Tsup – T sAT) = 663.4 + .55
(200-179) =674.95 kcal • Sedimentation

4.5 Mollier Diagram • Filtration

Mollier diagram is the graphical representation of enthalpy (H) and Entropy(S). It is sometimes
known as the H-S diagram and has an entirely different shape from the T-S diagrams. The chart contains
a series of constant temperature lines, a series of constant pressure lines, a series of constant moisture or
quality lines, and a series of constant superheat lines.The Mollier diagram is used by Engineers to determine
the steam condition.
0 0 0
• Coagulation
5.2.1 Sedimentation
In this process, water is kept standstill in a large settling tank (clarifier tank). Undissolved suspended
solids are settled by gravity at bottom of the tank. The sediment deposited in this process is removed by a
slow moving horizontal scrapper. This process is very slow. Intakes long time to settle the suspended solids.
Also total solid can not be removed completely in this process. Addition of coagulants like Alum makes the
settling process faster.
[43]


44 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Boiler Feed Water Chemistry 45

5.2.2 Filtration Practically, Alum is dosed in the form of solution in to the clarifier tank. This makes the settling
process faster. ,
In this process the water is passed through a filter bed composed of porous material (sand,
gravel, charcoal). When water passes through this bed, the suspended solid matters are collected in the After removal of suspended solids, the water is used as drinking water (chlorination is done to kill
bed. Clear filter water is collected from the bottom of the filter bed. bacteria). But this water can not be used as feed water for steam generation. Only undissolved solids have
been removed by above process._The water still contains dissolved salts and minerals. Presence of these
salts and minerals are responsible for hardness of water. More the,salts and minerals more is the hardness.
may! The hardness is classified as permanent hardness and temporary hardness. Bicarbonate of calcium
Raw Water Overflow and magnesium_is responsible for temporary hardness of water. Temporary hardness can be avoided by
boiling the water.
\ ' \
■
{ '^{ q .4',Iq ^ 4 ' •l 1 •1 t
. ,l • {' { ' ,I q •{',{g4,',l" , ' ,1 t4
,19 • 4',4.I Permanent hardness is due to presence of chloride, sulfate and nitrate, of Sodium, Calcium and
4,
.t
k
44
.14
{
4 4
1, 44 i, 4,
4 44^I4 ,44 'l
4 '1
Magnesium. Small quantity of iron, aluminum and manganese salts are also present in water and contributes
i(, ii('r
4 4 Ir
{(1,,if'
, ^.)'
t
II( t(, 1 4 {il,', .4 i{1,y,il',4..
11( Sand
f ' ' /')r /')r,' )'' ) a little to water hardness.
000000000000000000000000000000000000000
0 0 00 0 00 0 000 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 0 5.3 Dissolved salts and minerals
000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000
000000000000000000000000000000000000000
0 0 00 0 00 0 60 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 000 00 0 00 0 00 0 0
Gravel In Boiler feed water salts of Calcium and Magnesium are mainly responsible for scale formation.
000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000
000000000000000000000000000000000000000 Most natural source water contains silica. Presence of silica is not desirable in feed water as it forms hard
0 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 000 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 000 00 0 00 0 00 0 0 scale. Some time silica is evaporated and carried out in steam which forms an insoluble deposit o
000 000 000 006 000 000 000 000 000 000 0 00 000 000
0000000 0000000000000002 000000 600000 turbine blade.
n0 nn 0 nn n 0 nn0 nnd no O nn O ne, 0 nnO nn0 n 0 nn 0 n - -I.-Filtered
Back washing water Mainly Calcium and Magnesium salts are present in water in the following form.
water 4

Air from Blower o Calcium / Magna - ium Carbonates (CaCO 3, MgCO3)

Fig. 5.1 Sand bed filter Calcium / Magnesium Bi-Carbonates ( Ca(HCO3)2, Mg(HCO 3)2)
After some quantity of water passed through the bed, it is required to wash the bed to remove • Calcium / Magnesium Sulfate` ( CaSO 4, MgSO4)
collected sediments from the bed. After washing this bed, it can be used again. Normally during washing of
bed, water is passed in thereverse direction of the normal water flow during filtration. This is called as back • Calcium / Magnesium chloride ( CaCl2, MgC12)
wash. High pressure air is used to agitate the bed to remove the deposited sediment easily. • Calcium / Magnesium nitrate (Ca(NO 3)24H2O, Mg( NO3) 26H2O)
In DM plant, pressure filter and Activated carbon filter is also used tdmake the water completely o Calcium/ Magnesium silicate (CaSiO3 , MgSiO3)
free from suspended solids. In pressure filter water is passed through gravel and sand bed.
Above dissolved salts can be removed from water by treating it in different processes. If these
Activated carbon or charcoal is used at activated carbon filter. Activated carbon is a black solid salts are removed from water, inside the Boiler, the treatment is called as internal treatment. If salts are
substance resembling granular or powdered charcoal. It is extremely porous with a large surface area, and removed before supplying to Boiler, the treatment is called as External treatment.
typically produced from organic precursors such as bamboo, coconut shells, palm-kernel shells, wood
chips, sawdust and seeds. Activated carbon adsorption is an effective means for reducing organic chemicals, 5.4 Internal Boiler water treatment
chlorine, lead, and unpleasant tastcs and odors. In internal treatment, chemicals are added in Boiler water. These chemicals react with dissolved
When filter bed is packed with suspended particles, differential pressure across the bed increases salts and convert them to sludge. This sludge can be removed from Boiler water by blow down. Some salts are
and indicates the bed is required to be back washed. Pressure filter sand bed is agitated with help of air converted in to less harmful sludges which can stay in boiler water without creating any harm to boiler tube.
from a blower to clean the bed thoroughly. Following internal treatments are normally carried out in a Boiler.
5.2.3 Coagulation
5.4.1 Soda Ash (Sodium carbonate – Na2CO3) treatment
In this process colloidal impurities are removed from water by conglomeration of small colloidal
particles to bigger particle having more mass to settle by gravity. In this process, soda ash is added in to Boiler water. This soda ash reacts with chlorides and
sulfates of magnesium and calcium to form in- soluble sludge.
Colloidal particles have same electric charges developed on the surface. So they repel each other
and can not conglomerate in to larger particle. By adding some stimulants, the charge of colloid particles CaCl2 + Na2CO3 = CaCO3 + 2NaCl
are neutralized and these particles easily conglomerate, to form larger particle. These larger particles are MgSO4 + Na2CO3 = MgCO 3 + Na2SO4
called as floc and settle down easily by gravity. This stimulant is called as coagulant.
Aluminum sulphate Ale (SO 4)3, normally known as Alum, is a commonly used coagulant. CaSO4 + Na2CO3 = CaCO3 + Na2SO4


46 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

Boiler Feed Water Chemistry 47
Some time Caustic soda (NaOH) is also used instead of soda ash. Also soda ash, at high
Water treatment in this method is done at Demineralisation plant (DM plant). Water produced in this plant
temperature and pressure reacts with water to form free caustic soda.
is called as OM water. By using DM water, with a little blowdown, Boiler water quality can be maintained.
Na2CO3 + 2H20 = NaOH + H2O + CO2 For once through Boiler the DM water parameters are .maintained strictly. Colloidal Silica can not be
This caustic soda reacts in the same way as soda ash. In this case instead of carbonate, removed at DM plant.
hydroxide is formed. 5.5:1:1 -Process -of Demineralisation
MgSO4 +2NaOH = Mg (OH) 2 + Na2 SO4 As discussed earlier, raw water contains salts of Magnesium, Calcium and Potassium in the form
From the above discussion it is clear that, by treating Boiler water with soda ash or caustic soda, of chloride, sulfate, nitrate, Carbonate, bicarbonate and silicate. These salts are having cations like — Ca + ,
sulfates and chlorides of Magnesium and Calcium are converted in to insoluble carbonate and hydroxide Mg+ and Na+ and anions like — CO3-, SO4 , Cl-, SI03 etc.
sludge. This sludge can then be removed by blow down. Water, free from undissolved suspended solids (from pressure filter and activated carbon filter)
passes through a Cation exchanger, containing a bed of cross linked polymers called as Cation Resin.
5.4.2 Phosphate treatment This Resin contains H+ ions. When water passes through the bed, earlier mentioned Cations are substituted
In high pressure and temperature Boiler, soda ash treatment can not be used as it forms Caustic by these H+ ions of the Resin. Water coming out from the Cation exchanger is acidic.
soda and increases with increase in temperature. Hence it is difficult to maintain the PH of Boiler water. Water coming out from Cation exchanger is passed through another exchanger called as Anion
Also at higher PH, solubility of calcium carbonate increases. In this case phosphate treatment is suitable. exchanger. Anion exchanger contains another type of Resin called as Anion Resin containing OH- ions.
When water from the Cation passed through Anion Resin, earlier discussed anions are substituted by OH-
In case of higher concentration of salts in Boiler water, phosphate treatment is not suitable.
ions of the Resin.
Heavy sludge is produced in this case. So the feed water is to be treated externally to reduce salt concentration.
Phosphate treatment is preferred in drum type Boiler. Phosphate is dosed at the Boiler drum. If
it is dosed at feed pipe, it may react with impurities and sludge may be deposited at the feed line. Also
phosphate dosing is called as HP dosing.
Monosodium phosphate, Di sodium phosphate and Tri sodium phosphates are used as per the
PH requirement of Boiler water.
Detail discussion about phosphate dosing is done in chapter "Feed water system".
5.4.3 Colloidal treatment
The insoluble sludge particle formed in soda ash treatment or phosphate treatment should not
stick to each other or to any part of Boiler feed water system. It should be removed easily by blow down.
Till blow down it should circulate with feed water without any harm.
Some organic colloidal materials are added in feed water to keep this sludge in circulation. The
sludge formed due to internal treatment, is absorbed on to the surface of the colloidal material and can be
easily removed by blow down.
Mostly tannins, lignin and starch are used as colloidal material.
Fig. 5.2 Demineralisation Process
5.5 External treatment of feed water
So the cations of the salts are trapped at Cation exchanger and the anions are trapped at the
In large steam generating plants, where feed water requirement is more, above discussed internal Anion exchanger. The water coming out from Anion exchanger is free from salts. Another exchanger called
treatment methods of feed water is not suitable. Feed water is treated externally before sent to Boiler, to as Mixed- bed, containing both, Cation and Anion Resin, is used to trap any slippage salts from the Cation
eliminate hardness of the Boiler water. Particularly, in case of once through Boiler, the feed water is treated and Anion exchanger. Also silica polishing is done in this exchanger.
externally to eliminate total hardness, as no further internal treatment is possible.
After flowing of certain quantity of water in exchangers, bed Resin got exhausted. It can not trap
There are some methods to remove the dissolved salts and minerals externally. Among them, further Cation or Anion. In this condition regeneration of bed is required. Cation Resin is regenerated by
Demineralising water treatment and Reverse osmosis process are commonly used in steam generating Hydrochloric (HCI) or Sulphuric (H2SO4) acid and Anion Resin is regenerated with Caustic. Normal operation
plants. These two methods are discussed in subsequent sections. and regeneration of Cation and Anion exchanger is discussed in separate sections.
5.5.1 Demineralising (DM) water treatment Two types of Cation exchanger are used. These are :
Dissolved salts and minerals in water can be successfully removed completely in a series of • Strong Acid Cation exchanger (SAC)
Cation and Anion exchangers. This process of Demineralisation is quite efficient than other methods. It is
economical too. Most of the steam generating plants uses this process for external treatment of feed water. • Weak Acid Cation exchanger (WAC)


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Boiler Feed Water Chemistry 49
48
SAC can remove all cations associated with Strong Acids like- Sulphuric Acid, Hydrochloric After back washing, Hydrochloric acid or Sulphuric acid is injected in to Resin bed. Normally 2%
Acid, Nitric Acid etc., as wall as weak acids also. Where as the WAC can remove Cations associated with to 6% acid for SAC and .5% to .7% acid for WAC, with 30% concentration is injected to the water stream
which flows through the Resin bed in reverse direction of the normal water flow and drained out.
weak acids only, like – silicic acid and organic acid.
This method is called as counter flow regeneration. Some time co flow method is also adopted, where
Like this two types of Anion exchangers are used. These are : regeneration is done in the same direction of normal water flow. DM water or degassed water is used for
• Strong Base Anion exchanger (SBA) regeneration. During regeneration less flow is maintained.
Hydrochloric acid or Sulphuric acid reacts with exhausted Resin in the following manner to
• Weak Base Anion exchanger (WBA)
recharge_theresin again.
SBA can remove all the anions associated with strong and weak acids. Where as -WBA can- -
remove the anions of strong acids only. ++ R-H +
Ca+R. + H+Cl- = CaCl2-
In between Cation and Anion exchanger, there is a degasifier unit. Here carbonate and bicarbonate Mg +R. + H 2+SO4 = Mg +SO4 + R-H +
are removed.
Depending upon the water quality requirement and salt concentration (Ionic load) in the raw It should be noted that Ca +R- and Mg+R- is the exhausted Resin due to absorption of cations in
water, different combinations of Cation and Anion exchangers are used. Some time SAC and WAC Cation exchanger during normal operation. and R-H + is the charged Cation Resin as discussed earlier.
exchangers along with SBA and WBA exchangers are used. Some plant only uses SAC along with SBA Either hydrochloric Acid or Sulphuric Acid can be used for this purpose. Remaining CaCl 2 and MgSO4 is
exchanger. drained out with the water.
Simple DM water flow diagram is shown in figure 5.2. Certain quantity of acid is permitted to flow for some duration during regeneration. This duration
5.5.1.2 Cation Exchanger and quantity of acid depends upon the bed depth and Resin quantity.
Cation exchanger contains bed of Cation Resin. As told earlier the Resin is cross linked polymers. After acid injection is completed, water flow is continued for some time to rinse the bed. As
The chemical formula of Cation Resin is given as R-H + . Where, R- is the complicated chemical composition during regeneration less water flows so this rinsing is called as slow rinse. Slow rinse is continued for some
of the Resin. It will be easier to remember the Resin with this formula.
+ time.
When raw water passes through this Resin bed, cations of the salts like – Ca , Mg+ and Na+ are
substituted by H+ ions of the Resin. So the salts of Calcium, Magnesium and Potassium are converted in After slow rinse raw water at normal flow rate and at normal direction is passed through the
to different acids as mentioned below and mixed with water. So the water coming out from Cation exchanger regenerated bed. But this water is drained out to rinse the bed thoroughly. This rinsing method is:called as
is acidic. The cations are trapped at Resin bed. fast rinse. The water quality is checked for non-availability of hardness. Fast rinse continued for some time
and then drain valve is closed.
Salts Converted to Equation Now the exchanger is fully charged and ready for further production of DM water.
After regeneration of the exchanger for some number of times, the bed is regenerated with
Carbonates/ Carbonic acid Ca+CO3+ R-H + = Ca+R- + H2+ CO3
double quantity of acid. This is called as double regeneration.
Bicarbonates
5.5.1.3 Degasser
Sulfates Sulphuric acid Mg+ SO4 + R H+ = Mg+ R- + H2+SO4
As stated in earlier section, when carbonate and bi carbonate is passed in Cation exchanger,
=Chlorides Ca
Hydrochloric acid ++ R-H+
CaCl2 +R- + H +CI-
Carbonic Acid (H2CO3) is formed. Carbonic acid is a weak acid. Soft drinks available in the market
Nitrates Nitric acid Ca+ (NO)-24H 2O+ R-H+ = Ca+R- + H+NO3 contains Carbonic acid. Carbonic acid can easily be broken in to water and carbon dioxide gas.
Silicates Silicic Acid Ca +SiO3+ R-H+ = Ca +R- + H2+SiO3- H2CO3 = H2O + CO2
So carbon dioxide gas is released when we open soft drink bottle. In case of DM water production
As the cations are trapped at the Resin, so it is exhausted after flow of some quantity of water through
process, the quantity of water is more. So Degasser is used to remove carbon dioxide gas from the cataionised
it. The Resin can not absorb more cations. So it is required to regenerate the Resin. This process is called
water. .
as regeneration.
In degasser unit, water coming out from Cation exchanger is sprayed from top of the degasser
Regeneration tower to increase its surface contact area. Low pressure air by help of a blower, called as degasser blower
Before regeneration of Resin, bed is back washed (water flow in reverse direction of normal flow is blown from bottom of the column. By this process carbonic acid breaks easily and carbori dioxide gas is
through the bed and drained out) for some time to wash the Resin completely. Back wash also removes liberated. This carbon dioxide gas is vented along with low pressure air at the top of degasser tower.
Resin fines and filtered particles from the inter space of resin bed. This helps in efficient regeneration.


50 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Boiler Feed Water Chemistry 51

/\J4ir Vent Regeneration

Like Cation bed, Anion bed, is also back washed before regeneration. For regeneration of Anion
Resin, Caustic Soda (NaOH) is used. Caustic soda, either of flake form or liquid form, can be used. 4% to
Cationised water 5% Caustic solution is used. This caustic is injected in to the water steam and passed through Resin bed
J either in co flow or counter -flow direction and drained out. Only DM water is used for regeneration in
this case.
Degasser• Tower
*-^ Degasser . __ . Caustic soda reacts with exhausted Anion Resin as below to regenerate the Resin.
^I
J Blower R+SO4 + Na +OH- = Na +SO 4- + R+OH-
R+ CI- + Na +OH- = NaCl- ++ R+OH-
R+SiO3 + Na+OH- = Na +SiO3 + R+OH-
It can be noted that R+SO4 , R+Cl-, R+ SiO3 etc. are the exhausted Resin and after regeneration
Gauge
it is converted in to original Resin(R + OH-). Remaining salts are drained out with water.
Degasser
Tank The Resin bed is slow rinsed, like Cation exchanger, for some time and then fast rinsed. The
conductivity of the water is measured before putting the bed in service.
Degassed Water 5.5.1.5 Mix — Bed Exchanger
Jr Mainly mixed bed is used to arrest silica slippage. Both Cation and Anion resins are used in this
Fig. 5.3 Degasser exchanger. The water coming out from Anion Exchanger passes through this exchanger. Like other exchangers
this exchanger also requires regeneration after some flow of water.
Degassed water is collected at a tank called as degasser tank. As told earlier this degassed water
is then passed through Anion exchanger. Also this degassed water is used for regeneration of Catiort But as the bed contains both Cation and Anion resins, so regeneration process is different than
exchanger. other exchangers. Regeneration is carried out in following steps.
Normally degasser tank is placed at higher elevation. It has some merits. First the carbon dioxide • Back washing and Bed separation
gas is vented at higher elevation. Secondly by placing degasser unit at higher elevation water can flow to
subsequent exchangers (Anion and Mixed bed) by gravity. Resin bed is backwashed to remove any filtered particles. This back washing also helps bed
So further pumping is not required. Only one pump can be used to.flow water to degasser separation. Mix bed contains two type of Resin. Bed separation is required for regeneration, as Cation and
through Cation exchanger. Then by gravity war can flow through Anion exchanger and mixed bed. Anion Resin require acid and alkali respectively for regeneration.
Degasser unit reduces load on Anion Exchanger. Cation Resin is heavier than Anion Resin. So, Cation Resin settles down and Anion Resin moves
up during back washing as the bed become fluidized.
5.5.1.4 Anion Exchanger
• Acid Injection
Water which is coming out from degasser unit passes through Anion exchanger. This Exchanger
contains another type of Resin called as Anion Resin and represented by (R +OH-). After bed is separated it is easier for regeneration. Cation resin is settled at the lower portion of
Water coming out from Cation exchanger is Acidic. Carbonic Acid is eliminated at degasser. So the bed. So acid is injected at the middle interface collector of the bed and drained at the bottom after
other Acids are still present at this water. Following reaction takes place while cationised water passes passing through the Cation Resin bed.
through Anion Resin. • Alkali injection
H2 SO4 R+OH- = R+SO4 + H2O As the Anion Resin is lighter, it is settled at the top portion of the bed. To regenerate this Resin,
H+Cl- + R+OH- = R+Cl- + H2O alkali is injected from top of the bed and drained from the middle interface collector.
H2+SiO3 + R+OH- = R+SiO3- + H2O • Rinsing

It can be noted that anions of the salts are absorbed by Anion Resin. H+ ion, substituted with
Cations of salts at Cation exchanger, reacts with OH- ions of the Resin to form H 2O.
Like Cation Resin, Anion Resin also exhausted after passing certain amount of cationised water.
Further absorption of anions is not possible after exhaust of resin. In this case regeneration, like Cation
exchanger is required.
Both the beds are rinsed to wash out remaining acid or alkali.
• Mixing of Bed
Both the resins are mixed thoroughly by help of high pressure air. Air is introduced from the
bottom. This air agitates the bed and resins are mixed uniformly.

Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
• Final rinsing
After mixing of bed, water from Anion is passed through the bed at full flow for some time and
drained out.
Conductivity and other parameters are checked and the exchanger is put in to service if found ok.
To maintain PH of DM water morpholine doing is done. Water coming out from Mix bed is
stored in a DM storage tank and used in Boiler.
5.5.2 Reverse osmosis Process
In osmosis process, liquid from an area of low salt concentration moves naturally through a
membrane, to an area of high salt concentration, when no external pressure is applied. The flow may be
stopped, or even reversed by applying external pressure on the higher concentration side. This phenomenon
is called as reverse osmosis. Reverse Osmosis is a process which is reverse to osmosis process, where
dissolved salts, is separated from water by forcing the water through a semi-permeable membrane under
high pressure. A semi-permeable membrane is a membrane that passes some atoms or molecules but not
others. It allows pure water to pass through it, while rejecting the contaminants that are too large to pass
through the tiny pores in the membrane. The water diffuses through the membrane and the dissolved salts
remain behind on the surface of the membrane. As the membrane clog up with the dissolved minerals that
it traps from water, part of the water fed into the system is used to flush them away, greatly extending the
life and effectiveness of the membrane. The pure water obtained is called as permeate and the rejected
water is called as concentrate. Colloidal silica as well as reactive silica can be removed by RO Process.
5.6 Removal of Dissolved Gasses from Water
From the discussions so far, we understand how the suspended un-dissolved particles and dissolved
salts are removed from water by various methods. Some gasses like- Oxygen, Carbon dioxide, Nitrogen etc.
are present in water in dissolved condition. Particularly presence of Oxygen is highly objectionable in Boiler
feed water, as oxygen is responsible for corrosion of Boiler tube.
For the removal of dissolved gasses deaeration is done at an equipment called Deaerator.
Chemical dosing (Hydrazine) is done in to the feed water to remove Oxygen.
These methods are discussed in details in chapter "Feed water system".
5.7 Some Parameters of Boiler Feed Water
Boiler feed water plays vital role for scale formation and durability of Boiler tube. This feed water
is tested in laboratory regularly to know about the quality of feed water. Some important parameters of feed
water are discussed below. From these parameters one can easily understand about feed water quality.
1. Turbidity:
Pure water free from suspended solids is colorless. Cleanness of water decreases when water is
contaminated with any suspended insoluble particle like- mud, sand, sediment etc. Cleanness of water is
measured as turbidity. Less turbidity means clear water and higher turbidity indicates water is contaminated.
The unit of turbidity is NTU (Normal Turbidity Unit). Turbidity decreases when filtration is perfect.
2.. pH Value :
pH value of the water indicates whether the water is Acidic or Alkaline. pH value plays important
role for corrosion.
pH value of different solution varies from 0 to 14. It is derived from the amount of hydrogen ion
present in the solution. pH value is the Logarithm of reciprocal of hydrogen ion concentration. Pure water
contains 10-' grams of Hydrogen ion per liter. So its pH is 7.
pH 7 indicate normal solution. pH more than 7 is alkaline and less than 7 is acidic.
It is clear that in alkaline solution, Hydrogen ion concentration is less and in case of acidic
Boiler Feed Water Chemistry 53
solution Hydrogen ion concentration is more. Pure alkaline solution is having 10- 14 grams of H2 ion per liter.
So its pH is 14. Pure acidic solution is having 1(10°) gram of H2 ion per liter. So its pH is 0.
As per law of mass action in mass dissociation H* X OH- =10- 14 at 20°C. So, if hydrogen ion
concentration is more in the solution then hydroxyl (OH) ion concentration reduces. If a solution has H* as
10-1° then OH- will be 10-4. So the alkaline solution-has lesser H2 ion concentration and hence high OH ion
concentration. The pH of the solution depends on, whether Hydrogen or Hydroxyl ions predominate.
As the pH value is logarithmic function so pH 8, 9 or 10 is respectively 10, 100 or 1000 times
more_alkaline than pH value 7.
3. Hardness
Hardness of the water is due to presence of calcium and magnesium salts as discussed earlier.
More the salt in the water more is the hardness. Some time presence of aluminum and manganese contributes
to hardness. These salts are deposited in Boiler tube as hard scale, which disturbs the heat transfer and
leads to tube failure. Hardness is of two types i.e. – carbonate and non carbonate hard ness.
4. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
Total dissolved solid is due to presence of dissolved non volatile substances in water. It is an
important parameter to know about the condition of Boiler water. If TDS of the Boiler water is more, then
blow down is given to reduce this. By giving blow down some fresh water with little or no TDS can be
introduced in to the system to balance TDS. The unit of TDS is milligram per liter (mg/liter).
5. Conductivity :
If the TDS of the water increases then its specific electrical conductance or conductivity increases.
Pure water has zero conductance. By measuring conductivity one can also know about the TDS of the
water. The unit of conductivity is micro siemens per centimeter (jScm- 1 ).
To calculate the conductivity of water into the approximate TDS, the conductivity is multiplied
by a conversion factor. The conversion factor depends on the chemical composition of the TDS and can
very between 0.54 – 0.96. A value of 0.67 is commonly used as an approximation if the actual factor is not
known.
6. Alkanity :
The alkanity of water is due to presence of HCO3, CO3 and OH ions. SiO3 and PO4 ions also
contribute towards alkanity. According to the presence of above ions the alkanity is classified as under
• Carbonate alkanity (CO 3 ) denoted by Ac'
• Bi-Carbonate alkanity (HCO 3) denoted by Ab'
• Hydrate alkanity (OH) denoted by Ah'
To know about the alkanity two types of alkanity is measured in laboratory. These are
• M- alkanity (M) or Methyl orange alkanity
• P- alkanity (P) or Phenolphthalein alkanity
M- alkanity is called as total alkanity.
M-alkanity = Ac + Ab + Ah
P- alkanity = Ah + 1 Ac
Some cases are given here to know the exact alkanity of water.
CASE -1
When P= 0 (pH =8.2)
M is called as bicarbonate alkanity


54 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

CASE—2
When P=M
M is called as hydroxide alkanity
CASE — 3
When 2P < M (Suitable for Boiler water)
There is no OH. concentration
CO3 concentration 2P and HCO 3 concentration isM-2P
CASE — 4
When 2P>M
OH is present and equal to 2P-M 6.1 Introduction
CO3 = 2(M-P) and HCO3 is zero
Boiler is a closed vessel in which the heat produced by combustion of fuel is transferred to feed
CASE-5 water to generate steam. Boiler is a heat exchanger.
When2P=M
As per Indian Boiler act 1923, Boiler means "any closed vessel exceeding 22.75 liters in capacity
CO3 concentration = 2P
which is used expressly for generating steam under pressure and includes any mounting or other fitting
OH concentration = Nil attached to such vessel, which is wholly or partially under pressure, when steam is shut off."
HCO3 concentration = Nil
For effective heat transfer, heat transfer units are arranged in different ways. Requirement of high
7. Silica pressure and high temperature steam in today's power houses, to drive steam turbine, has made Boiler
Silica can exist in three physical/chemical forms: monomeric (dissolved/soluble/reactive), polymeric design complicated. High capacity boilers are operated above critical pressure range (221.2 bar). These
(colloidal/unreactive), and granular (particulate) Silica is present in water in following forms. boilers are called as supercritical boilers. There are different types of boilers depending upon their design
• Dissolved silica features. These are discussed in subsequent sections.
• Colloidal silica A good Boiler should have some essential qualities. These are
• Particulate silica • Capable to meet large load fluctuations.
Silica in dissolved state is called as reactive silica. This is volatile and easily carried over by o Fuel efficient, or to produce maximum steam with minimum fuel consumption.
steam and deposited at turbine blade where temperature and pressure of steam drops. This silica is not
• Able to quick start up.
desirable in Boiler water. Silica concentration in Boiler water can be controlled by giving blow down. Only
reactive silica is removed at DM plant. • Easy for maintenance and Inspection.
Colloidal silica is called as non reactive silica. At RO plant colloridal silica alongwith reactive • Occupy less floor space.
silica can be removed. o Friction loss in water and flue gas circuit should be less.
8. Iron, Copper
o Require little attention for operation and maintenance.
In Boiler feed water, presence of iron (as Fe 2O3 ) and copper is not desirable. For different Boiler
the higher limit of these two are specified. A Boiler mainly contains following systems.

9. Oil • Feed water system.

Presence of oil in feed water is responsible for foaming. So oil should not be present in feed water. o Steam system.
10. Dissolved oxygen o Air system.
If oxygen is present in feed water then it accelerates corrosion of Boiler tube.
• Flue gas system.
So to make the feed water free from dissolved oxygen, oxygen scavenger is used. Earlier sodium sulphite
was used for this purpose. • ' Fuel handling system.
2Na2SO2 + 02 = 2Na2SO4 • Ash handling system.
But now a day Hydrazine is used widely for oxygen scavenging. All these systems will be discussed separately in subsequent chapters.
N2H4 +02 =2H2O+N2 For satisfactory functioning of the Boiler, there are Boiler mountings and accessories.
It is practice to have traceable quantity of hydrazine in feed water to eliminate chances of
presence of oxygen in feed water. [55]
0 0 0


56 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Introduction to Boiler 57

Boiler Mountings Water tubes are arranged in closed system. Cold water come to the tube from Boiler drum.
Then this water is circulated back to drum after absorbing heat. Due to difference in density, which is created
Fittings on a Boiler which are required for its safe and efficient operation are called as mountings.
due to difference in temperature, water circulates in these tubes naturally.
These are
• Safety valve
o Water level sight glass (gauge glass)
• Pressure gauge
• Blow down valve
• Main steam stop valve
• Feed water check valve (NRV)
• Air vent
o Start up vent
o Manhole

Boiler Accessories
The devices which are used in a Boiler as an integral part and help to run the Boiler efficiently is Fig. 6.1 Natural Circulation of water in Boiler Tube
called as Boiler Accessories. These are :
This circulation is natural. The force causing circulation is given by
• Super heater F = pcH l — pHH2
• Desuperheater Where
pc is density of cold water
• Economiser pH = density of hot water

• Air heater Hr and H2 is the height of water and steam respectively.

In some cases forced circulation is done by adding a pump in the circulation path. During
• Soot blower circulation of water in the tube, steam is generated and collected at the upper portion of steam drum.
• Feed pump This steam is saturated steam corresponding to Boiler drum pressure. This steam is further
heated to get super heated steam.
• ID and FD fans Boiler drum is filled with fresh feed water. The feed water, before entering into drum is heated at
• Ash removal system Economiser. Economiser is placed at the flue gas path. Most of the heat of flue gas is utilised inside the
Boiler. Still, considerable amount of heat energy is available in it. This heat is utilised in Economiser to heat
• Fuel supply system up the feed water.
For burning of fuel required Oxygen is obtained from atmospheric air. Air is required in Boiler
• Dosing system
furnace for combustion. This air is supplied by Force Draught (FD) Fan. This air is heated at air heater
• Deaerator before sent into furnace. If cold air is used then there will be loss in energy. Air heater is placed at the flue
All the above Mountings and Accessories are discussed in details in related chapters. gas path after Economiser. Air heater is a heat exchanger which exchanges the heat of flue gas to the cold
Before we proceed further it will be helpful to know how steam is produced in a normal Boiler. air, which is to be used in furnace. By heating the air, burning of fuel is easier and loss of energy is
minimized. If hot flue gas would not be used to heat up feed water at Economiser and air at Air heater then
The discussion is made to clarify functioning of earlier disscused six systems.
it would be escaped to atmosphere.
6.2 Steam generation in a Boiler Finally the flue gas passes through Electrostatic precipitator (ESP) and exhausted to atmosphere
As discussed earlier, in a Boiler fuel is burnt to get heat energy which is converted from chemical through Chimney (stack). At ESP the dust particle in the flue gas is trapped and clean gas is escaped to
energy stored in the fuel. This heat energy is utilised to produce steam from feed water. Fuel is fired in furnace atmosphere. ESP is not required where clean fuel like- oil and gas is used.
of the Boiler. Different fuel is used in different boilers. Accordingly furnace is designed. Water tubes are Fuel is stored in fuel storage area. From there fuel is feed to the Boiler as per requirement. Ash
arranged around the furnace and flue gas path. Water tube arrangement made around the furnace is called which is produced in the Boiler due to combustion of solid fuel is collected at Boiler bottom. Also ash is
as water wall. Feed water is circulated in these tubes. collected from the ESP. This ash is then disposed off by help of suitable ash handling system.

58 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
4 ASh Disposal System
Fig. 6.2 Basic Arrangement of different Systems in Boiler
Arrangement of these six systems are shown in the figure.
All the Boilers are not necessarily having all these systems. For example, waste heat recovery
Boiler does not have fuel handling system. The above figure is meant to have little idea about the functioning
of a Boiler.
6.3 Different types of Boiler
There are different types of Boiler used to generate steam. Boilers are classified depending upon
the fuel used, pressure of steam, mode of flow of heat carrying substance etc. Mostly boilers are classified
on the basis of following considerations.
Heat source (Fuel fired, Waste heat, Nuclear powered, Electric powered etc.)
o Mode of circulation of feed water (Natural circulation, Forced circulation)
• Type of fuel used ( Coal fired, Oil fired, Gas fired, Baggase fired)
o Position and type of furnace ( External fired, Internal fired)
• Material of construction (Cast iron Boiler, steel Boiler)
• Shape and position of tubes (Straight tube, Bent tube, horizontal, vertical and inclined Boiler)
o Content of the tube (Fire tube, Water tube )
o Operating pressure of the Boiler ( Low pressure, High pressure, Sub critical, Super critical)
• Purpose of utilisation (Marine, Locomotive, Power and Industrial Boiler)
• Manufactures trade name (Bension, La- mont, Babcok, Velox)
We will discuss about some of the commonly used Boiler in the subsequent sections.
Introduction to Boiler 59
6.3.1 Fire Tube and Water Tube Boiler
In fire tube Boiler, hot flue gas flows inside the tube. The tube is surrounded by feed water. The
rate of steam generation in this Boiler is less. As the flue gas flows inside the tube, inside surface is exposed
to flue gas. So for same number of tube, heating surface is less as compared to water tube Boiler. In this
Boiler chances of explosion is less. But in case of explosion the risk of damage is very high.
In water tube Boiler, feed water flows inside the tube. This water receives heat from hot flue gas,
which flows at its outer surface. As the out side surface of the tube is exposed to flue gas, so the heating
surface is more as compared to fire tube Boiler having same tube.
The rate of steam generation is faster in this case. The chance of explosion is more as compared
to fire tube Boiler. But the risk of damage in this case is less. To reduce pressure loss in water tube, water
tuhE^ ure arranged in parallel path.
6.3.2 Straight Tube, Bent Tube, Horizontal, Vertical and Inclined Boiler
In straight tube Boiler, the tube arrangement is straight. So the fabrication is not simple. But
bent tube boilers are most suitable as it is easier to fabricate by welding. Tubes are easily accessible for
inspection, cleaning and maintenance. Boiler inside space can be utilized efficiently. Also bent tube Boiler
has higher steam generating capacity.
Depending upon the geometric position of the Boiler, Boiler may be classified as Horizontal
Boiler, Vertical Boiler and Inclined Boiler. When the principal axis is horizontal the Boiler is called as
horizontal Boiler. When the axis of the Boiler is perpendicular to the horizontal plane, the Boiler is called as
vertical Boiler. When the axis is in inclined position the Boiler is called as Inclined Boiler.
6.3.3. Waste heat recovery Boiler
Waste heat recovery boilers are used to utilize the heat energy from the system, which would
otherwise go waste. In some chemical process heat is produced due to exothermic reaction. For example,
N2 + 3H2 = 2 NH3 + 22 kcal of heat, 2 SO2 + 02 = 2S0 3 + 45 kcal of heat. Mass of hot gas flow and
its temperature is the main factor that decides the design of a waste heat recovery Boiler. Also the chemical
nature and corrosiveness as well as abrasive dust load in the gas are considered before designing such
Boiler.
In sponge iron kilns lot of hot gas is produced. This hot gas is utilized in Boiler for steam
generation. This hot gas contains significant amount of abrasive dust. These dust particles may damage
the Boiler tube due to erosion. This problem can be minimized by lowering the gas velocity. By providing
abrupt change in the direction of flue gas flow, these dust settles down and can be removed by suitable ash
handling system.
6.3.4 Package Boiler
Package boilers are mostly shop assembled. These are not field erected. Mostly liquid and gaseous
fuels are used in these boilers. These are small in size for easy transportation. These boilers are mostly used
to meet process steam requirement in industry. In some cases these boilers may be hooked up with other
Boiler to produce power.
6.3.5 Sub- critical and Super- critical Boiler
If the pressure and temperature increases, then the heat content in the steam (enthalpy) increases.
More work can be done by this steam. So plant efficiency increases. Now a day, modern power plants are
using high pressure and temperature steam to reduce the cost of power generation.

60 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
Also high pressure boilers are having some merits. The velocity of feed water and steam is high
in these boilers. Due to high velocity of feed water in the tube, the chances of scale formation is minimised.
These boilers can be started quickly and are suitable to meet variable load. High pressure steam can do
more work.
But in high pressure Boiler, natural circulation of water is limited up to critical pressure (218 ata).
As discussed earlier natural circulation is due to density difference between steam and water. But at critical
pressure, the density difference of steam and water is zero. So, forced circulation is required in the Boiler,
which operates above critical pressure. Normally this Boiler is once through Boiler. Boiler which is operated
above critical pressure is called as super- critical Boiler. Boiler which is operated below critical pressure is
called as sub- critical Boiler.
Sub-critical Boiler has Economiser, Evaporator and super heater. But super critical Boiler has
Economiser and super heater only. There are no evaporator tubes. Feed water from Economiser is admitted
to the furnace tubes. Super heated steam is collected from other end of the tube. There is no drum in this
Boiler.
6.3.6 Fuel fired Boiler
Different kind of fuels are fired in the furnace of Boiler to generate steam. These fuels may be in
the form of solid, liquid or gaseous. Depending upon the fuel used, Boiler may be classified as oil fired, gas
fired, coal fired, baggase fired boilers. Oil fired and gas fired boilers are approximately having same design
features except in fuel handling system. Coal fired boilers may be classified as hand fired, grate fired, stoker
fired, pulverised, FBC etc. Some solid fuels including coal, wood, municipal waste etc. are used as fuel.
All these type of boilers are discussed below.
6.3.6.1 Oil fired Boiler
Most of the oil fired boilers use oil, derived from natural petroleum. The fuel is mostly, High
Speed Diesel (HSD), Light Diesel Oil (LDO) Heavy Fuel oil (HFO), LSHS, and Furnace oil. For handling
HFO and LSHS, special attention is given as these oils are very viscous. High pressure oil is sprayed in to
the Boiler furnace with help of suitable burner nozzle. Oil is atomized by the help of compressed air or
steam. Complete combustion of oil takes place inside the Boiler by the help of primary and secondary air.
Small Boilers are having one nozzle (burner). Larger Boilers have multiple nozzles arranged in the furnace
at different elevation. Depending upon the load on the Boiler the nozzles may be taken in to service or taken
out of service.
As no dust is produced during burning of oil, ash handling system is not required. Fuel handling
system of this Boiler is very simple, consisting of fuel oil storage tank, fuel oil pump, oil heater, oil filter, oil
trip valve and oil return valve. Oil to individual burner is supplied through an isolating valve. By closing this
isolating valve, fuel supply can be stopped to that particular burner.
Oil fired boilers are very much suitable for fluctuating load. Oil supply to the burners is controlled
to meet the variable load demand. Boiler house is maintained clean as no ash is produced.
6.3.6.2 Gas fired Boiler
Approximately the design of gas fired Boiler is same as oil fired Boiler. At the gas burner, gas is
fired at the furnace. By controlling the gas supply to the burner, load on the Boiler can be varied. The gas
and air is pre heated to get higher efficiency. Like fuel oil, gas fired boilers also does not produce ash. So the
Boiler is very clean.
Different gases like- Petroleum gas, Coal gas, Blast furnace gas, coke oven gas etc. are used as
fuel in gas fired Boilers.
Introduction to Boiler 61
6.3.6.3 Coal fired Boiler
Different Grade of coal is used in Boiler as fuel. Combustion system in the Boiler is also different.
Depending upon the firing system, coal fired boilers may be classified differently.
Hand firing system is used in small boilers. The response to load fluctuation is less in this case.
These boilers are mainly used in small industries to meet process steam requirement. Locomotive boilers,
were in use few years back for traction purpose, is an example of hand fired Boiler.
Stoker feed boilers and pulverised boilers are commonly used now a day. Different types of coal
fired boilers are discussed in subsequent sections.
6.3.6.3.1 Traveling Grate fired Boiler
In this Boiler, coal is fed on to the Grate, which moves at the bottom portion of the furnace.
The moving grate is having suitable openings to admit air from the bottom portion of the grate. This air
cools down the grate and Ash, and is used as primary air for burning of coal.
The chain grate stoker and bar grate stoker are similar to each other except in the construction
of the grate. In chain grate stoker, cast iron links are connected in series by pins to form a chain. In bar grate
stoker, cast iron surfaces are mounted on bars. These bars are mounted on drive chain. In both the cases,
the chain is driven by two sprocket wheels. One of the sprocket, mostly which is locked at the front of the
furnace is driven by a variable speed drive. Super Heater
Fuel Adjuster
+
Exhaust
Secondary air
Primary Air Duct Ash Hooper
Fig. 6.3 Traveling Grate fired Boiler.
The depth of coal on the grate is varied by the help of a adjustable gate. The speed of the grate
can also be adjusted. The coal is fed from the furnace front end and ash is collected from the rear end of
the grate.
Primary air from FD fan is supplied through air ducts under the grate. Secondary air is supplied
above the grate for complete combustion of coal.
This type Boiler is not suitable to use caking bituminous coal having low ash fusion temperature.
As clinker is formed at the grate and closes the primary air path of the grate.

Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
6.3.6.3.2 Spreader stoker fired Boiler
In this type of Boiler, coal is fed by the help of a variable feeding device called as feeder, which
throws coal in to the furnace. Some portion of coal, particularly fine particles, burn in suspension and
remaining large size coal falls to the stationary or moving grate, where it burns. The stationary grate is
moved periodically to remo ve ash from the grate. Primary air is supplied to the furnace through openings of
grate. Secondary air is supplied through nozzles.
Coal feeder is a variable speed rotating drum having large number of blades mounted on it.
Depending upon the loadonthe Boiler, feeder speed is adjusted. The spreader dissibutes coal uniformly
over the grate.
6.3.6.3.3 Pulverised coal fired Boiler
The main drawback of the stoker fired Boiler is formation of clinker over the grate and does not
respond too quickly to load change. The ash handling system is also complicated. But in case of pulverised
Boiler ash handling system is very simple. Fly ash is produced in this Boiler which can be easily collected at
ESP. Load on the Boiler can be changed quickly. Larger capacity Boiler can be designed with pulverised
coal firing.
Coal is crushed in to fine powder in a ball or hammer mill. This powdered coal is sprayed in to
furnace through a burner. This powdered coal is transported up to the burner by the help of primary air.
Turbulence is created at the furnace for complete combustion of coal with the help of secondary air.
Like other boilers primary air is a portion of air supplied by FD fan and heated in air heater.
This air is used to dry the coal as well as to transport coal up to burner and support combustion. Remaining
portion of air supplied by FD fan is used as secondary air for complete combustion of fuel.
By making the coal in to powder, surface area of coal exposed to heat and oxygen increases. So,
faster combustion is possible in Boiler, which helps to meet fluctuating load demand of the Boiler quickly.
Excess air requirement is less, so the efficiency of this Boiler is high. Wide variety of coal having different
ash content can be used in this Boiler.
Depending upon the method of supply of pulverised coal to the Boiler, pulveriser system is
classified as Individual or Central system. In Individual system, each burner is having its own pulveriser mill.
But in case of Central system the coal is pulverised centrally and stored in a bunker. From this bunker coal
is supplied to all the burners. Super heated
steam
A as 65% and having calorific value as low as 2500 kcal/kg.
Super heater
Economiser
Feed water
Secondary
Air
Primary To Air heater
Air
ASH
Fig. 6.4 Pulverised coal fired Boiler
Introduction to Boiler 63
The ash produced in this Boiler is collected in two ways. Major portion of the ash is collected at
ESP as fly ash. Some ash melts at the furnace as furnace temperature is high, and forms slag. This slag is
collected from the bottom of the furnace. Now days most of the power Boilers are of this type. This boiler
has Evaporator, super heater and re heaters.
6.3.6.3.4 Fluidised Bed Combustion (FBC) Boiler
In this Boiler combustion of coal or any solid fuel takes place at suspended condition. High
velocity air is passed through the fuel bed through air nozzles. Major portion of the bed volume contains
inert material like- fused alumina, sand, mullite and zirconia etc. It is around 90% of the total bed volume.
Due to-this high velocity air a stage is reached when the individual particles of the bed are suspended in the
air stream. Further, increase in velocity gives rise to bubble formation, vigorous turbulence and rapid
mixing. The bed of solid particles exhibits the properties of a boiling liquid and assumes the appearance of
a fluid. The mixture of this air and fuel behaves like a fluid. So the fuel bed is called as Fluidised bed.
The inert bed material is helpful to maintain bed temperature. The bed temperature is maintained
around 900°C. This inert material and fuel remain in Fluidised condition during operation of Boiler..
As the volume of fuel in the bed is less,. high ash content fuel can be used in this Boiler. Small
amount of dolomite or lime stone is feed in to the bed which nutralises formation of sulpher dioxide gas
( SOX ). Another merit of this Boiler is thaf; formation of NOx in the Boiler is less.
Water tubes called as bed tubes are placed inside the Fluidised bed. Heat produced in the bed is
transferred to feed water. During starting, oil or gas burners are used to heat the bed material. In some case
initial bed heating is done by burning charcoal on the bed. Once bed comes to ignition temperature, coal
is supplied.
FBC Boiler is more accepted now days due to following advantages.
• FBC boilers can burn fuel with higher combustion efficiency.
• Size of Boiler is less as compared to conventional stoker fired or pulverised Boiler.
• FBC boilers can be operated efficiently with variety of fuels and these can be fed either independently
or in combination with coal into the same furnace. Washery rejects, biomass solid waste can be
burnt efficiently in this Boiler.
• Inferior quality fuel can be used in this boiler. The boilers can fire coals with ash content as high
• Coal containing fines below 6 mm can be burnt efficiently in FBC Boiler which is very difficult in
conventional firing system.
• S02 formation can be greatly minimized by addition of limestone or dolomite for high sulpher
coals. Low combustion temperature eliminates NOx formation.
There are many type of FBC Boilers. Atmospheric Fluidised bed (AFBC) and Circulating Fluidised
Bed (CFBC) Boilers are used widely. The main features of these Boilers are discussed below.
Atmospheric Fluidised Bed Combustor (AFBC) Boiler
Low velocity air is used for fluidization of the bed in this case. Air from FD fan is used for this
purpose. This air is approximately 50% — 60% of the total air and supplied to the compartments through
air nozzles to create fluidisation of bed. Balance air supplied by FD fan is used as secondary air. The bed of
the Boiler is divided into sections. Individual sections called as compartments have their own coal feeder
and Fluidised air supply. Mostly coal is feed to the bed by primary air. Primary air fan is used for this.
Depending upon the load on the Boiler some sections may be taken out of service. This procedure
is called as bed slumping. During this process, coal feeder to the section is stopped and then Fluidised air is
cut off. Some time it is required to maintain the temperature of the slumped section. For this, air is charged
to the bed for some time and some fuel is feed.


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Introduction to Boiler

64 65
Complete combustion of the combustible takes place in the bed. So after some time . the ash is combustible fine fuel particle is escaped from bed and passed with flue gas. The particles are then collected
required to be drained out from the bed. High differential pressure across the bed indicates bed requires by a solid separator (cyclone separator) and circulated back into the furnace. This combustion process is
draining. For this, bed is having ash drain point. By opening this drain, ash along with some bed material called circulating fluidized bed (CFB).
is drained out which is removed latter. The drained material is at bed temperature. So it is required to cool
it before disposal. Most of the ash is collected at ESP as fly ash.
Economiser

Super heater

Cyclone
Economiser
v
Fuel Supply
Bed Coil

To Air heater

Fluidised air 4-1

supply Water wall
Header

Fig. 6.5 Atmospheric Fluidised Bed Combustor (AFBC) Boiler

Fig. 6.6 Circulating Fluidised Bed (CFBC) Boiler
The Bed Coil is immersed in the Fluidised bed when bed is in Fluidised condition (bed height
increases). Otherwise the coil is located over the bed at a height of around 50 cm. This coil acts as There are some advantages . in CFBC Boiler as compared to AFBC Boiler. These are listed
evaporator coil and cools down the bed temperature. Due to high erosive nature of bed material the bed below :
coil is prone to frequent failure. So, proper care is taken. Studding is made on the coil for this. Also studding
improves heat transfer surface. • Higher processing temperature because of high gas velocity through the system.
As the combustion takes place at lower temperature, formation of NOx is minimised. Some
• Lower combustion temperature can be achieved constantly, which results in minimal NOx formation.
limestone is supplied to the bed to eliminate formation of SO 3 .
CaCO3 = CaO + CO2 o The combustion air is supplied at lower pressure
CaO + SO2 + 1/2 02 = CaSO4 • Higher combustion efficiency.
The flue gas from furnace passes through Economiser and air heater. Air supplied by FD fan is
• Better turndown ratio.
heated at air heater. Starting burner is used to start the Boiler. By this burner bed temperature is increased
initially and then fuel supply started.
Circulating Fluidised Bed (CFBC) Boilers
In this fluidized bed principle the bed particles are suspended in a stream of upwardly flowing air 0 0 0
(60-70% of the total air), which enters from the bottom of the furnace through air distribution nozzles,
same as AFBC Boiler. The balance combustion air is admitted to furnace as secondary air. High Velocity
air is used in this case for fluidization of the bed. So some solid bed material along with some non


Fuel Handling System 67

FUEL HANDLING SYSTEM
7.1 Introduction
Different type of fuels are used in different Boilers for steam generation. Fuel is primary in- put
for a boiler. Waste heat recovery boiler (WHRB) of some process plant and Heat Recovery Steam Generator
(HRSG) of combined cycle power plant, do not use fuel. Steam is generated in this case by utilising the
heat of waste gas produced in some process or by some other means. Indirectly fuel is used at upstream of
Boiler to produce this hot gas.
Different fuels, like- Solid fuel, Liquid fuel and Gaseous fuels are used in Boiler. Handling of all
these three type of fuels are discussed in this chapter.
7.2 Handling Of Liquid Fuel
HSD, Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO), Furnace Oil (FO) and LSHS are used normally as fuel in oil fired
Boiler. The handling procedure of different oil is different. In the subsequent sections, handling procedure of
different liquid fuels are discussed.
7.2.1 Handling of HSD
Some small Boilers use HSD as fuel. These boilers are mostly package Boilers, having less
generating capacity. Normally less quantity of fuel is used in these Boilers. Also some boilers use HSD as
starting fuel.
HSD from oil suppliers is transported to the Boiler site by tankers by road. This oil is unloaded in
to a storage tank. Oil is pumped directly in to the Boiler through a filter unit and a flow meter. Oil pressure
Depending upon the requirement in the Boiler, oil flow is regulated through a regulating valve
provided at individual burner. Oil supply to the Boiler is cut off by an Isolating/ Trip valve, whenever
required to stop the Boiler or in case of Trip. By pass valve is provided across flow meter and filter unit, for
any maintenance at flow meter.
Compressed air is used to atomise HSD of the burner.
7.2.2 Handling of HFO, FO and LSHS
Some package Boilers and some medium size Boilers use HFO, F0 and LSHS as fuel. These oils
are very viscous. Oil is heated to make it less viscous, so that it can flow easily in the pipe line. So the
handling method of this type of oil is different than handling of HSD.
HFO, F0 and LSHS are transported to the Boiler site through Road or Rail. Special tankers are
used for this purpose. Storage tank is jacketed with steam coils to keep the oil hot, so that it can be
pumped. The oil pipe lines are heat traced. Strainers and pumps are also heat traced. This prevents loss of
heat and solidification of oil in any section of pipe and equipments. These tracers take care of radiation loss
of the heated oil line. For this, steam tracers and electrical tracers are run along with the oil pipe line. Traps
are provided to remove condensate from steam tracer line and oil heater. Entire oil pipe line is heat
insulated. Suitable draining facility is provided to drain out the oil line for maintenance.
Some time oil is■ pumped to Day tank once or twice a day. From the Day tank oil is pumped to
the Boiler.
From the storage tank or Day tank oil is pumped by a fuel transfer pump. Before feeding the oil
into Boiler, oil is heated and filtered. Normally, two Heaters and Two filter units are used with suitable
online change over valve.
Header oil pressure is maintained by regulating the return valve (HOPCV). When return valve is
closed, header pressure increases and by opening return valve header pressure decreases. Normally a
pneumatic control valve is placed at the pump return line to maintain header pressure.
Steam is used in the Oil heater. To control the temperature of oil, steam flow to the heater is
controlled through a control valve. After heating, the oil is filtered in a filter. One heater and one filter are
kept on service and other set is kept as stand by. They can be changed online with suitable changeover
arrangement. Heating Steam

in the line is maintained by the help of a control valve provided at the return line. To take care of overpressure,
Primary 'la Oil temperature control valve
relief valve is provided in the line. In some cases, oil is pumped to a small tank called as "Day Tank". Filter Final Filter

Heater Fuel Flmeter

$—]) Pressure Trip valve 3 way valve
control valve

Furnace

Atomising Steam

I,
Burner
Pressure Control
Valve
Fig. 7.1 HSD Fired Boiler
[66]


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Fuel Handling System 69

Fuel supply to the Boiler can be stopped by Oil Trip valve (HOTV): Any abnormality or trip
condition of Boiler, closes this HOTV. Oil Recirculation Valve (HORV) is used to re-circulate the oil to keep
oil pipe line in hot condition.
This HORV is a three way valve. When burners are in line, oil flow is from point 1 to point 2 as
shown in the picture. When burners are not in line, the oil flow is from point 1 to point 3. During this
condition oil circulates through the oil ring header.
One Oil control valve is provided at each burner to control the oil flow to that particular burner.
During any abnormality in that particular burner this valve closes to stop oil flow co that burner. Manual-
Isolating valve is provided for individual burner.
One flow meter is provided at the oil line to measure oil flow in to the Boiler.
In large Boilers there are more than one oil burner. Mostly steam is used for atomization of the oil at
burner. Suitable isolating valves are provided for each burner to isolate atomizing steam.
7.3 Handling Of Gaseous Fuel
As discussed earlier, some natural gas, obtained from Petroleum wells and some by product
gases like Blast furnace gas and Coke oven gas, are used in Boiler as fuel. Naphtha, produced in petroleum
Refinery, is mostly used in power Boilers. Natural gas/ Naphtha is transported to the Boiler site through pipe
line. In this case normally Boiler is placed nearer to the gas source. This gas storage tank is not like oil
storage tank. Roof of the tank is floating on the stored product, and sealing device is installed on the
peripheral space between roof and shell plate to prevent any leakage. This type of tank is called as floating
roof storage tank. Top portion of the tank is not fixed. It moves up and down according to the gas pressure
with mechanical arrangement. Constant pressure is maintained at the storage tank.
Like oil handling system gas handling system also has fuel trip valve and fuel regulating valve.
An orifice arrangement is done to measure the gas flow.
Blast furnace gas contains significant amount of dust. So before using it in Boiler, this gas is
cleaned at gas cleaning plant. In the process of gas cleaning, gas becomes moist (due to wet scrubbing
process). So before feeding this gas in to Boiler suitable arrangement is done to trap this moisture.
Some time the entire gas produced from the Blast furnace, is used in the Boiler. In some cases
the gas is stored in storage tank and used in Boiler as per requirement.
Like Blast furnace gas, coke oven gas is supplied to Boiler directly through pipe line. A storage tank
is provided to store the excess gas. Later on this stored gas is used when load is high.
7.4 Handling of Solid Fuel
Among the total fuel used for steam generation, solid fuel; particularly coal is the major fuel.
Most of the Thermal Power Plants use coal as fuel. Other solid fuels like- Wood, Bio mass, Baggase (Waste
of sugar cane after crushing at sugar pant), Municipal waste etc. are also used as fuel in Boiler.
Now days, in India small capacity Bio-mass Power Plants, using Bio mass as fuel, are coming.
We will discuss the handling of coal first and subsequently about other solid fuels.
7.4.1 Handling Of Coal
Coal beneficiary plant mainly contains Crushers, Screens, and Jigs etc. In coal washery rock and other ash
forming materials are separated from coal due to density difference between them. Coal beneficiation
ensures high quality coal to the plant.
This beneficiary coal is transported to the plant through Rail or Road. Coal is transported through
Rail when consumption is high. Rail wagons are unloaded at the plant at wagon tipplers and stacked in a
suitable area having draining facility. Coal transported by Road uses automatic hydraulic operated lift
Trucks. Coal is weighed at Weigh Bridge before unloading.
__Depending upon coal requirement, availability of coal, company policy to stock inventory and
transportation facility available, coal stock is maintained at the plant. Normally 30 days coal stock at plant
is comfortable to run a Boiler.
When coal comes in contact with atmosphere, oxidation takes place. This is called weathering
of coal. Also some time spontaneous burning of coal takes place due to this oxidation. So normally coal
is stored in heaps, so that the interior of the heap is not exposed to atmosphere. Small plants normally
stores coal in a covered storage area.
B) Coal preparation
From the storage area, coal is sent to boiler as per requirement. Before feeding coal to boiler,
coal is prepared suitably at coal preparation plant or coal handling plant.
At the coal preparation plant coal is crushed at crusher to proper size as per requirement of the
Boiler. This crushed coal is feed to vibrating screen for getting required size coal. Magnetic separators are
provided to separate magnetic material from coal. Then this coal is weighed in weigh feeder and stored in
a hopper called as storage bin, for use in Boiler.
Arrangement of coal preparation plant is shown below.
Coal feeding by pay loader 1 Reclaimer
— i Un Crushed Coal
s,t
Coal Crusher
Vibrating Screen
\I% Crushed Coal
0'

In India coal is classified in to various grades, depending upon the content of fixed carbon; ash (0) (o)
i, Weigh feeder
etc. Depending upon design of Boiler, different grade coals are used in different Boilers. Following activity
is performed in a coal handling plant. Magnetic
0 (() separator
A) Coal Transportation and Storage
Coal is mined from coal mines. This coal contains ash forming and sulpher bearing minerals,
Under size hooper
rock etc. So this coal, after mining is cleaned and sized properly. This is done at coal beneficiary plant or
coal washery. Major coal consumers have their own coal beneficiary plant preferably located at coal fields.
Fig. 7.3 Coal Preparation System Storage Bin


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

70 Fuel Handling System 71
For small boilers, where proper size coal is received by road, coal is feed directly to the coal
Open drying system
storage bin. Magnetic separator and weigh feeders are used to remove magnetic material and weigh coal
In this system, to dry coal and carry coal dust up to cyclone separator, high temperature flue gas,
before feeding to Boiler respectively.
taped from Economiser out let (before Air heater) is used. Coal dust is separated from this flue gas at
For in plant handling of coal following equipments are used.
cyclone separator. The separated coal dust is collected and stored in an intermediate bin.
• Pay loader / Dozzer After cyclone flue gas passes through a dust collector, where-remaining coal dust is trapped.
• Stacker/ reclaimer The coal dust free gas is then sent to flue gas path (after Air heater).
• Belt conveyer
• Screw conveyer
• Bucket elevator
• Weigh feeder ,
To avoid dust pollution at coal handling area, wet suppression method and bag house filters are used.
From the coal storage bin coal is feed to stoker fired, Chain Grate fired and FBC boiler directly
through weigh feeder and coal feeder. For pulverized coal fired boiler this coal is further pulverized as
discussed below.
C) Coal pulverization
For pulverized coal fired Boilers, coal is feed to pulveriser units from the coal storage bin. Pulverized
system is classified as Central system and Individual system.
In central system coal is pulverized and stored in a central bin. From this central bin coal is
supplied to each burner through pipe line. In individual system each burner is connected with its own
pulveriser.
Individual System
Individual system is also divided in to two types i.e. — closed drying system and open'drying
system.
Close drying system
As shown in the picture, coal from storage bin is feed to the pulveriser mill through a coal feeder.
Depending upon the boiler load, feeding rate to the mill is adjusted. Hot primary air is given to the mill to
dry the coal and to carry pulverized coal in the feeding pipe up to burner. Fig. 7.5 Individual open drying pulverising System with intermediate bin

The fuel stored in intermediate bin is transported to burner by the help of hot air supplied by FD
fan. This air acts as primary air.
It is clear from the above discussion that, in the closed drying system, primary air is used for
Raw Coal Bin drying, carrying and support burning. But in case of open drying system coal is dried by the help of flue gas.
~Secondary air
Carrying and burning is done by primary air. In open drying system, coal is dried with high temperature gas,
so the quality of fuel improves. But in this case some coal dust passes through dust collector to atmosphere.

Furnace Central System

Feeder In this system all the equipments used in Individual system are used. But the capacity of these
equipments is higher, as one system is used for all the burners. The coal dust after cyclone (as discussed in
open dried system) is stored in a central bin. From this bin, fuel is supplied to individual burner with the help
of primary air. In this case each burner do not have separate pulveriser mill. So the capacity of the mill and
other related equipments is more and operates at optimum level.
Fig. 7.4 Individual close drying pulverising System


72 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

7.4.2 Handling of other Solid Fuels

Some solid fuel other than coal is used as fuel in Boiler. Now a day we can find lot of biomass
and Municipality solid waste fired Boilers. In sugar plants Baggase, the fibrous co-product produced after
crushing the sugar cane at the mill, is used as fuel in Boiler to get process steam.
Municipal solid waste (MSW) typically consists of household waste and light commercial, industrial
wastes. Incoming trucks deposit the refuse into pits, where crane mix these refuse and remove any bulky or
large non-combustible items. The refuse storage area can-be maintained under-lower than atmospheric----
pressure in order to prevent odor. Crane feed the refuse to the combustor charging hopper to feed into
boiler. The waste is sized properly as per requirement before feeding in to Boiler.
Biomass consists of organic residues from plants and animals which are obtained primarily from
8.1 Introduction
harvesting and processing of agricultural and forestry crops. These are used as fuel in Boiler. Examples of
some of the biomass residues that are utilised in Boilers are: forest slash, urban wood waste, agricultural For combustion of fuel, oxygen is required. Oxygen is obtained from atmospheric air. As discussed
wastes, etc. The components of biomass include cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, lipids, proteins, simple earlier, certain theoretical quantity of air is required to burn a fixed quantity of fuel (schichemetric mixture).
sugars, starches, water, hydrocarbons, ash and other compounds. If more air is supplied to the Boiler heat loss takes place. Also less air leads to incomplete combustion of
fuel. So it is an important task for an Engineer to decide the exact quantity of air to optimise heat loss and
In India normally Bark, Rice husk and cane trash are used in bio mass power plants as fuel.
complete combustion of fuel. Air used for burning of fuel in the Boiler furnace is heated prior to supply in
These materials are transported to the plant through trucks or tractor and stored in a storage area. Mostly
to Boiler. This preheated air is supplied to the Boiler as primary and secondary air. In most cases forced
these are feed along with bagasse to the Boiler.
draught fan (FD fan) is used to supply air in to the Boiler. ID fan is used to evacuate the hot flue gas from
Bagasse is a well known solid biomass fuel and used widely for power generation and process the Boiler.
steam generation. It is collected from sugar mill. Bagasse is the fibrous residue of the cane stalk left after
All the related topics of air path are discussed in this chapter one by one.
crushing and extraction of juice. It consists of fibers, water and relatively small quantities of soluble solids
- mostly sugar. The average composition of mill-run bagasse is :
Fiber — 48% Fresh air from atmosphere is supplied to the Boiler by FD fan. As the fan handles cold air, so the
Moisture — 50% fan size is small as compared to ID fan, which handles hot flue gas.
Soluble solids — 2% FD fan may be radial or axial flow type. Fans may be classified as centrifugal fan or axial-
flow fan. In centnf ugal fan, air flows through an inlet pipe or duct to the centre or eye of the impeller, which
Calorific value (CV) of bagasse is given by the formula: forces it radially outward into the volute or spiral casing from which it flows to a discharge pipe or duct. In
Net CV =18 309 - 31.1 S - 207.3 W - 196.1 A (expressed in kJ/kg) case of an axial-flow fan, with the runner & guide vanes in a cylindrical housing, air passes through the
runner without changing its distance from the axis of rotation. In general, an axial-flow fan is suitable for a
larger flow rate with relatively less pressure and a centrifugal fan for comparatively lesser flow rate and a large
S = soluble solids % pressure.
W = moisture % Important parts of a fan are:
0
A = ash % Impeller
Its bluk density is around 150 kg /m3 . It is feed to the Boiler through suitable means. Normally ❑ Hub
a scraper type drag chain is used to discharge the bagasse in multiple discharge points of the Boiler. All the
• Shaft
bagasse produced may not be used in the Boiler. Also for continuous operation of boiler itis required to be
stored for future off season, as sugar cane is crushed seasonly. The same drag chain is used to store the • Casing
bagasse at the storage area. During requirement the stored bagasse can be reclaimed and feed to the Boiler
o Bearing
with the help of bagasse return carrier. Bagasse feeders are used to feed required amount of bagasse to the
Boiler. Prime mover of fan is normally an electrical motor with fixed or variable speed.
Dampers are provided at the suction and discharge side of the duct.
Some times bagasse is stored as bagasse bales. Bagasse is pressed in to blocks called as bales.These
During starting of fan, the motor takes high current. To limit the loading of the fan the suction
bales are prepared by baling press.
and discharge side dampers are kept closed.


Air Path 75
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
The static pressure of the system consists of pressure loss in ducts, fittings, air pre heater etc.
This static pressure varies with air flow. The curve of static pressure to flow variation is called as resistance
curve. Resistance varies with velocity and quantity of air flow.

Flue gas
Static
Pressure
Secondary
Furnace Air

—^ Air heater Resistance curve

Primary
air
rs.
To chimney Air flow
Fig. 8.2 Resistance Curve of fan
Fig. 8.1 Boiler Air Path
8.3 Air flow control
In a Boiler where both ID and FD fans are used (balanced draft), ID fan is started first before FD
Depending upon load variation on the Boiler, fuel supply and hence air for combustion is varied.
fan. Some Boiler has two FD and two ID fans. This type of boiler is called as multi pass Boiler. Depending
So it is always required to vary air flow in a Boiler depending upon the load. Air flow can be controlled by
upon the load condition, both the fans share load. The condition of the fan is to be regularly monitored to two methods. These are
ensure continuous trouble free operation.
• Speed control
Damper is provided at both suction and discharge side of the fan. These dampers are operated
Pneumatically, Hydraulically or Electrically. In the suction side of the fan, before damper, wire 'mesh is • Damper control
provided to restrict the entry of large size particles-to the fan. Discharge of the fan is connected to Boiler Both these methods have merits and demerits. These are disused in brief below.
with air duct. The impeller of the fan is required to be cleaned regularly. 8.3.1 Speed control
Following steps are followed while starting a FD fan. In this method, speed of the fan is adjusted through a variable speed motor. Now a day, FD fans
are driven by variable frequency (VFD) drive. By adjusting the frequency through VFD, speed of the.
• Check no maintenance job is going on. induction motor can be varied. By varying speed of the fan, air flow can be varied.
• Ensure power supply is available.
Static
• Put the fan in sharing or independent mode. Pressure
o Check lubrication in the bearings are available.
• Ensure suction and discharge damper in closed condition.
• Check the smooth operation of the dampers from control room.
• Check the condition of suction side air mesh. Resistance
R
• Ensure the inspection doors at the air duct are closed.
• Start the fan and check current, sound and vibration.
• Open the discharge damper fully.
• Open the suction damper as per requirement.
Qs
The pressure at the suction side of the fan is slightly less than atmospheric, due to suction of-the fan. Air flow
Discharge side pressure is more than atmospheric pressure. Pressure of the air is measured as mm of water quantity '
column (mmwc). Due to bends in the duct and restriction etc. there is always pressure drop in the air path. Fig. 8.3 Speed Control method


Air Path '77

76 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

rpm ° Stabilizes fuel ignition

As shown, to increase air flow from QA to QB, the speed of the fan is to be increased from NA

to NB rpm. The resistance curve remains same. Only fan characteristic curve changes. • Greater load flexibility
This type of control is very efficient. Variable frequency drive is an energy efficient drive. Lot of Also hot air is used for coal drying and conveying in pulverised Boiler.
electrical power can be saved in this method. Also the regulation is very smooth. Air flow can be adjusted
Air is preheated in an equipment called as Air heater. Air heater is placed at the exit end of the
to very close limit.
flue gas path, after Economiser.
8.3.2 Damper Control There are two types of air heater.
Inthis method, fanspeed remains constantthroughout theoperation,Resistance of the system -Re- cuperative air heater
is varied by adjusting damper position.
In the previous case, to increase air flow the resistance curve was constant. But in this case, to • Regenerative air heater
increase the air flow, the resistance of the system is required to be decreased by opening the damper. So the Regenerative air heater has a slow-turning rotor that is packed with closely spaced heat transfer
resistance curve in this case changes. surfaces, similar to an automobile radiator. The rotor turns in the flue gas streams, picking up heat from the
flue gas and transferring it to the combustion air.
Static Recuperative air heater is generally called static air preheater. This is a shell and tube type heat
Resistance RA
Pressure
exchanger. The flue gas flows inside the tubes and air flows at the shell side.
Normally recuperative air heater is used in most of the Boilers.
Due to very low heat transfer co- efficient between flue gas and air, the heat transfer surface of
the air heater is large.
Resistance
RB

Flue gas
Intel'

Hot air
Air flow outlet
Fig. 8.4 Damper Control Method
S
As shown in the figure, to increase air flow from QA to QB the resistance curve is to be lowered
from curve RA to curve RB.
As told earlier the dampers are operated Pneumatically, Hydraulically or Electrically.
Damper operation is not so smooth as compared to speed control. The power cylinder of the
damper in case of pneumatic or hydraulic operated damper requires special attention.
Cold Air_,_0.
In both the cases, air flow controller is put in auto mode, so that as per requirement speed of the Inlet
fan or position of the damper can be controlled automatically.
1 %.
8.4 Air Heater
Earlier it is told ; air supplied for combustion in Boiler is supplied by FD fan and is pre heated at Flue gas
air heater before supplying to Boiler combustion chamber. outlet
Air preheating is helpful in following ways.
o Improves combustion
o Increases thermal efficiency
o Decreases fuel consumption
Fig. 8.5 Air Heater
• Increases steam generation capacity


78 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

Air Path
79
A very simple air heater is shown in the figure. This is a single flow type air heater. To get optimal
In this method, air is pre heated by low temperature steam. Combination of steam air heater
air velocity, baffles are placed. In some cases split flow type air heater is used. Here air is distributed in to
and air heater is called as combined air heating. Low temperature corrosion at the air heater can be
two or more separate flows. Air boxes are required, where there is change in the direction of air flow. avoided in this arrangement.
Cold air from the FD fan enters to the air heater at the exhaust end of flue gas and leays at the
inlet end of flue gas (cross flow). The air flow path is partitioned to get optimal air velocity. Flue gas flows
in single flow or split flow scheme, depending upon the Boiler capacity.
The air got heated and the flue gas got cold gradually. There is some difference always in the
temperatu re between air and flue gas at the inlet and exhaust end of the air heater. This difference is called
as temperature gradient.
Due to more moisture content in flue gas compared to air, the gradient is more at exhaust end
than gas inlet end.
Tgas in
/ ,',"z
Temperature Cold air
Hot air
in
uin out
1 /irrrrr

//1/

//.././/.,,///

Condensate out

Length of air heater Fig. 8.7 Steam Air heater

Fig. 8.6 Temperature Gradiant in Air heater

In the steam heater, steam atl2O°C to 150 °C is used. Steam flows in the coil and air passes
over these coils and get heated. The steam after cooling is condensed. This condensate is collected and
Heat transfer is given by equitation
Q = UA(AT) M reused in Boiler. The steam used here is normally of low pressure and obtained from the Turbine bleed or
Where process waste.
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient
8.5 Primary Air and Secondary Air
A = Heat transfer area
(LT) M = Log mean temperature difference Oxygen is required for combustion and it is obtained from atmospheric air. Total air supplied to
Flue gas temperature towards the outlet of air heater is less, so there is a chance of corrosion the Boiler combustion chamber is divided in to two parts.
there. The dew point of sulphuric acid is around 140°C. The exact dew point is calculated as per Verhoof
equation'. As per this equation, the dew point of sulphuric acid depends upon the partial pressure of SO3 The first part is called as primary air. Primary air supports the flame and takes part in the initial
gas and H2O (water vapor), present in the flue gas. combustion process.
SO3 gas, which is formed .due to combustion of sulpher present in the fuel, reacts with moisture The second part is called as secondary air. This air is admitted in to furnace to create turbulence
in the flue gas and forms sulphuric acid. So, mostly the gas out let end of the air heater is corroded. During and to ensure complete combustion of the fuel.
low load this temperature is very less. So chance of acid formation is more in this condition. To avoid this
situation, some time steam coil pre heater is used. In case of pulverised coal fired Boiler this primary air helps to carry pulverised coal in to the
Boiler. In FBC Boiler, primary air is required to carry fuel and secondary air is suppliedover the bed. In case
8.4.1 Steam air heater
of oil and gas fired Boilers primary air support the flame and secondary ait'isused for complete combustion
As discussed earlier, the flue gas temperature at exit end of air heater is low as cold air enters at
this end. This end is prone to sever corrosion due to sulphuric acid dew point. So it is required to heat the of fuel. In stoker and grate fired Boilers, primary air is supplied below the fuel bed.
air to some extent before entering in to air heater. Steam coil air pre heater (SCAPH) is the best solution in
this case.


80 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Air Path 81'

Excess air requirement for different Boiler is not same. This is mentioned below for understanding.
Flue gas

Secondary
air -4" Type of Boiler Excess air Oxygen percentage
(by volume)
Gas fired 5%-10% 1%-2%
Fuel - -
Secondary
Oil fired 10% -15% 2% - 3%
air
Pulverised coal fired 15% - 20% 3% - 3.5%
Stoker fired 20% - 30% 3.5%- 5%
Primary air

Fig. 8.8 Primary and Secondary air

8.6 Excess Air

In chapter 3, it was discussed that- to burn certain amount of fuel some theoretical air is
required. It is given by the formula
4.35[ (8/3 C+8H 2+ S) — 02] kg
This is the theoretical air required. But in practice some more air or extra air is supplied to ensure
complete combustion of fuel.
If more air is supplied, then there will be cooling effect and loss of efficiency. Also if less air is
supplied, then complete combustion will not take place. Combustible will escape from the stack. Again
there will be loss in efficiency. So it is required to adjust the air supply in such a way that complete
combustion will take place without much extra or excess air.
Excess air supplied, can be measured by oxygen analyser. Oxygen analyser measures the oxygen
percentage in flue gas. It should be monitored online for better control. Excess air monitoring is done for
efficient use of fuel.
Some time CO2 and CO present in the flue gas is measured. The flue gas should contain CO2
not CO.
It is to be kept in mind that "excess air" and "excess oxygen" are not same. Air has roughly 21%
oxygen by volume. So 100% excess air is approximately equal to 10.5% oxygen remaining at boiler exhaust
stack. .
Excess air percentage can be calculated by the formula
Excess air percentage = 02 % in flue gas x 100 / (21- O 2 %d)
For 4% oxygen, excess air is — 4 x 100 / ( 21— 4) = 23.5 %

9.1 Introduction
In a Boiler, heat produced by combustion of fuel, is transferred to the feed water and steam is
generated. So, feed water is the medium to receive heat. Heat transfer takes place from hot flue gas to Feed
water. If it is a water tube Boiler, flue gas moves outside the Boiler tube in which feed water flows. In case
of smoke tube Boiler, hot gas flows inside the tube which is surrounded by feed water. To extract heat from
flue gas feed water flows continuously in the Boiler. As steam is taken out from the Boiler continuously, so
it is required to pump feed water continuously into the Boiler.
In this chapter it is discussed how feedwater circulates in Boiler. All the related topics pertaining
to feed water path is discussed in this chapter.
In the fig. below a standard feed water path is shown. Mostly it is common for all boilers.
Boiler Drum
Economiser
Feed pump
Feed control
valve
Evaporator
Fig. 9.1 Normal Feed Water Path of a Boiler
9.2 Deaerator
As discussed , in previous chapter, Boiler feed water is free from suspended solids, minerals and
dissolved gasses. Mostly DM water is used in Boiler as feed water. In case of steam turbine power plant, the
steam used to drive turbine is condensed in a condenser and then this condensate is used again as feed
water. So the feed water path is a closed loop path. Only some make up is required to make up blow down
and leakage losses. Feed water used in Boiler should be free from any dissolved gases, and oxygen. For this,
Deaerator is used.
Main function of a deaerator is to deaerate or remove dissolved gasses (degasification) from feed
water. Also it serves the purpose of storage tank from where feed water is pumped in to the Boiler. It is the
place where feed water is preheated before entering in to Boiler. To preheat feed water, low pressure steam
from process is utilized. LP dosing also done here for removing dissolved oxygen from the water.
There are many types of deaerator. Commonly used, direct contact (mixing), tray type Deaerator
is discussed here. [82]
. Feed Water Path 83
9.2.1 Tray type, Direct contact Deaerator
In this type of Deaerator, water enters from the top. It is distributed through nozzles to the
perforated trays as shown in the figure below. Water falls in to the bottom storage tank from the deaerator
tower in small droplets. Low pressure steam is supplied to the steam distributor. This steam moves up in the
deaerator column and come in contact with droplets of feed water. Feed water is heated up to the boiling
point, corresponding to deaerator pressure. Due to formation of small water droplets, the contact surface
exposed to steam increases, which result complete removal of dissolved gases.
-* Vent
Level control valve
Feed water
Steam Distributer Pressure control valve
4-- Auxilary steam
Level gauge
- - - - - - - / — Heating steam
Drain
Deaerated Feed Water
to Feed Pump
Fig. 9.2 Tray Type, Direct Contact Deaerator
By heating the water, dissolving capacity of gases in the water decreases. So dissolved gasses are
removed from the water easily. These removed gases, along with some non condensing vapor present in
steam, is vented to atmosphere through a vent. The vent is fitted with an orifice and a by pass valve. The
deaerated water is collected in a tank called as storage tank. If still there is some dissolved gas which is not
removed at deaerator column, due to large surface area of heated water, these gasses are removed . here.
Initially when feed water is at lower temperature, heating steam is used to heat the water.
Level gauge is fitted in the deaerator to indicate storage tank level. Level is maintained through
a level control valve and deaerator pressure is maintained through a pressure control valve, by controlling
the flow of steam to the deaerator. One safety valve is provided to take care of accidental over pressure.
For maintenance of the deaerator it is required to drain out water from storage tank. A drain with suitable
Isolating valve is provided. For thermal expansion of the deaerator one end of the storage tank is fixed
through slotted fixing arrangement.
When the Boiler feed pump is in operation, low pressure is created at suction end of the pump.
There is chance of steaming of feed water; as this is at higher temperature. This is called as cavitation.
If pressure at suction point of the feed pump falls below saturated pressure, this situation may arise. To
avoid this situation, deaerator is placed at a higher level.
If deaerator pressure is 3 kg/cm 2 and deaerator is placed at an elevation of 20 meter, then the
feed pump suction pressure will be approximately 5 kg/cm 2.

Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
84
9.2.2 LP Dosing
As discussed earlier, deaerator is used for degasification, or to remove dissolved gasses, mainly
CO2 and oxygen. Another process called as deoxygenation is adopted for removal of oxygen by chemical
) is used for deoxygenation.
techniques. Chemical such as sodium sulphite (Na 2SO3 ) and Hydrazine (N 2H4
Presence of dissolved oxygen in feed water is highly objectionable as it acts as depolarizer and is
responsible for corrosion of metal tube.
0 2 +4e+2H 20 = 40H
Fe2+ + 20H- = Fe(OH) 2
Sodium sulphite reacts with oxygen, present in the feed water and forms sodium sulphate.
2Na2SO3 + 02 = 2Na2SO4
Sulphite is an inorganic oxygen scavenger. It increases dissolved solids of the feed water, which
can be controlled by blow down. If feed water temperature is high, less sulphite is required.
Hydrazine is preferred by most of the Boiler engineers, as no solid residue is formed in this
2H4.HC1)
process. Hydrazine is available as Hydrazine Hydrate (N 2H4. H2 0), Hydrazine Hydrochloride (N
and Hydrazine sulphite (N 2H4.H2SO4 ) form. Chemical reaction of Hydrazine with dissolved oxygen in feed
water is given as
N2H4 + 02 = N2 + H2O
Nitrogen gas is formed in this reaction which is not harmful.
Hydrazine reacts with oxygen at temperature greater than 100°C and PH more than 7. So
normally Hydrazine is added to the feed water at Deaerator storage tank. Some Engineer prefers to add it
at the Boiler feed pump suction. A set of dosing pump is required to dose Hydrazine. As the dosing is done
at low pressure side of the feed water, so it is called as LP dosing. The pipe line and the dosing tank are
made of stainless steel.
9.3 Boiler Feed pump
This is a critical equipment, used in Boiler house. Boiler feed pump supply deaerated and LP
dosed feed water to Boiler. This pump has to pump feed water in to Boiler drum against Boiler drum
pressure. So delivery pressure of this pump is higher than Boiler drum pressure. Normally feed pump is a
multistage pump, driven by Electrical motor or Turbine. In large Boiler where steam generation capacity is
more, more feed water is required to be supplied. In this case Turbo feed pump is preferred. Also turbo feed
pump is having another merit. During non availability of power, turbo feed pump can pump feed water in
to Boiler, utilizing steam of the Boiler. So starvation can be avoided.
During starting of Boiler, motor driven feed pump is started and after steam generation at Boiler,
feed pump is switched over to turbo driven one.
Feed pumps are kept in hot stand by. In case of failure of one pump, stand by pump is started
automatically. If water will not be supplied to the Boiler in running condition, the tubes will be subjected to
higher temperature and it may deformed, rupture or explosion may take place. So in case, Boiler feed
pumps are not available, Boiler is to be stopped immediately.
Feed Water Path 85
From Dearator
To Economiser
i
Suction >To Deaerator
Stainer
+—Automatic
recirculation
valve (ARC)
Balancing line
L to Deaerator
L - i
Motor
Fig. 9.3 Boiler feed pump
Suction line of the Boiler feed pump is connected to deaerator storage tank through an isolation
valve and a strainer. The strainer restricts entry of foreign material in to the pump. To monitor the chocking
condition of the strainer, differential pressure across the strainer is measured. When differential pressure
(DP) is more it indicates the strainer is chocked. Two mechanical seals are provided at both ends of the
pump to avoid leakage from the shaft end. These mechanical seals are cooled with help of external cooling
water, directly or indirectly. As Boiler feed pump pumps hot deaerated water, so its shaft also become hot.
Cooling water is required to cool bearings of the pump.
The discharge line of the pump has a pneumatic or motor operated control valve.
A non return valve (NRV) is provided to restrict back flow of feed water. When there is no pressure in the
discharge line, the pump is started with discharge valve in closed position.
A disc is fitted to discharge end of the shaft of the pump which is acted on by discharge pressure
of water to counter act axial force of the impeller. This is called balance disc. The balancing line is
connected back to deaerator to take out the liquid leaking from balance disc. Also the feed pump is having
a minimum circulation line. This minimum circulation ensures minimum discharge of liquid during closing
of discharge valve. This line is also connected back to deaerator. Minimum recirculation is done through
Automatic recirculation valve (ARC).
For trouble free, reliable operation of the feed pump, pump vibration, bearing temperature,
pump casing temperature and pressure are checked regularly.
Boiler feed pump is a critical equipment of any Boiler. So, proper care is to be taken during
starting and normal operation of the pump. Following steps may be followed during starting of the pump.
• Ensue power is available to the feed pump.
• Check availability of cooling water for gland cooling and bearing cooling.
• Ensure the suction valve is in open condition and discharge valve is in closed position.


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Feed Water Path

9.4.1 Single element level controller

• Keep balancing line and minimum circulation line valve in open condition.
• Check suction pressure of the pump. In this type of controller, only drum level is measured. When drum level is less than desired ievel,
then control valve opens and allows feed water to the Boiler.
• Check bearing lubricating oil level normal. , ^ Steam
• Start the feed pump and observe any abnormal sound or vibration.
• Check bearing and pump casing temperature.
• If everything found normal open the discharge valve slowly.
• After discharge valve is fully opened, start taking feed water in to Boiler.
• Put the stand by pump in hot stand by.
Single element controller
9.4 Boiler Drum, Level control :
In a Boiler, feed water is evaporated continuously and the steam generated is taken out. So it is Boiler Drum
required to pump that much water in to Boiler to keep water level in the Boiler within safe limit. By help of
t Feed water from
Boiler feed pump
Boiler feed pump this level is maintained in steam drum. In this drum both steam and water exists. Fig. 9.5 Single element level controller
Some Boiler is having one drum and some has two drums (bi- drum Boiler). In bi drum Boiler This type of controller is used in small Boilers where load fluctuation is less.
one is steam drum and other one is called as mud drum. Mud drum is placed at the bottom portion of the Level of the drum is disturbed for some other reasons also. If drum pressure decreases due to
Boiler. Evaporator tubes ar• ed between these two d=Steam Drum sudden steam drawal, then water swells and level becomes high. When drum pressure increases due to
sudden load throw, then shrinking takes place and drum level becomes low. Single element controller is
unable to compensate this effect as it only operates depending upon drum level and initiate action accordingly.
9.4.2 Two element level controller
In this type of controller the swelling and shrinking effect of Boiler drum is taken care. Pressure
of the drum varies according to steam flow. If load increases, then steam flow increases and drum pressure
Raiser Dow drops. In two element controller this effect is compensated by measuring steam flow along with drum level.
Steam flow
meter
--6I{ 0- Steam

(a) Single Drum (a) Bi - Drum Drum Level transmitter

_,
iB

Fig. 9.4 Single drum and Bi-Drum Boiler Two element

Once through boiler does not have steam or mud drum. So drum level control is not required in Controller
Boiler Drum
these boilers. ® Feed water from
To maintain drum level in the drum type Boiler, drum level controller is used. This controller Feed control valve Boiler feed pump
controls opening and closing of feed control valve and hence flow of feed water to the Boiler. Fig. 9.6 Two element level controller
There are three types of level controllers. These are Steam flow will give incorrect feed back if it is not compensated suitably according to steam
Single element controller. pressure and Temperature. Flow of steam has direct relationship with pressure and temperature. So in most
of the cases measurement of steam flow is compensated by pressure and temperature.
• Two element controller. This type of controller is used in medium size Boiler with moderate load variation.
• Three element controller. 9.4.3 Three element level controller,
When steam is taken out from Boiler, drum level of the Boiler drops. Automatically signal is This type of controller is used widely. This controller can take care of any type of Boiler and any.
given to the feed control valve to allow that much water so that previous level can be maintained. type of load variation.
Feed control valve receive signal from level controller. Control valve is normally pneumatic operated. Normally in this case the feed water flow and steam flow are pressure and temperature
Function of different level controllers is discussed one by one. compensated.


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Feed Water Path 89

88
It is found, by decreasing exhaust flue gas temperature by 16°C, Boiler efficiency increases by
1%. Also by increasing feed water temperature by 6°C, Boiler efficiency increases by 1%. By help of
Economiser, exhaust flue gas temperature can be decreased and feed water temperature can be increased.
If air heater is used in the Boiler, then after Economiser, hot flue gas enters in to air heater. The temperature
drop is permissible to such an-extent that, flue gas temperature does not come down below dew point.
It would be more uneconomical if we would design to drop flue gas temperature without
--7 t
Economiser, at the Boiler it self, for generation of steam. In Economiser the heat transfer is more due to

I ++ + Three ele menf —- high temperature difference between feed water and hot gas. The Economiser heating surface is around
)
iI Controller
i 25% to 40% of the Boiler heating surface. As the sensible heat of water increases by the help of Economiser
Boiler Drum Feed water from so steam generation can be made quicker. Normally feed water temperature is increased close to saturation
)iH—A' 4
Boiler feed pump
Feed water Feed control temperature corresponding to Boiler drum. Difference between flue gas out let and feed water inlet temperature
flow meter valve is around 40-50 °C.
Fig. 9.7 Three element level controller
There is significant pressure drop at Economiser. So the feed pump should be capable to overcome
In two element controller, controller does not consider how much feed water is entering in to this pressure drop to feed water in to Boiler drum. Inlet pressure of the feed water at Economiser is more
Boiler. So the controller action is not smooth. An ideal controller should take in to account how much feed than that of out let of Economiser due to pressure drop.
water is flowing to the Boiler, so that further corrective action can be initiated.
Boiler feed water from feed pump is used for final steam temperature control (attemperation).
Some time this flow is also considered in three element controller for smooth functioning.
Out let header
9.5 Feed control station
We came to know, feed wafer from Boiler feed pump is sent to Boiler through feed control valve.
Normally there are two control valves. One is for low load and another is for higher load. One manual by
pass valve is also provided for emergency.
Manual operated valve Inlet
Header
Flue gas out
Control valve - 1
Fig. 9.9 Economiser
^ To boiler
feed water Normally small size tubes are used for Economiser. Some time, finned tubes are used to increase
Non return
from Boiler Control valve - 2 valve the effective heating surface. There are two types of Economiser.
feed pump
• Boiling or steaming type.
N N
Fig. 9.8 Feed control station • Non- boiling or non-steaming type.
In some Boiler both the control valves are capable for 100% load. Any one is selected for In non boiling type Economiser, feed water temperature is less than saturation temperature
operation and another is kept stand by. Control valves are provided with two manual isolation valves at corresponding to Economiser pressure. And in case of steaming Economiser, feed water temperature is
more than saturated temperature corresponding to Economiser pressure.
both sides for maintenance flexibility.
The area where these valves are located is named as feed control station. Mostly this section is As shown in the figure, Economiser consists of series of tubes connected between two headers.
kept nearer to Boiler. Flue gas passes over these tubes and heat transfer takes place. One vent is provided at the upper header of
Economiser for air venting during initial filling. Lower header is connected to feed control valve and the
9.6 Economiser upper header is connected to steam drum.
Economiser is a heat exchanger which utilizes heat of exhaust flue gas from the Boiler to increase
In Economiser, low temperature corrosion takes place particularly at the cold end.
feed water temperature. As the name suggest, Economiser is used to utilise the fuel economically or make the
It is to be ensured during operation that the cold end temperature does not drop below acid dew point
Boiler economical. ,Hot exhaust flue gas from Boiler, which would have gone to atmosphere, is used to
(140 °C).
increase the efficiency of Boiler. This is a heat exchanger in which flue gas flows in a shell, arranged with water
tubes. Heat of flue gas is utilized to increase the temperature of water to increase sensible heat of water.


Feed Water Path

Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant 91
Where
9.7 Evaporator H = Height of water level in the Boiler drum
Feed water from Economiser enters to the Boiler drum. Water temperature is still less than Pc = Density of water
saturated temperature (by around 25 °C). Some more heat is to be added to it for steam formation. PH = Density of steam water mixture.
This heat is added at evaporator and steam is formed there. Evaporator tubes are mostly placed at
This driving force has to overcome the resistance of down comer and raiser tubes.
radiation and convection zone of Boiler. Feed water circulates in these tubes naturally due to difference in
A
density of hot and cold water. Water, from the drum come down to bottom distributor through down corner
tubes. From this bottom distributor water is distributed to raiser tubes, normally placed at furnace wall
(water wall) or front portion of bank tubes at the convective zone. Here water gain heat and moves upward—-
to the drum. In this course steam is formed and collected at the drum. Driving
In single drum Boiler, down corners are connected to the bottom distributor header and distributed Head
to raisers and water wall tubes. In case of bi drum Boiler, both drums are connected through a ban k of
down corner and raiser tubes. Also from the lower drum water is distributed to water wall.

Boiler Pressure

Fig. 9.12 Driving Head II

The driving force depends upon Boiler pressure. When pressure increases, density of steam water
4- mixture increases. At critical pressure, density of water is equal to density of steam water mixture. So net
Flue gas driving head becomes zero and natural circulation stops. At that condition forced circulation is required.
®—- Steam generation at evaporator tubes is not same always. Depend: 'non the Boiler load (heat
input) and circulation ratio, it varies always.
Circulation ratio is the ratio between weight of water entering to 111e down corner to the weight
of steam leaving the circuit.
9.7.1 Water wall
As the name suggests, in water wall, water tubes are arranged around the Boiler furnace. These
tubes are placed in such a way that they form a gas tight wall. In the furnace openings (manholes, burner
Fig. 9.10 Arrangement of Evaporator tubes ports), these tubes are arranged suitably.
As discussed earlier, density difference between cold and hot water is the driving force for natural There are different types of water wall depending upon the type of tube arrangement. These are
circulation in evaporator tubes. Thermal head created, makes water circulating in Boiler. Other than • Bare tube
density difference, this thermal head depends upon resistance of the tube and Boiler pressure also.
• Finned tube
Boiler Drum
• Welded or rectangular finned tube
• Bare tube with inter tubular space filled with building up material.
Now a days factory fabricated membrance panels are used widely. Water tubes are welded
through fines to form a wall like structure called as membrance panel. At the bottom portion of furnace the
Raiser water wall is bent to make ash collection easier. The water wall is terminated to lower and upper header.

Insulation

4/gf/4/f/4.0
Aluminum
Cladding
7

Fig. 9.11 Head Created in Natural Circulation Finns Wall tube

Net driving head of circulation in a Boiler is given by
Fig. 9.13 Water wall (Memberance panel)
F = H(PC — PH)

92 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
Water wall is insulated by insulating material at the atmosphere end to minimise radiation loss.
Some time refractory faced water wall is used as shown in the figure.
Wall tubes
Refractory Material
Fig. 9.14 Refractory faced water wall
In once through Boiler there is no drum. So the natural circulation of water does not take place.
Feed water from Boiler feed pump enters in to the Boiler directly. It circulates through so many parallel
paths. Total steaming process take place in these tubes and collected at a header and taken out.
In this Boiler, water walls are arranged around the Boiler furnace. For uniform heating, tubes are
sectionalized. These tubes are either arranged horizontally or vertically.
9.8 Phosphate Dosing
Phosphate dosing is also called as HP dosing. This chemical dosing is done at the Boiler drum.
Pressure of Boiler drum is high. So this dosing is called as High pressure or HP dosing. This is the internal
treatment of Boiler water. Main aim of internal treatment is to precipitate impurities present in boiler water
to harmless salts or sludge.
As discussed earlier, Trisodium Phosphate (Na 3PO4 ), Disodium Phosphate(Na2 PO4) and
Monosodium Phosphate(NaPO 4 ) are used in Boiler for dosing. These chemicals are also called as
orthophosphates. Trisodium Phosphate (TSP) is highly alkaline. Disodium phosphate is less alkaline and
Monosodium Phosphate is slightly acidic.
There may be very negligible quantity of calcium and magnesium salts in feed-water, but due to
continuous evaporation of water, concentration of these salts increase in Boiler water. Presence of calcium
and magnesium salt forms hard scale in the Boiler tube. Particularly calcium (calcii im carbonate, calcium
sulphate, calcium silicate) is highly prone to scale formation.
The precipitation is high normally at high Boiler water PH (> 10.5). Phosphate reacts with trace
of calcium to form less sticky, loose and non adherent sludge instead of hard scale. This sludge remains in
Boiler water in suspended condition and then removed from Boiler through blow down. Normally salts like
tri calcium phosphate (Ca3 {PO4 } 2) and hydroxyapatite ( Ca lo{ OH2 } { PO4}6 ) is formed due to reaction of
phosphate with calcium.
Magnesium salt is converted in to magnesium hydroxide or magnesium silicate (serpentine) due
to phosphate treatment.
But basically orthophosphate treatment is done to prevent calcium scale.
These salts remain in Boiler water in suspended condition without any harm. Depending upon
total dissolved solid (TDS) level of Boiler water, blow down is given.
There are three types of phosphate treatment. Named as
• Conventional phosphate treatment.
• Coordinated phosphate treatment.
o Congruent phosphate treatment.
Feed Water Path
93
Conventional phosphate treatment
In Conventional phosphate control, phosphate residual and hydroxide residual in the boiler
water is maintained. Phosphate residual is typically maintained in the range 20-40 mg/L. Hydroxide
alkalinity is maintained in the range 125-450 mg/L as CaCO 3 . This treatment provides ideal condition for
precipitation of calcium as calcium hydroxyapatite and magnesium as serpentine as discussed earlier.
It also provides a residual of alkalinity to neutralize any acidic contamination. It may, however, promote
foaming, especially if organic contaminants enter in to boiler.
Coordinated phosphate treatment
In coordinated phosphate treatment, combination of tri, di and mono phosphates are used to
achieve optimum Boiler water PH, without presence of free hydroxide ion. Phosphate concentration is
maintained in Boiler water so that calcium scale formation can be eliminated. The concentration of
phosphate in Boiler water should be properly maintained otherwise at higher phosphate concentration
magnesium phosphate is formed which is a objectionable adherent sludge.
Ratio of sodium to phosphate ions (Na/PO 4) is maintained 3 in this case.
Congruent phosphate treatment
In congruent phosphate treatment, ratio of sodium to phosphate ions (Na/PO 4) is maintained 2 .6.
Phosphate dosing is done in only drum type Boiler. In once trough Boiler phosphate dosing can
not be done.
Boiler Drum
® Agitator
QNRV
—0 Pressure gauge
High Pressure 4
Dosing Pump
Dosing Tank
Fig. 9.15 HP dosing System
Orthophosphate either in powder form or commercial liquid form is put in a tank. Quantity of
water is so added that continuous dosing can be done. One agitator is provided to steer the solution
continuously. The solution is pumped in to Boiler drum by the help of a high pressure reciprocating pump.
The dosing rate can be adjusted by adjusting the stroke rate of the pump. Depending upon the phosphate
concentration and PH of Boiler water, dosing rate is adjusted.
Phosphate Hide-out
It is seen in high pressure boilers, as steaming rate increases (load raises) levels of phosphate
residual decreases. When load is reduced, phosphate concentration returns to normal.


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Feed Water Path

94 95
This phenomena is termed hide-out and is due to reduced solubility of sodium phosphate at Boiler Drum
temperatures above 250'C
When phosphate hide-out occurs there is a risk of permanent scale deposition or evolution of
free caustic which may lead to caustic attack.
9.9 Blow down
Due to continuous evaporation of Boiler water, salt concentration in Boiler water increases.
Also due to phosphate treatment, some non adherent sludge is formed. So, total dissolved solids-(TDS) ^ Flash Steam
level of Boiler water increases. To adjust this total dissolved solid level, some quantity of Boiler water is
removed from Boiler and same quantity of fresh water is added. By doing so, concentration of non Regulating Valveg
desirable dissolved salts is maintained. This process is called as blow down process and the water drained i^ Blow down Tank
out is called as blow down.
Blow down may be continuous or intermittent. In continuous blow down some quantity of
Boiler water is continuously taken out from Boiler drum and continuous fresh water make up is given. In
this method the salt concentration is maintained constant. Heat
exchanger

TDS level t Drain

Fig. 9.18 Blow down system

Time -^^
Fig. 9.16 TDS level incase of continuous blow down
In case of intermittent blow down, blow down is given from the bottom mud drum to remove the
settled sludge. Boiler water salt concentration is monitored regularly. Blow down is given for a short duration
when concentration level goes beyond a predetermined value. And blow down is stopped at recommended
lower concentration level. The concentration level varies between higher and lower limits.
In most of the cases, blow down water is collected in a header placed just below the normal
water level of steam drum. Water is drained through-a flash tank. In flash tank, pressure of water drops
significantly. As the water contains lot of sensible heat corresponding to drum pressure, so flash steam is
produced. This steam can be utilized suitably. Normally this steam is used in deaerator for feed water
heating.
Before draining out the blow down water, heat can be removed from this water by placing a heat
exchanger.
9.10 Gauge glass

This is a glass tube, or pair of flat glass plates, fitted to Boiler drum to provide a visual indication
Upper Limit of water-level of Boiler drum. Through this device, boiler operator can determine water level and general
..................
TDS level L ower Limit
condition of water in the boiler. This Glass is manufactured from highly chemical and corrosion resistant
to- low expansion Borosilicate is glass, especially noted for its clarity and mechanical strength properties.
Time —^ Gauge glass is regularly checked for any signs of clouding, scratching, erosion, or corrosion.

Fig. 9.17 TDS level variation in case of intermittent blow down The gauge glass may be flat type or reflex type (prismatic glass). Flat gauge glass design allows
easier observation of water level in a boiler. Reflex gauge has a single vision slot in which light can enter the
During blow down some loss of energy takes place, as the blow down water contains significant
gauge chamber to determine liquid level. One side of the glass is prism shaped.
amount of sensible heat. The loss is significant when blow down quantity is more. Suitable arrangement is
made to utilize the sensible heat of this blow down water.


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

Feed Water Path 97
The gauge glass conforms to internationally recognize standards. Arrangements are made to avoid danger due to breakage of glass and causing hazard to the
operator. The glass is fitted in a heavy metallic body. In case the glass breaks a safety ball closes water and
Steam Cock steam side port due to sudden flow of fluid. This arrangement is shown in the figure.
Gauge glass needs to be kept clean to ensure that water level , indicated in the gauge glass
accurately represents the water level of Boiler, as gauge glass is the only means to visually verify water level
—^ Gauge glass in the Boiler.
— Any blockage in either water side or steam side of the gauge glass may show false level. So, it
should be flushed regularly in order to keep the glass and piping connections clean and free of sludge or
sediment. For this the gauge glass is to be flushed as per following procedure.

1. Close the water cock and open the drain cock for some time.
2. Close the drain cock and open the water cock

Water should return to its normal working level quickly. If this does not happen, then there is a
blockage in the water side.

3. Close the steam cock and open the drain cock for some time.
(A) Gauge Glass arrangement
4. Close the drain cock and open the steam cock.

If the water does not return to its normal working level quickly, then there is blockage in
Drum connection(Steam) steam side.

For the initial line up of gauge glass following procedure is to be followed.

1. Check steam cock, water cock and drain cock in closed position
Seals
Safety bail which closes 2.
in the event of glass breakage
Open drain cock
Gauge glass 3. Crack open the steam cock. Wait for some time till the gauge glass is heated slowly.
Steam cock

Water cock 4. Crack open the water cock

Gauge glass
5. Close the drain cock

Seals 6. Open the steam cock and water cock fully.

Drum boiler connection (Water)
Safety ball which closes in
the event of glass breakage
It is difficult to distinguish between a completely full and completely empty gauge glass. In this
situation following procedure may be helpful. For this a little practice is required.
Hold a pencil against the far side of the sight glass at an angle of approximately 45°. If the image
of the pencil viewed through the glass appears to run across the glass and changes little with change in
angle of the pencil, the glass is full. However, if the, image viewed through the glass tuns up and down the
glass at a sharper angle than the actual angle of the pencil, the tube is empty.

Practice this difference with normal water level before an emergency by viewing through the sight
glass above and below the water line
Fig. 9.19 Gauge Glass

Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
EMP TY
Fig. 9.20 Physical verification of empty and full glass
9.11 Water side scaling and corrosion
Scaling and corrosion are two undesired phenomena in a Boiler. Boiler tube and hence the life
of Boiler is shortened due to this. These are discussed in detail below.
9.11.1 Scaling
Evaporation in boiler causes impurities to concentrate. Boiler scale is caused by impurities being
precipitated out of water directly on heat transfer surfaces or by suspended matter in water settling on the
metal and becoming hard and adherent.
Scale formation is a function of two criteria:
The concentration and solubility limits of the dissolved salt
•
• The retrograde solubility (inversely proportional to temperature) characteristic of some salts
In a boiler, both of these conditions are met. When boiler water is raised to high temperature,
concentration of dissolved salts is also increase. As water is evaporated, dissolved salts remain in the boiler
and concentration increases. Some salts may be soluble in boiler water. Steam bubbles are formed near the
tube wall which is at higher temperature than water. This creates a localized high concentration of salts,
even though the total boiler water may be well below saturation levels. The precipitation normally formed
under these conditions has a crystalline structure and is relatively homogeneous.
The salt is adhered to the heating surface. This is very hard. This interferes with heat transfer and
may cause hot spots, leading to local overheating. The less heat they conduct, the more dangerous
they are.
Biggest problem caused by scale is overheating and failure of boiler tubes. Thermal conductivity
of scale is similar to insulating brick. The scale acts as an insulating layer and prevents efficient transfer of
heat through the tubes to circulating water. Reduction in thermal conductivity means lower boiler efficiency.
It leads to overheating and may result softening, bulging or even fracturing of boiler tubes. Boiler scale can
also cause plugging or partial obstruction of circulating tubes in a water tube boiler, which again causes
starvation and overheating of the tubes.
Feed Water Path 99
Scaling is mainly due to presence of calcium and magnesium salts (carbonate or sulphate),
which are less soluble. Also presence of high concentration of silica in Boiler water is responsible for scale
formation.
Carbonate scale is granular and sometimes very porous in nature. Crystals of calcium carbonate
are large but usually are matted together with finely divided particles of other materials. So this scale looks
dense and uniform.
Sulphate scale is much harder and more denser than carbonate deposit because the crystals are
smaller-and cement together. A Sulphate deposit is brittle, does not pulverize easily.
Silica deposit is very hard, resembling porcelain. The crystal of silica is extremely small, forming
a very dense and impervious scale. This scale is extremely brittle and very difficult to pulverize.
9.11.2 Corrosion
Boiler tube is made of carbon steel and alloy steel. Iron corrodes in the presence of oxygen and
moisture. In a Boiler all these threes elements are present. So the chance of corrosion is high in a Boiler.
Most significant contributors to boiler waterside corrosion are dissolved oxygen, acid or caustic
water and high temperature. If any of them are uncontrolled, severe pitting, gouging and.embrittling of the
tube metal can occur, which ultimately leads to failure.
Following reaction takes place for iron corrosion in a boiler:
3 Fe + 4H20 = Fe304 + 4H2
Iron + Water/Steam = Magnetite + Hydrogen gas
Corrosion compounds are divided roughly into two types, red iron oxide (Fe 203) and black
magnetic oxide (Fe304 ). Red oxide (hematite) is formed under oxidizing conditions that exist, for example,
in the condensate system or in a boiler that is out of service r. Black oxide (magnetite) is formed under
reducing conditions that typically exist in an operating Boiler.
The magnetite layer prevents further corrosion. So in a new Boiler this layer is desirable. Weakening
or damaging of this protective layer may lead to further corrosion of Boiler tube. Proper internal boiler
water treatment can repair this layer. Appropriate pH level for maintaining this magnetite layer is approximately
8.5-12.7, Mostly Boiler is operated at a pH level of 10.5-11.5.
Some Important Causes of Corrosion
Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen is removed at deaerator. When deaeration is not proper, dissolved oxygen
enters the boiler and corrosion takes place in the form of severe deep pits, mostly at the water level in the
steam drum. This can be identified during inspection.
Acidic Attack
If boiler water pH drops significantly below 8.5, a phenomenon called waterside thinning can
occur. Mostly stressed area is prone to this attack.
Caustic embrittlement
Caustic embrittlement (Inter granular corrosion) in boilers is a form of stress corrosion cracking.
It is caused due to high concentration of caustic alkalinity and stressed conditions.
Caustic embrittlement attacks the grain boundaries within the crystalline structure of the metal.
Caustic does not attack the crystals themselves, but rather travels between the crystals.
 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
9.12 Priming, foaming and carryover
Priming :
Priming means carryover of droplets of water in the steam, which lowers the energy efficiency of
the steam and leads to scale formation at superheater and in the turbine blade. Priming may be caused due
to following reasons.
• Improper construction of boiler,
Sudden fluctuation in steam demand.
• High impurities concentration in the boiler-water
• Foaming of feed water
• High water level
High level is common cause of prming. To avoid priming, high water levels, excessive boiler
loads, and sudden load changes may be avoided.
Carryover :
During Carryover contaminant leaves a boiler steam drum with the steam. It can be in solid,
liquid or vaporous form. It is undesirable in a Boiler.
Some of the effects of carryover are mentioned below.
• Deposition in regulating and controlling valves
• Deposition in superheater
• Deposition in servomotor control valves and turbine blades
• Process contamination
Carryover is due to incomplete separation of steam from the steam-water mixture in boiler
drum. Steam separation units are placed inside the Boiler Drum. Defect on these separation units may lead
to carry over. Foaming of Boiler water is also responsible for carry over.
Boiler design, type of mechanical steam separating equipment, load fluctuation, boiler drum
level, amount of space available for steam separation from the steam-water mixture are some causes of
carryover.
Foaming :
Foaming is the formation of unbroken bubbles on the surface of the boiler water. The bubbles
may be in thin layer, with few bubbles overlying each other, or it may build up through- out the steam
space. As these bubbles burst, the subsequent moisture is entrained with the steam.
Some causes of foaming are :
• High dissolved solid concentration in the boiler water
• High suspended solid concentration
• High alkalinity concentration
• Oil and organic contaminants in Boiler water .
-STEAM PATH
10.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, it was discussed about steam formation. In a Boiler, feed water is
circulated in evaporator tubes. Latent Heat is absorbed by water and steam is formed. This steam is
collected at the upper portion of the Boiler drum. This steam is at saturated temperature. The saturated
steam should be dry. If water particle is present in this steam, then the impurities present in feed water will
be mixed with steam and it will be carried out with steam. So it is ensured, the steam is dry and free from
impurities, before taking it out for further use. For this, suitable mechanical arrangements are done inside
Boiler drum. Most of the case super heated steam is used. For this further heat is added to saturated steam.
This is done in another set of tubes called as super heater. To control the outlet temperature of super heated
steam suitable arrangement is done.
10.2 Steam Drum
In previous chapter it was discussed, in Drum type Boiler, Boiler water is circulated in evaporator
tubes for steam formation. Water from drum come down through down corner tubes and distributed in to
evaporator tubes. Heat is added and steam is formed. This steam is collected in steam drum. '
Steam drum is a cylindrical shaped container. It is located at top of the Boiler. It runs lengthwise
and provides space for steam and water. Two manholes are provided at both ends for internal inspection
during shutdown.
Steam drum is a device of the Boiler where both water and steam exists at saturated temperature.
Down corner tubes and raiser tubes are connected to the drum. Steam coming from raiser tubes may not
be completely dry. It may contain suspended water particle which may carry over the impurities present in
Boiler water. So separation of steam and water particles is required. For this, drum contains various
separation and purification internals.
Steam drum also acts as steam and water storage tank. Drum contains water at saturated
temperature. So lot of latent heat is stored in water which helps during load fluctuation. Drum also receives
feed water from economizer. From drum, steam is taken out and feed water is added. Also a blow down
header is provided in the drum to control impurity level of the feed water. HP dosing is also done at
Boiler drum.
One air vent with Isolation valve is provided in drum to release air during start up. During
starting, when Boiler water is heated, it swells. The air from the drum space is released gradually. When
drum pressure becomes 2kg/cm2 , this vent is closed. Like this vent is opened during shut down, at 2 kg/cm 2.
[101]
 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Path
103
From the above discussions, it is clear that drum is a critical part of the Boiler (except drum less
Main Steam Outlet
once through Boiler). Drum performs lot of functions. It is summarised below. Steam Pipe
Hanger Bolt
• Supply water to evaporator tubes and receive steam from raiser tubes.

• Store water and steam. Scrubber

• Dry saturated steam is taken out and feed water is supplied.

• Boiler water level is maintained.

• Contains steam separators and purification parts.

Surface
• Blow down is given from the surface of the water. Blow down

^ HP dosing chemical is added.

• As lot of latent heat is stored in drum by Boiler water, so it takes care of load fluctuation.

10.2.1 Drum internals

As told earlier, drum contains some internal fittings for steam separation and purification. Also
arrangement is made inside the drum to distribute feed water and dosing chemical inside the drum. A detail
discussion is made below about Drum internals.

Feed water distributor

This is a header connected to the feed water pipe line from economizer. This header runs lengthwise
in drum. This is perforated so that water can be distributed evenly throughout the drum. This header is fixed to
the drum through suitable fasteners (U-rod etc.).

Surface blow down header Downcomer

Downcomer
This is a header connected to the Drum blow down pipe. Blow down is given to maintain
concentration level of Boiler water. This header is normally placed just below the working water level of Feed Water Pipe

drum. This header is also perforated, so that blow down water can be collected evenly from through out Chemical Feed Pipe

the drum. Fig. 10.1 Steam Drun Internals

Chemical dosing header
As discussed earlier phosphate dosing is done at Boiler drum. The line from dosing pump is
connected to a header, fitted at the drum. It also runs throughout the length of drum and perforated, so
that chemical can be evenly distributed in the drum.
Steam separators and purifiers
There are different methods of steam separation, used in Boiler drum. Among them following
methods are commonly used.
In this method the steam direction is changed many times intentionally before leaving drum. The
heavy water particle can not change direction so quickly compared to dry steam. So it falls back in the
shape of water droplets.
• By using baffles
Steam and water mixture is allowed to impact on baffle plates, placed in the moist steam path.
Heavier water particle losses its kinetic energy and falls back. Only dry steam enters in to steam space.
• Cyclone separator
In this method, separation of moisture and steam is done by help of centrifugal force. Steam
and water mixture is passed through a mechanical cyclone separator. The mechanical cyclone creates
spinning action on the steam. Due to centrifugal action, the heavier water particle thrown away and
collides at the cyclone wall and falls down.
• Steam scrubber
Steam is allowed to pass through closely spaced screens. Dry steam can pass easily through
these screens and the suspended water particle carried by steam is collected and falls back by gravity. Some
Boiler may have number of screens called as primary screen and secondary screens. These screens are
called as demister pad also.


Steam Path 105

Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

In some large boilers, where the purity of steam is highly maintained, another method of steam Horizontal super heaters are arranged horizontally. Sufficient sloping is made so that the condensate
formed at the super heater tube can be drained out completely. This type of super heater is called as
purification is employed. It is called as steam washing. In this method the separated steam is rinsed with drainable super heater.
fresh clean feed water. Dissolved silica and other contaminated impurities are washed away.
The area of super heater heat transfer surface may be calculated as
The separated and purified dry saturated steam is taken out from Boiler drum. In most of the
cases this saturated steam is further heated to get super heated steam. Heat is added in a set of tubes called
as super heater tubes. Temperature of saturated steam increases at super heater. The temperature difference
of super heated steam and saturated steam is called as degree of super heat. Formation and properties Ms( Ho -H 1)
of super heated steam is already discussed in previous chapter. 1 + TGo Ts, + T),
xU
The advantage of super heated steam is discussed below. 2 i
-
• As super heated steam contains more heat, so it can do more work than saturated steam at same Where
pressure. Ms = Mass flow rate of steam
• High temperature of superheated steam makes it higher thermal efficient. Ho = Enthalpy of out let steam
• There is sufficient margin for expansion in turbine before it cools down and becomes wet. Ht = Enthalpy of in let steam
• Super heated steam does not contain suspended water particle (moisture). So it is less erosive and TGr = Gas inlet temperature
corrosive than wet steam. TGO = Gas outlet temperature
10.3 Super heater Ts1, Tso = Steam inlet and out let temperature
Super heater is a set of tubes. Normally numbers of parallel tubes are connected between two U = Overall heat transfer coefficient between steam and gas.
headers to minimize pressure drop. One header is connected to steam drum to receive saturated steam and U Changes with change in gas flow rate.
another is connected to out going pipe.
Super heater is subjected to high temperature. So special alloysteel is used here. Alloy steel is
Inlet Header Outlet Header
high heat and corrosion resistant. The tube is alloyed with Chromium, Molybdenum, Nickel, Titanium, and
Niobium. Material and standard of different grade super heater tube will be discussed later on.
Super heater is placed at the flue gas path to gain heat from hot flue gas. The super heater is
placed at various zone in the Boiler as per Boiler design. Depending upon mode of heat transfer, superheaters
Flue gas; are classified as
• Convective super heater
This super heater is placed at the convective zone of Boiler. Heat transfer takes place here mostly
by convective method.
Fig. 10.2 Super Heater • Radiant super heater
Some times, super heater tubes are arranged vertically and some times horizontally. Condensate This type of super heater is located at the radiation zone of Boiler. Super heater tubes are
at the vertical super heater can not be drained out completely during Boiler in shut off condition. This type exposed to the flame of furnace. Heat transfer is done mainly by radiation method in this case.
of super heater is called as non-drainable super heater. Proper care is required to be taken in this case, • Platen (Combined) super heater
during starting of Boiler. Vent of this super heater is to be opened during startup so that the condensate can
evaporate. This type of super heater is placed in such a location that, heat transfer can take place through
radiation and convection method. The super heater is located normally above the Boiler furnace and
Inlet header Outlet header starting of convection zone.
10.3.1 Outlet temperature at various load for different type of super heaters
Radiant super heater is placed at the radiation zone. It absorbs radiation heat. So during low
Flue gas load time, when steam flow through super heater tube is less, the out let temperature remains high. As the
load increases more steam flows in the super heater tube, so temperature of the steam falls down.
D.
In case of convective super heater, heat transfer to the steam takes place through convection
method. This type of super heater is placed at the flue gas path. During low load, volume of flue gas is less
Flue gas
as less fuel is fired in the Boiler. So out let temperature of super heated steam is less. When load increases,
(A) Non drainable vertical super heater (B) Drainable super heater
more fuel is fired in the Boiler. So the volume of flue gas increases. Hence the out let temperature of the
Fig. 10.3 Drainable and Non-drainable super heater steam also increases.


Steam Path 107

Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
106
The damper has to operate at high temperature, erosive and harsh environment. So, high
temperature corrosion, erosion and fatigue may take place. Draft loss in flue gas path is not always
Convective super heater
i constant in this case. When damper is in closed condition flue gas flows through super heater, so draft loss
Super heated is high in this condition. When the damper is at open condition, flue gas path is by passed and draft loss in
temperature this case is less. -
10.4.2 Excess Air control method
- Air supply to the furnace can be increased or decreased to increase or decrease superheated
steam temperature. When it is required to increase steam temperature, more air is supplied to the furnace
than normal requirement. Due to more excess air, heat absorption at furnace water wall decreases. So,
total heat content in flue gas increases. More heat transfer takes place at super heater tube and steam
% of full load. temperature increases.
Fig. 10.4 Outlet temperature at various load for different type of superheaters.
But in case of combined super heater, temperature is maintained constant at any load. So this To decrease steam temperature, air is reduced. So heat absorption at water wall increases. Heat
type of super heater is preferred in most of the cases. content in the flue gas decreases and heat transfer to super heater decreases.
10.4 Methods of super heater temperature control This type of control is mostly used, where convective super heater is used.
It is required to maintain out let superheated steam temperature within limit. The temperature is
not allowed to fall below and raise more than certain value. This range is very close when steam is used to 10.4.3 Tilting / Adjustable Burner control method
drive a Turbine. It is essential to maintain temperature within limit to minimise thermal stress. When steam
In this method, Burner position is adjusted to control super heated steam temperature.
demand decreases suddenly, flow in super heater reduces, so temperature of steam increases. Like this
when flow increases in super heater due to sudden load demand, steam temperature decreases. To maintain In this method, the Burners are designed in such a way that, it can be tilted upward or downward.
out let steam temperature some control is required. Various methods are adopted to control out let steam When Burner is tilted downward, water walls receive more heat. So less heat is available in flue gas,
temperature. Some of these methods are discussed below. entering to the super heater zone. So temperature of steam comes down.
10.4.1 Gas by pass method
In this method flue gas path is by passed by the help of a damper, so that some portion of flue —^ Super heater
gas does not flow through super heater.
During low load, when steam flow is less in super heater, by pass damper is kept open. Some
portion of flue gas is by passed. As less volume of hot flue gas flow through super heater, temperature of
steam can be maintained constant during low load condition. During higher load damper is closed and
entire flue gas is allowed to flow through super heater.
According to the desired temperature at certain load, damper is set at certain position. Furnace
Bypass damper

Fig. 10.6 Tilting Burner arrangement

When the Burner is tilted upward, less heat is absorbed at water wall and more heat is absorbed
at super heater. So steam temperature increases. Depending upon requirement, Burner may be tilted
upward or downward.
In some Boiler, Burners are placed at different elevation (Tire) of the furnace. During low load,
when furnace exit temperature is less, upper Tire Burners are taken in to service. So the flue gas temperature
at furnace exit (super heater inlet) increases and steam temperature increases. During higher load lower
Burners are taken in to service along with upper Burners, so that the furnace exit temperature is maintained
constant.
Super heater
Fig. 10.5 Temperature Control by gas bypass method


Steam Path 109

108 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
When temperature of steam is high, control valve closes. So, more steam is passed through the
-+ Superheater coil, immersed in Boiler Drum. Temperature of steam is controlled. When temperature of steam decreases
by pass valve is opened. Most of the steam passes in the by pass line and temperature increases.
Upper tire
Burner 10.4.7 Desuperheating or Attemperation method
This isa-commonly-used method to control superheated steam temperature. In this method,
caj ci condensate (normally Boiler feed water) is sprayed directly to the superheated steam. Some times
superheated steam is cooled in a heat exchanger, where steam flows in coil and feed water flows in the
shell. Both these methods are very effective.
Lower tire The super heater is divided in to two sections called as primary and secondary super heater.
Burner Attemperator is placed between primary and secondary super heater. So the temperature control can be
done very effectively. Also chance of moisture in steam is eliminated as after attemperator the steam passes
0
through secondary super heater. These two methods of temperature control is disused briefly below.
Fig. 10.7 Multi tier Burner Arrangement
(A) Spray type attemperator
Both the above control methods are very effective to control superheated steam temperature.
In this case, feed water from Boiler feed pump is sprayed directly to the steam coming out from
10.4.4 Separately fired Super heater method primary super heater through a nozzle. Temperature of the steam reduces. This steam then passes iluough
In this method there are two furnaces. The radiant super heater is placed in another furnace and secondary super heater. If out let temperature of secondary super heater is high then the control valve
convective super heater is placed between common flue gas path of both, main Boiler ft 'mace and super heater allows more spray water through nozzle to reduce temperature. The temperature control valve is put in auto
furnace. Superheated steam temperature can be controlled by adjusting the firing rate of both the furnaces. mode so that spray water quantity can be adjusted automatically.
Temperature Control valve
Aft 1
Steam drum
9 —Spray water from Boiler feedpump

Main furnace e
Super heater
furnace
r
Primary super
heater
a Attemperator
—^ Secondary Super heater

J Fig. 10.10 Arrangement of Spray type attemperator

In spray type attemperator, the spray nozzle is fitted to steam header with suitable pipe connection.
Fig. 10.8 Separately fired Superheater Feed water is connected to this pipe. A metallic protective jacket is provided at the header. Length of this
jacket is around 4 to 5 meter. Feed water is sprayed to steam with help of nozzle. Spray water evaporates
10.4.5 Flue gas recirculation method completely at the end of the jacket. So hot main steam header does not come in contact with this water
To control steam temperature, flue gas exhausted from Economizer is circulated back to the and thermal shock is avoided.
Boiler furnace, with help of a fan. This gas acts as excess air method of control as discussed earlier.
If more gas is recirculated, heat absorption at water wall decreases and superheated steam
temperature increases.
10.4.6 Coil immersion in Boiler Drum
Steam from
In this method, some portion of superheated steam is passed through a coil immersed in Boiler Primary super — ^
Steam to
—^ Secondary
Drum. A by pass valve is provided to control flow of steam to drum. heater
super heater
Boiler Drum

iff

Protective metalic jacket

Fig. 10.11 Spray type attemperator
By pass Control valve
Fig. 10.9 Coil immersed in Boiler Drum
110 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Path
111
Some times when purity of steam is important, at that condition feed water can not be sprayed
directly, as it is mixed with steam and chances of steam contamination is there. In this case instead of Steam to Atmosphere
direct feed water spray, saturated steam from boiler is condensed and this condensate is used for spray.
This method minimizes steam contamination.
(B) Surface type attemperator Start up vent valve
In this system, feed water is not mixed with super heated steam. Temperature of steam is
controlled by varying feed water flow in a heat exchanger. Feed water flows in the shell of exchanger and
super heated steam flows inside the tube. When it is required to increase temperature of steam, fee water
is bypassed with help of a control valve. When it is required to decrease steam temperature, more water is
—^ Steam to Load
allowed to flow through heat exchanger by closing the control valve. Steam from
Super heater
Surface type atternperator

Drum
0 0—k Fig. 10.14 Start up Vent
0 0
Once steam is taken out from the Boiler, start up vent is closed gradually. In vertical super heater
tubes, steam is condensed when the Boiler is stopped and collected at lower "U" portion of the tube. This
Primary super condensate can not be drained out. So during starting, when startup vent is in open condition, this condensate
heater --- Secondary is evaporated and vented out.
Super heater

Feed water d To Economiser

from Boiler feed Pump
Feed water by pass control valve
Fig. 10.12 Arrangement of Surface type attemperator

The main advantage of this system is, feed water does not mix with steam. So the purity of
steam is maintained.
The temperature variation at superheater is shown in Fig.
Secondary Super heater

0 Fig. 10.15 Non drainable vertical super heater

As this vent is used during starting, so it is called as start up vent. Some time during sudden load
cut off, Boiler Drum pressure increases and Drum level becomes low. At that time this vent may be opened
Superheater Attemperator to bring back pressure, and level of the Drum to normal.

10.6 Safety valve

Inlet temperature
Fig. 10.13 Steam temperature variation in superheater and attemperator
10.5 Start up vent
This is a vent, provided at super heater outlet header of the boiler. This vent is open to atmosphere
through a silencer and control valve arrangement.
During starting of Boiler, when no steam is taken out from Boiler, this vent valve is kept open to
allow some steam to flow through super heater tube. Otherwise in absence of steam flow, super heater tube
may be overheated and may fail.
Steam is generated in Boiler under pressure. This pressure is very high in case of power boilers.
If pressure of the Boiler goes high for any reason then severe accident may take place, which can not be
imagined. Stored latent heat of boiler water may release suddenly and'create disaster. For safety of man
and machine, this over pressure is to be avoided. Some devices are required to be fitted, which can avoid .
over pressure to avoid any misshapen. This problem can be avoided by installing a safety valve. Safety
valve releases some volume' of steam to atmosphere when a predetermined maximum pressure is reached.
The safety valve can be defined as — " A valve which discharges certain amount of fluid when
predetermined safe pressure is exceeded, automatically, without assistance of any out side energy other
than that of the fluid itself. And which is designed to re- close and prevent further flow of fluid after normal
pressure condition is restored".


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Path

The lifting force of the disc (F) = P X A

Where,
A = Area of the disc ( Ttd2/4)
P = Pressure of the steam.
Spring
adjuster When F is more than Fs, then the disc lifts. By adjusting the spring pressure the lifting pressure can
be adjusted.
10.6.1 Basic Operation of safety valve
Spring As discussed earlier, when steam pressure rises above the set pressure (preset spring force), the
disc of the safety valve starts lifting. This lifting pressure has to overcome the compressive force of spring.
So some margin of over pressure is required, so that the disc can lift completely. This increase pressure is
1 Spindle called as over pressure.
Once lift is initiated, it is required to open the disc rapidly. This is done by a shroud, skirt or
hood provided around the disc. As the disc lifts, larger area of the shroud is exposed to steam. The lifting
force increases as the area increases. So the disc opens rapidly.

Inlet Fig. 10.18 Basic principle of operation of safety valve

Fig. 10.16 Spring loaded Safety valve Some quantity of steam is vented out and pressure of the system is normalized.
But after normalization, the disc does not close immediately. As the larger area (shroud) is still
There are different types of safety valve.
exposed to steam, so it requires the pressure to drop further more than the set pressure. The pressure at
• Spring loaded safety valve.
which the disc is closed completely is called as reset pressure. The difference between set pressure and
• Leaver safety valve. this resetting pressure is called as blow down.
• Dead weight safety valve.
100% .._. Maximum discharge
Spring loaded safety valve is commonly used in Boiler.
In spring loaded safety valve the disc is lifted, to discharge some steam. Steam pressure has to
lift the disc against spring compression. When compression force of the spring is more than the acting force
Opening
of steam on disc, the valve remains in closed. position. When acting force become more than spring force, Closing
then the disc lifts and steam escape to atmosphere through discharge pipe line. To reduce noise, venting
silencer is used. The discharge pipe should be straight as far as possible with minimum bends.
Fs = Compressive force of spring
1
pop
Reset -0- action

Blow down Over pressure

Set pressure

Fig. 10.19 Relationship between pressure and lift

The set pressure can be changed by changing spring tension. There are two adjustable rings for
P = Inlet Steam pressure adjusting over pressure and blow down. They are locked with pins after adjustment.
Fig. 10.17 Spring force and operating force

114 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
A hand lever is provided in the safety valve to lift the valve manually. A test gag is used to
prevent valve operation during hydraulic test. One bolt is provided at the top of the valve body to restrict
movement of the valve spindle. During normal operation of boiler, this gag bolt is to be removed; otherwise
the safety valve will not operate during over pressure.
In a Boiler two safety valves are provided in steam Drum. Set pressures of these two valves are
different. Beside these two valves one more safety valve is provided at super heater out let. Its set pressure
is kept lower than that of Drum safety valve. During over pressure, super heater safety valve should lift first.
If the drum safety valve will open first, steam will be escaped from drum causing starvation of super
heater tube.
10.7 Steam Vent Silencer
Main function' of a vent silencer is to release large quantities steam from high pressure to
atmosphere and reduce high levels of noise generated. The silencer is made out of concentric annular
acoustic cylinder enclosed with a robust steel casing with dished end or flat end at one end.
The steam enters through diffuser and passes through annular space between acoustic packing
where the sound energy is absorbed. A weather cowl is provided for protection from rain .The silencer
should have minimum pressure drop.
Silencers are used at following vents/discharge lines.
• Boiler drum safety valves discharge.
• Super heater safety valve discharge.
' Start up vent discharge.
• Deaerator safety valve discharge.
000
11.1 Introduction
Combustion of fuel takes place in the Furnace. As discussed earlier, chemical energy stored in
the fuel is converted in to heat energy in Boiler Furnace. This heat energy is utilised to convert Feed water
into steam. This combustion product (Flue gas) passes in boiler in a predetermined path, so that heat
energy can be removed from hot flue gas before it is escaped to atmosphere. In this path, heat exchangers
like — Superheater, Evaporator, Economiser and Air heater are placed.
Depending upon the location of this path, the Boiler can be divided in to various zones i.e. —
Radiation zone, Convection zone. It has already been discussed in chapter -2. Depending upon Boiler size
and type of fuel used above heat exchangers are placed at various zones. The Furnace temperature depends
upon type of fuel used. The exit temperature of flue gas is maintained such that cold end corrosion due to
condensation at the later stage (normally Air heater) can be avoided.
These heat exchangers produce resistance to the flow of flue gas. Proper draft in the Boiler is
maintained to overcome this resistance. In Boiler, draft is created through ID fan. In most of the Power
Boilers, Balanced draft is created by the help of ID and FD fans.
Flue gas velocity of the Boiler depends upon the type of fuel used and ash content in flue gas.
When ash content in flue gas is more, flue gas velocity is kept low to avoid erosion of the tubes.
Flue gas contains some undesirable gases and solid particulates. These are to be controlled
properly as these gases pollutes atmosphere.
Finally the flue gas escapes to atmosphere through a long height chimney.
All the above points are discussed step by step in subsequent sections.
11.2 Furnace
In Boiler furnace chemical energy of the fuel is released and converted in to heat energy. Actual
burning of fuel takes place here. Fuel and air is supplied to the furnace.
As discussed earlier, for combustion, three things are required.
• Fuel
' Oxygen (Air)
• 3 T,S (Time, Temperature, Turbulance)
We have discussed about the supply of fuel and oxygen (air) in fuel handling system and air path
respectively. Here, we will discus about 3 T, s.
In furnace, temperature is achieved due to burning of fuel. Initially during starting of Boiler this
temperature is achieved by burning some auxiliary fuel like diesel, wood etc. When furnace temperature
[115]


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Flue Gas Path

116 117
becomes more than ignition temperature of fuel, fuel is supplied continuously to the furnace. Fuel continues To reduce furnace temperature, boiler furnace wall is made of water tubes, called as water wall.
to burn and furnace temperature is maintained. Water tubes are welded together or the gap between the tubes is filled with suitable material. Membrance
Sufficient time is required for complete combustion of fuel. Gas, Oil and Pulverised coal requires panels are used for water wall. This water wall not only effectively cool the furnace but also provides air
less time for burning as the exposed surface is more. Grate fired boiler requires more.time for combustion tight rigid wall for the furnace. This water wall withstand severe condition of the furnace atmosphere.
of fuel. In this case speed of grate decides the retention time of fuel inside the furnace. As discussed earlier, water wall absorbs mostly radiation energy of combustion and hence the combustion
product is cooled down and
For proper mix of fuel and air, turbulence is required. Turbulence is created by proper burner convective zone tubes are saved.
design and adjusting secondary air vanes. Water wall is designed in such a way that it can expand freely when heated. Expansion markers
are provided in Boiler in suitable location to check expansion.
In solid fuel fired Boilers, bottom of the furnace is designed in such a way that the ash can be
removed. Furnace bootom wall of gas and oil fired boilers are closed as ash removal is not required.
Depending upon ash condition, the furnace bottom may be called as dry bottom or wet bottom. These are
discussed in Ash handling system in details.
--- ^ Primary Super heater
In FBC Boiler, bed tubes are provided inside bed, so that heat can be removed quickly. The
Secondary furnace has proper opening for feeding fuel to the bed and having arrangement to supply secondary air.
Super heater Fluidising air helps for fluidisation of bed.
Pulverised coal fired Boiler has suitable opening for Burner fittings and water walls are arranged
^ Economiser accordingly. Secondary air is admitted to the furnace for creating turbulence in the furnace and complete
combustion of fuel.
Furnace

--^ Air heater

To
Chimny

ID Fan
Fig. 11.1 Furnace
Fig. 11.2 Burner Opening in water wall
Heat release in the furnace varies depending upon size of the Boiler and quantity of fuel used. In
large power Boilers lot of heat energy is released in the furnace. The rate of heat released in the furnace may Burners are arranged at different height of front water wall. In low capacity Boilers, Burners are
be expressed as "units of heat energy released per unit volume in unit time (Kcal/m 3 hr)". Some time heat fitted in single tier as shown in fig.
power of furnace is measured in KW. It is given as
P=Q*H
Where P = Heat released in KW
Q = Fuel consumption in kg/sec.
F Calorific value of fuel in KJ/kg
As huge amount ofheat is released in Boiler furnace, it is required to cool down the furnace, so
that over heating of other heat exchangers in convection zone can be avoided. Furnace exit flue gas
temperature mostly comes in contact with superheater first. So the flue gas temperature is required to be
lowered at this zone. In Pulverized Boiler, if the ash content in coal is high and ash fusion temperature is Burner
less, then chance of slagging of superheater tube is more, if flue gas temperature is not lowered in furnace.
Slagging is the phenomena when molten ash is deposited over the heating surface of tube. If flue gas
temperature is more then fusion temperature of ash, which moves with flue gas, then ash is fused and (b) Two tire arrangement
(a) Single tier arrangement
deposited on the tube where the temperature drops. Flue gas can be cooled up to required level, if a major
portion of heat released can be absorbed inside the furnace by suitable means for producing steam. Fig. 11,3 Burner Arrangement


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Flue Gas Path

118
In large Boilers, Burners are also fitted at rear and side water walls. In tangential arrangement, Furnace front width (a) depends upon the capacit ' of the Boiler. If more burners are arranged
Burners are fitted at corners of the wall. This type of Boiler has high heat generating capacity. then the width is more.

,`f
Burner
Fig. 11.4 Tangential Arrangement
In some case Burners are also fitted at bottom and roof of the furnace.
Standby burners of the runing Boiler are charged with primary air to avoid over heating of the Fig. 11.6 Furnace width
burner. Each burner is having its own flame detecting device (photo cell). If flame of that particular burner The Furnace height depends upon number of tires in which burners are arranged. It also decided
extinguishes, fuel is cut off automatically and flame failure alarm is displayed to attract operator's attention. according to furnace exit flue gas temperature requirement. More the height of furnace, more is the furnace
To lighten the burner of oil fired boiler, lancer type High energy spark rod is used. This ignites the oil and absorption and furnace exit flue gas temperature is less.
retracted back. Spark is produced by help of a high voltage Electric pulse. 4
Vision glasses are provided in the furnace to observe flame condition. Small openings with
suitable locking arrangement (inspection window) are also provided to check furnace condition.During
Boiler Shut down it is required to enter inside furnace for inspection and Maintenance. So Manholes are
provided in the furnace wall. Openings for soot blowers are also provided in the furnace.
Water wall tubes are bent at above opening areas. Suitable refractory is applied in these openings
for sealing purpose. Furnace bottom hopper also provided with refractory. In some Boiler refractory bricks
are used. Where bricks can not be used castable refractory is used. Out side of the furnace wall is insulated
properly to avoid heat loss (radiation loss).
11.2.1 Furnace Dimension
Normally the furnace depth (b) is the distance between front and rear wall. It depends upon the
type of fuel used. It is selected suitably so that flame tip should not touch the water wall. If flame tip
touches the water wall then it will overheat the tube and the tube may fail. This phenomenon is called as
Flame impingement.
Fig. 11.7 Furnace height
In case of oil fired boiler, emissivity of flame is more. So heat absorption by water wall is high.
Hence in this case, furnace volume is less as compared to coal fired Boilers.
Burner 11.3 Different Zone§ of Flue Gas path
It has been discussed earlier, the Boiler is divided in to various zones according to the mode of
heat transfer. These are
• Radiation zone
• Radiation + convection zone
• Convection zone
Different heat transfer elements (superheater, evaporator, economiser etc.) are placed at
Fig. 11.5 Furnace depth different zones.


L.

120 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Flue Gas Path 121
11.4 Refractories
Radiation zone
As discussed earlier, refractories are used to seal water wall openings like — Doors, inspection
In this zone burning of fuel takes place. This is the furnace zone of Boiler. Huge heat energy is
holes, burner openings, soot blower openings etc. These are the materials which can withstand high temperature
released due to burning of fuel. This heat is transferred to cold water walls surrounding the furnace. Due to
high emissivity of flame and high temperature difference, heat is transferred in this zone mostly by radiation and do not fuse. These are normally fire clay, silica, chromite, magnesite etc. Some of the desired properties
of refractory is discussed-below. - - -
method. Due to this heat transfer, combustion product cools down. The flue gas moves upward in the
furnace. Furnace exit flue gas temperature should be less than ash fusion temperature. Otherwise molten Porosity
ash will be deposited on the tubes. This is the property of refractory which determines the strength and thermal conductivity. More
Radiation + convection zone porous means less strength and less thermal conductivity. Porosity is a measure of open pores, into which
liquid can penetrate. This is an important property when the refractory is used where it came in contact
In this zone heat transfer takes place by both Radiation and convection methods. This zone is
with molten slag.
partially exposed to radiation of the flame in the furnace and partially located at flue gas
flow path. Refractoriness or fusion point
Flue gas from the furnace enters this zone first. The temperature of flue gas in this zone is still This is the temperature above which the refractory fuses. This temperature should be more than
high. Normally superheater is placed in this tone. service temperature.
Convection zone -1 Spalling
In this zone, total heat is transfered by convection mode. Normally superheater or reheater is This is the property of the refractory to withstand thermal sock due to rapid heating and cooling.
placed in this zone. Temperature of this zone should be less than ash fusion temperature to avoid slag Pyrometric cone equivalent (PCE)
deposition on the tubes.
The temperature at which a refractory deforms under its own weight is known as its softening
Convection zone - 2 temperature, which is indicated by PCE. The refractoriness or fusion point is measured by this.
This zone is low temperature zone. Temperature of flue gas is reduced due to heat transfer to Bulk density
superheater and reheater. Evaporator bank tubes, economiser and air heater are placed in this zone. This may be defined as the material present in a given volume.
u
Bulk density = Total weight! Total volume
If density is less then the weight of refractory per unit volume is less. Density is required to be less
Radiation Convection Zone -1
+ so that the weight of refractory will be less.
Convection Normally refractory Bricks are used in furnace bottom hoppers, and castable refractories are
Zone
.............. used in different zones of Boiler where material is subjected to vibration as well as abrasion by flue gas.
11.4.1 Castable
Radiation
Zone
Convection
In castable, cementing material and unshaped refractory aggregates are used. The cementing
Zone -2 material is mostly alumina cement. The alumina cement contains mainly calcium aluminates with SiO 2
and Fe203.
Normal Portland cement based on lime- silica mineral phase. In alumina cement the reactive
phase is lime alumina compounds. Higher alumina content in cement can be used for higher temperature
application.
Fig. 11.8 Different Zones in Boiler When alumina cement and refractory aggregates are mixed with water, a concrete like material,
called as castable is formed. The refractory aggregates comprise of buxite, grog of fire clay, sillimanite,
For better heat transfer, Baffles are provided in this zone to control flow of flue gas. These alumina or chromites etc.
baffles change the direction of flue gas. So heat is evenly distributed. It also increases residual time of flue Castable is having some advantages. As the shape of refractory is unshaped, it facilitates joint
gas in the boiler, so the heat transfer is efficient. Baffles also deposits fly ash in easy accessible area from less construction. So, weakest area of construction in case of brick joint can be eliminated by using castable.
where it can be removed easily. The baffles are made of refractory or metals, which can withstand high Castable is easier to repair.
temperature. But some times this may crack and lead to short circuit of flue gas path. Heat distribution The castable should be mixed with right quantity water and used within 15-30 minutes.
may be disturbed. Boiler exit gas temperature may go high and Boiler efficiency may come down. During The castable may be cast by pouring or gunning method. Exothermic chemical reaction between alumina
Inspection of Boiler, condition of these baffles are required to be checked. cement and water raises the temperature and the casting sets.

Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
11.5 ID FAN
ID fan takes out the combustion product from furnace and exit it to atmosphere. It is called as
"Induced draft fan". The air supplied by the FD fan is used for combustion. After combustion of fuel,
combustion product (hot flue gas with dust particle) is to be evacuated continuously from the furnace
during continuous combustion process. This flue gas passes through different zones due to suction of ID
fan. Heat of flue gas is transferred to different heat transfer elements. Finally the gas at low temperature is
escaped to atmosphere through chimney. Normally ID fan is placed in between Air heater and chimney.
Flue gas temperature at suction-end of ID fan is normally kept above sulphuric-acid due point. ...___
Specific volume of flue gas is high at higher temperature. So ID fan handles more volume of gas
as compared to FD fan. Also flue gas contains dust particles. So the size of ID fan is normally higher than
that of FD fan. Its capacity is approximately 1.5 times higher than that of FD fan. If flue gas is free from
dust particle (due to upstream dust separators) then size of fan reduces.
Furnace Air
Heater
Economsier Chimney
Fig. 11.9 ID Fan
ID fan handles hot flue gas. Heat is transferred in to fan blade, shaft and then to the Bearing. So
cooling water is used to cool down the bearing continuously.
Like FD fan ID fan also contains multi leaver dampers to control flue gas flow (draft). During
starting of the fan these dampers are kept closed. After starting, these dampers are opened to get desired
negative pressure in the furnace.
Like FD fan ID fan also can have two methods of flow control i.e. —speed control and damper
control. Some Boilers (large boilers) are having two ID fans. The flue gas duct is divided in to two parallel
passes. Each pass has one ID fan, which can handle 50% flue gas. When both the fans are having 50%
capacity, than at partial load (less than 50%), one fan may be taken in line and at higher load both the fans
may be used.
To fan
From Boiler To Chimney
Fig. 11.10 Two Pass Arrangement
Flue Gas Path 123
Some boiler is having one steam turbine driven ID fan and another Motor driven fan. During
startup, motor driven fan is used. Once steam is available, Turbo driven fan is taken in to service.
ID fan is a critical equipment of a boiler. So, proper inspection and monitoring is required during
service. To monitor the condition of the fan, vibration and temperature measurement provision is essential.
Alarming-system-also-provided-to warn before these values go beyond a preset value. Also for safety,
tripping interlock is provided to trip the fan in case vibration and temperature become more.
ID fan speed/damper control is put in auto control mode during normal operation of boiler, so
that-the draft of furnace can be maintained automatically.
11.6 Draft
In a boiler combustion takes place inside the furnace continuously. For this, continuous supply of
fuel and air (oxygen) is required. To supply air continuously to the furnace, combustion products are to be
exhausted from furnace continuously. If there is pressure difference between combustion product within
boiler furnace and out side cold air of atmosphere then only the combustion products can be exhausted to
atmosphere and fresh air can enter in to .furnace for combustion.
This pressure difference between furnace combustion products and outside cold air is called as
draft. Draft is required to —
• Supply required quantity of fresh air (oxygen) to the boiler for proper combustion.
Evacuate the combustion products from the combustion chamber.
• Exl,,ust the combustion products to atmosphere.
As discussed earlier, before the hot combustion products or flue gas escape to atmosphere its
heat is utilized in various heat exchangers like — superheater, evaporator, economiser and airheater. When
flue gas flows through these heat exchangers, due to resistance, pressure of flue gas drops. This is called as
draft loss. Also there is draft loss in flue gas ducts and fuel bed resistance. Beside all these draft losses the
flue gas should be discharged to atmosphere with some velocity, which should be more than air velocity at
that height where the flue gas is to be discharged. So the minimum draft required is the sum of all. Daft is
normally' expressed in "mm of water column (mmwc)".
There are various methods to obtain draft like - Natural draft and artificial or Mechanical draft.
These are discussed below one by one.
11.6.1 Natural draft
Natural draft is created by chimney. Draft is produced due to difference in density of hot flue gas
and cold outside atmospheric air. The draft produced in this case is given as
D=H(Da Df)
Where D = Draft
H = height of chimney
Da = density of cold atmospheric air
Df = density of hot flue gas
To increase draft in this case either chimney height is to be increased or density of flue gas is to
be decreased. As we know the density of gas varies with temperature. So the flue gas exit temperature is to
be kept high to decrease its density.
 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Flue Gas Path
125
Out side air density is high when atmospheric temperature is less. So draft is high in this condition.
Like this when atmospheric air temperature is more, the draft is less. It is clear now; the draft varies with out
side atmospheric condition in case of natural draft.
For large Boilers natural draft method is not utilised for draft control. Chimney is used to avoid
concentration of combustion product at ground level. This is discharged at a height, so that it can be Economiser Air
Heater
diluted at atmosphere easily. Furnace
Chimney
11.6.2 Artificial Draft ( Mechanical Draft) Air In '^
Natural draft is not efficient for higher capacity Boilers. In this case height of chimney is required
to be increased significantly which is un-economical. Also in this case, draft is dependant on atmospheric I D fan
climate condition and it is difficult to control the draft as per requirement. So other type of draft control is discharge
pressure
required, which can eliminate above problem. This is achieved by some artificial means. Fans are used in
this case. Mechanical drafts are very economical and efficient. These are used widely because
Inlet Air
• This is very efficient pressure

o Draft is independent of climate condition

o Flue gas exit temperature is less so the system efficiency increases.

o Draft can be controlled suitably as per requirement. Inlet presure at

ID Fan
• Rate of combustion is very high as supply of air and evacuation of combustion is faster.
Fig. 11.11 Induced draft

o More draft can be produced.

Though Mechanical draft is mostly used still chimney can not be eliminated as it is required to
exhaust flue gas at a higher level to avoid concentration of dangerous combustion products at ground level.
There are three types of mechanical drafts. These are discussed below
1. Forced draft :
In this type of draft a mechanical fan called as Forced draft fan is placed before Furnace. This
fan supply air to the Boiler furnace which is at high pressure than atmosphere. This high pressure air is used
for combustion and flue gas is exhausted with pressure. Furnace pressure is more than atmospheric in this
case. So the furnace flame inspection door can not be opened as the flame will try to come out due to high
pressure inside furnace. In this case the pressure of air and flue gas is positive through out its path. In small
package Boilers this system may be used. But in case of large Boilers this is not used.
This fan soak the combustion product from furnace. So, negative pressure is developed inside
furnace. Due to this negative pressure of furnace, fresh air is entered into the furnace. The pressure through
out the path up to the discharge of ID fan is negetive. This fan discharges flue gas at higher pressure to
atmosphere through chimney. As the furnace pressure is negative the Inspection door can be opened easily
as flame will not come out rather out side air will enter into the furnace.
3. Balanced draft fan :
Both FD and ID fans are used in this case. Air is supplied to the furnace with pressure through
FD fan. This air helps combustion. ID Fan evacuates combustion product from the furnace. Draft is
adjusted in such a way that, air supplied to the furnace at positive pressure, where as, the furnace pressure
is maintained slightly negative (below atmospheric pressure).

2. Induced draft :
This type of draft uses a mechanical fan called as Induced draft fan. This fan is normally placed
just before chimney.


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Flue Gas Path

127
11.7.3 Oxygen (02)
For the burning of fuel oxygen is required. As discussed earlier there is a theoretical requirement
of oxygen for a particular quantity of fuel. The theoretical fuel to air ratio is called as stoichiometric
Air ,
ratio. Each molecule of the fuel, inside the furnace should have adequate oxygen supply for complete
Economiser ESP
Heater combustion. Some extra air is supplied to the furnace to ensure complete combustion. When air supplied
Chimney
is less than the theoretical requirement then the mixture is called as fuel rich. When air is more than the
theoretical requirement then the mixture is called as air rich.
__ Following figure shows the desired level of oxygen for highest efficiency.

FD fan discharge pressure ID fan Discharge

pressure

Excess Fuel Excess Air

Fig. 11.12 Blanced draft Fig. 11.13 Air & Fuel mixture
This system is mostly used in large Boiler. As this system is having two fans to supply air and evacuate Measurement of oxygen in flue gas indicates, at which zone -the boiler is operating.
flue gas, so it is efficient for combustion of any type of fuel. The load variation can be performed smoothly. If oxygen in flue gas is more, that means the boiler is operating at higher excess air region. Higher excess air
11.7 Flue gas constituents means more air is supplied in to the furnace, which is not taking part in combustion. But temperature of
In the Boiler furnace, fuel burns with the help of air supplied by FD fan. After combustion of this air is increasing up to flue gas temperature and escaping to atmosphere. This excess air is responsible
for drop in efficiency.
fuel, combustion products are produced. This combustion products or flue gas consists 'of various type of
gases and particulates. Some objectionable gases are present in the flue gas. These are to be reduced as So the boiler is expected to run in highest efficient operating. region as shown in the figure.
much as possible before escaping to atmosphere. Depending upon type of fuel used and furnace design, excess air is selected. It is normally 10% 20 %
The constituents of flue gas along with method of control and its impact upon the system excess air or 2%- 4% oxygen.
efficiency is discussed below The measurement of flue gas constituents are expressed either PPM or percentage. The larger
11.7.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 ) values like CO2 and 02 are 'expressed as percentage and the smaller values are expressed in ppm. The
Fuels (Hydro carbons) are ' burnt in Boiler. As discussed earlier, Carbon when burns produces conversion of ppm to percentage is given below.
carbon dioxide and heat.
PERCENTAGE
C+02 = CO2 +8137 Kcal /kg heat.
The flue gas should contain maximum CO 2 . More CO2 percentage' indicates the fuel particle is 1000000 ppm 100%
completely bum. 100000 ppm 10%
11.7.2 Carbon monoxide (CO) 10000 ppm 1%
If burning of fuel takes place with insufficient air (Oxygen) then carbon monoxide is formed. 1000 ppm .1%
C+1/2 02 = CO+ 2452 kcal/ kg heat 100 ppm .01%
Carbon monoxide gas is not desirable in flue gas. Presence of CO in flue gas indicates incomplete . 10 ppm .001%
combustion. As combustion is not complete, so the Boiler efficiency goes down. It is always desirable that
1 ppm .0001%
no CO is escaped from Boiler. '


128 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Flue Gas Path
129
11.7.4 Nitrogen oxide (NO x ) The catalyst is normally of vanadium oxide or titanium oxide. Honey comb, pipe or plate type
For combustion of fuel, oxygen is required. Air is used to meet the requirement of oxygen. catalysts are used. In this method up to 90% NOx reduction can be achieved. Injection of Ammonia is
normally done in between economiser and air heater.
Atmospheric air composition (by volume) is given below.
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21% Cata lyst
Argon .9%
Carbon dioxide .03%
Other minor gases balance -—
(Water vapor, hydrogen, ozone, methane, carbon monoxide, helium, neon krypton, xenon)
So it is understood that to get 21% oxygen, we are handling 78% of nitrogen for combustion.
This large volume of nitrogen gas, oxidizes and forms nitrogen oxides like- NO, NO2 etc., called as NOx due
to high temperature inside furnace. Also nitrogen present in the fuel contributes formation of NO x .
Fig. 11.14 Slective Catalyist Reduction
This nitrogen oxide is highly objectionable. Nitrogen oxide when reacts with atmospheric moisture,
forms droplets of nitric acid called as acid rain. II-Selective non-catalytic reduction method (SNCR)
NO2 reacts in atmosphere to form ozone (0 3 ). This ozone is tropospheric ozone which is present In this case NOx reducing agent such as Ammonia and Urea is injected in to flue gas. Catalyst
in ambient air that we breathe. This is harmful to human being. Only stratospheric ozone in the upper is not used in this case. Ammonia and Urea is injected at higher temperature.
atmosphere protects us from ultraviolet radiation coming from sun. 11.7.5 Sulphur oxide (SO x)
In a power boiler lot of NOx is produced. So it is required to control this. Emission standard for
Most of the fuel used in boiler contains sulphur. This sulphur when burns, SOx is formed.
NOx is set by pollution control authority of the country.
S +02 = SO2 + 2181 kcal heat
To control NO x , various control steps are taken. These are post combustion control methods and
Sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) is highly objectionable in flue gas. Power plants are the major NOx and
combustion control technique. In combustion control technique, care is taken to control NOx formation. In
post combustion control methods, NOx content in flue gas is reduced by some means. Both these methods SOx producers. So strict norms has been adopted through out the world to control these gases.
are discussed below. In coal, sulphur is present in different forms, i.e. — chemically bound with coal and un bound
(pyrites). Pyrites present in coal can be removed from coal to some extent by coal washing and cleaning.
11.7.4.1 Combustion control technique But the chemically bound sulfur can not be removed from coal. So it has to take part in burning process.
In this method proper care is taken so that NOx formation can be reduced. NOx is formed due So it is prefered to use low sulphur fuel to avoid SOx formation.
to high temperature of furnace and high residual time of air inside the furnace. To limit SOx emission, flue gas desulphurization ( FGD) method is adopted. Like flue gas
Proper design of Boiler furnace, proper setting of burner, reducing the peak temperature in the denitrification, in this method also some SOx absorption material like lime, is used. These absorption
combustion zone, minimizing residual time of air in peak temperature zone, controlling heat release rate materials are mixed with water and this mixed water is sprayed on flue gas from the top of a reaction tank.
and flue gas recirculation (FGR) can controll, NOx formation. <— Lime mixed water
Low NOx burners are used for controlling NOx formation. Also by reducing oxygen concentration
at the combustion zone NOx formation can be minimized. At Alt At At
—9. Flue gas out
It is preferred to adopt above methods to reduce NOx formation, than to adopt additional
methods to control the emission after formation.
11.7.4.2 Post combustion control method
In this method additional means are applied to control NOx emission, once it is formed. This
method is also called as Flue gas de-nitrification. Some NOx reducing agent is injected in to boiler
exhaust gas, which reacts with NOx and forms less harmful product.
There are two types of NOx control method. These are
tt t
Flue gas in
I — Selective catalytic reduction method (SCR)
NOx reducing agent, mostly Ammonia is injected in to flue gas. This flue gas is then passed
through a catalyst bed. In the presence of this catalyst, NOx reacts with Ammonia (NH 3 ).
6 NO + 4NH 3 = 5 N2 + 6 H20 Gypsum
. (CoSo4 )
6 NO2 + 8NH3 = 7 N2 + 12 H20
Fig. 11.15 Flue gas desutphurization


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Flue Gas Path

131,
When lime or lime stone mixed water come in contact with SO2 Gypsum is formed. This gypsum
11.8 Chimney
is collected from reaction tank and the water can be recycled again.
11.7.6 Water vapor Chimney is a system for venting hot flue gas from boiler to out side atmosphere at a suitable
Flue gas contains water vapor due to presence of moisture in fuel and burning of Hydrogen height to ensure the pollutants are dispersed over a wider area to meet legislation or safety requirement. The
chimney height is determined primarily by environment protection agency permitted ground level concentration
present in fuel. limits. The chimney is almost vertical to ensure flow of flue gas is smooth; It also helps to create natural
11.7.7 Volatile organic compounds (VOC) draft in the boiler. But now a day mostly, the chimney is used to vent the flue gas and draft is maintained
In case of liquid fuel organic compounds may present on boiler flue gas due to evaporation or by mechanical means. The flue gas duct of the boiler is connected to the chimney with suitable sealing
leakage of fuel. Escape of VOC reduces efficiency of Boiler. material-.
11.7.8 Particulates There are different types of chimney. These are either made of steel, Masonry or concrete.
Flue gas contains small particles of dust, soot and fumes. Use of ESP and other dust collecting Among them concrete chimneys are mostly used in boilers. Some time steel chimney is also used in small
system reduces presence of particulates in flue gas. Efficiency of this dust collecting equipment affects the boilers.
concentration of particulates in flue gas.
Chimney is normally cylindrical in construction. It is exposed to harsh environment at inside and
11.7.9 Heavy metal toxics out side. Flue gas with its abrasive and corrosive characteristic can damage the structural material.
Power plants emit Mercury in to atmosphere. The mercury is emitted in three chemical forms.
For this normally the chimney is lined with suitable material like — Fire brick, FRP etc. Mostly brick lining is
These are preferred in Boiler chimney. Corbel supported brick liner with suitable air space between concrete shell and
• Elemental form brick liner is preferred by most of the power engineers.
• Oxidized form
• Adsorbed to particulates
Among them the elemental form of mercury remains in atmosphere for a longer period. It can
travel several miles before settle. Other two forms are having shorter life in atmosphere, hence it settles
down in the area nearer to the plant.
Mercury emission is an alarming condition now days for power plants. There are some methods
to control the emission.
Dry powdered activated carbon is injected in to flue gas after ESP Mercury in flue gas is adsorbed
by these activated carbon particles. Then the flue gas is passed through a fabric filter where these activated
carbon particles are collected. This collected material is treated as toxic material and is kept in a separate
place for disposal.
11.8 Flue gas velocity
Flue gas velocity plays major role in a Boiler. As discussed earlier the flue gas passes through
different heat transfer surfaces like, superheater, evaporaters, economiser and air heater. In these heat
Fig. 11.16 RCC Chimney
transfer units heat from flue gas is transferred to other medium like — steam, water and. air. Flue gas
contains different gases and small solid particulates. These solid particulates present in flue gas erode the Chimney is basically a structure with very few mechanical parts that requires maintenance.
tube and determine the life of the heat transfer units. Mostly chimney is over looked by power plant personals. As told earlier, chimney is exposed to a harsh
The flue gas flows with certain velocity in flue gas path. This velocity depends upon draft of inside environment. Due to thermal sock or other reasons crack is developed in brick liner. Flue gas enters
in to the air space and condenses there. The acidic condensate corrodes the concrete interior and develops
the boiler. leakages through concrete joints. Also it can damage the corbel joints and the brick wall may collapse,
While designing a boiler, flue gas velocity is properly selected. The design flue gas velocity depends which lead to forced shutdown of the boiler as the flue gas path is restricted.
upon the concentration of solid partculates in flue gas. The solid particulafes are mainly consists of dust,
soot and fumes. These particles are responsible for erosion of tubes. If the dust load is less then flue gas During low load operation, less fuel is used. So volume of flue gas is also less. The exit velocity
velocity can be designed more. But if dust load is high gas velocity is designed less. of flue gas also decreases creating the problem of particulate build up on the liner. So, proper inspection
and cleaning is required regularly.
In case of low flue gas velocity, these solid particulates are deposited on boiler tubes.
So the heat transfer capacity of the tubes deceases. Considering these factors flue gas velocity is to be Due to friction the flue gas draft loss takes place. It is given by
properly selected for any type of boiler. AD = fW2 CH/A3
 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

Where AD = draft loss

W = Weight of gas passing per second
C = Perimeter of the chimney
H = height of chimney
A = Areaof chimney
f = a constant depending upon type of chimney and gas temperature

Out side of chimney (shell) is subjected to condensation, rain, thermal variation, ultraviolet
12.1 Introduction
, wind and ground stability. When concrete is exposed to CO2 continuous
exposure, lightning, atmospheric CO 2
Indian coal contains 25% to 60% ash. After combustion of coal, these ash particles remain in
carbonation takes place. So degradation of RCC continues year after year. So suitable coating is to be
Boiler. Different type of Boiler produces different type of ash like- bottom ash and fly ash. 25% to 60% of
done. Coating of chimney helps in total coal used is produced as ash in coal fired Boilers. Among all the Boilers, Ash production is more in
coal fired Boilers. The ash is to be removed from Boiler continuously. Ash removed from Boiler is hot. So
• Protecting against environment. it is required to be cooled before transporting to a suitable location.

• Protect against process gases.
• Compliance with aviation administration requirement.
The stack is normally painted with alternate band of white and red color.
For protection against lightning, lightning rod is provided with proper earthing at the top of the
chimney. As the height of chimney is more, so for aviation requirement, flash lights are fixed.
Depending upon the capacity of the plant and statutory requirement ,chimney height is decided.
Fot ground stability the foundation of the chimney is designed properly. Raft or pile type foundation is
adopted.
There are very high chimneys. The highest chimney of world is located at GRES-2 power station
in Exibstusz. Kazakhstan. It is 419.7 meter high.
Furnace bottom ash and fly ash are collected in different way. For conveying of ash different
methods are used. Due to strict environmental regulations, fly ash present in flue gas is to be separated
before it is vented to atmosphere. All these points are discussed in following sections.
12.2 Ash
Ash is the remaining product of solid fuel after burning. Ash is present in fuel itself. Ash is present
in coal in two forms. These are inherent or fixed ash and free ash. Inherent ash of the coal can not be
removed. Free ash is due to presence of clay, shale, pyrites etc. It can be removed from coal by washing of
coal. Coal is graded in to various grades depending upon the ash content in coal. High grade coal has less
ash content. Normally ash has following constituents.
SiO2 , A103, Fe2O3, Na2O, K2O, CaO and MgO
. Liquid fuels and Gaseous fuels contain very little ash. So these Boilers are not having ash
handling system.
We know there are various types of coal fired Boilers depending upon the firing system. These are
— Grate fired Boiler, Stoker fired Boiler, Pulverised fired Boiler, and Fluidised Boiler. Total ash produced in
these Boilers can be classified as bottom ash and fly ash.
12.2.1 Bottom Ash
Bottom ash is collected from the Boiler furnace. In case of pulverised coal fired Boiler this
bottom ash may be collected in dry form or in molten form. In dry form, ash temperature is less than ash
fusion temperature. This type of Boiler furnace is called as dry bottom type furnace.
In some Boiler, where the furnace temperature is more than ash fusion temperature, ash is collected
from furnace bottom in molten slag form. This type of furnace is called as wet bottom type furnace.
Bottom ash is some percentage of total ash production. It depends upon the type of Boiler.
In case of pulverised coal fired Boiler, percentage of bottom ash is less as compared to fly ash. As the fuel
burns in suspended condition, most of the ash is taken away by flue gas. Like this in case of Grate fired
Boiler, fuel burning takes place in the moving grate. In this case bottom ash percentage is higher than fly
ash. In Stoker fired Boiler coal is thrown in to the furnace. Some portion of coal burns on suspended
condition. In this Boiler bottom ash quantity is more than pulverised Boiler and less than Grate fired Boiler.
[133]


134 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Ash Handling System 135
In fluidised Boiler, fuel burns in fluidised condition. Here the generation of bed ash is less as
compared to fly ash. ti

12.2.2 Fly Ash

When the fuel bums in suspended condition, ash produced is taken away by flue gas. Ash which
is carried out by flue gas is called as fly ash. Generation of fly ash depends upon the size of coal. As size of Furnace
coal in pulverised Boiler is very small, so it generates more fly ash. This fly ash is required to be separated
from flue gas by suitable method like — Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP), Fabric filter (Bag house) etc. These
methods will be discussed in subsequent sections.
More fly ash in flue gas creates problem at downstream heat exchanger units. Fly ash is abrasive
in nature, hence creates erosion if flue gas velocity is high. In case of low gas velocity, this fly ash is
deposited on the heat transfer surfaces causing lower efficiency. o
o
Like bottom ash, fly ash is also required to be removed from Boiler continuously. /. ° o
This fly ash contains silica up to 60%. So it can be used with reinforced concrete. Fly ash bricks
00.. 0.
are manufactured using fly ash which can be used in place of normal clay bricks. Fly ash also can be used
for construction of road and filling of embankments. This waste product is to be utilised properly; otherwise
.000^ -0abo...y....
Qo a -o - -o°o ee-e
Water hopper
it requires huge space for storage and disposal.
12.3 Bottom Ash removal system
Fig. 12.1 Dry bottom furnace
In this section various methods of ash removal from Boiler furnace is discussed. Once this ash is
removed from Boiler, it is to be transported to suitable location for further disposal.
12.3.2 Wet bottom Furnace ash removal
Bottom ash removal is very difficult in a Boiler. As —
The ash is at higher temperature. In this case, ash is collected in molten slag form. Ash temperature is more than ash fusion
•
temperature. Mostly in cyclone type pulverised Boiler, furnace temperature is more than ash fusion
• The ash is very abrasive in nature. temperature. So 70% — 80% of total ash produced is collected in molten form. This molten ash falls in to
• Proper sealing of furnace is required to avoid out side air ingress. a water hopper. With sudden contact with quenching water, the molten ash become coarse, hard, black,
• The ash is very corrosive. and angular and glazing.

• When ash come in contact with water, dangerous fumes and corrosive acid is formed. 12.4 Ash handling system
• Clinker is formed on grate which restricts primary air flow. It is required to be broken which is a Ash coming out from furnace is required to be removed continuously. For this three methods are
dangerous job. adopted. These are discussed below one by one
Proper water sealing is required in this case to avoid out side cold air ingress in to furnace which
12.4.1 Hydraulic ash handling system
disturbs Boiler draft and reduces efficiency.
12.3.1 Dry Bottom Furnace Ash removal. In this method ash is carried out by stream of water. Ash collected from furnace is transported to
a suitable location called as ash sump or settling pond, where the ash is allowed to settle down. Water from
In this method, ash is collected in Dry form. Ash temperature is normally below the ash fusion the sump is recycled and used for carrying ash again.
temperature. Ash from the furnace bottom drops in to water filled hopper. This water hopper serves two
purposes. Fly seals the Boiler furnace, to avoid air ingress and secondly it cools down the hot ash. Water The hydraulic system is dust free and clean.' As no mechanical part come in contact with
in the hopper is circulated continuously to carry out this heat. corrosive ash, so maintenance is not a problem. Ash is handled in cold condition so this system is very
simple.
When in pulverised coal fired Boiler ash is removed in dry form the furnace bottom is called as
dry bottom. The furnace of Grate fired and Stoker fired Boiler is not called as pry bottom furnace. But ash There are two types of hydraulic ash handling system named as Low velocity system and High
removal system is mostly same as dry bottom furnace. velocity system.
In Grate fired Boiler, coal is.fed from one end and burning of coal takes place on the moving
grate. Finally ash drops in to a water hopper like earlier case. 12.4.1.1 Low velocity system

From this water hopper ash is removed by different methods like — Hydraulic or Mechanical In this system, low velocity water at a velocity of 3- 5 m/sec is used to carry out ash, removed
Extraction system (chain drag conveyer). from Boiler furnace.


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Ash Handling System 137
High pressure water is directed to ash, just coming out from Grate, through set of nozzles fitted
at the hopper. This water quenches the ash. Other set of nozzles are fitted ' at the bottom portion.
These nozzles are used to drive out the ash to settling pond. Like low velocity system ash is settled at settling
pond and water is recycled.
-^ To ESP This method can also be used in case of pulverised Boiler with dry and wet type of furnace.
Water requirement in this case is lesser than low velocity system. More ash can be removed in
e r,s.r this system and ash can be transported up 1 KM distance.
hop /r

1 Low velocity
Some time ash is pumped to settling pond through pipe, by the help of slurry pump. The ash
water
channel Settling Pond collected from Boiler furnace is crushed first in a crusher. Slurry is prepared in a slurry tank. This slurry is
1
pumped through a pump to settling pond.

Circulation Pump
Fig. 12.2 Low Velocity System
Ash from Grate or bottom of the furnace falls in to water channel. Water, which flows at low
velocity at the water channel, carry out ash in to ash settling pond. At settling pond, ash settles down and
the water is recycled. Settled ash then reclaimed and transported for disposal/ dumping. There are more o° °o°^o
than one water channel per Boiler. Ash carried with water, contains corrosive acids and salts and ash is o°o °o

highly abrasive. So, water channels are made of corrosion and wear resistant material.
00000
0 0

In this system ash may be carried up to 500 meters.

12.4.1.2 High velocity system
In this system high velocity water is used to carry out ash from Boiler.
00 ocP

-- Ash Crusher

Furnace
Ash from
ESP 1

Slurry pump
Agitator - Settling
(o Grate o) pond

Fig. 12.4 Slury Pump System

Fly ash collected from ESP can also be put in to the slurry tank to transport this ash to
settling pond.

12.4.2 Mechanical ash handling system

Ash coming out from Boiler furnace is to be evacuated regularly. In case of Hydraulic method ash
is carried out by water. In Mechanical system, ash is removed out by means of mechanical methods like — belt
Water Chanel conveyer or chain conveyer. Belt conveyer or drag chain conveyer is submersed in water, so that the ash can
be cooled. Also water ensures sealing of furnace.

Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
Make up water
—^
7
Submerged Conveyer
Fig. 12.5 Mechanical Ash Handling System
Ash from Boiler furnace falls on the running submersed conveyer. Conveyer takes out the ash
continuously to ash hopper. From ash hopper the ash may be transported to ash storage area by means of
further conveyer system, through truck or through pipe by slurry pump method as discussed earlier.
Water in which the belt is submerged comes in contact with hot corrosive ash. So its temperature
increases. Also the water is mixed with small ash particles. So this water is taken out to the settling pond
and recycled. Make up water is also added to maintain water level and temperature. If water level become
low then temperature of belt may increase and it may burh out.
Drag chain conveyer has no risk to high temperature failure. But as it is exposed to acidic and
erosive environment so it requires proper maintenance.
12.4.3 Pneumatic ash handling system
In pneumatic ash handling system, high pressure air is used for conveying ash to a suitable
location. This type of system handles dry fly ash. As fly ash requires more settling time at settling pond,
pneumatic conveying system is preferred. Bottom ash can also be removed by this method after crushing it
in a crusher.
There are three types of pneumatic conveying system. These are lean phase, medium phase and
dense phase conveying system. Depending upon air to ash ratio these phases are classified.
In dense phase system.compressed air consumption is less as the volumetric ratio of ash to air
is high. Ash flows in fluidising condition. Flow characteristic of this is resemble that of liquid. Also due to
low velocity in the system, wear and tear of pipe is minimum. Ash is transported in an enclosed pipe. So
spillage and dust pollution is eliminated. The system can be automated easily. So ash handling system can
be operated through automatic control system from Boiler control room.
For above advantages, dense phase conveying is preferred now a days in place of Mechanical
dust handling system (screw conveyers, chain conveyers, elevators etc.). Some time instead of pressurised
air, vacuum is used for ash transportation.
We will discuss here about operation procedure of dense phase conveying system.
The ash conveying system is placed below the ash hopper. If the temperature of ash is high then
the hopper is made water jacketed. Cooling water flows continuously through this jacket. If bottom ash is
to be transported then it is to be crushed first before coming to the ash hopper.
Ash Handling System 139
A level switch is provided at the vessel of the conveyer. When ash level increases more than
certain level, conveying is started automatically. Also conveying can be done at a fixed interval. Conveying
activity is controlled through solenoid valves. The system can be operated in auto mode from remote or
manually from local. Instrument air supply is required other than conveying air for operation of this system.
Ash Hooper
—^
Vessel pressure
valve
Fig. 12.6 Pneumatic Ash handling
This system is having its own control panel. Pressure switches, Timers and Solenoid valves are
fitted in this control panel.
One plate valve is placed in between ash hopper and conveyer vessel to isolate the system for
maintenance. When ash inlet valve of the vessel opens, ash falls in to the doom or vessel of the conveyer.
This ash inlet valve closes when level switch in the vessel is operated or after some predetermined time
(timer mode). When inlet valve closes it seals the ash hopper from ash vessel. Vessel is pressurized by
opening vessel pressure solenoid valve to admit compressed air in to the vessel. When vessel pressure
attains some predetermined value, ash discharge valve opens. When there is not proper sealing in inlet
valve or ash discharge valve, pressure of the vessel will not increase. After discharge valve opens, blow valve
opens to allow conveying air. This conveying pressurised air carries out the ash to storage hopper, which is
located in a suitable location for further disposal. Discharge valve closes when vessel pressure reduces to
some predetermined value. After some time blow valve closes and ash inlet valve opens for further cycle of
conveying.
In this system, more than one hopper may be connected into a common conveying pipe with
common conveying air. This arrangement is called as "Master and Slave" arrangement. The system is most
suitable for automatic operation. Conveying pipe line may be routed as per requirement.
From storage hopper ash may be disposed after conditioning it, by a ash conditioner. Dry dust
from the storage hopper is taken out by a screw conveyor, where water nozzles are provided. Through these
nozzle's water is sprayed to the ash to make it moist. This moist ash can be loaded on truck and can be
disposed off.


140 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Ash Handling System 141
Storage bin requires less space, so it can be used suitably where space is limited. For storage bin.
mechanical or pneumatic ash handling system is preferred.
Ash Hopper (c) Water availability :
Lot of water is required in hydraulic ash handling system. So where water is not available
sufficiently, this system can not be used. Other system may be used in this case.
(d) Type of coal
Different coal contains different percentage of ash, sulpher and other chemical contents. Good
- quality coal contains less ash, so ash production is less in this case. Low capacity ash handling system will
be sufficient in this case. If coal contains high calcium oxide, then it will solidify, when coming in contact
with water. In this case, hydraulic system is not suitable.
(e) Distance of transportation
Distance of ash storage area from the Boiler plays a major role. When ash is to be transported
to a longer distance, pneumatic or mechanical system may be used.
12.6 Fly ash separation system
Fig. 12.7 Ash Conditioner In solid fuel fired Boiler, particularly in coal fired Boiler, flue gas contains dust particles which is
12.5 Selection of suitable Ash Handling System generated during combustion. These dust particles are mainly ash. This ash is called as fly ash. This fly ash
is required to be separated from flue gas before it is evacuated to atmosphere. Then the separated dust is
Different ash handling system is used for different Boiler. Ash handling system performs following collected and removed for disposal.
three functions.
There are various methods of dust separation. In some methods dust is separated in dry condition
(i) Removes ash from Boiler furnace and other ash collection hoppers and in some methods, dust is separated in wet condition. Mechanical and electro static principles are
(ii) Convey this ash to a storage area / storage hopper applied for dust separation also.
(iii) Disposes this ash Various methods of dust separation are
Ash removal and disposal is a major function in a Boiler, specifically in a coal fired Boiler. As the (a) Inertial separators
ash contents in Indian coal is around 50%, so 50% of the coal burnt in a Boiler is removed as ash. This
huge quantity of ash is to be handled properly. Otherwise it may lead to stoppage of Boiler. Also the ash is o Settling chambers
in higher temperature, so proper care is to be taken. Ash produced from coal is highly abrasive and acidic
o Baffle chambers
in nature. So it makes the ash handling system complicated.
Selection of proper ash handling system can make this task easier. For selecting a suitable system • Centrifugal (cyclone) separator
there are so many factors. Some of them are discussed below. (b) Wet scrubber
(a) Boiler design and configuration (c) Fabric separator (Bag filter)
There are various types of Boilers. The capacity also varies from a small process Boiler to a large (d) Electrostatic precipitator (ESP)
power Boiler. Different types of fuels are used in different Boilers. In some Boiler, coal is used in pulverised
These are discussed one by one in subsequent sections.
form and in some case, it is grate fired or spreader stocker type. As discussed earlier, percentage of fly ash
to bottom ash generation varies according to type of Boiler. In case of pulverised Boiler, 60 to 80% ash is 12.6.1 Inertial separators
produced as fly ash and remaining is bottom ash. In case of stocker fired Boiler, 20 to 30 % ash is produced
In this method forces like centrifugal, gravitational and inertial are used for dust separation from
as fly ash and remaining is bottom ash. So, different type of ash handling system is required for different
flue gas. The separated dust is moved by gravity in to a hopper from where it can be removed easily.
Boiler. As fly ash takes longer time to settle in settling pond, so, hydraulic system may not be suitable in this
Mostly three types of inertial separators are used. Tough these systems are not so effective, still these
case. Normally, pneumatic system is preferred here.
principle of separation are used along with other separation methods for more efficient dust separation.
High capacity Boiler consumes lot of coal, so ash production is more as compared to lower
capacity Boiler. So size of Boiler is a factor for deciding ash handling system. 12.6.1.1 Settling chamber
(b) Disposal condition : A large box is installed in the flue gas path. Size of the flue gas duct increases suddenly. Due to
In hydraulic ash conveying system, settling pond is required. This pond requires large space. So sudden expansion of size at this chamber, flue gas speed reduces and heavier dust particles settle down in
if space is limited, hydraulic conveying system may not be suitable. the hopper.


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Ash Handling System

143

Flue gas
Economiser out

Furnace
Settling Air heater
Chamber
Flue gas out

collected Ash

Ash
1
Ash

Fig. 12.8 Settling chamber Fig. 12.10 Ash Collection in Boiler

12.6.1.3 Centrifugal (Cyclone) separator

Normally this method is not used alone for dust separation. This method can be used along with
Centrifugal separator uses cyclonic action for dust separation from flue gas. Dust laden gas
other methods. enters into the separator at an angle and spins rapidly. Due to centrifugal force created by this circular flow,
heavier dust particles are thrown away towards wall of the cyclone. The dust particle falls in to an ash
12.6.1.2 Baffle chamber hopper after striking wall of the separator.
In this method baffles are placed in the flue gas path. This arrangement changes the flue gas
Cyclone separator creates a dual vortex to separate heavier particles. The main vertex spin down
flow direction suddenly. Heavy dust particles can not change its direction rapidly. So these particles are and carries the dust particles. The inner vortex is created near bottom of the cyclone and spins upward.
settled in a dead air space due to gravity. This system is normally used as a pre cleaner along with other Gas Clean
Air out
Outlet
dust separators. Tube

A Baffle

Flue Gas
— ^ out
Flue gas in
Dust laden
flue gas e

Collected Ash

Fig. 12.9 Baffle Chamber

4. Dust
Fig. 12.11 Cyclone Separator


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Ash Handling System 145
144
Separation efficiency of cyclone separator depends upon the dimension of cyclone. Smaller Dust laden flue gas enters from the lower portion of the tower. The gas distribution plate distributes
diameter and smaller apex angle makes the cyclone efficient. Longer size cyclone is efficient but increases the gas evenly throughout cross section of the tower. Water is sprayed from the top. Dust particle is
the flow resistance. So, multiple cyclone separators are used. More than one small diameter and longer separated and fall down with water. Clean gas leaves the tower from top. A mist eliminator (demister pad)
cyclones are connected in parallel having common flue gas inlet and out let. is provided to remove water from gas.
Cyclone separator is having following advantages Another type of wet scrubber mostly used is called as venturi scrubber. In this type of separator
• Simple construction dust laden gas passes through a venturi to increase the gas velocity. Water is sprayed in to the venturi throat.
• Have no moving parts High velocity gas immediately atomises the coarse water spray.
• Have low pressure drop Due to high turbulence and high velocity of flue gas, collision takes place oetween water droplets
Little maintenance and dust particles at the throat. Agglomeration process between them continues in the diverging section of
the venturi. Large agglomerates formed in the venturi are removed by an internal separator. Efficiency of
12.6.2 Wet scrubber
this type of separator depends upon pressure drop across the venturi.
In this method, dust is separated from flue gas in wet condition. Normally water is used as
scrubbing liquid. Water is sprayed to the dust laden flue gas. Dust removal efficiency is higher if the contact In wet scrubber, water comes in contact with flue gas which is acidic in nature. So this system is
of flue gas and water is more. The dust particle and water droplet come in contact by four primary prone to corrosion.
mechanisms. These are 12.6.3 Fabric separator ( Bag filter)
• Internal impaction
When water droplet flows in the path of dust laden gas stream, water droplets and dust particles In this separator, fabric collectors are used to filter flue gas to separate dust. Dust laden gas
flows in the stream. Due to inertia, heavy dust particles continue in a straight path and hit water enters the bag house and passes through fabric bags, which act as filter. The bags are woven or felted
droplets and become encapsulated. cotton, synthetic or glass fiber material. To provide support to the bags,. bags are normally supported by a
• Interception metal cage. Explosion vent is provided to protect the bag house from accidental explosion.
Finer particles moving within a gas stream do not hit droplets directly but brush against them and Bag filter is one of the most efficient and cost effective type of dust separator. Its collection
adhere to them. efficiency is more than 99% and very fine particles can be separated. It is used in many Boilers to separate
• Diffusion fly ash from the.flue gas. The separated fly ash is collected in a hopper from where this can be removed
When liquid droplets are scattered among dust particles the particles are deposited on the droplet through mechanical screw conveyer or pneumatic conveying system. Bag house filter is used where low
by diffusion. sulpher coal is fired.
• Condensation nucleation Dust is collected at the outer surface of the bag. Flue gas flows from outside to in side of
If a gas passing through a scrubber is cooled below the dew point, condensation of moisture occurs in
the bag.
the dust particles. This increases the particle size and makes collection easier.
Fabric/bag provides a surface on which dust particles are deposited due to following mechanisms.
Clean Gas outlet
• Gravity
Large size heavy dust particle falls down to the hopper placed below the bag house, due to
IU///IU//////LI
Mist elliminator gravitational force.
Spray • Inertial collection
water
Heavy dust particles strike the fiber bag placed in the flue gas path. They fall down in to hopper as
■ Gas Distribution Plate
ffilIIMI11111I1111MIEMINIIIII they can not change their flow direction suddenly with gas stream due to inertia.
• Interception
Flue Gas — ^
Inlet The dust particles can not cross the filter bag because of the fiber size.
• Diffusion
Submicron dust particles are diffused so that the probability of contact between the particle and
Dusty Water fabric filter surface increases.
Fig. 12.12 Wet Scruber


146 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Ash Handling System

Interception

Electrostatic

Fig. 12.13 Dust Collection Mehanism

Electrostatic
Due to electrostatic force between dust particles and filter bag, dust capture capacity of the bag Fig. 12.14 Bag Filter (Reverse jet type)
increases.
Volume of gas flow per unit area of the bag is called as "air-to cloth ratio".
These different mechanisms are not independent but operate simultaneously in a bag filter. To clean more volume of gas more cloth area is required to avoid large pressure drop.
Which mechanism is most effective depends on particle size, mass velocity, density of gas, electrostatic Depending upon the temperature of flue gas stream, different types of fabrics are used. Higher
forces and the type of fabric used. temperature tolerance fabric is more expensive. Recommended maximum operating temperature for various
Dust is deposited on the surface of bag as a cake known as dust cake. Due to this dust cake, fabrics is mentioned below.
resistance of flue gas flow increases. So it is required to clean the bag periodically. There are two type of Temperature (°f)
Fabric
cleaning methods i.e.- on line and off line. In case of on line method, cleaning is done without interrupting
dust laden flue gas flow. In off line method, flue gas flow is interrupted temporarily during cleaning. Cotton 180
Wool 200
Depending upon the cleaning method of bags, bag filters may be divided in to following
three types. Nylon 200
Poly propylene 200
1. Mechanical shaker : In this type of filter, filter bags are shaked by a mechanical system.
Dacron 275
Force exerted on the dust particle removes them from filter bag. Normally this is done off line.
Nomex 400
2. Reverse air : In this method, clean air is injected in to the filter bag in the reverse direction of Teflon 400
normal gas flow. Cleaning air is forced to flow from inside to outside , of the bag. Due to reverse
Glass 500
direction of flow of air, the dust cake breaks and fall down to hopper. This method of cleaning is
done off line. For selection of suitable fabric following important factors are considered.
3. Reverse jet : Mostly this type of bag filter is used, as the cleaning of bags can be performed on • Temperature of flue gas
line. In this type of bag filter, flow of dust laden flue gas is normally from outside to inside of the
bag. Bags are cleaned by a sort burst of compressed air injected through &solenoid valve and Moisture level
nozzle. Duration of compressed air burst is very short. It acts as a rapidly moving air bubble, • Particulate size
traveling through the whole length of the bag and causing the bag surface to flex. This flexing of
• Gas stream chemistry
the bag, breaks the dust cake and dust fall in to the hopper. Cleaning of few bags is done at a time
while rest of the bags continue filtration. Continuous cleaning of this type of bag filter is done • Air to cloth ratio
automatically by suitable timer. So the bags are maintained clean. • Particulate abrasiveness


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Ash Handling System

149
.
12.6.4.2 Factors affecting the performance of ESP :
12.6.4 Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)
Electrostatic precipitator uses electrostatic forces to separate dust particles from flue gas. There are many factors which influence the performance of ESP. These are discussed one
ESP may be installed before Air heater or after Air heater of the Boiler. If ESP is installed before Air heater by one.
it is called as hot side ESP. It handles high temperature dust laden flue gas. As the volume of ho' gas is 1. Corona : Corona ionizes gas molecules and charges dust particles. At higher temperature
more so the size of hot side ESP is larger. If ESP is installed after Air heater it is called as cold side ESP. flue gas density is reduced. Lower density of flue gas initiate corona at lower voltage. Corona power is the
The basic principle of ESP is attraction of two oppositely charged particles. Particulate present power required to energize the discharge electrode and create corona. Corona power is expressed in watts
in flue gas is charged negative by ionization of gas molecule. Then these negatively charged dust particles per 1000m3/hr or watts per 1000 ACFM (Actual cubic feet per minute). It is approximately 60 to 300 watts
are attracted to the grounded collecting plates: The basic principle of operation of ESP-is-discussed in---- per 1000-m3/hr.
subsequent sections in details. 2. Resistivity of the particulate : Resistivity of the particulate is a main factor that influences
Ionising field or corona ESP performance. This is the measurement of resistance to electrical conduction. Resistivity is the electrical
+ + + + 7+ + + + + resistance of a dust sample of 1 cm2 in cross section and 1 cm thick. Unit of Resistivity is ohm-cm and it is
normally 108 to 10 12 for coal fly ash. The charged particulates are supposed to transfer their charge to
Clean gas out collecting plate. Particle having high resistance is difficult to charge. But once it is charged, it does not give
up its acquired charge on striking to the collecting plate easily. The particle having low Resistivity can be
charged easily and give up its acquired charge easily.
--4
-ve Discharge If the resistivity is too low the particulate discharges its charge too quickly and escape from the
Gas in Electrode collecting plate and come back to gas stream again. This phenomenon is called as re-entrain. If the
resistivity is too high, particle does not give up its charge completely to the collecting electrode. So the
charge is accumulated on the collecting plate and leads to back corona. This back corona reduces
ionization and migration of particles in flue gas. The particle also remain strongly attracted to collecting
plate as it is still having charge. So it is difficult to rap off.
Fig. 12.15 Electrostatic Precipitator The major factors that influence ash resistivity are temperature, carbon particles and chemical
12.6.4.1 Principle of operation composition (Sodium and Sulpher trioxide). Carbon particulate in fly ash reduces resistivity.
ESP consists of number of discharge electrodes and collecting plates. Discharge electrode is The resistivity of ash verses temperature is shown for different sulpher continent coal in the
connected to the negative point of high voltage direct current source. High voltage direct current (DC) is Figure.
obtained through a Transformer Rectifier (TR) set. The collecting plate, normally a large flat surface, is
Hot Precipitator
1012
connected to earth.
Dust laden flue gas is allowed to pass between these two electrodes. When supply is given to the
discharge electrode, electric field is created. Due to high field strength, corona is established. Corona is the
ionization of gas molecules by high energy electrodes in a strong electric field. This corona charges the
particulates present in the flue gas. These charged particulates are attracted by collecting plates. Once
these charged particulates come in contact with collecting electrodes, they lose their charge. Microscopic Resistivity
particles are attached to the collecting surface and form a dust cake. Periodically a rapper strikes the collecting
plate to dislodge the collected ash. This dislodged ash then falls in to an ash hopper placed below ESP. 1010
Total function of ESP may be divided in to three parts.
• Ionization of dust particles flowing between the electrodes
Migration and collection of particles on oppositely charged plates Cold Precipitator
log
•
• Removal of particle from collecting surface to a hopper by vibrating or rapping the collecting
surface 108
The main components of ESP are : 300 400 500
• Power supply unit (TR unit) Gas temperature(°F)
Fig. 12.16 Resistivity of ash
• Ionizing section and collecting surface
A means of removing the collected particles The resistivity is maximum between 300 to 400 °E Resistivity of low sulfur coal is high. To make
•
the resistivity normal, gas conditioning is required. Small amount of sulpher trioxide (SO 3) is injected in to
• A housing to enclose the precipitation zone


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Ash Handling System

151
flue gas when low sulpher coal is used in Boiler, to reduce flue gas resistivity. Critical sulpher level of ash 4. Particle migration velocity : The operating principle of ESP is based on
Anderson" equitation. The simpler form of this equitation is given by "Deutsch —
particle for better performance of ESP is .5% of the flue gas. 10 to 20 ppm of SO3 in flue gas is sufficient
to maintain resistivity of fly ash below critical level. rl = 1- e-m(NQ)
In case of high sulfur coal, SO3 level is high so the resistivity is less. To maintain the resistivity, Where
Ammonia (NH3 ) is injected in to flue gas for conditioning. rl = collection efficiency of the precipitator
3. Flue gas velocity : Flue gas velocity is having significant effect on the dust collection e = base natural logarithm (2.718)
efficiency of ESP. Efficiency increases when flue gas velocity decreases. co = migration velocity or drift velocity of dust in cm/s
A = effective collecting plate area in m2
Q = gas flow through ESP in m 3/sec
Migration velocity or draft velocity is the speed at which particle migrates towards the
collecting plate after it is charged. Migration velocity is affected by particle size, strength of electric field and
viscosity of the gas.
Migration velocity is given by equation-
w — dy EoEz
47zµ
Where
co = migration velocity
dP = diameter of the particle in µm
Fig. 12.17 Effect of Velocity Eo = strength of field in which particles are charged (represented by peak
Voltage in Vim)
Two forces are acted on a particle at ESP. First is due to flue gas flow and second is due to
Electrostatic force created: They are at right angle to each other. So the particle flows on resultant direction. Ep = strength of field in which particles are collected in V/m
If electrostatic farce is higher than force exerted due to flue gas flow, then particle will flow in path 1 as = gas viscosity
shown in the fig. and collected at the collecting plate. Otherwise if flue gas velocity is higher than electrostatic 7r=3.14
force then the particle will follow path 2 as shown in fig. and escape from the collecting plate. From above discussion it is clear that by increasing field strength, migration velocity increases.
So collection efficiency also increases.
Low gas velocity also provides sufficient residual time for proper charging and collection of dust
particle. High gas velocity may lead to erosion. Like this, large particle size increases migration velocity and hence collection efficiency.
Gas flow through ESP chamber should be slow and evenly distributed. Gas velocity is reduced in Deutsch — Anderson equation consider migration velocity (co) as uniform. But it varies with
ESP by expansion at the diverging section of inlet plenum. Inlet plenum contains perforated diffuser plates particle size. Also this equation does not consider re-entrainment during rapping. So this equitation may be
modified by replacing migration velocity (co) by a parameter called as effective precipitation rate (co).e This
to evenly distribute gas inside ESP chamber. ESP chamber is formed by gas tight plates. was proposed by Dr. Harry white. This equation is given by-
1— e weiwQi

This
This equation was further modified by Sigvard Matts and Olaf ohnfeldt of Sweden popularly
known as Mtts — Ohnfeldt equitation. This equitation is given by
❑ 0000
❑ 0000 rl = 1— e e* (A/Q) k
❑ 0000 perforated plate
❑ 0000 Where
wk = average migration velocity collected from field experience in cm/s
k = a constant, usually .4 to .6
5. Collecting plate area : From Deutsch — Anderson equation it is clear that the collection
=1g. 12.18 Inlet Plenum efficiency increases with increase in collecting plate area.


152 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Ash Handling System 153

In an ESP the collecting plates and discharge electrodes are placed in parallel with gas flow. 7. Sectionalisation
There are number of collecting plates provided across the width of ESP
To collect dust in ESP efficiently, ESP is divided in to series of independent sections or fields in
the direction of flow. Each field is having separate power supply units (TR sets) to energies discharge
electrodes. This type of arrangement provides better flexibility. Dust load at the inlet section of the ESP is
high and gradually comes down as it is collected in the up stream sections. The gas is clean towards outlet
end. So, more power is required at the inlet end to charge dust particle. As the dust concentration is high at
this end, so most of the particles are collected at this field. At the down stream field of ESP dust concentration,
is less, so lesspoweris required to charge remaining particles.
High voltage
power supply
Rappers

Fig. 12.19 Collecting plate

The passage between two collecting electrodes is called as channel. No of channel is equal to N-
1, where N is the number of collecting plates.
So the collecting plate area is given by
A = ApX (N-1) X Ns
Where
A = Area of collecting plate in m2
Ap = Area of each plate (HxL, H = height of plate; L = length of plate) Dust laden
flue gas
N = Number of plates
Ns = Number of sections

Specific collection area (SCA)

Specific collection area (SCA) is defined as the ratio of collecting surface area to gas flow
through ESP. This is the ratio A/Q, as mentioned in Deutsch — Anderson equation.
total collection surface in m2
SCA =
Gas flow rate
6. Aspect ratio : Aspect ratio is the ratio of length to height of an ESP This ratio is an
important factor in reducing rapping loss (dust re-entrainment). If height of collecting plate is more as
compared to the length, during rapping, the dislodged dust particle is carried out by gas flow before it settles
in the dust hopper. So the collection efficiency decreases.
Effective length, m
Aspect ratio =
Effective height, m
Effective length of collecting surface is the sum of plate lengths in each section and effective
height is the height of plate.
If plate length is 3 meter and there are 3 sections then the effective length is 3 x 5 = 15 meter.
If the height of each plate is 10 meter then the Aspect ratio in this.case is 15/10 = 1.5.
Aspect ratio of ESP is kept approximately . 5 to 2.
Hoppers
Fig. 12.20 Sectionalisation of ESP
So, sectionalisation of fields provides flexibility to operate ESP at various conditions. ESP can
also be put in service if one field is down. Depending upon the quantity of flue gas to be cleaned and the
dust load, number of sections may be taken in to line.
12.6.4.3 Removal of fly Ash
We discussed how the fly ash is collected in the collecting plate. Now it is required to remove this
from the plate periodically, so that ESP can be operated continuously. Dust is removed from the plate by
rapping the plates or causing vibration, that knock off the layer of dust. The dust falls in to a hopper from
where this can be taken out continuously by help of screw conveyer or pneumatic system. Discharge
electrode also requires rapping.
There are two types of rapping. In the first type, plate is rapped by a falling weight. The weight
is normally lifted through an electro magnet. Intensity of rapping can be adjusted by varying the height from
which the weight is dropped. This is done by adjusting the accelerated field strength.
In the second type of rapping, a rotating hammer is used. To change the intensity of rapping
weight of the hammer is changed.
Both types of rapperers are having facility to adjust rapping interval. Rapping interval is set
between 1 to 10 minutes, depending upon the condition. Normally one rapper is provided for every 1200 to
1500 square feet of collecting area.

Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
Dust falling on to the hopper after rapping is stored there temporarily. These hoppers are pyramid
shaped that converges to round or square discharge end. Hopper walls are steeply sloped to prevent dust
accumulation in the side wall. There are different hoppers for each section of ESP. Screw conveyer or
pneumatic conveying is used to remove ash from the hopper.
12.6.4.4 Advanta g es and Disadvantages of ESP
ESP is a very efficient dust separation unit used in Boilers. ESP is having some advantages and
disadvantages as discussed below.
Advantages:
• Pressure drop of flue gas across ESP is very less.
ESP can have collection efficiency up to 99%.
•
o Silicon control rectifiers (SCR) and other modern control devices allow an ESP to operate
automatically.
• Maintenance cost is low.
Disadvantages :
• The size of ESP is large.
• It is prone to corrosion if temperature of any part exposed to flue gas drops below acid dew point.
• ESP is designed for a particular type of fuel. If fuel characteristic changes performance of ESP also
changes.
• Capital cost of ESP is high.
• For heavy dust load, suitable pre cleaner may be required.
o As it operates at high voltage so it requires proper skill to handle.
o If any combustible particle enters in to ESP 'and a spark is initiated, there is chance of explosion.
12.7 Utilisation of ash :
Indian coal contains high percentage of ash. In thermal power plants huge amount of ash is
produced. So lot of space is required to dump this ash. Also it crates lot of dust nueincience. For this, it is
required to use as much ash as possible in a better way.
Govt. of India is very serious in this regard. Ministry of environment and Forest has brought a
draft amendment on 6th Nov. 2002 for utilization of this ash. As per this Gazette, construction company
like- Housing Boards, Hotels etc. are required to use a certain minimum percentage (by volume of their
total consumption) of ash products like—bricks, blocks, tiles etc., those which are situated within 50 to 100
KM from a coal fired thermal power plant.
Fly ash utilization program (FAUP) has started its activity in India with the help of Ministry of
science and technology, Ministry of power and Ministry of Environment and forest. Lot of initiatives has
been taken by Technology information, forecasting and assessment council (TIFAC).
With the help of Fly ash mission (FAM), Fly ash utilization program( FAUP) and other Govt.
Institute, Govt. of India had organized International congress on fly ash- 2005 at New Delhi during 4'h to
7th Dec. 2005.
National highway Authority of India (NHAI) is using 60 lac M3 of ash in it's on going projects
and has taken initiative to use around 67 lac M3 of ash in its proposed projects.
Ash Handling System 155
Some Reputed Govt. Institution of India have developed following fly ash based Building
components for use in houses.
• Wood substitute door panel by RRL, Bhopal.
• Ceramic tiles (containing 35% ash) by CGCRI, Ahmadabad.
o Fly ash granite (60% ash) by BHEL.
• Sintered aggregates (70-85% ash) by RRL, Bhubaneswar.
Other than this, fly ash bricks and blocks are produced by local suppliers.
Above discussion indicates the seriousness of Govt. of India for utilization of ash.
Ash is collected in three ways from coal fired Boiler. This has been discussed earlier. These are :
• Bottom ash
o Fly ash
• Pond ash ( ash collected from settling pond)
These ashes may be used in different ways as discussed below.
12.7.1 Construction of embankments and fills
The geo- technical properties of ash is suitable for fill and embankment construction. Indian
road congress (IRC) has issued guidelines for use of ash in road embankment. Merits of ash for this purpose
are :
•Ash is lighter than soil. Density of ash is lower than soil. So it minimizes transportation cost.
o Ash is suitable in weak/clayey sub soils.
o Low compressibility, so negligible subsequent settlement within the fills.
• During rainy season also work can be done as ash is having quick draining properties.
• It is Eco friendly as soil is not to be taken out from agriculture land.
12.7.2 Road construction
Bottom ash, fly ash and pond ash can be used for road construction. Bottom ash can be used
for sub base of road, fly ash and pond ash can be used with soil/lime/cement/moorum for base or sub- base
purpose. Fly ash can be mixed with cement concrete for rigid final layer.
12.7.3 Pozzolana cement manufacturing
Fly ash based Portland pozzolana cement (FAPPC) is found to be more effective than ordinary
Portland cement (OPC). Fly ash contains approx. 44% silica (Si0 2), 21% alumina (Al203 ) and 17% ferric
oxide (Fe203).. Silica present in fly ash reacts with lime (calcium hydroxide — Ca (OH 2 )) in presence of water
and forms calcium silicate hydrate gel, which is a binding material. Otherwise this calcium hydroxide would
not be utilized.
Fly ash based Portland pozzolana cement (FAPPC) is produced by grinding Portland cement
clinker, fly ash and gypsum in certain proportion.
12.7.4 Cement concrete and mortar
While preparing cement concrete or mortar, up to 35% of fly ash can be used in place of cement
and sand. It improves the strength, workability and reduces cost. This can be used for foundation, walls,
floors etc.

Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
12.7.5 Brick manufacturing
Fly ash may be used for brick manufacturing for construction purposes. This brick is of higher
quality than normal clay bricks. Test result shows that the compressive strength of normal clay brick having
clay 40 kg and sand 10 kg is 60.47 kg/cm 2 , where as this strength in case of fly ash clay brick manufactured
from 50 kg clay and 20 kg fly ash is 81.5 kg/cm 2 .
Another type of fly ash brick is manufactured by mixing fly ash, sand and l i me/cement. These
bricks has smooth and plain surface. So requirement of mortar for joining and - - -plastering of - the surface
reduces by 25%. Also this brick is lighter than conventional clay bricks. Water absorption of this brick is less
than 20% that of clay brick. So the outer surface of the wall may not require plaster.
The clay brick is not manufactured during rainy season. But this fly ash brick can be manufactured
throughout the year.
12.7.6 Manufacturing building components
Fly ash may be used as discussed earlier for manufacturing of wood substitute door panel,
partition panel, tiles, granite, blocks etc. for the interior use of building.
12.7.7 Back filling of mines
Ash may be used to fill up the mining area from where coal is mined. Coal is mined from open
cast as well as under ground mines. These mines require lot of material to fill up. So ash may be the most
suitable material for this purpose.
13.1 Introduction
On previous chapters we have discussed so many things about constructional features of a
Boiler. Now we will discuses about Operation of Boiler. This will give idea to a Boil 3r engineer, practically
how the Boiler is operated in different conditions and situations. How Boiler is started from cold condition
will be disussed step by step. In a running Boiler it is required to maintain so many parameters like- steam
pressure, temperature etc. Boiler is required to generate steam as per requirement. Load variation in Boiler
requires variation in fuel supply and feed water supply. There are different methods to control these parameters.
Some Boilers are operated in full auto mode, so that any variation in any parameter can be taken care
automatically without manual intervention. Apart from routine Operation, it is required to take care during
emergency situations. Routine inspection is required to avoid any undesirable situation. When it is required
to shutdown the Boiler, some Operational practices are followed. Also when Boiler is to be kept out of
service for longer period, it is to be kept in such a condition that corrosion does not take place at pressure
parts of the Boiler. All these Operational practices are discussed step by step in subsequent sections.
13.2 Feed water fill up in Boiler
Steam is generated from feed water in a Boiler. So initially the Boiler is to be filled with feed
water. Economiser, water walls and evaporators are to be filled prior to ignition of fuel in the Boiler. As
discussed in previous chapter, feed water is pumped from deaerator to economiser through a Boiler feed
pump. After economiser is filled up, water enters in to Boiler drum. From drum, water comes down through
down corner tubes and evaporators/water walls are gradually filled up. When all these tubes are filled up
then water level in the drum starts increasing. It is required to vent air, present in economiser and evaporator/
water walls during initial water fill up. Otherwise air may be trapped in the system and affect heat transfer.
For venting air from the system, air vents are provided at economiser and steam drum.
Water holding capacity of Boiler is given by most of the Boiler manufacturer. This is the total water that
is hold at different heat transfer elements of the Boiler. This can indicate how much feed water is required
for initial fill up of a Boiler.
Following steps are to be followed for initial fill up of Boiler. But it is recommended to follow the
instruction of Boiler manufacturer as mentioned in their Operation and Maintenance manual.
• Take sufficient feed water in to deaerator storage tank. When boiler is in cold condition, water at
normal temperature may be used.
Ensure all required Isolating valves of feed water line of Boiler feed pump is in open condition.
• Ensure gland cooling and bearing cooling water is available at Boiler feed pump. Check healthiness
of the pump.


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Operation of Boiler 159

Start Boiler feed pump keeping the discharge valve closed. Observe pump vibration, temperature, 13.3 Boiler Start up
•
sound and current taken. After taking water in to Boiler, fuel firing may be started. This is called as Boiler light up.
Open pump discharge valve slowly and notice change in vibration, sound, current taken, suction There are two types of start up depending upon hot condition of the Boiler. If it is started from cold
•
condition, it is called as cold start up. If it is started on hot condition (Boiler is in pressurised condition),
pressure etc. it is called as hot start up. Some time it is called as hot restart also. This situation come when Boiler is
• Ensure economiser air vent and steam drum vent are in open condition. to be started after a short duration of stoppage. These two types of start up are discussed separately.
• Start taking feed water in to economiser slowly by opening feed water control valve. If feed water Starting procedure for different type of Boiler is different. In this section proper care has been
is hot, it should enter in to economiser slowly to avoid thermal shock. takento cover normal starting procedure for all types of boiler. Still Boiler Operation manual supplied by
After some time when water is filled up in economizer, water will start coming out from economiser Boiler manufacturer may be most helpful. Operating personnel are required to be familiar with Boiler
•
system. He should have idea about safe operating limits of different parameters.
vent.
When water comes out from vent in pressure then stop vent valve. Flow of water to the Boiler may 13.3.1 Cold start up
•
be controlled by feed control valve. As mentioned earlier, in this type of start up, Boiler is started from complete cold condition to
Now water will start entering in to steam drum. From steam drum this water will come down normal working condition. In this situation Boiler is started after a long period of stoppage, after repairing
•
through down comers and water wall tubes/evaporators will be filled up gradually. and inspection. Lot of care is required to be taken in this condition. Step by step it is discussed in details.

• When all water tubes are filled up, drum level will start rising. 13.3.1.1 Pre start up checking

o Keep the drum level below normal working level. When Boiler is fired, temperature of water will Some special care is to be taken during start up of Boiler, particularly during cold start up.
increase and hence the volume. Water level will swell when it is heated. This is called as swelling. Mostly after maintenance and repairing, Boiler is started as cold start up. So careful checking of complete
Drum level may be adjusted after swelling. system is required. To avoid chances of missing any point, a check list may be used. A sample pre start up
check list is given here. A person after checking a point may put his initial, if he found this point is healthy.
Mostly this procedure is followed in all boilers for feed water fill up. During starting of a Boiler lot of activities are involved and always there is pressure from top officials to start
For hydro test, all the pressure parts of Boiler are to be filled up with feed water. Super heater the Boiler quickly. This type of checklist will ensure chances of overlooking any point.
coils can be filled up after filling the drum fully. In that case, drum is filled till water comes out from drum
air vent. When water came out in pressure from this vent, then this vent is to be closed. Now water will start Pre start up check list
entering in to super heater coils. For filling super heater, super heater vent valve is to be kept open and drain Sr. No. Check points Condition. Checked by
valve is to be closed. When water comes out from super heater vent then this valve is to be closed. Now the Healthy or not
feed control valve may be closed, otherwise pressure of the pressure parts will start increasing.
1 Entire Maintenance job is complete. ---------------
Hydro test procedure will be discussed later on.
Steam drum Steam Drum Super heater 2 No work permit is pending with Elect./Mech./C&I.
vent A A A vent
3 Trail run of all auxiliary equipments are taken.
Economiser
vent 4 Boiler area is clean. ---------------
A
5 No foreign material likef scaffolding material is
Main
steam inside the Boiler. --------------- ---------------

stop
valve 6 No foreign material like — welding rod, cotton
waste etc. are present in pressure parts,
Super heater particularly inside steam drum. ------ --------

Deaerator 7 All access doors on the air path and flue gas ducts
are closed. ---------------

8 Boiler access doors/man holes/inspection holes are

Economiser(
properly closed.
Bank tube
9 Retractable soot blowers are in retracting position.
10 Normal HT/LT Electrical power is available.
11 Instrumentation air is available.
Boiler feed pump
12 Cooling water is available.
Fig. 13.1 Boiler feed water circuit for Hydro test


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Operation of Boiler

161
---------------
-------------- 13.2.1.2 Light up
Sufficient DM water is available. --------------- ---------------
Light up procedure for different Boiler is different. Here it is tried to describe light up procedure
Fire fighting system is ready. of commonly used Boilers (stoker fired, pulverised, oil fired, FBC Boiler). It will be better to follow the
All un-authorised personnel are removed from --------------- instruction given in Boiler manual.
---------------
the area. In case of oil fired, pulverised and FBC Boilers, light diesel oil (LD;O) is used for start up.
Sufficient fuel is available in day storage tanklcoal For chain/grate/stoker fired Boiler initial firing is done by help of wood pieces. Wood pieces are kept on the
--------------- ---------------
chain/grate. It is then fired with help of cotton waste, dipped in diesel. When wood starts burning and
bunker. temperature raises, coal feeding is started.
17 Furnace ash hopper water sealing is healthy. - --------------
--------------- Following steps may be followed for light up of Boilers
18 Start up burner is in correct position.
- -------------- - -------------
Liquid fuel, pulverised coal and FBC Boiler
19 Firing oil line is through.
• Close out let damper of ID fan and start the fan. After starting, regulate damper to get negative
20 All control valves are in manual mode and in ---------------
- -------------- pressure in the furnace.
closed position. --------------- - --------------
o Start FD fan. After starting, regulate damper to get minimum 30% of the total air flow. Adjust
All Instruments and Transmitters are' in line. ---------------
21 ---------------
furnace pressure by adjusting Damper or speed of ID fan. If any combustible gas is present inside
22 Water level is normal in Boiler drum. - -------------- the furnace will be taken out. It is called as furnace purging.
- --------------
23 Safety valves are not in gagging condition. --------------- --------------- • Start LDO pump and open atomising air of startup burner and ensure sufficient pressure at LDO line.
24 All drain and vent valves are in start up condition. - --------------
--------------- o After purging of furnace start LDO burner. Oil solenoid valve will open and sparking will took place
Pulverisers and feeders are available for service.
25 --------------- --------------- at the spark rod.
26 All trip interlocks and alarms are working properly. • Check flame of the burner and adjust. Normally the lower tier burner is started first in case of oil
27 ID/FD fan damper are operating smoothly and ---------------
-------------- and pulverised Boilers. In case of FBC Boiler start up burner is directed towards bed material. If
inlet dampers are in closed position. --------------- there is no start up burner Bed temperature can be increased initially by using charcoal. Bed
---------------
Boiler feed pump is in service. mixing is done to obtain uniform bed temperature.
28 upon, type of Boiler and actual checks °
Some other check points may be added to this dependin g Slowly increase firing rate by adjusting LDO flow rate. Adjust secondary air as per requirement.
required. o Water will start swelling. Adjust drum level by giving blow down. When drum pressure reaches 2 kg/
A start up valve condition chart may be prepared, cm2, close drum air vent.
erating staffs to closelopenp e
condition and which valve is to be kept in closed condition. This will help •
confusion du start a A sample start up valve When temperature of furnace reaches more than ignition temperature of pulverised coal or HFO,
required valve during pre start up check and avoid f Boiler, more startup
op p loe conditions maybe main burner may be taken in to line. In case of pulverised Boiler, pulveriser may be started and the
condition is given below. Depending upon type burner may Se placed on line.
prepared as per requirement. • In case of HFO fired Boiler, HFO pump is to be started. Oil heater is to be taken in to line. After
Startup condition of drains and vent valves opening atomising steam, burner is to be started. Normally the burner, placed at upper tier of the
start up burner is taken in to line.
When to open/close • In case of FBC Boiler, coal feeding is started when bed temperature reaches more than coal
ignition temperature.
Close when drum pressure reaches 2 kg/cm 2
During heat up, Boiler is free to expand. Check the expansion and record.
Throttle when Boiler started steaming and • Control fuel supply rate so that rate of raise of saturated temperature follows the start up curve as
close after steam is drawn from Boiler. specified by Boiler manufacturer. In case of waste heat recovery Boiler, flow of flue gas in side the
Boiler is to be regulated to get this.
Close when steaming
• Fuel is to be adjusted in such a way that at any case furnace temperature should not exceed the
Throttle when steaming and close when limit as specified by Boiler manufacturer. During starting, there is no steam flow or less stem flow
steam,is drawn. in the super heater coil. So there is chance of overheating of super heater tube. So furnace exit
Throttle when steaming and close when temperature of flue gas is to be kept within limit during starting. Coal feeding rate to the pulveriser
is to be controlled in case of pulverised Boiler. In case of FBC Boiler, coal feeding rate is to be
steam is drawn. adjusted. Primary and secondary air is to be adjusted to ensure proper combustion of fuel. Furnace

Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
draft is maintained properly by adjusting ID fan damper.
• When drum pressure and temperature increases, throttle drains and vents as mentioned in start up
position of valves and drains. Maintain sufficient flow of steam in super heater by adjusting start
up vent to avoid over heating of super heater tube.
• Stop start up burner and take other burners as per requirement. Fuel feeding may be increased
slowly as per requirement.
When minimum required steam temperature and pressure is achieved, Boiler main steam isolation
valve maybe opened.
• In case of Turbine use, starting activity of Turbine may be started.
Steam coil Air pre heater (SCAPH), if provided, may be charged. Deaerator steam may be charged
• adjusted.
to heat feed water. Deaerator pressure may be maintained by controlling pressure control valve.
Deaerator is to be charged slowly to avoid hammering.
• 1--IP/LP dosing may be started.
• Close opened/throttled vents and drains as per start up position.
Gradually steam temperature and pressure reaches to its normal value. Now Boiler is ready to be
•
loaded fully. Other burners/Pulverisers may be taken in to line as per load demand. Coal feeding in
case of FBC boiler may be increased. Other compartments may be taken into line.
• Ash handling system is to be started for ash removal.
• ESP field may be charged when flue gas temperature is more than desired temperature as per ESP
design. Before charging ESP, steps as mentioned in ESP manual may be followed.
• Put Burner Management System and other controls in auto mode when situation permits.
• Turbo blowers and turbo feed pumps may be started.
Chain/Grate/Spreader stoker Boiler
Initial firing procedure of above type Boilers is different from oil, pulverised and FBC Boilers.
There is no burner arrangement in these Boilers. So initial firing is done manually. Wood, coal, cotton
waste, jute and other combustible materials are kept on the grate. With the help of cotton waste and jute,
firing of above materials is done. Normally ID and FD fans are not started during this period. When wood
cut fire air is supplied through FD fan as per requirement. Small amount of coal is put in to the fire through
spreader or coal control gate. When it is ensured that coal has cut fire then feeding of coal is controlled and
grate is allowed to move slowly.
Firing rate is controlled as per start up curve. After that, other starting steps as mentioned earlier
is followed. Proper bed thickness is maintained as per requirement and supply of air is done through FD
fan. Proper draft is maintained by ID Fan.
When coal burning is proper on the grate and steam temperature and pressure is normal, Boiler
can be loaded.
Above discussion may give a preliminary idea about light up of a Boiler. In actual situation,
steps mentioned here may vary depending upon type of Boiler and fuel used. It is always recommended to
follow the procedure of the Boiler manufacturer.
13.3.2 Hot start up
When Boiler is restarted after a short duration of outage, it is called as hot start up. Boiler is
already in pressurised and hot condition. Following steps are required to be followed for hot start up.
Operation of Boiler
163
• Check required points as per the checklist earlier mentioned in cold start up.
• Crack open super heater drain and other start up drains as far as practicable, keeping in view
existing Boiler pressure.
• Start ID and FD fan. Ensure minimum 30% of air flow and maintain draft. Purge the furnace as
mentioned earlier. ..
• If furnace temperature is more than fuel ignition temperature, feed fuel slowly. Otherwise take start
up burner in to line and then main fuel.
Ensure super heater is drained completely. Then super heater drain may be closed. Start up vent
may be used as per requirement to maintain steam flow through super heater.
Raise steam temperature and pressure as per hot start up curve. Accordingly fuel supply may be
• Main steam stop valve may be opened and start up vent may be closed.
13.4 Boiler Load increasing/decreasing
To generate more steam, more heat input is required to be given to Boiler furnace by supplying
more fuel. More fuel requires more combustion air to burn. More air can be supplied by opening FD fan
damper more or by increasing speed of fan. When more air is supplied for combustion, furnace draft is disturbed.
So ID fan damper is to be opened more or speed of the fan is to be increased to maintain furnace draft.
During decreasing of load it is in revere way, i.e. — fuel supply is decreased and hence FD fan
damper and ID fan damper also are decreased or speed of both the fans are decreased.
Now a day, all these functions are performed automatically with help of advanced control
system. Steam pressure is the master controller, which controls all these activates. Steam pressure varies
with load on the Boiler. Pressure drops when steam demand is more and pressure increases when load
demand is less with a fixed supply of fuel. Pressure controller, depending upon steam pressure, gives signal
to adjust fuel supply, combustion air and draft of the Boiler furnace.
Now we will discuss how fuel supply is controlled in different type of Boilers to maintain steam pressure.
Oil fired Boiler
Each oil burner is having its own isolating valve and a trip valve (solenoid valve). There is an oil
trip valve (OTV) and oil return valve (ORV) at main oil supply line. When oil return valve is closed, pressure
of oil line increases and when oil return valve is opened, pressure in the oil line decreases.
To increase oil flow in the burner, oil line pressure is increased by closing return valve. To decrease
oil flow, oil return valve is opened. When oil flow in a burner becomes more than 80% of rated capacity
another burner is to be taken in to line. Like this when flow in burner decreases below 80% of the rated
capacity one burner may be taken out of service.
Oil tank
Burner
oil valve
Oil trip
valve
Furnace
Fig. 13.2 Oil burner arrangement
 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
Trip valve closes automatically when Boiler trips.
Pulverised coal fired Boiler :
In this case, to increase load, coal feeder speed is increased. So, more coal enters in to pulveriser.
Accordingly hot primary air damper is opened more to maintain coal temperature. Secondary air is supplied
as per requirement and finally draft is maintained through ID fan. If pulveriser system is unit system, second
pulveriser is to be taken in to line when feeder loading of first pulveriser exceeds 80% of its rated capacity
and Pulverisers maybe adjusted to share equal load.
To decrease load, feeder speed may be decreased to supply less coal to pulveriser. When feeder
rating drops to minimum, stop the feeder, close hot primary air. Stop pulveriser when temperature drops
and pulveriser is empty.
In case of central system feeder speed may be increased in case of increasing load.
FBC Boiler :
Coal feeder speed is increased or decreased as per requirement of steam. Fuel bed is sectionalised
having independent coal feeder and air supply arrangement. In case of lower load coal supply to one
section of bed may be stopped. Fluidizing air may be reduced or stopped. This is called as bed slumping.
Bed temperature of the slumped bed is required to be maintained. This is done by supplying fluidising air
and coal supply for a short period. In case of higher load more sections of bed may be taken into service.
Spreader stoker/Grate fired Boiler :
In this case, speed of coal feeder is increased to supply more coal to Boiler in case of increased
demand.
13.5 Shut down of Boiler
Like start up, some steps are followed to stop the Boiler or shut down. There are two types of
shut down. One is shut down to cold and another is shut down to hot. In shut down to cold, Boiler pressure
is brought down from operating condition to atmospheric and the Boiler is cooled down completely. This
type of shut down is required when some repairing job is required in the Boiler and shut down is required for
a longer Period.
In case of shut down to hot, Boiler load is reduced to zero, fuel supply is cut off. Boiler is boxed
up to keep the Boiler in existing pressure and temperature condition.
There is another type of shut down called as emergency shut down. It is same as shut down to
cold but with rapid rate of cooling. It is required when Boiler is to be stopped under an emergency condition.
These types of shut down methods are discussed below in details.
13.5.1 Shut down to cold
As discussed earlier Boiler is stopped from operating condition and allowed to cool down. Boiler
pressure is allowed to drop to atmospheric. Following steps may be followed for different type of Boilers.
Some important steps are discussed here.
• Reduce load of the Boiler gradually. Accordingly fuel is to be reduced. Incase of pulverised and oil
fired boilers, burners in the upper tire may be preferred to stop first. When fuel flow in burner/
pulveriser come down to minimum, burner/pulveriser may be stopped. Incase of grate/spreader
and FBC Boiler, coal feeding may be reduced as per requirement.
• Soot blowers are to be operated at 50% load of Boiler.
• Whenever required, put Boiler control in manual mode. Stop burner, Pulverisers and fuel feeding
to Boiler.
Operation of Boiler
165
• Maintain Boiler draft and air flow. Stop main steam stop valve when external load become zero.
• Observe Boiler expansion positioners.
• Open super heater drains and vents when pressure reduces.
• Keep FD and ID fan in Operation to achieve desired rate of cooling: These fans should not be
stopped till flue gas temperature at air heater inlet drops.
• If rapid cooling is required, furnace doors may be opened.
-_—°-- Mai ntain normal water level.
• When drum pressure drops to 2kg/cm z open drum vent.
• If Boiler is required to be made empty, water may be drained out when temperature of drum water
come down to 90°C.
13.5.2 Shut down to hot
In this situation Boiler is stopped for a shorter duration. Existing pressure and temperature of the
Boiler is maintained.
Load on the Boiler made zero by reducing fuel supply. Fuel supply is cut off and main steam stop
valve is closed. Super heater drains and vents are kept in closed position to keep the Boiler in pressurised
condition. After the fire in the Boiler furnace is off, ID and FD fans are kept in service for few minuets with
minimum air flow. Then these fans are stopped and dampers closed. This condition is called as box up
condition.
In case of emergency shut down, pressure of Boiler is reduced rapidly by opening super heater
drain, vent and if required through start up vent. Sufficient air is allowed to flow through Boiler furnace to
cool down rapidly. If required furnace doors are also opened.
13.6 Normal Operation of Boiler
Most of the time, Boiler runs in normal condition. During normal Operation, following activities
are performed mostly.
o Generating steam as per required quantity.
• Maintaining steam temperature and pressure within limit.
• Maintaining flue gas temperature at various zones.
• Maintaining draft at various locations.
• Uninterrupted supply of feed water to the Boiler for maintaining drum level.
•. Controlling Boiler water quality.
• Continuous supply of fuel to the Boiler.
o Monitoring firing condition in the furnace.
• Ensuring complete combustion of fuel without much excess air.
o Supplying required primary and secondary air at desired temperature.
• Removing ash from Boiler.
Routine checking of Boiler and healthiness of support system.
• Maintaining log of important parameters.
• Soot blowing as per requirement to maintain flue gas exit temperature within limit.
• Taking proper action in case of any abnormality and alarm is initiated.


166 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Operation of Boiler 167

In a modern Boiler, most of the above activities are performed automatically with help of Some abnormal conditions and Emergencies are listed below.
sophisticated automation system. Most Important job is to check healthiness of all support system regularly. Combustion system :
For this some routine checking is to be carried out. Here is an example of routine checking schedule of a o Loss of igniter
Boiler. Depending upon the requirement this may be modified. At least once in every 2 hours these points • Loss of burner
may be checked.
• Loss of pulveriser/feeder
Routine checking of Boiler during normal operation
• Loss of primary air
•-- Sufficient fuel is available and fuel handling system equipments are healthy. --•---Loss of coal feeder
• Ash handling system is working properly. There is no jamming and problem in the system. • Loss of fuel
• Field equipments like- ID fan, FD fan, Boiler feed pump, ESP Bag filter, Dosing pumps, Pulverisers,
• Master fuel trip
Feeders, Instrument air compressor, etc, are running smoothly.
Combustion air and flue gas system :
• Water level at gauge glass is at normal range and matching with remote water level.
o Loss of ID/FD fan
• No leakage at steam, feed water, flue gas and fuel system.
• Loss of air heater
• Sufficient dosing chemical is available in dosing tank.
• Failure of dampers
• Feed water, Boiler water, saturated steam (steam from drum), superheated steam quality is tested
at laboratory and the results are within limit. • Blockage in air/flue gas duct
• Sufficient DM water is available at DM Dank. Feed water system :
• Automatic control system is working properly. o Loss of feed pump
• All abnormality condition, initiated by alarm, has been taken care. • Problem in feed water heater
• Firing condition of the furnace is normal. o Low deaerator temperature
• Cooling water is available to all the coolers. o Malfunctioning of feed control valve
• All field instrument readings are matching with remote readings. • Low suction pressure of feed pump
• Position of all control valves/isolation valves are as per desired requirement. Boiler General :
If any abnormality is found this is to be rectified as and when situation permits. o Economiser, water wall, super heater tube leakage
For this a defect register may be maintained where any defects noticed can be noted for further rectification. • Safety valve leaking
Soot blowing is to be carried out whenever required. When soot is deposited on the tube, heat
• Low super heater temperature
transfer is affected. Exhaust flue gas temperature increases. Soot blowing schedule depends upon type of
• High super heater temperature
fuel used in the Boiler.
During any abnormality in Boiler, audible and visual alarms are initiated at the control panel. • Low steam pressure
Proper action is required to bring back the system to normal. o High steam pressure
A log book is supposed to be maintained to note down important parameters. • Low/high water level
This log book is helpful to monitor the system. In modern control system, most of the DCS and PLC are
having trending facility of the parameters for effective monitoring program. In addition to that, manual • Loss of ash handling system
logging at an interval of 1 to 2 hours may be helpful. Following main parameters may be logged. • Problem in soot blowing system
Rate of fuel feeding, Steam generation (flow), Final super heater steam temperature, Final Some of the emergency situations are discussed here along with action to be taken to familiarize
steam pressure, Air supply, Air temperature, Draft at various zones, Flue gas temperature at various zones, Boiler operation Engineer with these situations.
Feed water inlet temperature, drum level, current taken by various drives, ash hopper level, coal feeder
13.7.1 Low water level
speed, grate speed, bed temperature, Pressure drop across fuel bed etc. Other parameters may be added as
per requirement. It is known that, amount of feed water required in Boiler is equal to amount of water evaporated
and drawn from Boiler plus blow down and losses in the system. If due to any reason, sufficient amount of
13.7 Abnormal operating conditions and Emergency situations
water could not be pumped in to the Boiler, water level of the Boiler come down. Following problems may
Apart from normal situation it is required to handel the Boiler during abnormal situation and
lead to low water level in the Boiler.
Emergency. Boiler mostly supply steam to Turbo Generator set for power generation. Abnormality in steam
generation may cause tripping of the set causing huge loss. Also Emergency situation may lead to a sever • Failure of Boiler feed pump
accident to man and machine. ° Leakage in feed pipe


168 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Operation of Boiler 169

• Malfunctioning of Drum level controller 13.7.4 High steam temperature

• Boiler tube failure
• Neglect of operator(Human error)
• Heavy load change
When there is no water inside the tube and it is exposed to hot flue gas, then tube will be overheated
and lead to failure. This situation is called as starvation. Starvation is highly dangerous. Most of the Boiler
has provision to trip automatically due tolowwaterlevel.-If the Boiler hasnosuch provision, then, stop-fuel__
supply immediately. Stop main steam stop valve, so that further loss of water can be avoided. Cool down
the Boiler rapidly as soon as possible.
If feed water supply is resumed, feed it slowly to the Boiler to avoid quenching. If cold feed
water is supplied to an over heated Boiler tube, it is called as quenching. Supply of feed water to a hot
Boiler suffered from starvation is dangerous. So, proper care is to be taken in this situation.
If Boiler tube is damaged due to starvation, it may be required to repair. Emergency shut down
procedure may be followed.
13.7.2 High water level
Boiler drum level may become high for different reasons. Some of the reasons are :
• Malfunctioning of feed control valve
• Heavily increase in Boiler load
• Human error
• Foaming of Boiler water
High water level may lead to priming. Due to priming carryover of feed water salts may take
place. These salts may be deposited at super heater tube or at Turbine blade. Priming is associated with
sudden drop in steam outlet temperature. Following steps may be taken to normalise this situation.
• Control feed water flow manually
o To bring down the water level, immediately open blow down valve. It is to be kept in mind that
when Boiler is at maximum load, avoid to open water wall blow down. This affects natural
circulation. If mud drum is there, its blow down valve may be opened in this situation.
• Reduce steaming rate
❑ Try to increase drum pressure
• Normally feed control valves are air failed to open type. So failure in instrument air may open the
valve fully. In this case restore instrument air supply.
13.7.3 Master fuel trip
There are different interlocks for master fuel trip of a Boiler. Some of them are high/low drum
level, ID/FD fan trip, furnace pressure high/low, Loss of auxiliary power to burner management system,
steam temperature high etc. In this situation, fuel supply to the Boiler stops. Following steps may be
followed in this situation.
• Stop main steam stop valve
• Purge the furnace as discussed earlier
• Normalise the fuel trip condition
• To start Boiler immediately, follow hot start up procedure
Temperature of superheated steam is controlled automatically by various methods as discussed
earlier. Due to gradual increase in furnace exit flue gas temperature, temperature of steam raises gradually
over a period of_time_T-his-isdueto soot deposition in-thafurnace wall. In-thiscase sootblowing may solve
the problem.
Some time steam temperature rises suddenly. Sudden temperature raise may be due to following
-reasons.-- —
• High excess air
^ udden increase in fuel burning rate
Sudden
Failure of auto temperature control
• Sudden reduction in load
Temperature control is done automatically by help of suitable control system in most of the
Boilers. Sudden variation in temperature may create problem in Turbine. Following steps may be followed
to bring back temperature to normal.
o Put temperature control in manual mode and try to maintain manually
• Decrease temperature of air
o Increase consumption of steamif required open start up vent to allow more steam to flow
in super heater.
• Increase temperature of feed water
• Reduce excess air
13.7.5 Furnace explosion
This is the most dangerous emergency situation in a Boiler. This may lead to sever damage to
man and machine. So, proper care is to be taken to avoid furnace explosion. Furnace explosion mainly
happens due to accumulation of unburned fuel in the furnace or hot gas path. Some of the reasons for
furnace explosion are mentioned below.
• Leakage in fuel oil inlet valve.
• Introduction of fuel without sufficient ignition energy.
• Fuel in let valve is not shut off when fire is extinguished.
• Mixture of unburned fuel with air is in explosive proportion.
Excessive furnace pressure due to failure of ID fan.
When unburned fuel get sufficient air it cut fire instantly in a confined space causing an explosion.
To avoid this situation following steps are to be followed.
• Before starting of Boiler, purge the furnace to prevent accumulation of explosive mixture.
For purging, minimum 30% air flow is to be maintained for minimum 5-10 minuets.
• Ensure the idle burner fuel shut off valve is closed.
• Watch the fire regularly. Shut off fuel if proper combustion is not maintained.
• Regularly check for proper functioning of furnace safety system and trip interlocks.
o Never introduce fuel without required ignition energy.
• Analyse flue gas regularly. Flue gas should not contain Carbon monoxide.
• Maintain proper furnace draft. Boiler should have auto trip interlock incase of high furnace pressure.

Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
13.7.6 Boiler tube failure
Water tube Boiler contains lot of tubes. High pressure water and steam flows inside these tubes.
In case of tube leakage this water and steam mix with flue gas and escape to atmosphere. So to maintain
water level, more make up is required. If tube leakage is not attended earlier it may damage the adjacent
tube by steam impingement and erosion. So it is wise to shut down the Boiler when leakage is found as
early as possible.
There are so many reasons for tube failure. Some of-them-are mentioned below
• Flue gas side erosion due to soot blowing and high flue gas velocity.
o Steam side corrosion of tube.
• Impingement of flame on tube surface.
• Welding defect.
o Flue gas side corrosion of tube.
• Uneven temperature.
• Water side and gas side scaling of tube.
• Design defect.
• Frequent start up and shut down of Boiler.
In some cases, due to improper design, tube failure noticed at a particular zone. To avoid this,
proper care is required at the design stage. Some precautionary steps as mentioned below may be taken to
avoid tube failure.
• Measure tube thickness regularly during Boiler shut down. Replace the tube if thickness reduces by
30% of the new tube thickness.
o Use dry steam with required pressure for soot blowing, as advised by Boiler manufacturer.
• Maintain draft in all zone of the Boiler within limit as specified by the Boiler ranufacturer.
• Improve combustion condition.
o Avoid frequent start, stop of Boiler.
• Maintain feed water and Boiler water quality.
• In area where erosion is high, tube shields may be used.
• Adjust flame to avoid flame impingement.
• Avoid sudden change in tube metal temperature to avoid thermal shock.
o During shut down, check tube is free for expansion. If the tube is not free then it will bend like a
bow, when heated. This is called as bowing of tube.
When tube leakage is small and water level can be maintained, Boiler shut down is to be taken
as early as possible for repair. "Shut down to cold" method may be followed in this case.
When leakage is sever and water level can't be maintained, at that condition fuel supply is to be
cut immediately. Water supply to the Boiler to be stopped and Boiler to be cooled by maintaining sufficient
air flow.
Tube leakage in water wall and super heater can be detected by monitoring regularly the feed
water make up. Economiser tube leakage produces sound. So this can be detected by sound and increased
consumption of make up water.
Operation of Boiler 171
13.8 Preservation of Boiler
When Boiler is to be kept out of service for a longer period, some special care is required to be
taken to avoid corrosion of pressure parts. Boiler tube corrodes rapidly in presence of oxygen and moisture.
Soto avoid corrosion, it is required to eliminate either oxygen or moisture from Boiler tube. There are two
methods of preservation of Boiler.
In first method, care is taken to keep the Boiler tube moisture free. This method is called as dry
preservation. In this method dry air is circulated continuously through the empty Boiler tube.
In second method, care is taken to eliminate oxygen from the Boiler tube. This method of
preservation is called as wet preservation. Total Boiler pressure parts (economiser, steam drum, water
wall, super heater tube) are filled with feed water having high concentration of Hydrazine (200 PPM). Such
high concentration of hydrazine ensures, there is no dissolved oxygen available in feed water. Boiler is kept
under pressure, so that atmospheric air can 't enter in to Boiler pressure parts.
Wet preservation is preferred over dry preservation. This method is easier and most effective.
Now a day, due to complex design and more number of bends in Boiler tube, it is not always possible to
keep the circuit dry in dry preservation method.
13.9 Hydrostatic test
In a Boiler hydrostatic test (commonly called as hydro test) is conducted to ensure the pressure
parts can with stand working pressure continuously. Also by hydrostatic test any leakage in pressure part
can be detected. This test is conducted at least once in a year during annual inspection or after each
repairing job in the Boiler pressure parts. For . hydro testing, Feed water is filled up in entire pressure parts of
the Boiler and pressure is raised by help of a high pressure pump.
Following steps are followed for hydrostatic test.
• Remove safety valves and make the flanges blind. Otherwise the safety valves are to be gagged.
o Close main steam stop valve and all drain valves.
• Arrest all support hangers to take up additional load due to water filling in the line.
• Fill up the drum up to normal working level as per Boiler fill up method discussed earlier.
• Allow more water into the drum through the fill up pump or Boiler feed pump.
o Close drum vent when water came out from this vent. Now water will enter in to super heater.
Ensure super heater vent is open.
• Stop super heater vent when water comes out from this.
• Regulate flow rate to the Boiler. Pressure will start increasing gradually once super heater is filled up.
• Some Boiler manufacturer recommends to fill the Boiler through super heater drain or vent, for
hydro testing. In this case water will overflow to steam drum once super heater is filled up.
Continue fill up till water comes out from drum vent. Then stop the vent.
o Feed water to be used for hydro test should be at atmospheric temperature.
• Once Boiler pressure parts filled up completely increase the pressure gradually through hydro test
pump or through Boiler feed pump with throttled discharge valve.
• Rate of raising the pressure in the Boiler should be maximum 10 kg/cm 2 per minutes.
• Check the pressure tightness of the pressure parts. If there is any leakage water will start leaking
there.


172 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Operation of Boiler 173

• Hold pressure raise intermediately and notice if there is any pressure drop. If there is leakage,
pressure will start dropping once pump is stopped.
• If no pressure drop noticed, raise the pressure gradually till hydrostatic test pressure. Hydrostatic
test is normally carried out at a pressure equal to 1.5 times of the design pressure for a new boiler.
• At hydrostatic test pressure stop hydro test pump/Boiler feed pump or close filling valve. Maintain
pressure for 10 minuets and watch for any abnormal drop of pressure or any leakage.
\ur cur vv )
Hydro test issuccessful if pressure parts with stand the test pressure for 10 minuets without any
leakage.
• After successful hydro test, reduce the pressure at a rate of 10 kg/cm 2 per minute. Pressure may be
Steam Steam
reduced by opening sampling line valve or blow down valve one by one to flush the line. supply ) supply
(
• When pressure drops to 2 kg/cm2 open drum vent and allow pressure to drop to zero.
• Open blow down valve and maintain normal working water level.
• Open super heater drain to completely drain out water. (a) Rotary Soot blower (b) Long retractable soot blower
• Fit back safety valve or open gagging.
Fig. 13.3 Soot blowers
13.10 Soot blowing
Retractable blower is installed at high temperature zone and rotary blower or fixed blower is
During normal Operation of a Boiler soot is deposited on the Boiler rube. Due to this soot installed at lower temperature zone like air heater and exit end of economiser. If fixed rotary blower is
deposition, heat transfer rate decreases. So flue gas temperature increases. Exit flue gas temperature can installed at high temperature zone the noizle and pipe will be damaged due to high temperature.
indicate soot deposit condition on the tube.
All the soot blowers are connected to common soot blowing steam line. Soot blowing is started
When soot deposition is more in the furnace wall tube, heat transfer in the furnace decreases. one by one in the direction of flue gas flow. Normally blowing is done sequentially once it is started.
So furnace out let flue gas temperature increases and hence super heated steam temperature increases. Otherwise this can be done manually one after another in the flue gas direction. Steam used should be dry.
It is required to clean Boiler tube regularly for effective heat transfer. This is an activity done Steam is supplied to that particular blower when it is in service. Steam is cut off automatically through a
during normal operating condition. This is called as soot blowing. Frequency of soot blowing depends upon poppet valve, when blowing of that blower is finished. Movement of the blower is controlled through limit
type of fuel used. Coal is used as powder condition in Pulverised coal fired Boiler. So lot of soot is deposited switches. Soot blowing is preferably done at a load above 50% of MCR (Maximum continuous rating).
in this type of Boiler. Frequent soot blowing at an interval of 8 to 10 hours may be required in
Following important steps are followed during soot blowing.
this case.
• Open the isolation valve of soot blowing steam line.
In case of oil and gas fired Boilers, ash percentage in fuel is very less, soot deposition is very
negligible in this case. Soot blowing may be required once in 10 to 12 days. • Open drain valve of this line to drain out condensate if any. Allow steam to flow for some time
Normally superheated steam at 10 to 12 kg/cm 2 is used as blowing medium. Soot blowers are through this valve to increase temperature of that line.
placed in the flue gas path to clean some portion of the tube. When blowing is started this high pressure • Put the control valve of the line in auto mode to get 10 to 12 kg/cm 2 pressure.
steam comes out in high velocity from the nozzle of blower. This high velocity steam clean the soot
deposited on the tube. The blower rotates by 360° (some time 180° also) by means of an electric motor. So • Check all retractable blowers are in withdrawn position.
the high velocity steam can clean tube surface around it. Dislodged soot is taken out by flue gas due to • Increase the draft a little higher.
negative pressure.
• Start the sequence. Blowing will be started one by one. In case of manual system start blowing one
There are two types of soot blowers. These are Rotary soot blower (RSB) and long retractable
by one in the direction of flue gas flow.
soot blower (LRSB). Rotary soot blower rotates at a fixed position. In long retractable soot blower, there is
a lancer, which is kept out side when blower is not in service. During Operation of this blower, the lancer • After completion of blowing sequence, bring back the draft to normal and close the steam isolation
enters in to flue gas path and also rotates like rotary blower. Movement of lancer and rotation of blower is valve.
done trough a motor.
13.11 Inspection of Boiler
Boiler generates high pressure steam at high temperature. Any abnormality in Boiler may lead to
a sever accident causing heavy loss to man and machine. So it is required to inspect the Boiler at regular


174 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Operation of Boiler

175
interval for safety. During shut down it is required to inspect the Boiler water walls, super heater, economiser, After successful hydro test, Boiler is permitted to operate at required working pressure.
and air heater. Tubes are cleaned properly and checked properly to find out corrosion, erosion; swelling, Safety valve setting is done accordingly.
warping, blistering, burning and cracking.
Also internal inspection of Boiler, i.e. waterside of pressure part, is done to find out corrosion 13.12 Efficiency Calculation
and pitting. For this, hand hole caps from any water header may be removed.
For generation of steam fuel is used in Boiler. Fuel is costly. So efficiency of Boiler plays vital role
Steam drum manhole is opened after draining water and isolating other connected pipe line for lower fuel cost. As boiler is required to run continuously so a non efficient Boiler can consume huge
valves (feed water, dosing, blow down, drain and sampling line). Drum internals are cleaned properly and quantity of fuel in a year. So it is the duty of a Boiler operation Engineer to have some idea about Efficiency
inspected for corrosion and-pitting. of Boiler.
Boiler is properly cleaned before inspection. Scaffolding is arranged to clean top portion of the
tube. Tube may be cleaned with help of water, jute, sack, brush or even through high pressure hydro jet. As per ASME performance test code PTC 4.1, there are two methods to measure efficiency of a
Boiler. These are
13.11.1 Annual Boiler inspection • Input out put method or Direct Method.
Inspection of Boiler is a statutory requirement as per "Indian Boiler Act- 1923".
Each Boiler is required to be registered with Chief Inspector of Boilers of the concerned state. Every Boiler • Heat loss method or Indirect method.
is assigned a registration number. This registration authorizes to operate the Boiler and required to be
renewed every year. For renewal of registration, Boiler is to be inspected by authorized Boiler Inspector of We will discuss about these two methods. Direct method is preferred by Boiler Engineers as it is
very simple.
the state. For this, required amount of Inspection fees is to be deposited.
Summery of some important sections of "Indian Boiler Act- 1923" regarding registration and 13.12.1 Input Out put method or Direct method
renewal of certificate are mentioned below for understanding of Boiler Engineer.
Section (7) — Registration : This method is very simple for calculation of Boiler efficiency. It is preferred by most of the Boiler
Engineers. Following Input Data are required for calculation of efficiency in this case.
Each Boiler in use is to be registered with Chief Inspector of Boilers of the state:
A registration number is issued for the Boiler. Chief Inspector issues the owner a certificate, authorising the • Steam pressure ( kg/cm 2)
use of Boiler in prescribed form, for a period c f twelve months. Registration number of the Boiler is to be • Steam Temperature (°C)
permanently marked in the Boiler in prescribed manner. • Steam flow (Qs)
Section (8) - Renewal of certificate : Feed water temperature(°C)
It is required to renew the certificate on expiry of the period for which it was granted or any • Calorific value of fuel (kcal/kg)
accident occurs or any alteration or rapier is do .) .e in Boiler.
o Quantity of Fuel used (Q F)
Before expiring of the certificate, Boile Inspector is requested for inspection along with prescribed
Inspection fees (depends upon heating surfacer f the Boiler) Efficiency = Out put / Input
Boiler Inspector will fix a date within 30 days from receipt of the request and intimate the owner Out put from the Boiler is the net heat added to the steam in the Boiler which is given by
at least 10 days before. He inspects exter `nal;internal sides of the Boiler. Hydro test carried out in his Steam flow x (heal available in steam — heat on the supplied feed water)
presence. Based on report of Boiler Inspector, renewal certificate is issued by Chief Inspector of Boiler for
In put to the Boiler is the heat energy supplied to the boiler by fuel which is given by
another one year in Form - VI.
Fuel flow x Calorific value of Fuel.
Section (9) — Provisional order
After successful Inspection, Boiler Inspector may issue a provisional order in Form — V, permitting Efficiency = Steam flow x (heat available in steam - heat on feed water)
the Boiler to be used. This provisional order is valid for 6 months or till receipt of renewal certificate from Fuel flow x Calorific value of Fuel
Chief Inspector of Boilers.
Section (14) — Duty of owner at Examination Calorific value of fuel is expressed as Gross calorific value (GCV) or higher heating value (HHV)
All reasonable facilities for examination and reasonable information is to be provided to Boiler and Lower Heating value (LHV) or Net Calorific Value (NCV). LHV or NCV is always less than GCV or
Inspector as per his requirement. Boiler is to be properly prepared. Boiler shall be in empty condition, HHV. So efficiency calculated on LHV or NCV basis is higher than efficiency calculated on GCV or HHV
thoroughly cleaned. All doors of manholes, hand holes, sight holes are to be kept open. basis with other data remaining unchanged.
After inspection, Boiler is o be boxed up. Feed water is to be filled up and hydro test is to be Example :
carried out as per procedure mentioned earlier in presence of Boiler Inspector. Boiler Inspector checks Boiler Following observation is made in a coal fired Boiler. Calculate efficiency of the Boiler in Direct
pressure in his own pressure gauge. };;oiler Inspectors pressure gauge may be fitted in a suitable location. method.


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Operation of Boiler

177
Steam Pressure — 50 kg/cm2 (abs) Following steps are followed for calculation of efficiency.
Steam Temperature — 480 °C Step -1
Steam flow —100 Ton/Hr
—140 °C Calculate the theoretical air requirement for combustion of fuel. As discussed earlier, it is given
Feed water temperature by 4.35[(8/3 C+ 8H2 + S) — 02] /100 kg / kg of fuel.
Calorific value of coal used (GCV) — 3500 kcal/kg
Step -2
Calorific value of coal used (LCV) —3300 kcal/kg
Coal consumption -23 Ton/Hr Calculate Percentage of excess air and actual mass of air supplied per kg of fuel.
---Excess air-(EA) is given by - 02 x 100 / (21- O2)
From the steam table, the enthalpy of steam at 50 kg/cm2 (abs) and 480 °C is f6tir3as 809 kcal/-
kg. As Feed water supplied to the boiler at 140 °C so it contains 140 kcal/kg of Heat. Actual mass of air supplied per kg of fuel —
As per formula (1 + Excess air/100) x theoretical air
Efficiency (GCV basis) =100 x (809 -140)1(23 x 3500) = 83 % Step -3

Efficiency (LCV basis) =100 x (809 — 140) / (23 x 3200) = 88% Calculate all heat losses as mentioned below.
A. Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas
13.12.2 Heat loss Method or Indirect Method
100 percent of the heat supplied to the Boiler by fuel is not utilised for generation of steam. This loss can be calculated as - m x Cp (TF — TA)
x 100 / GCV of Fuel
Various losses take place in the Boiler. In heat loss method or indirect method, various losses are calculated Where "m" is mass of dry flue gas in kg/ kg of fuel and "C F " is specific heat of flue gas (0.23 kcal/kg)
and the efficiency is calculated by subtracting these heat loss fractions from 100. Mass of dry flue gas can be calculated as — mass of actual air supplied + 1(mass of fuel supplied)
Principal heat losses that take place in a Boiler are listed below. B. Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 present in Fuel
A. Heat loss due to dry flue gas This loss can be calculated as — 9 x H2 {584 + Cp (TF y- TA)} / GCV of Fuel
B. Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 present in Fuel
Where H2 is percentage of H2 in 1 kg of fuel
C. Heat loss due to Evaporation of moisture present in fuel
D. Heat loss due to moisture present in combustion air Cp is specific heat of super heated steam (0.45 kcal/kg)
E. Loss due to un burnt fuel in ash C. Heat loss due to Evaporation of moisture present in fuel
Heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted losses.
This loss can be calculated as — M {584 + Cp (TF — TA)} / GCV of Fuel
Also some heat is added to Boiler other than fuel. These are called as Credits. Some of the
credits are- Where M is percentage of Moisture in 1 kg of fuel
• Heat in feed water Cp is specific heat of super heated steam (0.45 kcal/kg)
• Heat in combustion air D. Heat loss due to moisture present in combustion air
• Heat from auxiliary equipment
This loss can be calculated as —Actual mass of air supplied x humidity ratio of air x Cp (TF — TA)
• Sensible heat on fuel x 100 / GCV of Fuel •
For calculation of efficiency in Indirect method, following Data are required.
E. Loss due to un burnt fuel in ash
• Ultimate analysis of fuel (H2 , O2, C, S, Moisture %, Ash%)
• Percentage of 02, CO, CO2 in flue gas This loss can be calculated as — Ash collected per kg of fuel x GCV of Ash x 100 / GCV of Fuel
• Flue gas temperature at boiler exit ( TF °C) F Heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted losses.
• Ambient air temperature (TA °C) and humidity This loss can be assumed according to surface condition and size of the Boiler. For smaller Boiler
• GCV of fuel (kcal/kg) this loss may be assumed as 1% to 2%. For larger Boiler this can be assumed between .2 % to 1%.
• Percentage of unburnt fuel in ash Step -4
• GCV of ash (kcal/kg)
Calculate Boiler efficiency.
Boiler efficiency = 100 — sum of all above losses
= 100 — (A+B+C+C+D+E+ F)


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

Operation of Boiler
179
Example : D. Heat loss due to moisture present in combustion air
Find the efficiency of a coal fired Boiler by Heat loss or Indirect method. Following observations
are noted in the Boiler. Loss due to moisture present in combustion air

= Actual mass of air supplied x humidity ratio of air_x C(T F — TA) jt 100 /
i. Ultimate analysis of coal — H2- 2%, 02 — 5%, C — 38%, S — 1%o, Moisture — 5 %, GCV of Fuel
Ash - 47%)
= 5.75 x .04 [0.45 (140-40) ] x 100 / 3400 = 0.3
ii. Flue gas_ analysis — 02 -3%
E. L oss due to un burnt fuel in ash
iii. Flue gas temperature at boiler exit — 140 °C
iv. Ambient air temperature — 40°C, Loss due to un burnt fuel in ash
v. Humidity ratio — .04 kg/kg (Relative humidity -80%) = Ash collected per kg of fuel x GCV of Ash x 100 / GCV of Fuel
vi. GCV of fuel (kcal/kg) — 3400 kcal /kg = 0.47 x 200 x 100/ 3400 = 2.76
vii. Ash generation — .47 kg/kg of fuel F. Heat loss due■to radiation and other unaccounted losses.
viii. GCV of ash (kcal/kg) — 200 kcal/kg
Step -1 This loss is assumed depending upon type of Boiler. In this case let this be 1 %
Step -4
Theoretical air requirement for combustion of per kg of coal
= 4.35[( 8/3 C+ 8H2 + S) - 02] /100 kg / kg of fuel Boiler efficiency = 100 — sum of all above losses
= 4.35 [ (8/3 x 38 + 8 x 2 + 1) - 5] /100 = 4.93kg/kgofcoal
=100 — (A+B+C+C+D+E+ F)
Step -2
=10 0—(4.56+3.33+0.925+ 0.3+2.76+1)
Percentage of excess air= 02 x 100 / (21 — O2) = 3 x 100/ 21-3 = 16.67%
=100—13= 87%
Actual mass of air supplied per kg of fuel —
(1 + Excess air %/100) x theoretical air = (1 + 0.1667) x 4.93 = 5.75 kg/kg
Step -3 000
Calculate all heat losses as mentioned.
A. Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas
Mass of dry flue gas = mass of actual air supplied + 1= 5.75 +1= 6.75
Dry flue gas loss
=mx CP (TF — TA) x 100 / GCV of Fuel
= 6.75 x 0.23 (140 — 40) x 100 / 3400 = 4.56
B. Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 present in Fuel
Loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 present in Fuel
= 9 x H2 {584 + CP (TF — T A )} / GCV of Fuel
= 9 x 2 [584 +0.45 (140 — 40) ] / 3400 = 3.33
C. Heat loss due to Evaporation of moisture present in fuel
Loss due to Evaporation of moisture present in fuel
=M{584+CP (TF —TA)}/GCV of Fuel
= 5[584 + 0.45 (140-40) ] /3400 = .925

PIPES, TUBES AND FITTINGS
14.1 Introduction
In the previous chapters we discussed about Boiler and the process of steam generation. In this
chapter we will discuss in details about pipes, tubes and different fittings used in piping system.
Generated steam from Boiler is to be brought up to load through proper piping arrangement.
Steam with high pressure and temperature, flows through pipe. So, special care is required to be taken
while selecting pipe material. This has to withstand high pressure and temperature.
Mechanical vibration is produced when steam flows in pipe. Pipe line has its own weight and
weight of the fluid it carries. So the pipe line is required to be supported suitably at suitable locations. Also
the pipe line expands when high temperature fluid flows in it. Proper care is taken to accommodate this
expansion to avoid damage of the line.
For isolating flow of the fluid, isolation valves are provided in the pipe line. There are different
types of isolation valves used in pipe line. Like pipe, these isolation valves have to withstand high temperature
and pressure. There are different classes of valves according to their pressure rating.
In the steam line steam condensation takes place. This condensation's to be removed from
steam line. For this steam traps are used in pipe line.
Pipe line is to be properly insulated, as high temperature fluid flows in it. Proper insulation
minimises radiation loss.
Other pipe fittings and ancillaries like- Flanges, Non return valves, silencers etc. are used in the
pipe line. In Boiler house, mostly steam and feed water flows in the pipe line.
Like pipe, Boiler tube is manufactured from different grade of steel. Temperature of different
zone is different in a Boiler. So different grade tubes are used in a Boiler.
In this chapter we will discuss about pipe, tube and some fittings. Remaining fittings and ancillaries
will be discussed in next chapter.
14.2 Tube and Pipe
Steam is formed in a Boiler due to gain of heat by feed water in Boiler tube. Boiler tubes are
arranged in parallel paths to gain more heat.
Steam is generated at high temperature and pressure. This high temperature and pressure steam
is brought up to the load point through pipe.
It is always confusing to know the difference between Tube and Pipe. We will discuss here about
difference between tube and pipe before discussing further.
[180]
Pipes, Tubes & Fittings
181,
14.2.1 Difference between Tube and Pipe
In a Boiler both Tubes and Pipes are used. There is no significant difference between them.
Both of them have Internal diameter (ID) or Bore, Outer diameter (OD), and Wall thickness. They can be
differentiated by following three dimensions.
(I) Tube is produced with higher tolerance. Out side diameter (OD) and wall thickness is commonly
used to express Tube. When wall thickness of the same OD tube increase's, inside diameter (ID)
reduces. A 2 inch x .065 inch Tube means, OD of the tube is 2 inch and Wall thickness is .065
Inch. These two dimensions are preciously measured. Thickness of the tube wall is selected as per
pressure rating.
(II) Pipe is manufactured in looser tolerance. Inside diameter (ID) is the critical dimension of the pipe.
ID is expressed normally or approximately. A 2 inch pipe means, inside diameter of the pipe is
approximately 2 inches.
(III) Wall thickness of pipe is designated by various " schedules". Exact wall thickness of any one
schedule changes with pipe size. Wall thickness of a 2 inch, schedule-40 pipe is .154 inch. Where
as, for a 3 inch, schedule-40 pipe, it is .216 inch.
But irrespective of schedule, outer diameter of a same size pipe is same. OD of a 2 inch, schedule
40 and schedule 80, pipe is 2.375 inch in both the cases.
Here is the difference between 2 inch x .065 inch Tube and a 2 inch, schedule-5 (wall thickness-
.065 inch), shown.
I ;s— 2 --^i ;4— approximately
2" — ^ ;
Tube Pipe
Fig. 14.1 Tube and Pipe
Tube is used where heat transfer takes place at the time of fluid flow. But in case of pipe only
fluid flows.
14.3 Pipe schedule
It was discussed; wall thickness of a pipe depends upon "schedule" of the pipe. A same size pipe
having different schedule number has same out side diameter (OD). Inside diameter and wall thickness
varies with schedule number. For same schedule number, thickness of different size pipe is different. Schedule
number indicates approximate values for 1000 times pressure ratio.
There are different schedule numbers used for pipe to determine wall thickness. American National
Standard Institute (ANSI), sponsored by American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) and American
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), has standardized this schedule as per ANSI B 36.10 standard.
As per this standard, there are 11 standards as- schedule 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140 and 160.
Wall thick ness and hence the weight of pipe increases with increase in schedule number.
As per ANSI B 36.19 standard, the schedule for stainless steel pipe is ranged from 5S to 80S.
The addition of the letter "S" after schedule number identifies it as stainless pipe.
Depending upon the thickness of wall, weight per unit length of pipe varies. There are normally
three categories of wall i.e. Standard wall (Std), Extra Strong wall (XS) and Double Extra strong wall(XXS)
or Double Extra Heavy wall (XXH).


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Pipes, Tubes & Fittings 183
The wall thickness for different size pipe for different schedule number, as per ANSI B 36.10 14,3.1 Nominal Bore (NB) of Pipe
standard is given in tabular form.
Size of a pipe indicates approximate inside diameter (ID) of a Pipe. As the dimension is
N N CO N ,: cpV
n approximate, so the diameter is called as nominal diameter (DN) or the bore of the pipe is called as
m
N
o
C^
CO
^ O V M WCO Mti
co co Q C^ c0 CD
r tD^ ^l ^
t`` co N. f^
O, W O
Xx O O O q . 0 0 I o O o nominal bore (NB). In metric system it is expressed in millimeter.
Pipe size is also expressed in inches called as Nominal Pipe Size (NPS). A 1/8 NPS Pipe means,
LQ C A
N N
c.st
C O
N co co
CO
Lo
N
I cO
O

ti
CD
a)
N ^ 0 0))
M '7 LC)
O1 CDD V
C7 ID of the pipe is approximately 1/8 inch.
CD 6 0 ° 0 0 6 6 O 0 6 r N

I for reference of the reader, conversion of NB to NPS is given in table below.

Lo
N
CO a- ^ M
N CO
N
LO
10 Nominal Bore of pipe
V
0 r r r - N
U
Nominal Bore (NB) Nominal pipe size Nominal Bore (NB) Nominal pipe size
N-
M 1n CO
CO
V'
CO CO-
O '.
or (NPS), (Inch) or (NPS), (Inch)
t` CO 0 N M r CO
S c}
O I
0 0
Nominal Diameter Nominal Diameter
C) N
N* j r (DN), (mm) (DN), (rum)
I M CO M n O M
v O) 'd' M Cq LO N CO
N tV o
Ln N- CO 0) o r
r
LC)
r
6 1,8 350 14
U O O CO O
00 8 1/4 400 16
Y
O W CD I's 0) O O O N-
CO
M
Is
N
CO M
0)
h Lo M I's
CO
CO 10 3/8 450 18
O ^ N d' 0 l^ a1 N N N M M lh V,
LC) CO
CO O O
M LO CO N

° ° 0 0 ° ° 0 0 0 0 0 ° 0 0 0
0 C) CD 15 1/2 500 20
I)W
to r` 7. m
i
CO co CO is OLO
20 3/4 550 22
.0 CD cO Ln LO LO t0 Ll) LO In.
t` M r M In f` M c(7 lO In
jp
m
O
r
r
N
r
7
r
to n
r
a1
r O
N I NI N
0 M M C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -0 0 C) C) 0 25 i i 600 24
X 0 0 0 O O O O ICoI O 0 0 0 0 0
32 1 1/4 650 26
CO N M O N CO
CO LC) r, 40
d r N 0 LO CCD CO 0) 1 1/2 700 28
0 0 0 ° 0 0
U.) CO
C) 0
50 2 750 30
C) co
N
N. 65 2 1/2 800 32
COD CO O ^ 0 0 nC +) LO O N N C°D M LD CND O)
t O O O r r r r r N N M M O
V, V 0 L0. LO.
a
C) o o 0 0 ° CD o o .o
N
o o
N N
O ° 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 80 3 900 36
CL
Na
t's
100 4 1000 40
N c`c) V ^ N: O N 'd^ ^ h h h 'h h h h h ti
O: O O r r
M
r
V
r
L
r
O O
N ,CN N N N N ff M M M M. M C7 M .M M
O
Co : M
0 I■ 0
M eh
0
M.
150 6 1100 42
0 ;0 0 ° 0 0 0D 0 0 0DJ x_ 0 0 0 _0 0 0 0 0 O
- V1 0: 0 0
200 8 1200 48
h- hs LO LO

t N
°
f+ 7,
M
. C
c) CI
LO
N CO
N
250 10 1400 54
CD 0 0 1i
° 0 0
300 12 1500 60
Ln 0 l0
N N N LC) Lq
r LC)
LO Lc)
N N N M co co co co
0 0 0 14.4 Different Standard Specifications for Tube & Pipe
o o ° 6 6 6 0 0
NN
-
There are different standards followed for Pipe and Tube, throughout world. Among them following
a) Lp LO M M A O) a) a) "4- co CO Lo ,r,ho Lo ch N
standards are well known.
g CD CO 0 0 0 0 0 0 M M
r
7 O
r
r N N N N N M M

p
0 ° O O r ^- r r
° 0 0 0
r
0
'-
O O 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
cAr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ASTM American Society for Testing Materials
t LO
CO
0) 0) LO LD
CO
LD
CD
N
CO
N
CO
LO
O
CO
O
CO
O
M
O
M
OD
0)
0
0)
C)
4)
O
d
CO
LD
CO API ' American Petroleum Institute
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ^ r r .-
0 0 0
tn^
0 0
0 0
0
C) C)
0
0
0
0 C) 0 0 0 O O O BSI (BS) British Standard Institute
co c) CO
C M DIN Deutsche Industrie- Normen
N N O
01QL O h L0 co L0 '- Ln C
COO N N N r r h er CO CDO V CO
r

d 0V
V d
0 ^ cr:=!
0 0 r r r
cc? Cy d d 10 D CD CO CO CO_ O = r r rN N
N N LO CO Is CO 0 r
(German Institute of Standardisation)
JIS - Japanese Industrial Standard
vt N
aN^
,_
E,_ .
O
0`p
r
a
r M
O
O^
r
^
M
T r
N ^ T' et
r ^
CO M
0
e-a-
CO 0
N N GOAST Gosudartsvennye Standarty
NM
O aNv r N M
z (State Standards of Russian Federation)

184 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
Among all above standards ASTM standard is mostly used in Boilers in India. So we will discus
about this standard. In ASTM standard "SA' or only "A" is prefixed before the standard. For example-
standard SA210 or A210.
For pipes and tubes of Boiler, there are different ASTM standards. We will discuss about most
commonly used standards for tube and pipe. Following standard tubes and pipes are found to be used in
India. These are
Tube standards
SA178 - Electric - Resistance:- Welded carbon steel and carbon manganese steel
Boiler and super heater tube.
SA192 - Seamless carbon steel Boiler tube for high pressure use.
SA209 - Seamless carbon - molybdenum alloy steel Boiler and super heater tube.
SA210 - Seamless medium carbon steel Boiler and super heater tube.
SA213 - Seamless ferritic and austenitic steel Boiler and super heater tube.
Mostly SA210, Grade Al & C (Seamless Medium Carbon Steel Boiler and Super heater tube)
and SA213, Grade Tl l& T-2 (Seamless Ferritic and austentic alloy steel, super heater and heat exchanger
tube) are used in boiler. Carbon steel is used in economiser evaporator and other low temperature tubes and
alloy steel is used for high temperature super heater tubes.
Pipe standards
SA106 - Seamless carbon steel pipe for high temperature service.
SA335 - Seamless ferritic and austenitic alloy steel pipe for high temperature service.
SA358 - Electric fusion welded austenitic chromium- nickel alloy steel pipe for high Temperature
service.
Mostly SA106, Grade A, B & C (Seamless carbon steel pipes for high temperature service) and
SA335, Grade P11 & P22 (Seam less ferritic and austentic alloy steel pipe for high temperature service) are
used in Boiler house.
Some time DIN2391, BS3059, API 5L etc. standard tubes and pipes are also used.
14.5 Carbon steel and Alloy steel
Carbon Steel
Depending upon the percentage of carbon in steel, gradation of steel is done as Low carbon,
Medium carbon and High carbon steel. Low carbon steel contains less than .3% carbon, it is also called as
mild steel. Medium carbon steel contains .3% to .45% of carbon. High carbon steel contains .45% to .75%
of carbon. Carbon steel also contains less than 1.65% manganese, less than .6% cooper and small amount
of silicon, sulpher and phosphorous.
Pipes, Tubes & Fittings
185
As per American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) -" steel is considered to be carbon steel when
no minimum content is specified or required for Chromium, Cobalt, columbium (Nobium), Molybdenum,
Nickel, Titanium, Tungsten, Vanadium or Zirconium or any other element to be added to obtain a desired
alloying effect.
By changing percentage of carbon in steel, property of steel is changed. Steel with increased
carbon is harder and stronger but less ductile.
Alloy steel--
Any steel which contains more than 1.65% Manganese or more than .6% copper or a guaranteed
minimum amount of any other metal is called as alloy steel. Elements most frequently used for alloying are
Nickel, Chromium, Molybdenum, Vanadium and Manganese.
Alloy steel posses higher thermal, mechanical and chemical properties than normal steel. Due to
high temperature in Boiler, these properties are most important. Particularly super heater tube of the Boiler
is exposed to high temperature. Also there is chance of erosion due to high velocity of dust particle. So alloy
steel is mostly used in this case. Carbon steel can not be used here as it sacrifices ductility to increase its
strength.
Merits of the alloying elements are discussed below.
Manganese
Manganese reduces oxides and counteracts harmful influence of iron sulfide. Manganese is used
to reduce carbon content to get steel having same tensile strength but improved ductility.
Nickel
Nickel lowers eutectoid temperature. It also increases rate of cooling of steel. Mechanical properties
changes with nickel content. Steel with .5% nickel is similar to carbon steel but is stronger on account of the
finer pearlite formed and the presence of nickel in solution of ferrite.
Chromium
It makes steel resistant to wear, corrosion resistant and increases hardness. Chromium forms an
inert passive film on the surface of the tube, which resists attack by oxidising reagents. Chromium is used
as a carbide stabiliser.
Nickel steel has hic.h strength, ductility and toughness, while chromium steel has high hardness
and resistant to wear. Combination of nickel and chromium makes the steel having all these properties. So
mostly, nickel and chromium are used together for alloying.
Molybdenum
Molybdenum forms complex carbides. It increases strength of steel at higher temperature, makes
steel more heat resistant. Molybdenum minimizes temperature brittleness and reduces mass effect. It is
normally used in combination with other alloying elements.
Vanadium
Vanadium acts as a scavenger for oxides. In the presence of other elements it forms carbides and
has a beneficial effect on the mechanical properties of heat treated steel.


186 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Pipes, Tubes & Fittings
187
Tungsten
Tungsten refines the grain size and produces less tendency to decarburisation during working.
Like Molybdenum, it makes steel heat resisting.
Silicon
Silicon dissolves in ferrite, of which it is an effective hardener. It contributes oxidation resistance
in heat _resisting steels. This is a general purpose de oxidizer.
Titanium and Nobium
These elements prevent intergranular corrosion of steel.

14.6 Ferritic and austenitic steel

We discussed in earlier section that different elements are added to steel for alloying purpose to
get better thermal, chemical and mechanical properties. Depending upon alloying element, microstructure
of steel changes. Steel is normally classified by their micro structure. They are identified as ferritic, austenitic
or duplex (austenitic and ferritic). Iron, carbon, chromium, and nickel are the primary elements that affect
the microstructure. Other alloying elements control the microstructure.
Austenitic steel exhibit a single phase, face centered cubic (FCC) structure. Ferritic steel has a
body centered (BCC) crystal structure, known as ferrite, at all the temperature below its melting temperature.
Duplex (austenitic and ferritic) steel usually comprise approximately equal proportions of the body centered
cubic (BCC) and face centered cubic (FCC) in its microstructure.
Alloying elements promote formation of certain phase or to stabilize it. When alloying element
promotes or stabilizes austenitic phase it is called as austenitic forming element. Nickel and manganese
mainly belong to this group. They stabilize austenitic phase even at room temperature. Other alloying
elements may be added to austenitic steel to get other special properties like- corrosion resistance, oxidation
resistance, strength at higher temperature etc.
Like this, alloying element which promotes or stabilizes ferritic phase, is called as ferrite forming
element. Most important elements of this group are Chromium (Cr), Silicon (Si) and
Molybdenum (Mo).
It may be concluded that in austenitic steel Nickel is used for alloying along with other elements.
In ferritic steel alloying elements other than nickel are used. In case of austenitic and ferritic steel all the
alloying elements including nickel are used.
14.7 Chemical composition and Mechanical property of different Standard
Pipes and Tubes
In the previous section it was discussed that carbon steel and alloy steel tubes and pipes are used
in Boiler. Now we will discuss the chemical composition and some mechanical property of some of the
widely used tubes and pipes in power plants.
There are different standard pipes and Tubes used in boiler. The chemical composition and
some mechanical property of some of these pipes and Tubes are shown in Tabular form.


Pipes, Tubes & Fittings 189

Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
188

14.8 Flow through Pipe

aj In a boiler house steam and feed water flows through pipe. So some basic knowledge regarding

flow through pipe is required by a Boiler Engineer.

Main purpose of the piping system is to supply fluid at correct pressure to the point of use.
c
m Two types of fluid can flow
in a pipe. First is compressible and second is incompressible fluid. When fluid
N volume is directly related to pressure and temperature of the fluid, it is called as compressible fluid such as
N C_ C_ _C C C_ C C_ C C C C C C
2 steam. Where, volume of fluid remains relatively constant with change in pressure and temperature, fluid is
2 rG
CD CD CD N N N N N N N N
N N r - - ._ _.__. _ — called-as-incompressible fluid.
H m _.. co
m v v v v - r
^r" ^r ^t
,

Flow in a pipe is given by

W O
y CD X COO CO N Flow in M3 = Cross sectional area of a pipe (A) X flow velocity (m/sec)
,^ CO o_o RS _0C) -
a)5 ZOOQo2 UOO>oo
When any fluid flows in a pipe some mechanical energy is lost due to friction at the wall of pipe.

This pressure loss of the fluid depends upon following factors.

oco L = Length of pipe in meter

LC) LI) 'a -
C
0 • . co 'd' N
d' Co -t co co co o
D = Diameter of pipe in meter.
Ri
C.) o o U = Mean velocity of fluid flow (mis)

v co a) = Dynamic viscosity of the fluid (kg/ms)

N • o .. o 0a) 0o
0 co p = Fluid density (kg/m 3 )

U) Ks= Roughness factor of the pipe

C
Pressure or head loss due to friction in a straight pipe is given by Darcy – weisbach equation. As
L
a)
N O 4fl 2
N N N X per this equation hf = 2SD
N x N X
®
. , . . . . . . . N x
as
N X
oro • oro om o

14- Where

C
Q N x
hf = head loss due to friction in meter

. , . om O CXG
. . , • . . , . . f = friction factor (dimension less)
, .
W 2
I = length of pipe in meter

U = flow velocity, m/s

r
0 o o
co csD g = gravitational constant, 9.81 m/s 2
co co co
D = diameter of the pipe in meter

L.
The friction factor in a pipe depends upon the Reynolds number and roughness of pipe inner

. . . .. .. . . .. .
surface. Friction factor can also be found from Mody chart.

Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter, which serves to determine flow regimes of

fluid in pipe. There are different types of flow regimes. These are – plug flow, laminar flow and turbulent

flow. Also Reynolds number is a factor of pipe diameter, velocity of fluid, fluid density and fluid viscosity.

.. ..
.. .. ..
It is given by

m
N N N
CA
a R = per
a d d a
(7 < M .0 a d a a.
o

When Re is below 2000, flow is called as laminar. Flow is calm and regular in this case. When Re
as
°^v "^°
ri- is more than 4000, flow is called as turbulent. Flow in this case is in form of swirl and movement.

Head loss in pipe is calculated by above method is for straight pipe line.
N


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

Pipes, Tubes & Fittings
191
Other than friction loss in the pipe, pressure also drops due to pipe line bends, valves etc. These
Change in length of a pipe is given by
losses are converted in to equal pipe length. The equal pipe length is then added to total pipe length for
calculation of loss. Equivalent loss for different pipe fittings are shown later on. aL =aLo at
To keep the total loss within limit, pipe size (diameter) is selected. Demerits of oversize and Where
undersize pipes are discussed below. AL = change in length
Over size a = coefficient of linier expansion
-More expensive due to higher size pipe, valves fittings etc ---L = original length
• Higher installation cost for support work and insulation. = change in temperature

• In steam pipe, more condensate is formed due to greater heat loss. More traps are required for
removal of this condensate.
Under size
o Pressure drop is more, so less pressure is available at the load end.
o There is risk of starvation due to excessive drop.
• Greater risk of erosion, water hammer and noise due to high velocity.
Pipe line used in a Boiler house carries hot fluid, so it must be allowed to expand. Pipeline is
subjected to large variation in temperature during fluid flow and no flow. "U" loops or expansion loops are
provided in the pipe line to take care of this thermal expansion. This expansion loop allows piping system
to absorb the force generated by expansion, without doing any harm to pipe line.
Other than expansion loop, 90° bends, "U" bends and offsets are used to reduce expansion stress.
The effect of expansion is usually absorbed by the system at changes of direction in the pipe.

14.9 Pressure loss due to pipe bends, valves etc.

Equivalent length in meter for additional pressure drop due to valves and bends are shown in the
table. For calculating pressure drop in a pipe line, following table will be most helpful. .

Pipe Dia (NB) Gate Valve Globe valve Tee 90°Bend 45°Bend

10 0.099 5.33 1.116 0.434 0.23

(a)90°Bend (b) U Bend
15 0.122 6.44 1.369 0.483 0.277
25 0.204 9.81 2.18 0.763 0.436
40 0.314 14.65 2.93 1.13 0.628
65 0.515 24.03 4.806 1.716 1.03
80 0.605 28.23 5.646 2.016 1.2
100 0.788 36.77 7.354 2.626 1.576
125 0.975 45.48 9.097 3.249 1.95
150 1.167 54.43 10.885 3.888 2.333
Example . (d) offset (e) "U" Loop
A 50 meter 40 NB pipe line has one globe valve, one gate valve an\1 one Tee.
Equivalent length of the pipe line is- Fig. 14.2 Arrangement for pipe line expansion
50 + 14.65 + .314 + 2.93 = 67.894 meter.
14.10 Thermal expansion of pipe Expansion loop is provided at suitable interval. Expansion joints are used in low pressure pipe
All piping system expand and contract with change in temperature. Expansion of pipe depends lines. Expansion bellow makes the pipe line flexible. It can take care of dimension change due to thermal ,
expansion.
on the expansion coefficient of piping material and temperature difference.
 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Pipes, Tubes & Fittings

Fig. 14.3 Expansion bellow

Fig. 14.4 Rigid Hanger
14.11 Pipe support Variable spring supports are used to carry load of pipe as well as to minimize vibration of the
Pipe line is subjected to various forces like : pipe. These type of hangers are having locking arrangement to make the support inoperative during hydro
test etc. Load of pipe can be shifted to the spring hanger by adjusting the adjuster nut on the load column.
• Thermal expansion due to temperature difference. The piston plate should move up and down freely during operation. Normally the moving of this piston
• Pressure of the fluid flowing in the pipe. plate is marked with a pointer and scale. Position of the pointer is to be checked regularly.

• Wind load on the pipe. In]

Occasional load during hydro test etc.

• Load of the pipe itself.
• Vibration due to water hammer or steam hammer.
Earthquake.
Depending upon these loads pipes are required to be supported at suitable intervals. The support
system should make the pipe free to move in any direction. The support should-
. Absorb system weight.
• Reduce longitudinal pipe stress.
• Reduce pipe sag.
• Reduce end point reaction.
There are different types of pipe supports. These are
Rigid support
• Variable spring support
• Constant spring support
• Rigid restraints
Rigid hangers are used to support the pipe and to fasten the pipe to overhead beams. Rollers or
antifriction elements are provided to facilitate axial movement of pipe.
Fig. 14.5 Variable spring Hanger

Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
14.12 Insulation of pipe
When hot water or steam flows in a pipe a considerable amount of heat energy is radiated out
from the pipe surface to surrounding atmosphere and the fluid temperature drops. To minimize this loss,
pipe line is insulated to prevent radiation of heat from pipe to the surrounding.
Different types of insulating materials are used for insulating the pipe. Mineral wool and fiber
glass 'or glass wool insulation with support wire mesh netting and aluminum cladding is used normally in
pipe lines. Steel wire mesh is used to provide strength to the insulation. And aluminum cladding is provided
for mechanical protection and water proofing. Insulation slab is available in market in different thickness.
It is cut as per requirement and fitted.
Mineral wool (rock and slag wool) is un combustible and having high melting temperature (1800
°F — 2000°F). It has excellent thermal resistance. Its conductivity is 0.036 kcal/mhr°C and average density
is about 100—200 kg/M 3 . Glass wool is having thermal conductivity 0.045 kcallmhr°C and average density
is about 80 — 100 kg/M 3 .
Now days, pre-casted insulations are available for different size pipes, valves and flanges.
Thickness of insulation on the pipe is decided upon following factors.
• The heat carried by the fluid.
• Diameter of the pipe.
• Temperature of the fluid.
Thickness of the insulation is so selected that the surface temperature is around 60°C. Normally
the insulation up to 65mm thickness is done in single layer. If the required thickness is more, then insulation
is done in multi layer.
Most of the time engineers neglect pipe insulation. Damaged insulation can cause significant loss
in the system. So proper care is to be taken to keep the insulation in proper condition and ensure the
insulation is not damaged in any location.
Mostly Insulation degradation takes place due to flowing factors.
• Insulation is damaged during repair of pipe line components or fittings.
• Steam or water leakage and moisture contamination.
• Lack of opportunity to repair the damaged insulation due to production constraints.
It is advisable to repair the damaged insulation as and when required to avoid heat loss in the system.
14.13 Pipe lay out
Hot steam flows in pipe line up to the load end. Some amount of heat is lost due to radiation
inspite the pipe line is insulated. Due to this loss some amount of condensate is formed in the pipe line. So
the pipe line is to be properly laid so that this condensate can be removed easily to avoid corrosion, erosion
and water hammer.
To remove the condensate from the pipe line, steam traps are provided at suitable locations
(normally at lowest point of the system). The trap is fitted to a pocket which is normally provided at the
bottom of the pipe as shown in the fig.
Pipe Line
1 Trap
--^
Pocket
Drain
Fig. 14.6 Trap connection in steam line
Pipes, Tubes & Fittings
195
It is required to lay the pipe line as straight as possible to minimize pressure drop. Pipe should be
laid with a fall of around 1: 100 (1 meter fall for every 100 meter run) in the direction of steam flow.
This slope facilitates condensate to move towards trap point.
When diameter of the pipe line is required to be changed, reducers are fitted. Use of eccentric
reducer is more suitable than concentric reducer to avoid water hammer.
When branch pipe line is to be taken from main pipe line, it should be taken out from top of
main line, not from bottom of the line. If it is tapped from the bottom, chance of entry of condensate is
therein to the branch line. Suitable isolation valve is to be provided for each branch line.
Sufficient support and proper expansion facility is to be provided to take care of thermal expansion.
Other than all these above points, following points are to be considered for a perfect pipe line lay out.
• Operating and control points are easily accessible.
• Pipe line should have sufficient clearance to facilitate maintenance and replacement of fittings.
• All pipe line supports are to be accessible for inspection.
• Safety of operating and maintenance people is to be considered.
In some cases more than one incoming steam line is connected to a common pipe line. In this
case the incoming pipe lines should be provided with isolating valves.
14.14 Water hammer
Due to heat loss in pipe line, steam is condensed. Velocity of steam flowing over the accumulated
condensate causes ripples in the water. Turbulence builds up until the water forms a solid mass or slug.
When this slug of condensate collides at high velocity in to pipe wall or fittings then noise and vibration is
produced called as water hammer. In some cases the strength of water hammer is so high that it can
fracture the pipe line, leading to a sever situation.
Steam
tt 11 —^^
Steam
--^
Fig. 14.7 Water hammer
Normally water hammer occurs at the lower point of the pipe due to inadequate removal of
condensate. Opening line isolation valve too quickly during start up, when pipe line is cold, may produce
water hammer. So during starting, it is to be ensured that, condensate is removed completely and the valve
is to be opened slowly.
14.15 Pipe fitting
Pipe fittings are normally used to
• Modify flow direction.
• Bring pipes together.
o Alter pipe diameter.
• Terminate pipe.
 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Pipes, Tubes & Fittings
197
`Most commonly used pipe fittings are — Elbow, Bend, Tee, Reducer, Cross, Plug and Cap. Plugs and caps are used in pipe to close the end of the pipe.
These fittings have flanged or welded ends.
Elbow, Bend and Returns are used to modify flow direction.

(a) Elbow
(a) 90° Bend
Fig. 14.8 Pipe fittings
Fig. 14.11 End Cap
Tee and Cross are used for branch connection.

(a) Cross

Fig. 14.9 Tee and Cross

Reducers are used to join pipes of different sizes. There are two type of reducer- concentric and
eccentric

(a) Concentric reducer (b) Ecentric reducer

Fig. 14.10 Reducer


Pipe Fittings And Ancillaries

199
Socket weld flange :
In this type of flange, pipe fits in to the internal pocket and allows smooth flow through the
flange. It is not so much stronger as a weld neck flange.
PIPE FITTINGS AND ANCILLARIES
—x-

k-- R
15.1 Introduction
Pipe line have different fittings and Ancillaries. In the previous chapter we have discussed about (a) Socket Weld flange (b) Slip on Flange
some fittings. In this chapter we will discuss about some commonly used fittings and ancillaries like-
Flanges, Valves, Traps and Strainers. Fig. 15.2 Socket weld and slip on flange
Practically in a boiler house, much attention is not paid for these fittings and ancillaries. Slip on flange :
These small pipe line components play major role for smooth transportation of fluid in the pipe line. In this This flange fits over the pipe and then welded in position.
chapter, it is tried to provide some detail input to the reader about these components. Depending upon face type, flange is classified as :
15.2 Flange o Flat faced flange
A flange is used to connect two pipes mechanically or to connect a pipe to a valve, tee or other • Raised faced flange
piece of equipment.
Principle of a flange is to use mechanical force ( exerted by tightening bolts) to pre load the
gasket sufficiently, so that when internal pressure is applied due to fluid pressure, there is enough contact
stress between the flange and gasket to maintain a seal.
Flange is required to be fixed to the pipe. This is done by welding, threading and other weld less
connections. Flanges are manufactured by forging, casting or from plates.
There are different types of flanges. These are classified as per their attachment to the pipe.
• Threaded flanges
• Socket welded flanges (a) Raised faced flange (b) Flat faced flange
• Blind flanges Fig. 15.3 Flange Face
Slip on flanges Normally for high pressure steam and feed water pipe line, Socket Weld Raised Face (SWARF)
o Lapped flanges and Weld Neck Raised Face (WNRF) flanges are used. Some time, Slip on Raised Face (SORF) flanges are
• Weld neck flanges found in use also.
Welded neck flange : Flanges are manufactured as per ANSI standard B 16.5. The material specification for flanges
This is recognized by its long tapered hub. This type of flange is mostly used in high pressure as per ASTM standard is given below for different flanges.
application.
Product form
Steel Forging Casting Plate
Carbon steel A 105 A 216 A 515
A350 A516
Fig. 15.1 Welded neck flange` A 537
Alloy steel A 182 A 217 A 387
[198]


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Pipe Fittings And Ancillaries 201
Flanges are classified in to seven classes named as 150, 300, 400, 600, 900, 1500 and 2500. 15.3 Trap
More the class number means, the flange is more stronger. Class indicates maximum pressure in Psig.
When temperature of the fluid increases, maximum working pressure of a particular class flange reduces. When steam in the pipe line cools, condensate is formed. It is required to drain out this condensate
from the system to avoid further cooling of steam and water hammer. For this, traps are used in pipe line.
Temperature and pressure range of different class of carbon steel forged (A-105) flange is given
Main function of steam trap is to discharge condensate and not permitting steam to escape. During start
for refernce. From this example it will be easier to understand about the class and its working range for up, pipe space is filled with air, so the trap should capable to release air. Thes e traps are automatic valves.
different pressure and temperature. The trap is expected to have following characteristic.
Gauge pressure (KPa) / Flange class • Steam loss should be minimum
Temperature °C 150 300 400 600 900 1500 2500 Have trouble free operation with less maintenance

14840 24670 41130 Have long operating life

50 1830 4940 6560 9850
• Should be reliable even under dirty steam condition
150 1450 4680 6260 9400 14130 23500 39200
Location of trap should be in such a position that condensate in the system can flow automatically
250 1070 4370 5850 8780 13170 21920 36600 to the trap by gravity. Normally lowest point of the steam line is ideal place for trap location. Trap location
500 400 1240 1620 2460 3720 6170 10330 should be accessible for inspection and maintenance.
15.3.1 Different type of traps
Gasket
Gasket is used in a flange as sealant material. It is inserted between flanges and compressed by Depending upon the operating principle, traps are classified as Thermodynamic, Thermostatic
bolts to create seal. Following types of gaskets are used in flanges. and Mechanical types. Principles of operation of these traps are velocity, temperature and density respectively.
• Gasket sheet We will discuss in details about these traps one by one in subsequent sections.
• Spiral gasket 15.3.1.1 Thermodynamic or disc trap
• Solid metal ring Principle of operation of this type trap is difference in velocity or kinetic energy between steam
Gasket sheet is available in various thicknesses. This sheet can be cut as per requirement and and condensate. Operation of this trap depends partly on the formation of flash steam from the condensate.
fitted. Spiral gasket is available in market in various sizes. When hot condensate at high pressure passes to a low pressure system, flash steam is produced.
Most of the time leakage takes place in the flange. Some important reasons for flange leakage are : This trap is robust and very simple in construction.
' Uneven bolt stress
' Improper flange alignment
• Improper gasket centering
' Excessive load at flange location
• Thermal shock
• Improper gasket size or material
• Improper flange facing
o Damaged gasket
Proper gasket is to be used and the bolts are to be properly tightened. For tightening flange bolts,
proper sequence is to be followed.

Fig. 15.5 Thermodynamic Trap

Fig. 15.4 Flange bolt tighiting sequence
There is a disc which opens and closes the outlet port. When disc moves up due to incoming
pressure of the condensate the outlet opens and condensate is discharged. Fresh hot condensate enters in
to the trap chamber. As the pressure of this hot condensate drops at the chamber flush steam is released.
This flush steam builds pressure above the disc and moves it down. Down ward movement of the disc
closes the outlet.


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Pipe Fittings And Ancillaries 203
Again after some time, the flash steam acting above the disc condenses and pressure drops. Ball float trap
So disc moves up due to pressure of condensate and it is discharged. The disc closes when flush steam is
formed again. Like this cycle repeats. Rate of operation depends on steam temperature and ambient In this type of trap, opening and closing of outlet valve is achieved by floating of a ball in the
condition. condensate. When condensate level in the trap charnber become high, the float ball raises and opens the
valve. Condensate is discharged and level of condensate come down. Due to lower level of condensate,
This type of trap has following advantages.
float drops and closes the valve. Again condensate level starts rising and the cycle continues.
o It works across its entire working range without any adjustment or change in internals.
Auto Cock
• It can be used on high pressure super heated steam line.
• As disc is the only moving part so maintenance is easier and can be-carried out in position.
• It is compact, simple and light weight.
15.3.1.2 Thermostatic Trap
This trap opens and closes with the movement of a temperature sensitive element. Opening and
closing of outlet port of the trap is done by a thermostatic bellow element. Float

During starting, bellow element is fully contracted and outlet port is in open condition. The
condensate is discharged out. When temperature inside the trap increases due to flow of steam, it heat up
the bellow element and bellow is expanded. Expansion of below closes outlet port of the trap.
Again when the temperature inside the trap drops the bellow contracts and opens outlet port
allowing condensate to discharge. Like this cycle continues. Fig. 15.7 Ball Float Trap
In this type of trap, outlet valve is always sealed with condensate. So air can not be vented in this
type of trap. For this a little modification is done in ball float trap. A thermostatic air vent is provided in it. This
modified trap is called as float and thermostatic trap.
Float and Thermostatic Trap
As discussed before, this is a normal ball float valve with a thermostatic element placed at steam
space of the trap. When non condensable air increases at steam space, temperature of air/ steam mixture
reduces. So the bellow contracts and opens a valve to release air. When temperature of this mixture
increases, bellow expands and closes valve and stops air release.

Air release

Fig. 15.6 Thermostatic Trap

This trap is suitable during start up, as it remains in open position during cold.
Liquid expansion steam trap, balanced pressure steam trap and bimetallic steam trap are also
belong to thermostatic group.
15.3.1.3 Mechanical Trap
Operating principle of this type of trap is difference in density between steam and condensate.
'Mainly two types of trap in this group are used.
• Ball float steam trap
Fig. 15.8 (a) Float and Thermostatic trap
• Inverted bucket steam trap This type of trap is ideal as it can remove condensate and non condensable gasses.


204 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
Inverted bucket Trap
Inverted bucket steam trap (some time called as Armstrong converted submerged bucket.
Introduced by Armstrong in 1911) is a mechanical trap, which operates on the principle of difference in
density between steam and water.
In this trap, an up side down or an inverted bucket is attached to an operating leaver which
opens and closes a valve. A small hole is provided at the top of the bucket for air vent.
Fig. 15.8 (b) Inverted Bucket Trap
During starting, bucket :;inks in the condensate causing the valve to open. So condensate is
discharged in this condition. When steam enters in to the inverted bucket, it floats, causing the valve to close.
Valve remains close until the upward thrust of steam decreases due to condensation of steam.
Once the steam condenses, bucket sinks again and the operating cycle continues.
This type of trap withstands high pressure and has good tolerance to water hammer. When there
is a failure in the trap, it usually remains in open condition and avoids accumulation of condensate.
The trap may malfunction when there is insufficient water seal.
15.3.2 Problems, losses and testing of Traps
Steam traps are provided in steam line to remove condensate. In some cases, when trap fails, it
discharges steam continuously. This is called as leakage trap. Steam is a costly fluid. So leakage of steam
from detective trap costs a lot and makes the system inefficient. .
Some time the trap may remain inoperative causing accumulation of condensate and water
hammer. This is called as blockage trap.
Most of the time people ignore a faulty trap. Leaking or blocking of trap, both are undesirable.
Impurities, Corrosion, water hammer and poor maintenance practices are the most common causes,
Pipe Fittings And Ancillaries 205
15.4 Valve
Valve is provided in a pipe line to Isolate, regulate and control the flow of fluid. Isolating valve is
used when full open and close position is required. Regulating valve is used in any position between full close
to full open. Control valve is power operated or pneumatically operated to control flow rate in a pipe line.
- -Isolation valve is provided for fo ll owin g reasons.
• Facilitate maintenance.
• Allow removal of equipment.
• Allow shutdown of the plant.
Valves are available with different end connections for fixing in to a pipe line. These are either
Flanged end (FE) type, Socket welding end (SW) type or Butt weld end (BW) type. Valves are manufactured
by either casting or forging process.
Depending upon operating motion of the closure device, valve is classified as linear movement
valve or rotary movement valve. Gate valve, Globe valve and Diaphragm valves are example of linear
movement valve. Ball valve and Butterfly valves belong to rotary movement valve.
We will discuss here about Gate, Globe and Diaphragm valves. Control valves and non return
valves will be discussed later on.
15.4.1 Differenf type of Valves
Gate Valve
In this valve, a gate slides between the seats of the valve. Movement of the gate is at right angle
to flow of fluid. By opening the valve, flow path is enlarged in a highly non linear manner with respect to
percentage of opening. Repairing such as lapping and grinding of seat and gate is difficult in this valve.
Gate valve is normally used for isolation application, where only fully close or fully open position
is required. The gate fully retracts in the bonnet. So pressure drop across the valve is low. This valve is
suitable where frequent opening and closing is required.
Bonnet

responsible for trap failure. So, proper inspection and maintenance practices can help to detect leaking or
blocking trap. Accordingly, initiative can be taken to repair or replace the trap.
Trap may be inspected by three methods to detect any faulty trap. These methods are visual,
thermal and acoustic.
In visual method, the trap is inspected to find whether it is discharging condensate or steam.
Thermal inspection relies on the upstream and downstream temperature variation across a trap.
Various methods like pyrometer, infrared etc. are used to measure the temperature. In a blocked trap,
temperature at the down steam in less.
Acoustic technique requires to listen to detect steam trap operation and malfunctioning. The listening
device may be Engineers stethoscope, screw driver, and ultrasonic detection instrument.
Appropriate record keeping is helpful to compare the condition of trap.
Fig. 15.9 Gate valve


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Pipe Fittings And Ancillaries 207

Main component of the valve is body, bonnet, gate, hand wheel and stem. Disc of the valve, needs to move a small distance from its seat, to allow full flow. Main advantage
of this valve is, it can be used for throttling purpose and where positive shut off is required.
The fluid has to change its direction of flow in this valve. So the resistance to flow is high in this
case and causes high pressure drop across the valve. The disc and seat is simpler for lapping and repairing.
Pressure of the fluid acting overthe disc generates an axial thrust on the stem. So, higher force
is required for closing this valve. In large size valve it is difficult to open the valve as the differential. pressure
across the valve is high. In this case balancing plug is used to overcome this effect.
There
__
are three types of body design in case of globe valve. These are Z- body, Y-body and
angle body.
In Z-body design, movement of stem is at right angle to the pipe axis and the valve seat is at
horizontal position. In this case, pressure drop is high.
In' body design, stem and seat of the valve are angled at approximately 45°. The angle facilitates
a straight flow path during full opening. so in this design pressure drop is less.

(a) Non rising stem (b) Rising stem

Fig. 15.10 Non rising and rising stem valve

There are two types of gate valve. One is non rising stem type and second one is raising stem
type. In non raising type, stem is threaded on the lower end in to gate. When hand wheel is rotated gate
travel up or down. Stem remains vertically stationary. In raising stem type valve, stern is raised vertically
when the valve is opened.
Globe Valve
Globe valve is a widely used valve in high pressure steam and water line. Movement of the valve
Wheel
disc is parallel to flow of fluid.
Fig. 15.12 Y Type globe valve
Angle body globe valve is having end at right angle. The fluid flow is through a single 90° turn.
This type of valve functions as a valve and pipe elbow.
Diaphragm Valve
This is a linear motion valve. This can be used to open, isolate and regulate the flow. There is a
flexible disc (diaphragm) which matches with a seat. Diaphragm is connected to a compressor which is
connected to the stem. Compressor is moved up and down with the movement of stem. When the compressor
is lowered, diaphragm is pressed and stops fluid flow. When stem is raised the compressor also raises and
diaphragm lifts and allows fluid flow. This valve can be used for throttling service alst -

-a Wheel

Bonnet
Diapharagm

Fig. 15.11 Globe Valve Fig. 15.13 Diaphrgm valve

 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Pipe Fittings And Ancillaries

Butterfly Valve
This is a rotary motion type valve. The disc rotates 90° from full close position to full open
Gland Packing '
position. This valve can be used to open, isolate and regulate the flow. Specifically this valve is suitable for
large volume application with less pressure. The disc may rotate on either a vertical or horizontal axis.

Fig. 15.16 Gland Packing

Lever

Atmosphere end packing material is subjected to higher pressure. So it fails faster. It is required
to only replace first two or three layers of packing regularly.
15.4.2.1 Gland packing material

For sealing of valve stem, gland packing is required. Soft packing material is compressed by
external force. By tightening gland flower bolt, radial pressure is produced hence effective sealing of stem is
done. Radial pressure can be adjusted by adjusting gland bolt. Gland bolt should not be tightened more to
avoid over compression of soft packing, otherwise it may lead to excessive friction, stem wear and premature
packing failure.

Soft packing material contains lubricant to increase density, dissipate heat and lubricate. Due to
compression or overheating in service, packing volume is lost and effective sealing is affected.
Fig. 15.15 Needle Valve Some of the main required properties of a packing material are mentioned below.
Fig. 15.14 Butterfly valve
• Compatible with working fluid.
Needle valve • Should be capable to withstand operating temperature.
This valve is used for fine adjustment of fluid flow. The disc of the valve is tapered one, like ' Should be non abralive to minimise stem erosion.
a needle. • Non corrosive to avoid damage to stem and housing.
Also there are other type of valves like- Ball valve, Plug valve etc.
• Wear resistant.
' Retain properties over time.
15.4.2 Stem Sealing
For soft packing following materials are commonly used.
Liquid, flowing in the pipe may leak from around the stem of a . valve. Particularly in high Fibers :
pressure system this leakage is sever. So stem sealing is required. This sealing is done by gland packing.
Mineral Asbestos
Gland packing material is packed tightly between the steam and bonnet of the valve to prevent leakage.
Vegetable Cotton
If the gland packed valve is not used for a significant period, gland pack may stiffen and leakage may take
Flax
place, next time the valve is operated.
g Jute
Packing material is packed in the gland by layers. Pressure is applied from the top by tightenin Synthetic Glass
gland flower. Packing material is compressed and makes the stem leak proof. Practically it is noticed,
Graphite filament
pressure on all the layers of packing material is not equal. It is more at atmosphere end and less at
Nylon
pressure end. Poly tetra fluroethylen (PTFE)


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Pipe Fittings And Ancillaries
211

Lubricants: Material Casting Forging

Dry Graphite Carbon steel ASTM —A 216 ASTM- A 105
Mica
Grade- WCA, WCB, WCC
Castor oil
Alloy steel ASTM —A 217 ASTM- A 182
Solid fractions
Paraffin wax Grade- WC1, WC4, WC5 Grade — Fl, F11, F22
Silicon grease WC6, WC9, C5, C12
PTFE dispersions Forged carbon steel and Alloy steel valves are avilable up to 2 inch sizes only. Cast carbon steel
Metals : Stainless steel wire and alloy steel valves are used for higher sizes.
Inconel wire
Valves are classified as per their pressure and temperature ratings. As per ANSI standard, valves
Monet wire are classified from class 150 to class 2500. Class of the valve means pressure rating of the valve. More class
The fibrous compression soft packings are available in following forms. number means it can be used at higher pressure. Class number indicates the pressure rating of the valve in
• Plated . "psi". For example 600 class valve means, its pressure rating is 600 psi. Pressure and temperature rating of
• Braided ASTM —A-216, Grade WCB and ASTM — A 217, Grade WC9 is given below. Carbon steel valve (A 216
and A 105) can be. used maximum up to 420°C
• Twisted ti
Packing material in braided form is used mostly for valve steam packing. Individual yarns are
braided tube over tube and squired off in this type. The density of this type of packing is high. Working Pressure of different Class of Valves
For high temperature use, fiber based packing material is reinforced with metal wire. Particularly (ASTM A216 Gr WCB)
asbestos fiber packing, reinforced with steel wire is preferred in this case. This type of packing can be used
Temp. T Working Pressure in "psi"/Class
up to 800°C temperature.
Lubricants as mentioned earlier are used in different fiber packings. It is applied to packing by
150 300 600 900 1500 2500
dipping, coating, soaking, vacuum impregnation and dusting. Fiber packing is supposed to retain this
lubricant for a longer period. — 20 to 100 285 740 1480 2220 3705 6170
Gland packing is available in market in long length (roll) in various sizes (thickness). As per
200 260 675 1350 2025 3375
requirement pieces are cut from the roll and used. 5625
Working temperature of some commonly used packing materials. 300 230 655 1315 1970 3280 5470
Material Temperature, °C 400 200 635 1270 1900 3170 5280
Jute 0-60 500 170 600 1200 1795 2995 4990
Cotton 0-70 600 140 550 1095 1640 2735 4560
Ruberised cotton 0-80
650 125 535 1075 1610 2685 4475
PTFE -250 to 220
Graphite fiber -200 to 600 700 110 535 1065 1600 2665 4440
Lubricated asbestos fiber 0 to 350 750 95 505 1010 1510 2520 4200
Self lubricated fiber asbestos
0 to 540 800 80 410 825 1235 2060 3430
with flake graphite or mica
Lubricated asbestos, reinforced stainless steel 0 to 800 850 65 270 535 805 1340 2230
900 50 170 345 515 860 1430
15.4.3 Valve Standard and Material specification
950 35 105 205 310 515 860
Different valves are manufactured as per ASME B 16.34 standard. Valves are manufactured
either by casting or forging. Material specification of most commonly used carbon steel and alloy steel 1000 20 50 105 155 .260 430
valves for both casting and forging is given below.


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Pipe Fittings And Ancillaries
213
Working Pressure of different Class of Valves, There are different types of NRV available. But the basic principle of operation is same for all
(ASTM A217 Gr WC6) NRV. NRV is operated by the reverse flow of flowing fluid in the pipe line. It does not require any external
actuating force to operate. Pressure of the fluid opens the valve and allows fluid to flow. While there is
Temp. °F Working Pressure in "psi"/Class reversal of flow, it closes the valve and stops flow. Closure of valve is accomplished by weight of check
mechanism, back pressure of the fluid or spring. -
150 300 600 900 1500 2500
Some of the common types of NRVs are Swing check valve, Lift check valve, Disc check valve,
-20 to 100 290 750 1500 2250 3750 6250
Split disc check valve, Tilting disc check valve, Piston check valve, Butterfly check valve etc. We will discuss
2C0 260• 750 1500 - - 2250 3750 6250 aboutsome-important type check valve.
300 230 720 1445 2165 3610 6015
15.5.1 Swing check valve
400 200 695 1385 2080 3465 5775
1330 1995 3325 5540 This type of check valve has a disc hangs down in the flow path with a hinge. When fluid flows
500 170 665
in forward direction, pressure of the fluid pushes the disc upward allowing the fluid to flow. Reverse flow
600 140 605 1210 1815 3025 5040
drops the disc and seals against the seat. So the flow stops in reverse direction. During no flow,
650 125 590 1175 1765 2940 4905 valve remain is closed position due to its own weight. In some cases weighted lever is used to assist
570 1135 1705 2840 4730 the closing.
700 110
750 95 530 1065 1595 2660 4430
800 80 510 1015 1525 2540 4230
850 65 485 975 1460 2435 4060
900 50 450 900 1350 2245 3745
950 35 320 640 955 1595 2655
1000 20 215 430 650 1080 1800
1050 20 145 290 430 720 1200
1100 20 95 190 290 480 800
1150 20 60 125 185 310 515

1200 15 40 75 115 190 315

15.5 Non return valve (NRV)

Non return valve is used to check the flow of a fluid in reverse direction. In Boiler this valve is .
used in feed water line, Attemperator spray water line and main steam line. Feed water should not flow
back, in case feed pump pressure drops. Some time the NRV fixed at feed water line is called as "feed
check valve". Boiler is in pressurised condition during service. If feed pump fails in this condition for any
reason, this higher pressure of Boiler will force water back, from the Boiler. If no NRV is fitted, Boiler will be
emptied at this condition.
Like this in case of•Attemperator, high pressure steam will try to flow in the attemperator spray Fig. 15.17 Swing Check valve

line in case spray water pressure drops, if NRV is not provided.

When more than one Boilers are connected in parallel, NRV is provided at main steam line, to
ensure there is no possibility of steam back flow in to any Boiler.
To prevent flow reversal in a piping system, NRV is used. NRV is also called as check valve.
Some of the main reason to use NRV at pipe line is mentioned below.
Protection of equipment due by reverse flow.
• Prevention of reverse flow in the system during system shut down.
Prevention of back flow under gravity.
Seat of the valve is replaceable. As the disc remains in floating on the fluid during normal flow,
so pressure drop in this type of check valve is high.
15.5.2 Lift check valve
This type of check valve is having similar seating arrangement as globe valve.
The disc seats on a seat to close the flow. This type of valve is used in steam and water line having high flow
velocity.
 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Pipe Fittings And Ancillaries
215
In horizontal steam line the strainer is so fitted that the pocket is in the horizontal plane to avoid
water collection in the pocket. In feed water line the pocket should be vertically downward to ensure that
the removed debris is not reentered in to the fluid.
Basket type Strainer:

Normally this type of strainer is used in feed water line. In this type of strainer screen is put in a
vertical oriented outer chamber. The straining area is more in this case. So it is preferred in liquid pipe line.
_If it-is used in steam line suitable draining is required to remove condensate.
SEAT
Some times duplex arrangement of basket strainer is preferred. Second strainer is placed in
parallel with main strainer. Suitable change over arrangement is provided for diverting fluid flow from one
strainer to other. One of the strainers is kept in operation while other one is kept as stand by.
Strainer screens :

Two types of screens are used in strainer. These are perforated screen and Mesh screen.
Fig. 15.18 Lift check valve Perforated screen is formed by punching a large number of holes in a flat sheet and then rolled
in to tube and spot weld together. This type of screen is suitable to remove general pipe line debris.
Fluid enters in to NRV below the seat. Pressure of upward flow of the fluid lifts the disc from seat
and allows the flow. When flow stops or reverses the disc seats on the valve seat and stops flow. Mesh screen is formed by layering fine wire mesh over a perforated screen. Perforated screen acts
as a support cage for the mesh. Smaller particles can be removed in this screen.
15.5.3 Disc check valve
Flanged end or Weld end strainers are available to use in pipe line.
This type of check valve is having a disc which closes by the action of spring. When fluid enters
in to the NRV in forward direction, due to fluid pressure, force is exerted on the disc. When this force is
more than the spring force, the disc is forced to move from the seat in the flow direction and allows fluid 0 0 0
flow. When pressure of the fluid become low or during reverse flow, due to action of spring, the disc back on
to its seat and stops flow.

15.6 Strainer
Strainer is a low cost device which removes solids from flowing fluid. Most Engineers over look
this simple equipment. But this small equipment provide invaluable protection to pumps, Turbines, meters,
control valves, spray nozzles, steam traps and other pipe line equipment.
A pipe line strainer is a device which removes solids, present in the flowing fluid mechanically by
perforated or mesh wire straining element. Strainer protects the down stream equipment by removing pipe line
debris such 'as scale, rust, jointing compound, weld metal and other solids from the fluid. Otherwise, these
debris may find their way in to the pipe line system.
Strainers are available in two types as per their body configuration. These are "Y" type and
Basket type.
Y type Strainer:
This type of strainer is universally used. It has a compact cylindrical shape and is very strong.
This can be used in high pressure pipe line. But it has less dirt holding capacity and needs frequent cleaning.
Where significant amount of debris are expected, a blow down valve can be fitted in the strainer cap. By
opening this valve, this can be cleaned by the fluid pressure. In steam and feed water line, cleaning is not
a problem except during commissioning. During commissioning strainers get chocked frequently.

16.1 Introduction
Sir Charles Algernon Parsons (1854-1931), a British engineer, patented modern steam Turbine in
1884. The crude form of steam Turbine was made by Hero Alexandria around Pt century AD, called as
Herds ball (Aeolipile). It was the first form of reaction steam turbine. This was a device consisting of an air
tight chamber (Sphere) with bent or curved pipes, projecting from it at opposite direction. When Steam is
expelled from the curved pipes, the sphere starts rotating.
Fig. 16.1 Aeolipile
First model of parsons Turbine was connected to a small dynamo to generate Electricity. Now
day's huge steam turbines are used to generate some hundred Mega watts of electricity.
Steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and
converts it in to useful mechanical work. It generates rotary motion directly.
[216]
Steam Turbine 217
Interior of a turbine consists of several sets of blades. Some set of blades are fixed at the casing and
some set of blades are fixed on the rotor. Blades fixed in the casing are called as fixed blades and blades fixed
on the rotor are called as rotating or moving blades. Two sets of blade intermesh within certain minimum
clearance. Steam is allowed to expand in these blades.
Fixed-blades-convert potential energy of the steam in to kinetic energy and direct the flow to
moving blade. Moving blade convert this kinetic energy in to force, caused by pressure drop and results in .
the rotation of turbine shaft. Steam turbines are mostly axial flow type. Steam flows over the blades in a
direction parallel to axis of the wheel.
Modern turbines are mostly multistage type. There are number of stages of fixed and moving
blades to increase efficiency of turbine. Depending upon how energy is exerted from the blades, turbine is
classified as Impulse or Reaction Turbine.
Steam is allowed to enter in to the turbine through control ;valve. This steam, after passing
through different stages of blade sets, is allowed to exhaust. This exhaust steam from turbine may have
some useful heat content and may be used for some other purpose. This type of turbine is called as back
pressure turbine. In some design, exhaust steam is condensed in a condenser. This type of turbine is called
as condensing turbine.
16.2 Impulse and Reaction Turbine
On the basis of operation principle, steam turbines are classified 4 Impulse and Reaction turbine.
Impulse turbine uses impulse force of the steam on the blade tb move the rotor. In reaction
turbine, as the name implies, shaft is rotated by reactive force rather than by a direct push or impulse.
Impulse Turbine :
In impulse turbine, instead of set of fixed blades, a set of nozzles are fitted in the casing.
Pressure drop of steam takes place in these nozzles. Hence velocity of steam increases. This jet of steam
contains significant amount of kinetic energy. This high velocity steam is passed through a set of moving
blades, where pressure of the steam remains constant and velocity decreases as shown in the figure.
Moving
Blade Roter
Fixed
Nozzle.
Moving Blade
Fixed
Nozzle
Fig. 16.2 Impulse Turbine


218 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine 219
To reduce rotational speed of the turbine, multistaging is done. than one set of nozzles and
More

moving blades are fixed in series. This is also called as compounding. Either steam pressure or steam
velocity is dropped in these stages depending on type of compounding.
Compounding of impulse turbine is done in three ways.
1. Pressure compounding
2. Velocity compounding
3. Pressure velocity compounding.
In pressure compounding impulse turbine, total pressure drop of steam is achieved step by -a 9
step. Pressure drop across several stages is shown in Fig 16.3. Nozzles and moving blades are fixed at every Nozzle — ° m co
co
stage. Steam passing through first stage of nozzles is directed to the first row of moving blades. Exhaust Inlet Steam ^o'
Pressure o
steam of this moving blade row enters in to second stage nozzle set and diverted in to second row moving
blades and continues till exhaust pressure is reached.

N \ Exhaust velocity
Inlet Steam
Ve ocity
H

Fig. 16.4 Velocity Compounding of Impulse Turbine

In case of pressure, velocity compounding turbine, pressure droop takes place at different nozzle
sets and velocity drop takes place at different moving blade sets as shown in fig 16.5.

$o m m a ri N

Fig. 16.3 Pressure Compounding of Impulse Turbine

In velocity compounding, pressure is dropped in a set of nozzle. Total pressure drop takes Inlet ;t eam Pressure

place in this set of nozzle. But velocity drop takes place through different stages of moving blades as shown Exhaurt velocity
in Fig. 16.4.
High pressure steam enters in to a set of nozzles. Pressure of steam decreases -and velocity
increases there. The steam coming out from this nozzle set is directed to a set of moving blades On these Inlet Steam
Velocity
blades velocity drops. Steam coming out from these blades is guided back by another set of fixed blades.
Neither pressure nor velocity drops on these fixed guide blades. Steam from these guide blades enters in to
second stage of moving blades. Here velocity of the steam reduces further. This process continues till velocity Fig. 16.5 Pressure, velocity compounding of Impulse Turbine
of steam drops significantly.


220 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine 221
Velocity triangle of impulse turbine

Rotor
Nome Moving
blade

Moving blade
Fixed blade

O
Steam
Pressure
I
Vwl Inlet Steam
Pressure Exhaust Steam
Fig. 16.6 Velocity triangle of Impulse Turbine Velocity

In the above fig. steam enters the curved blade at point C from nozzle. For shock less entry and
exit, jet of steam enters at the blade and leaves the blade tangentially. Steam leaves the blade at Inlet Steam Velocity f
Exhaust Steam
point D' Pressure
Fig 16.7 (a) Reaction Turbine
Various vectors shown are

Vb = Linear Velocity of moving Blade

V = Absolute velocity of steam entering the moving blade

Vy = Relative velocity of steam jet and moving blade

Vl = Vertical component of inlet steam velocity

Vw= Horizontal component of inlet steam velocity

V1 ,Vr1 ,Vf1 ,Vw1 = corresponding values at exit.

Reaction Turbine :

In reaction turbine, fixed blades are fixed at the casing. Shape of these blades is such that, the
space bepeteR the blades has cross section same as shape of nozzle. Moving blades are fixed to the rotor.
Fixed blades guide the steam to moving blade. Blade shape is so designed that steam glides over these
blades. Steam, while gliding over moving blades, produces reaction on the blade. This reaction force „
Fig 16.7 (b) Compounding of Reaction turbine
produced, rotates the rotor. Steam is diverted in to rotor moving blades by fixed bTadesmounted on the
casing. Pressure drops across both moving and fixed blades as shown in Fig. 16.7.
 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine
223
Velocity triangle of Reaction Turbine D. According to pressure of turbine
1. High pressure Turbine
2. Low pressure turbine -
3. Medium pressure turbine
E. According to Application
1. Utility turbine
2. Industrial turbine
3. Marine Turbine
F. According to point of steam entry
1. End admission turbine
2. Center admission turbine
G. According to steam extraction or admission
1. Extraction turbine
2. Admission turbine
Some of the important types of turbine are discussed below.
I. Straight condensing Turbine :
In this turbine, steam enters the turbine through a Governing valve. After doing work inside
Fig. 16.8 Velocity triangle of Reaction Turbine
turbine, pressure and temperature of steam decreases. Steam can't be expanded further as it become wet
From fixed blades, steam enters in to moving blade at end C. Steam jet glides over the surface towards last stage blade. This steam is called as exhaust steam. Exhaust steam is condensed in a condenser
of the moving blade and leaves at point D. Like impulse Turbine, steam enters and leaves moving blade and the condensate is used further at boiler for formation of steam.
tangentially to minimize shock. During expansion in various stages, pressure of the steam decreases and volume increases
Different vectors shown on the above fig. are correspondingly. So the blade size of the turbine increases in each stage starting from 1st stage to last stage,
Vb = Linear Velocity of moving Blade
to handle this increased volume of steam.
V = Absolute velocity of steam entering the moving blade
Vy = Relative velocity of steam jet and moving blade
V1 = Vertical component of inlet steam velocity
V= Horizontal component of inlet steam velocity
V1,Vr1,Vf1,Vw1=
corresponding values at exit.
16.3 Classification of Steam Turbine
Steam turbines are classified into various types depending upon their mode of operation,
constructional features and steam parameters. These are classified normally in to following types
A. According to blade design.
1. Impulse Turbine Exhaust Steam
2. Reaction Turbine
3. Impulse — reaction Turbine
B. According to steam flow
1. Axial flow Turbine
2. Radial Flow Turbine
C. According to exhaust condition of turbine
1. Straight condensing or closed cycle turbine
2. Non condensing or back pressure Turbine
Fig. 16.9 Straight Condensing Turbine
3. Partial condensing or Extraction turbine
 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine 225

II. Back pressure or non condensing Turbine .
In this type of turbine steam is not expanded fully inside the turbine. After utilizing the heat
energy of steam partially in turbine, entire steam is exhausted with certain pressure and temperature.
This steam is used else where for process heat requirement. This exhaust steam parameter is as per the
process requirement.
IV. Center admission turbine
Now day's large size turbines are manufactured with higher capacity. In traditional end entry
turbine design, steam enters at one end and allowed to expand till it is exhausted , at the exhaust end. In this
case large amount of axial thrust is produced on the rotor, as it tends to move along with the direction of
steam flow. Thrust produced is taken care by thrust bearings. But for larger size turbine this thrust is so high
to be taken care by thrust bearings. So center admission turbines are used. Steam flows towards both the
ends and axial thrust produced is minimized.

Hp Section

Fig. 16.10 Back pressure Turbine Exhaust steam

III. Partial condensing or Extraction turbine ) Control valve
In this type of turbine there are two inlet valves. The turbine acts as two turbines connected in
2na portion is called as LP stage. Some quantity of
series. 1st portion of the turbine is called as HP stage and
steam entering in to turbine can be bleed out after certain stage of blade with certain steam pressure and Inlet Steam
temperature. Remaining quantity of steam is passed to LP stage.
There are two types of extraction turbine. i.e. Controlled extractionand uncontrolled
Fig. 16.12 Center admission ' Turbine
extraction turbine. In controlled extraction turbine, desired quantity of steam can) be extracted from
turbine. To get more extraction steam, HP control valve is opened and LP control valve is closed. V. Admission turbine
But in uncontrolled extraction turbine, extraction quantity depends upon load (hence inlet In this turbine steam with various parameters are admitted to the turbine at different points.
steam flow) of the turbine and that can't be increased. Steam is allowed to enter in to turbine at a particular stage, where the parameter of steam matches.
Steam is commonly extracted to reheat it in Boiler and reuse at turbine again to increase plant 16.4 Main components of steam turbine
efficiency. Also some time, this extracted steam is used to heat up feed water of boiler at feed water
High pressure steam at higher temperature is used to drive a steam turbine. Normally turbine
heaters. rotates at higher speed. So, special care is taken while designing main components of a turbine. Some of
LP Control valve
the main components of a Steam Turbine are discussed below. These components are mainly the integral
part of a steam turbine.

HP Control valve 16.4.1 Casing

Cast in of the turbine plays important role .for the perforxnance of 'turbine. This is the outer shell
------------------ ------------------ of turbine. Fixed blades and nozzles are attached to this. C,s_irtg„facilitates to accommodate moving parts
HP Section LP Section and provides passage for steam, Normally it is formed by casting. As the temperature of steam for operating
turbine high so, normally ^o,4loy steel casting is.used for casing of a turbine.
Exhaust steam Casting is thoroughly checked by non-destructive testing methods. Casing is hydrostatically tested
to confirm, suitability for pressure rating of steam ,- Normally casting is done in two halves. Each half is
Condenser
Extraction
Ake* machsne to a"coi iodate fixed blades, bearings, labyrinths etc. Two halves of the casing are matched at
parting plane and fastened by bolts. Metal to metal joint sealing is done to ensure no leakage of steam.
Steam chest located at inlet end of the turbine casing houses throttle or control valve assembly. Steam
first enters in to turbine through steam chest. Throttle valve regulates entry of steam to the nozzle block.
Fig. 16.11 Partial Condensing Turbine


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine 227

Facilities for Drains, extraction points, instrumentation tapings are provided during casting of 16.4.3 Moving Blade
the casing. Astold earlier„enthalp. of steam.is.converted in to rotational energy as it passes through turbine
During starting of turbine from cold, proper care is required to be taken for proper expansion of blade sets. n each stage of.the to bine,theze,are,rpovrjnghand-fixe.d,blades,,As ,in each step pressure of.
casing. Casing mass is heavy and wall is thicker. So it requires more time to expand. Provision is made to steam decreases, so its_volume incr ases. he blade has to handle more volume of steam in the preceding
take care of thermal expansion. Exhaust end of the casing is rigidly fixed to the base foundation and the stages Moving blades are fixed in t e rotor shaft by suitable root design. These rotating blades convert
.high temperature end is free to expand. So during operation, casing expands towards front of the turbine. kinetic energy of steam in to mechanical energy to rotate turbme shaft. "^""
A the,gapbetween fixed blades and moving blades are very,less,so the: expansion of casing Blade has to withstand higher pressure and temperature at the inlet stage. Pressure and
and rotor are required to be uniform: Otherwise there is a chance of rubbingof fixed and mag temperature of the steam decreases gradually. Towards last stage of blade, steam became wet and its
vo
volume became exit stage larger it has to caused by
During starting or low load condition there is chances of steam condensation in the lower portion m ist steam Material used formanufacturing of the ladeshould have flowngprtand erosion
of casing. So, casing drains are provided to drain out this condensate. Properties
ofagood blade materral.
0 rial ,
the casing g exposed to.atmos phere. So to avoid heat radiation, entire casing Good tensile and fatigue strength.
is insulated with suitable heat nulatin mateal • Toughness and ductility at working temperature
16.4.2 Rotor • Resistance to corrosion and erosion
Rotor is the moving _parf oLa- _s_teamturbirre,-which extract workhorrtthe_st_eam.-fl histhe • Rate of expansion similar to casing material
heaviest part of the turbine. Normally total shaft s manufactured byforging. • Good machinibility
Rotor consists of shaft , moving blades and inter stage sealing labyrinths. Thrust collar is provided • Low ductility
to take care of axial thrust of rotor during various load conditions:-
• Good vibration damping property
Shaft is a solid forging of suitable material to withstand inlet steam „pressure and temperature.
Like casing, shaft is tested through NDT procedures to detect any manufacturing_defects, • Good creep resistance
Suitable grooves are machined on the shaft to fix moving blades and inter stage labyrinths. • Weldability
Shaft of the turbine is a critical component. As the weight of the shaft is very high, so it is supported at both Entire blade can be divided in to three portions.
ends by journal bearings. Rotor of the turbine is allowed,to expand uniformly. Starting curve as advised by I. Tip
turbine manufacturer is followed strictly. Rotor of the larger turbine should not be allowed to remain stand As the rotor rotates at higher speed and subjected to variations in steam impulse during load
still when it is hot. Due to its self weight, there is a chance of sagging or deformation of rotor. So, rotor is changes. So, blades are required to be strong enough to withstand this impulse. Tips of the blade are formed
rotated at slow speed by help of barring device when turbine is hot and in stop condition. into shrouds, which closely contact the adjacent blade. Shrouding is used to assist maintaining rigidity. In
As the rotor of the turbine rotates at high speed, so, it isdynamically ^balanced Rotor is also addition there is minimal clearance between shroud and turbine casing, preventing steam leakage around.
`having suitable arrartgement for barring drive. Balance piston is also providedil .theshaf pfthe turbine: As. outer edge of the blade. Shrouding reduces vibration of the blades due to change in impulse of steam flow.
discussed earlier, inlet steam pressure is higher than the exhaust end pressure _so axial thrust is produced, Outer periphery is encircled by an outer shrouding band. Shrouding may be fitted on blade tip
This is counteracted by a balancing piston. Steam is admitted to a dummy or balance piston chamber. (tenon) by brazing, welding or riveting. Damping wire and lancing are fitted at the last stage (bigger size)
This, is a disc shaped attachment to the rotor. When rotor is fitted inside the casing a chamber is formed. blades. Last stage blades are connected with lancing wire passes through a hole, drilled on the blade.
Steam is admitted in counter direction of the main steam flow and hence a counter thrust is produced on During rotation of rotor, due to centrifugal force this wire contact the outer surface of the blade hole.
the balance disc. This thrust minimizes rotor axial thrust. II. Profile :
Geometry of the blade or profile is designed to minimize energy loss. Profile for different stage of
blades is different. It depends upon steam parameter at that particular blade stage. Profile for impulse and
reaction blades is different.
Shround Leading angle or
nose

Suction Surface

Profile

Chord

Trailing angle or
tail

14— Axial
Fig. 16.13 Turbine rotor ' Chord
Fig. 16.14 Moving blade


228 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine 229

III. Root III. Inner ring or web

As told earlier, moving blade is fixed to the shaft. Each stage of blade is fitted to the shaft one by This is the inner diameter of the diaphargm. Through inner ring rotor of the Turbine passes.
one and finally is locked by suitable means. There are different types of root design depending upon the
load on blade. Normally blade roots are fitted in to the grooves made at the shaft. Turbine rotor blades are
highly stressed components. They are subjected to variation in operating parameters, mode of operation,
start up and shut down, thermal stress, high speed, centrifugal force etc. So, blades are required to be fixed
to the shaft properly. In some accidental cases it is found, moving blades have came out from the rotor and
caused sever damage.
T- root, Double T- root, Fork- root etc are some of the root design used for fixing moving blades.
Depending upon the direction in which the root enters the rotor base, root is classified as
• Axial entry or side entry type.
• Radial entry type.
• Tangential entry type. Fig. 16.16 Diaphargm
During operation of turbine, there is chance of damage of these roots due to severe thermal and Fixed blades ' are located within the inner and outer rings by following methods.
centrifugal force. Root may damage due to bad steam quality, corrosion cracking etc.
• Pinned construction
• Welded construction
• Cast construction

H • Machined construction
' Built up
• Fixed body blades
Fig. 16.15 Roots of Blade
16.4.5 Steam sealing system
16.4.4 Fixed blades and Diaphragm
Mostly labyrinth sealing is adopted in modem steam turbine. Labyrinth is defined as a complicated
As discussed earlier, fixed blades facilitate expansion of steam and guide it to flow over subsequent network of passage. It prevents easy passage from entry to exit. Sealing depends on the labyrinth gap and
moving blade row. Partitions between pressure stages in a turbine's casing are called diaphragms. It holds
length of leakage path. Cross section of different type seal fins are shown in the figure.
the vane-shaped nozzles or fixed blades. Fixed blades are attached to it. One-half of the diaphragm is fitted
into the top casing and other half into the bottom. Mostly the diaphragm is split at the horizontal for
facilitating assembly. These diaphragms are fixed to the casing by suitable arrangement.
Like moving blade, the diaphragm comprises three main portions.
• Outer ring
• Blade ring
Inner ring or web
I. Outer ring
Fig. 16.17 Labyrinth Seal fin
Outer ring can be compared with the root of the moving blade. Through outer ring, diaphragm
is fixed into the turbine casing. Main feature of seal strip is
II. Blade ring Its thickness "b" should be sufficient to withstand stress induced due to pressure drop across it.
•
This portion of the diaphragm contains fixed blades or nozzles. Profile and orientation of these
blades are such that it directs the steam to the next moving blade row. Profile of the fixed blade is mostly • It should have very thin tip "x" to ensure the strip should wear without damaging and creating
same as moving blade. But tolerance of fixed blade is less as compared to moving blade, as stress induced excessive heat if rubbing.
in case of fixed blade is less.


230
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine 231

There are various type of labyrinth sealing system as discussed in following sections. Some time multi teeth seals are inserted in to parent material with suitable root design like blades.
I. Straight through type seal
In this type, successive strips are arranged to throttle steam between strip tip and body having
clearance of "C" as shown in the fig. below.

Moving part Fig. 16.21 Multi teeth seal

Fig. 16.18 Straight through type seal
II. High low type seal
In this arrangement, higher and lower length fins are provided alternatively to perform successive
throttling. As the height of the fines are different so more turbulence is created resulting a better sealing.
Steam entered into turbine is guided in by fixed blades and directed to moving blades.
Entire steam should pass over fixed blade and moving blade sets. Pressure difference between each stage of
moving blade and fixed blade sets is different. So there is chance of steam leakage from one stage to
another, resulting in lower efficiency of the turbine.
It is required to provide sealing arrangement between moving and fixed parts of the turbine to L

Fixed part restrict steam leakage from the blade system.. Multiple labyrinth-seals are provided at the inner faces between
diaphragm and rotor. In case of moving blades labyrinths seal is provided at the casing to restrict steam
leakage from moving blade and stationary casing. Seal strips are fixed . in the rotor in the grove provided for
diaphargm sealing. This sealing arrangement is called as inter stage sealing.
Turbine rotor is expanded out of casing at both ends to provide bearings and for coupling.
—^ Fins
This portion is called as gland. At these ends there is chance of high pressure steam leakage from the steam
entry end and air ingress at the exhaust end where vacuum exists. So sealing of gland is very important.
Ineffective sealing results steam leakage and hence lower efficiency
Moving part Labyrinth sealing arrangement is done at gland portion to avoid steam leakage and air ingress.
Fig. 16.19 High Low type seal
This sealing arrangement is calledas gland sealing. Along with labyrinth seal arrangement, steam is also
III. Alter arrangement type seal used to assist sealing. This will be discussed later.
In this type of arrangement, strips are fixed alternatively in rotating and fixed parts. Clearance of 16.4.6 Bearings .
the upper and lower teeth mostly kept constant. In this case fines are inserted into rotating shaft in the Rotor of the turbine is required to be supported at both ends. Normally extended. portion of the
shaft is supported at both ends at front and rear bearing pedestal. Mostly journal bearings are provided at
groove provided. Fines that are fixed at rotor are subjected to higher stress due to centrifugal force.
these bearing pedestals to support the rotor. Also thrust bearing is provided to take care of axial shift of the
These fines are inserted in to fixed or moving portion in various methods. Some time strips are rotor in both directions and keep the rotor at desired position. These bearings plays vital role for smooth
directly inserted in to parent material. Some time the fines are bent to Lshape and inserted in to specially ,operation of the turbine. The function and principle of these bearings are discussed below.
prepared grooves.
I. Journal bearing
Fixed part
Journal bearing is a cylinder, which surrounds the shaft and is filled with some form of fluid
cz, a.i..i..1//7.iii.iii lubricant. It consists of a split outer shell of hard metal and a soft metal at the inner cylindrical part. In this
bearing a shaft (rotor) or journal rotates inside the bearing over a layer of lubricating oil, separating the
—^ Fins
shaft and bearing through fluid dynamic principle.
This lubricating oil layer supports the shaft preventing metal to metal contact. Oil is pumped in to
the bearing through oil pump. When rotor rotates, lubrication oil is drawn up around the journal due to hydro
Moving part dynamic effect of lubrication. When lubrication is introduced between two surfaces of rolling contact if
creates a large increase in pressure. As viscosity is exponentially related to pressure, a large increase in viscosity
Fig. 16.20 Alternate arrangement type real occurs between journal and bearing creating a thin oil film preventing contact. It-creates an oil wedge that
supports the shaft and relocates it within the bearing clearance. This oil wedge lifts and supports the shaft.


232 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant 233

Steam Turbine
Other than supporting the shaft, oil also carry out the heat that is generated in the bearing due II. Thrust bearing
to friction and heat of the shaft due to conduction. This oil is then cooled in a oil cooler and supplied again Journal bearings are used to take radial load of the shaft. But it can't take axial load. Shaft is
to bearings.
permitted to float to both axial directions. But the axial float is restricted to certain limit. Excessive axial shift
This bearing is split in to two halves in the horizontal plane. So the bearing can be replaced may damage rotating and fixed parts. For this thrust bearing is provided. Particularly in turbine, fluid film
without removing the rotor. tilting pad thrust bearing is used. It transfer high axial load from rotating shaft with minimum power loss.
Shoe
Inner surface of this bearing is coated with a soft metal called as white metal or babbit. This is
a tin or lead based alloy having thickness from 1 to 100 mills depending upon bearing diameter. Babbitt
alloy contains large amounts of tin with a smaller amount of antimony, copper, and lead. This babbit lining
is a sacri icial layer and provides a surface which does not damage the shaft if contact is made accidentally.
Some of the failure mechanisms of Babbit are
• Overload
• Overheating
° Fatigue
• Erosion
Minor babbit imperfections can be repaired by scrapping or lapping. Major repair can be done by
locally puddling or re babbiting.
Journal bearing also facilitate damping. More viscous and thicker lubrica.ion oil provides higher
damping properties. A suitable bearing design holds the rotor at a fixed position during transient moments, Shoe
Thrust Babbit material
such as startup, shutdown and load changes. Damping property also limits vibration of rotor. Collar
Fig. 16.23 Thrust Bearing
This bearing consists of a series of sector-shaped shoes or pads, fixed on pivots and arranged in
a circle around the shaft collar. Oil pressure causes the pad to tilt slightly, building a wedge of pressurized
fluid between the shoe and the collar surface. This tilting Pad tilts and remains in a particular position
depending upon bearing load and speed. Wedge-shaped regions of oil are created inside the bearing between
the pads and rotating collar, which supports the applied thrust and eliminate metal-on-metal contact.
Each pad is free to tilt so that it creates a self sustaining hydro dynamic oil film. As journal
bearing, the face of these pads is babbited. Pads are arranged around the projected collar of the shaft.
Lubrication oil is supplied to create oil film between shaft collar and bearing pad. The pads are fitted with
temperature sensors (RTD,$).
Babbiting FP-Collar
Layer -
Bearing body
Fig. 16.22 Journal Bearing
Rotor supported by journal bearing moves relative to the bearing housing during transient. Vibration
probes are used to measure these vibration / relative motions. Non contact type eddy current or proximity Shaft
pickup sensors are used to measure this vibration. These sensors are mounted on the bearing pedestal.
The vibration probe mounting system will be discussed latter on.
To measure bearing temperature, RTD,s are embedded in the bearing and its lead is taken out
from the bearing pedestal for further termination.
Lube oil supply and return pipe lines are connected to the bearing pedestal. Sealing ring is
provided to avoid oil leakage from the point where rotor penetrates the bearing. This oil seal ring, seals oil
flow, in the same principle as labyrinth rings seal steam at gland area.
As discussed earlier, front bearing pedestal is free to expand at both the axial direction to facilitate - Tilting pad
expansion of turbine casing.
Fig. 16.24 Double acting Thrust Bearing


234 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine 235

Normally two sets of thrust bearings are provided in front bearing pedestal at both side of the Strainer
shaft collar. Proper oil supply provision is made for proper lubrication.
- Spring
16.43 Gland
00000
In a turbine, rotor rotates in side the casing. Rotor is extended out side the casing at both front and
rear ends. The portion from where the rotor exists the turbine casing is called as Gland.
Steam to
Turbine
There is chance of steam leakage and
atm ospheric air ingress to the casing at front 00000
and rear gland respectively. So it is required
Inner Labyrinth ' .
to seal this portion to prevent leakage of
Outer LABYRINTH
Rings (Packing) Rings (Packing) steam and atmospheric air ingress. Gland at Oil Inlet
the front end of the turbine is called as front
gland and that of rear end is called as rear
gland. To reduce pressure difference between
Inlet steam
atmosphere and inside casing, sets of
labyrinth seals are provided. As discussed Fig. 16.26 Emergency Stop Valve

earlier, these labyrinth seals causes pressure As shown in the above figure the valve cone is operated by a spindle which is connected to a
drop along the rotor. piston. This piston is operated through a spring. To open the valve hydraulic pressure is applied against the
spring. To close the valve this pressure is reduced by draining the hydraulic fluid. This valve is a quick closing
But only labyrinth packing is not sufficient to valve and stops steam entry in to turbine immediately in case it closes.
prevent leakage of steam or air. So, gland
Turbine In most of the stop valve, a strainer is provided to restrict entry of any foreign material in to the
Rotor
sealing steam is used to prevent leakage. Low nozzle of turbine.
Shaft pressure steam is supplied at the final sets of
Vent and drain point is provided in the gland area of the stop valve to vent out leakage steam
labyrinths. Arrangement is done to vent the
and to drain out condensate formed.
excess gland steam. To drain out the
In some design, this valve is opened and latched hydraulically. The latch realizes when hydraulic
condensate produced due to cooling of this
pressure drops and the valve closes instantly. In some cases built in test facility is provided to test function
gland steam, drains are also provided,' of the valve during turbine running. This facility ensures the moving mechanism is free and ready to shutoff
Fig. 16.25 Gland
the valve during emergency. Valve body is normally forged from alloy steel or carbon steel as per the steam
Details about gland sealing will be discussed later on. parameter of turbine. Inlet steam pipe line is fastened to this valve without any piping stress.
16.4.8 Exhaust hood 16.4.10 Governing valve and control valve
Exhaust hood of the turbine is a structure that connects the space just after the last stage of the Control valve regulates steam flow to turbine. This valve in placed inside the steam chest of the
Turbine. It is operated by a governing valve which in actuated mostly hydraulicaly. Operating signal for
turbine blade to the condenser. It is fastened to the neck of condenser. An expansion bellow is provided in
governing valve is obtained from turbine governing system. In actual practice combination of Governing
between to absorb any shock. Exhaust steam from turbine is diffused in this area and canalized to condenser.
valve and control valve is known as govering valve.
It is designed to minimize pressure loss. One inspection door is provided at the exhaust hood to inspect
condition of blade (last stage) and top portion of Condenser tube. In some turbine, water spray arrangement Operating lever of control valve is connected to the governing valve. There are more than one
is provided at the exhaust hood to control exhaust steam temperature. For this purpose condensate of main valves connected to this lever to control steam entry to turbine. These valves are placed at steam chest of
condensers pumped by CEP is sprayed at this area. Tapping to measure exhaust steam pressure and the turbine. The valves are fixed to the lever in such a way that, a particular valve opens or closes at a
temperature are provided in this area. particular lever position. More number of valves makes the steam flow control more effective and minimizes
throttling loss. Depending upon the steam requirement of turbine i.e. different load condition, different
16.4.9 Emergency Stop Valve (ESV)
valves are opened and steam flows to different nozzle sets of the turbine.
This valve is normally hydraulically operated. The valve opens hydraulically against a spring Now days mostly, electro hydraulic governing system is used. Electrical signal from the governor
force. To close the valve, hydraulic fluid is drained and valve closes immediately, due to force of spring. This is transferred to hydraulic pressure in an I/P converter. This hydraulic pressure operates the actuator and
valve is normally fully open or fully close type.
hence the lever of valve sets.


236 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine 237
Details about governing system will be discussed later on.

Time

we, spur
Steam
Chest
A
Confrolvalve

Low idle
speed —,
!--^ Rated speed
Barring Critical
speed Band High idle
speed
Governing Valve Fig. 16.28 Turbine start up curve

In most of the cases, the rear side pedestal of turbine and hence casing is rigidly fixed to base
plate. But the front side pedestal is fixed in such a way that, it can expand towards front.
Steam Turbine nozzle sets
Temperature of the rotor varies according to steam flow. So it is subjected to frequent thermal

Fig. 16.27 Governing valve and control valve
In controlled extraction turbine there are more than one governing valves. In single extraction
there are two sets of governing valves in HP and LP sections.
16.5 Thermal expansion of Turbine
Steam turbine is subjected to high temperature. During exposure to high temperature, the rotor
and casing of the turbine expands. Turbine rotor and casing expands/contracts at different rate due to
difference in their mass. As casing wall, is thick and its mass is more than rotor so it expands and contracts
at slower rate than rotor. As, clearance between fixed blade and moving blade inside the turbine is less, so,'
expansion of casing and rotor is required to be uniform. Otherwise, there is chance of rubbing of fixed and
moving parts of the turbine due to unequal expansion of casing and rotor. Special care is taken for smooth
expansion of casing and rotor during startup, load variation and shutdown. Thermal condition in turbine
changes during starting, stopping and load change.
For smooth expansion of casing and rotor during starting, turbine starting curve is followed.
Time is given for expansion of these parts. This is called as "socking" of turbine. More time is given to
bring the turbine into full speed from cold condition. In hot start up the turbine is already in hot condition.
So the time requirement is less.
expansion and contraction and it is first in comparison to casing. For smooth operation of turbine, it is
required to monitor expansion of casing and rotor. For this differential expansion of casing and rotor is
measured. Eddy current type measuring probes are normally used to measure rotor expansion or contraction.
Through these probes the gap voltage between probe tip and rotor part is measured. The rotor axial thermal
growth with respect to turbine foundation is measured. This is the relative measurement of rotor axial
thermal growth with respect to casing.
16.6 Gland sealing System
In earlier section it is discussed about gland. Low pressure steam is supplied at gland area.
This steam seals the gland and restricts high pressure steam leakage from gland area of front gland and
atmospheric air ingress at rear gland area. Before rolling of turbine and building vacuum in the condenser
gland steam is charged.
During starting of the turbine, steam from auxiliary steam source or motive steam is used
for gland sealing. Superheated steam at a pressure of about 2kg/cm 2 is maintained at the gland steam
header.

A typical startup curve is shown below. It will be discussed in brief later on.


238 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine 239

Front gland vent

Rear Gland
Ejector vent
^ D4
Auxiliary
steam
Front Gland
Rear Gland Condensate to
Gland steam ejector deaerator
condenser
Condensate from
CEP
Condensate to *-
Condenser

Fig. 16.30 Gland Steam ejector

In this system, first auxiliary steam is charged in the gland seal ejector. Then gland seal header is
Safety valve
charged. This minimizes water loss due to gland vent. And its heat is utilized in the gland seal condenser to
GD heat the condensate hence plant efficiency increases.

Auxiliary
CV-A CV B
Steam Gland Steam header
' To Condenser
Fig. 16.29 Gland Sealing System
As shown in the Fig.; through control valve CV-A, steam is supplied to the glands seal header.
When this valve is opened steam enters to both the glands. Steam can be seen at both gland vents. Gland
drains are kept open to drain out condensate. The gland is charged slowly by opening CV—A, during cold
condition of turbine. Through control valve CV-B the gland steam header pressure is maintained. In case
the header pressure raises, this control valve opens and allows excess steam to flow to condenser. A safety
valve is provided at the steam header to protect gland from excess steam pressure due to failure of any
control valve.
During running of turbine, once high pressure steam is admitted into turbine, high pressure steam
starts leaking through front gland and flows in backward direction and increases the header pressure. In this
condition, control valve CV-A closes automatically. Leakage steam from front gland is used to maintain
header pressure and hence supply steam to rear gland. Both control valve CV-A and CV-B are kept in auto
mode,
In most cases, to utilize leak off steam of both the glands, gland seal steam of front and rear
gland is not vented to atmosphere. This is collected at gland seal condenser. Main condensate from CEP is
passed through this gland seal condenser and condenses gland steam here and heat of that steam.is utilized
to raise temperature of main condensate. Condensate produced here is drained to main condenser.
16.7 Barring device
Mass of rotor of the turbine is high. It is subjected to high temperature also. So it is not advisable
to keep the'rotor in standstill position after stoppage of turbine. It is required to rotate the turbine shaft at
low speed continuously after stoppage of the turbine. Otherwise due to heavy mass, shaft may deform or
sagging may take place. In cold condition also the shaft is required to be rotated intermediately to avoid
rotor deformation.
To avoid sagging or deformation, barring device is provided in the turbine to rotate rotor at slow
speed. In some turbine this is done by a motor with suitable reducing gear at shaft. In some cases shaft is
rotated through hydraulic arrangement. Hand barring arrangement is also provided to rotate the shaft at
emergency incase of failure of above arrangement. In the motor driven barring device; clutch provision is
made so that the barringdevice can be declutched automatically above certain speed, during starting of
turbine.
It is to be ensured that lubrication oil is available to all the bearings during barring operation.
Suitable interlocking is provided to stop barring operation in case of failure of lubrication oil supply.
In bigger size turbine jacking oil is applied at both end of the shaft to lift the rotor up to some
extent. Jacking oil is high pressure oil, required during starting only. So, before staring of barring, shaft is
lifted a little.
16.8 Governing system
Governing is a system of a turbine to control the speed automatically. It controls the energy input
(steam) to the turbine. Main function of the governor is to adjust steam entry into turbine to maintain the
speed at desired level. Indirectly governor also control load, exhaust steam pressure etc. Desirable characteristics
of a good governing system are:


240 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine 241

• Quick response to small speed change Load on the car decreases. So speed of the car increases at that particular accelerator position.
Driver has to decrease accelerator to achieve desired speed.
• Adjust control valve with minimum overshoot From the above example we can conclude-
• Have sufficient power to overcome the back force of control valve • Set speed of car is 50 km/hr
•— Speed of car varies according to load
• Very little speed fluctuation under constant load and steam condition
Function of the governor can be understood from the example discussed below. o Actual speed is measured in speedometer.
• Set speed and actual speed is compared.
• Incase there is difference, accelerator is adjusted to control the fuel in to engine
of car.
• Driver of the car performs above function.
In governor of the turbine same principle is applied. Driver of the car can be compared as
governor of the turbine. Speed of the turbine is set at the governor. Actual speed is measured and compared
by the governor. Governor gives signal to the governing valve to adjust steam input to the turbine to achieve
Fig. 16.31 Car on plain road set speed. This function takes place in governing system automatically through closed loop system as
shown in the fig. Amplifier .
Suppose a driver is driving a car on a plain road. His speed limit is say 50 km/h. From the
speedometer of the car, he observes actual speed of the car and adjust accelerator to match speed of the
Set Speed Governer
car to 50 km/h. In case speed raises, he lowers the accelerator and when speed lowers he increases the
accelerator. When speed matches to 50 km/h, he holds the accelerator in steady position. Governing Inlet steam
valve

Control valve

Turbine

Speed measuring
device
Fig, 16.34 Turbine Governing System
Fig. 16.32 Car moving up Governing system of the turbine consists of
Suppose at the same accelerator position the car is required to go up on a hilly road. Load on I. Speed sensing device
the car increases, so speed of the car decreases. Driver observes speed from the speedometer and increases II. Governor
accelerator to achieve desired speed. III. Amplifier or converter
IV. Governing valve and control valve
Suppose, again in the same accelerator position the car is required to come down on the hilly
Main required features of any governing system is
A. Should have better steady state stability. So that variation in speed or fluctuation from the
speed setting under steady state operating condition is very small.
B. Less response time. Time required to sense deviation in speed and bring back to normal
level within shortest possible time.
C. Better stability. Should control the system within shortest time without oscillation.
There are different types of governor depending upon the mode of their operation.
I. Mechanical governor
II. Hydraulic governor
Fig. 16.33 Car moving down III. Electro hydraulic governor
siefilmiatzaiw,


242 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

Steam Turbine 243
16.8.1 Mechanical governor
16.8.3 Electro hydraulic governor
Mechanical governors are very old type governors. Fly ball type governors were used to control
turbine speed. This type of governing system is widely used now days. This system is having following components.
• Speed sensor- magnetic pickup unit.
Steam • Microprocessor based electronic governor- to generate electronic signal
to
– ^ • IIP Converter- to convert electrical signal into hydraulic signal.
Turbine
• Governing valve.
Control valve
_Control valve.
Arrangement of this governing system is shown below.
' Inlet Steam
Control
Trip Oil valve
Electronics
governor
Set Speed

Governing
valve
Turbine-
-------- -------
Electro hydraulic
converter
Magnetic
Pickup
Unit

r
Fig. 16.36 Electro hydraulic governer
Speed sensor – magnetic pickup unit
This is used to measure actual speed of the turbine. Output of this sensor is directly proportional
to speed of the turbine. A coil is rapped around the pole piece of a permanent magnet. When any magnetic
material passes through the magnetic end of the MPU, a voltage is generated.
Connection
to This sensor is fixed in such an area that a gear attached to the turbine rotor rotates radially.
Turbine Shaft Air gap between MPU and the gear is kept very small. Frequency of the voltage generated is proportional to
speed of the rotor teeth and hence speed of the rotor. Output of MPU is connected to Electronic governor.
Normally two MPUs are used to measure the speed. Governor generates a trip signal to stop the turbine
Fig. 16.35 Mechanical Governor
automatically, if signal is not obtained from any one of these sensors.
Ferromagnetic wheel
Two fly balls are attached into the shaft of turbine. When speed of the shaft increases, due to
.centrifugal force the balls tries to move up and the lever attached closes the control valve. So steam entry Magnet
to the turbine reduces. These governors are not used now days.
16.8.2 Hydraulic Governor
A
In this system, governor operation is totally hydraulic. Hydraulic oil is obtained from main II1I11Il11I
1I 1111IItII
lubrication oil system of turbine. 11111111111
II 11111111 I
IIIII111111
One oil pump is mounted at the front rotor end of the turbine, which pumps primary oil.
Pressure of primary oil depends upon speed of the turbine. According to this primary oil pressure, secondary
oil pressure varies, which changes position of control valve. This governing system is also having speed
setting arrangement. Output .
SR IV type governor made by Woodward is the example of this type governor. This type governor
is also not used now days.
Fig. 16.37 Magnetic Pick up unit.


244 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine 245
Microprocessor based Electronic Governor
• Valve limiter
This is a microprocessor based electronic controller having lot of inbuilt facilities. Turbine speed
• Actuator demand
can be set. Programming can be made for automatic startup keeping in view the start up curve, critical
band avoidance of the turbine as per the turbine design. It has three PID controller likes- Speed controller, • Controlling parameter
Auxiliary controller and cascade controller. Also limiter function can be programmed. In auxiliary control - Peak speed
mode it can control Generator power, Exhaust Pressure, Inlet Pressure, Plant import/ export level etc. • Last trip
Also generator breaker contacts can be programmed to change the governor from speed control
In some electronic governing system, instead of separate governor, the governing system
_mode to Auxiliary mode ox_vise versa. It has over speed setpoint and mechanical-over speed-test-facility4---
20 mA electronic signal is obtained from this governor. programming is loaded on main plant DCS with suitable operator interface module. Governor program
runs in conjunction with plant control program. In this case also all the facilities like- auto start mode,
Woodward 505 is example of this type of microprocessor based governor, used widely in turbine critical speed avoidance etc. are available. Programming can be done to follow turbine startup curve and
governing system. This governor can be connected to plant DCS easily.
other requirements.
Woodward 505 governor is having following features.
Programming of Electronic Governor
• Critical speed avoidance
Programming of the governor is made as per requirement of Plant operating condition and
' Auto start sequence Turbine manufacturer. Governor follows this program to produce corrective action.
• Valve limiter Programming is done to get the desired starting curve and to avoid critical speed band for auto
Password protection in programming mode start mode of the turbine. Valve limiter and over speed limit is also programmed for safety of the machine.
• First out trip indication PID values of different controller are set during programming.
• Zero speed detector Following Important information's are required for programming of governor.
• Peak speed recording ' Mode of start
• Remote and front panel set point • Rate of speed raise to minimum idle speed
• Front panel display • Idle speed
Depending upon the set value and actual value of the parameter to be controlled, an electronic • Idle time
signal of 4-20 mA is generated. This signal is used further to adjust the control valve position.
o Cold start time
Various inputs as mentioned below are required in Electronic governor.
• Hot start time
• Actual speed measurement
• Teeth seen by MPU
• Actual power generated by the Generator
• Gear ratio
• Generator Breaker contact
o Maximum speed limit
• Utility breaker contact
o Maximum governing speed
Breaker contact provides information to the governor about solo or parallel mode of operation
of the generator. Accordingly governor acts as speed controller or auxiliary KW controller. The speed and • Minimum governing speed
auxiliary controller set points can also be changed from remote control desk. • Critical speed
Electronic governor also displays various parameters like • Critical speed rate
• Speed set point • Extraction or admission
• Actual speed Programming is done during turbine stop condition. For safety, programming mode is password
• KW setting protected.
• Actual KW Governorfor extraction turbine
• Output signal In extraction turbine, two electronic signals are obtained from the electronic governor. These two
• Idle/ rated status signals are used in two different I/P converters to regulate control valve of HP and LP side as shown in
• Auto start timer time remaining the figure.


246 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant 247

Steam Turbine

Inlet Steam HP Control valve

LP UP L P Control valve
Converter
--Main cLtank
Main oil pump

HP I/P Converter Lube Oil

Governing oil

Pressure oil
for servometer
operati on
Trip Solenoid valve
Electronic
Governor
Magnetic
Pickup To condenser
I Oil filter
Unit Holding oil
• Extraction of emergency Stop valve
Speed set point
Secondary oil for
Oil "P Servomotor operation
drain
Fig. 16.38 Governing System of Controled extraction Turbine
1 Signal from
Electronics
Governor
I/P Converter :
Fig. 16.39 Control oil System
In this converter, electronic signal obtained from electronic governor is converted into hydraulic
signal. Trip oil from the main control oil system is used in this converter. The electronic signal of the .
16.9 Turbine Protection system
governor throttles drain of the converter to build up secondary oil pressure. At 4 mA signal, drain of the
Turbine is a very critical machine in any power plant. So protection of this machine is an
converter is opened fully. When signal rises, it throttles the drain, so secondary oil pressure increases. important consideration. There are different protection arrangements. Some of the protection system is
This secondary oil is used to adjust actuator position and hence control valve. incorporated in the main plant automation system. Any abnormal operating condition produces a trip
signal and shutdown the set. Apart from these protections, there are some inbuilt mechanical protection
Normally "Woodward" make CPC or "Voith" make I/P converters are used for this purpose. systems in the turbine, which stop the turbine in case any deviation of turbine operating condition. We will
Actuator or Servomotor (Governing Valve) : discuss these inbuilt protection systems here. Others will be discussed latter on.
Main inbuilt protection systems of the turbine are
Actuator is a hydraulic power cylinder. The piston of this cylinder moves upward or downward as
• Over speed
per the hydraulic signal obtained from I/P converter. This piston is connected to the arm of turbine control
• Excess axial movement of the turbine shaft
valve.
• Low vacuum
Function of the turbine control valve is already discussed in earlier section.
1. Over speed protection
16.8.4 Control oil system This protection stops the turbine incase speed of turbine becomes abnormally high.
A mechanical over speed trip arrangement is provided at the turbine shaft. Trip oil of governing system is
Control oil is obtained from main lubrication oil system of turbine. Oil from main oil pump is hold in this over speed protection device. In case there is over speed of turbine, a pin which is fixed at the
used for this purpose. But this oil is not filtered or cooled at main oil filter or oil cooler. Distribution of this shaft of the turbine, comes out due to centrifugal force and hit the lever of the trip device which hold this
oil system is shown below. trip oil. So, trip oil is drained. In the absence of trip oil (which is used to keep stop valve in open condition?
stop valve closes and turbine stops. The rpm at which this pin comes out can be adjusted by adjusting a
screw which holds this pin.


248 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Steam Turbine 249

These parameters indicate the condition of turbine during operation.

I. Vibration
Vibration of the turbine indicates condition of turbine in running condition. Rotor rotates at high
speed through sets of journal bearings. There is little clearance in between rotating and stationary parts.
Due to misalignment, disturbance in balancing, rubbing of moving part etc.. rotor tends to vibrate. This
Shaft vibration is supposed to be within permissible limit. Excessive vibration may damage turbine and lead to
extensive maintenance.
_et

over speed pin To measure vibration, vibration probes are fixed at the bearing housing through suitable fixing
Fig. 16.40 Mechanical over speed protection arrangement. Normally two vibration probes are placed 90° apart to measure vibration. Probes are fixed at
H. Excess Axial movement protection both front and rear ends. Also vibration probes are fixed to measure shaft vibration of gear box and
Excess axial movement of turbine shaft in not desirable as closely spaced rotating and fixed generator rotor.
parts may come in contact and damage turbine internals. Axial shift at either direction is restricted. During standstill condition of turbine, these probes are fixed. So that, proper gap can be maintained
between probe tip and rotor. Vibration probes acts on eddy current generation principle.
Trip Lever
I

L. Ring
L—0-Shaft

Fig. 16.41 Excess Axial shift protection

The trip lever of the trip device as discussed above is operated buy two projected rings mounted
on the turbine shaft. When there is excessive shift of the shaft in either direction, any one of this projected
ring operates the trip lever and drains out trip oil to stop the turbine. Fig. 16.42 Vibration Probe

HI. Low vacuum protection
Low vacuum in the condenser creates back pressure on the turbine blades. So this protection is
essential for safety of the turbine. Now days, low vacuum tripping is done at plant automation system
through tripping contact of high pressure limit switch or transmitter. But in some turbine, this is done
mechanically. Trip oil is hold in a low vacuum device, located near condenser neck. Trip Oil is hold with
help of a piston, which is closed when there is vacuum up to desired level inside the condenser. When
vacuum drops, this piston move downward and drain out trip oil to trip the turbine.
16.10 Turbovisory
Turbovisory system is the monitoring system of turbine. It supervises condition of turbine and
informs operating person. It also ensures that the monitored parameter does not exceed beyond maximum
permissible limit. Before that, the system stops the turbine. In Turbovisory system, following important
parameters are monitored.
Vibration
•
Bearing temperature
• Eccentricity
• Axial position
Voltage generated in the probe is directly proportional to gap between probe and rotor.
This measured voltage is scaled down to measure vibration of the rotor.
Limits are set suitably to generate alarm and trip signal, when vibration of any point exceed this
limit. Alarm signal is generated if the value exceeds alarm level set point. If the vibration increases further
and exceeds trip limit then trip signal is generated and turbine trips.
II. Bearing Temperature
Due to friction, heat is generated in journal bearing which is cooled by help of lubricating oil. At
higher temperature, babbating material of the bearing damages. So it is required to keep the bearing
temperature within safe limit. For this, temperature of bearing is monitored continuously.
RTD,s are embedded in the journal and thrust bearings and placed just below the babatting
material to get actual reading of the babatting material. Through RTD,s, bearing temperature of all the
journal and thrust bearings are measured. Like vibration, limits are set for bearing temperature, to generate
alarm and trip signal.
During replacement of bearing, special care is taken, so that RTD,s are not disturbed or leads are
not opened. If the RTD is damaged, it will not be possible to measure bearing temperature and hence it will
be dangerous to run the turbine.


Steam Turbine 251

250 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

III. Eccentricity • Uncontrolled extraction

Measurement of eccentricity play vital role in the turbine supervision system. Eccentricity is the ' Controlled extraction
measurement of rotor bow. Eccentricity of rotor may happen due to I. Uncontrolled extraction :
• Fixed mechanical bow As discussed earlier, extraction steam is used at feedwater heaters to increase feed water
• Temporary thermal bow temperature. This is called as regenerative cycle The extraction is obtained from two or three points.
Steam temperature and pressure at different extraction points are different. Steam extracted from front
• Gravity bow portion has more temperature and pressure compared to steam extracted from exhaust end. This extracted
_-._ -Temporary thermal bow -and gravity-bow-may becaused by sudden trip of-turbine and-failure-or- -steam is used-forfeed water heating at HP and LP heaters and charging of dearator. Non return valves are
non availability of barring device during this period. It may happen in bigger turbine, where mass of the provided at each extraction line to avoid back entry of steam, for safety of the turbine.
rotor is more. By gravity rotor is bowed.

Fig. 16.43 Eccentricity

To measure eccentricity, eddy current probes are used. These probes are normally placed away
from bearing location.

To Condenser
L Bearing Rotor
Fig. 16.45 Uncontrolled Extraction
Fig. 16.44 Location of probe for Eccentricity measurement Quantity of steam extraction is not controllable in this case. A fixed quantity of steam can be
IV. Axial position extracted after certain load on the turbine.
Axial position is required to be measured to know the exact position of rotor with respect to II. Controlled extraction :
casing. For this eddy current probe is used. This probe is placed in axial direction to the rotor, few milimeter This type of turbine is used at process industries, where steam is extracted from turbine after
away. When rotor moves towards the probe, eddy current signal is more and when it moves away, the certain stage at desired pressure and temperature. Quantity of the steam can be adjusted as per requirement
signal is weak. Calibration is made in such a way that, when the rotor is at exact center with respect to in this case. Single extraction turbine has two stage, i.e. HP stage and LP stage. Two sets of governing
casing, the reading indicates zero. When it moves towards front it shows positive and when it moves away
valves are there. HP Control valve LP Control valve
it shows negative reading.
Like vibration and temperature, maximum permissible limit is determined to generate alarm and
Inlet Steam
trip signal.
16.11 Turbine casing draining system
Steam is expanded at various stages of fixed and moving blades. So, there is chance of condensation
of steam, particularly during starting. Accumulation of condensate inside turbine can damage turbine. It is
required to drain out this condensate during starting. For this, drain points are provided at turbine lower
casing. Also drain points are provided at the gland portion and emergency stop valve. All these drains are
connected to condenser. Orifice of suitable size is placed in the drains to avoid steam flow in these drains.
16.12 Extraction System
In a extraction turbine some part of steam in extracted from Turbine after expansion at some Extraction To Condenser
stage of blades. There are two types of extraction. Fig. 16.46 Controlled Extraction


252 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

The arrangement is like two turbines connected in series. Total work done is the sum of work
done at HP and LP stage.
To get more extraction steam, HP control valve is opened more and more steam enters to HP
stage. So, more work is done at HP stage. To maintain same mechanical output LP control valve is
throttled accordingly. Total work done in this case remains same and extra steam is available at extraction. AUXILLARY SYSTEM STEAM
Like this to reduce extraction, HP control vale is closed and LP control valve is opened more. To
increase mechanical output. both HP and LP control valves are opened. Opening and closing of these
control valves are done through governing system.
To get two controlled extraction steam at different temperature and pressure, 3 sets of control
valve are used.
17.1 Introduction
In a power plant, other than turbine, there are other associated systems. These systems are
required for running of a turbine. Most of the important components and systems of turbine proper are
discussed in previous chapter. Here we will discuss about auxiliary system which helps to run the turbine.
Each system is having its own importance and can't be left alone. Like various systems of boiler, turbine
auxiliary systems are discussed in this chapter. This will give a clear idea about functioning of steam turbine
as a whole. Some of the important auxiliary systems are :

Controlled Extraction -1 To Condenser

Controlled Extraction-2
Fig. 16.47 Two controlled Extraction
Arrangement of two extraction system is shown on the above figure. It is like three turbines
connected in series.
In controlled extraction turbine quick acting non return valves are provided to avoid any back
flow of steam in to turbine.
In bigger size turbines, steam is extracted from HP Turbine and further heat is added to it at
boiler at reheater. This reheated steam is again used at LP turbine. This is called as reheat cycle.
16.13 Feed water heater
A feed water heater is a heat exchanger used to preheat boiler feed water by means of steam
extracted (or "bleed") from steam turbine. Preheating the feed water improves efficiency of the system.
Feed water heater increases feed water temperature up to saturation temperature very gradually. These
heaters are classified as closed and open heaters. Closed heaters are mostly used since the tube side fluid
remains enclosed by the tubes and do not mix with the condensate. Heat transfer within the vessel takes
place by convection and condensation. After heat transfer the extracted steam is condensed. This condensate
is sent to Deaerator or Condenser. Deaerator heating in example of open heater.
Steam extraction process in a closed feed water heater is referred to as uncontrolled extraction. Flow
rate of steam into a feed water heater is limited by the amount of available steam.
Most feed water heaters are of standard shell-and-tube configuration. Mostly U-tubes are used
in feed water heater as they are suitable for thermal expansion during operation. Heaters are of horizontal
configuration. These are most stable for level control.
Feed water heaters are classified as per their pressure design. They are :
• Low Pressure Heater : This heater is located between the condensate pump and boiler feed
pump. Extracted steam from the low pressure stage of turbine isqused here.
High Pressure Heater : This heater is located between boiler feed pump and Boiler. Typically,
Extracted steam from high pressure stage of turbine is used here.
• Oil system
• Condensate system
• Gland sealing system
• Ejector and vacuum system
o Cooling water system
• Condenser
17.2 Oil system
Oil system of the turbine is an important system. Lubricating oil is supplied to the bearings and
used for governing of turbine. Main function of lubricating oil is to-
• Lubricate the bearings
o Cooling bearings
o Flush out metallic debris from bearings
• Control speed of the turbine (governing oil)
Heavy shaft of a turbine is supported by journal bearings on a cushion of oil film, which is thinner
than a human hair. So we can understand the importance of lubrication oil. It is the life blood of a turbine.
Turbine oil family is known as R & 0 (rust and oxidation) inhibited oils. It is formulated by
highly refined or hydro processed from petroleum base oil of usually ISO — VG-32, 46, or 56 grades. 98%
of the oil comprises of API Group —II base oil. Remaining 2% is additives like antioxidant, rust inhibiter,
corrosion inhibiter, de-foamer and demulsifier (to increase water separation property).
This oil is subjected to work under higher temperature range. So oxidation and aging takes
place. Oxidation produces organic acids which increases the total acid number or TAN. As oil degrades
its average molecular weight goes up and increases viscosity.
This oil should be free from acids, water, suspended matter and other impurities. This oil is used
for lubrication of bearings and gearbox. Some part of this oil is used for governing of turbine.
[253]
 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
Main components of lubricating oil system are
• Oil tank
o Oil pumps
o Oil cooler
o Oil filter
• Oil centrifuge
Oil overhead tank
o Accumulators
17.2.1 Oil tank
Total oil for the system is stored in this tank. The tank is having adequate capacity to hold
sufficient oil during running and stop condition. The tank base is made sloped to one side, so that the
sediment in oil can be collected in the lower area and can be drained out by opening drain valve. The tank
is having level measurement facility to give alarm for low oil level. Also a level glass is provided to find out
tank level at any instant. Suitable tapings are provided to facilitate oil suction for oil pumps, draining of
return oil from bearings and governing system, connection for oil centrifuge, fill up of fresh oil etc.
One oil mist fan is provided on the tank to vent out any oil vapor and keep the tank slightly
below atmospheric pressure.
17.2.2 Oil pumps
To pump oil from the oil tank to various lubrication points and controlling purpose, oil pumps
are provided. Normally three pumps are provided. These pumps are
° Main oil pump( MOP)
• Auxiliary oil pump (AOP)
Emergency oil pump (EOP)
1. Main oil pump
Main oil pump is used during running of turbine. In some turbine, main' oil pump (MOP) is
coupled Mechanically to the main shaft of turbine. This is a gear pump which ensures oil supply to bearings
as long as rotor is rotating. This is useful for safe costing down of turbine in case of failure of emergency oil
pump. When turbine is stopped or trips, rotor does not come to standstill immediately from full speed.
Rotor requires some time to come standstill as the mass of the rotating part is high. Slow de acceleration of
turbine speed is called as coasting down.
Failure of oil supply to bearings, during coasting down is dangerous. This may damage bearings.
Mechanically coupled main oil pump is a safer arrangement from this point of view.
In some case, main oil pump is an ordinary electric motor driven pump like Auxiliary oil pump.
In this case for safe costing down, over head oil tank provision is made to ensure continuous oil supply to
bearings in case of failure of emergency oil pump.
H. Auxiliary oil pump
This is a motor driven pump. During starting of turbine (incase of mechanically coupled MOP),
oil is supplied through AOP. Once turbine reaches full speed and oil pressure is developed by MOP AOP is
stopped.
In case of motor driven MOP either AOP or MOP can be used interchangeably. In this case, one
pump runs and other is kept standby.
Auxiliary System of Steam Turbine 255
HI. Emergency oil pump
This pump is driven by a DC motor. In case of black out or non availability of either MOP or
AOP this pump is started automatically to continue oil supply to bearings. Normally this pump is a low
capacity pump. So it supplies oil only for bearing lubrication. Governing oil is not supplied by this pump.
This pump is required to run during emergency (black out situation). So it should be kept available,
once turbine is in operation.
17.2.3 Oil coolers
Normally two oil coolers of 100% capacity are provided to cool down entire oil supplied to
turbine bearings, gearbox, and generator bearings for lubrication. Governing oil is not cooled at oil cooler,
This oil is taken out before oil cooler. One cooler is put on line and another one is kept as standby. Online
changeover facility is provided to take the standby cooler in to service, without interruption of oil supply,
while turbine is running.
Before changeover, it is to be ensured that the standby cooler is filled with oil and air is vented
out properly. Otherwise there will be air lock and oil supply to bearings may interrupt.
.Oil cooler is a shell and tube type heat exchanger. Cooling water flows inside the tube bundle
and oil flows at the shell side. Cooling water for oil cooler is obtained from main cooling water system of
power plant. Regulating valves are provided at the inlet and outlet of the cooling water supply line. To
increase or decrease oil temperature, cooling water flow is decreased or increased respectively through these
regulating valves. Always the cooling water outlet valve is regulated to v„pry flow of cooling water. At any
case cooling water inlet valve . is not to be throttled as sufficient, cooling water will not available inside tube
and tube may damage.
Drain point is provided at the cooler to drain out settled sediment at bottom of the cooler.
17.2.4 Oil filters
Oil coming out from cooler is passed through oil filter to remove any contaminated particle or
debris. Filter is normally basket type with removable filter cartridge. Like cooler there are two filters of 100%
capacity each with suitable online changeover arrangement. The oil is filtered upto 20 - 25 micron level on
these filters before circulating in bearings.
Differential pressure acress the filter is measured which indicates the chocking condition of filter
cartridge. If differential pressure is high it indicates, filter is chocked and needs cleaning.
Before changeover of oil filter when turbine is in operation, it is to be ensured, standby filter is
completely filled and no air is trapped inside. Filter cartridge of stand by filter is always to be kept clean, so
that at any moment this can be taken in to line, if required.
17.2.5 Oil centrifuge
Oil centrifuge is a machine used to keep lubricating oil clean. This is a separator to separate
liquid mixture having different density or to separate heavier solid particles from the liquid.
There is possibility of leakage of steam in to the lubricating oil system at bearings due to failure
of labyrinths. Also there is chance of mixing of cooling water in the lubricating oil at oil cooler, in case of
puncture of any tube. If there is puncture of tube in running cooler water is not mixed with oil rather oil is
mixed with cooling water, as the pressure of oil is more than cooling water. But at the standby cooler,
leaking tube may lead to mixing of water into oil. Oil is contaminated with heavier metallic debris, dust and
dirt. So it is required to separate water and solid particles from the oil to keep it clean and increase its life.

Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
Centrifuge is a machine which separate water and solid particle from oil. This is achieved by
centrifugal force of a high speed rotating bowl inside the separator. Due to centrifugal force, heavier particle
is displaced towards the outer periphery of the bowl and the lighter oil is displaced towards center of the
bowl, where it is collected and sent back to main oil tank.
Heater
Centrifuge. C Quick
4=
Motor
Clean oil
to oil tank
to
Dirty oil for Main oil tank
Fig. 17.1 Oil Centrifuge
Centrifuge is connected to main oil tank as shown in the figure. Inlet of the centrifuge is connected
to the lowest slope of the tank, so that dirty oil can be collected for cleaning. Pump of the centrifuge pumps
dirty oil and circulates through an indirect heater. Hot water is`used to heat the oil at indirect heater. Also
heater can be by passed if required. Oil is passed to the rotating bowel which rotates at high speed.
Bowel of oil centrifuge can be adjusted to perform these two functions.
I. Purification
In purification mode, centrifuge is used to separate different density liquid mixture (oil & water).
Simultaneously this can remove solid particle also. For this purpose water seal is provided to prevent light
density oil to come to water outlet side. Heavier solid particles separated are collected at the outer surface
of the bowl, which can be cleaned regularly.
II. Clarification
In clarification mode only solid particles are removed. Rotating bowel is adjusted for this. Removed
sludge from the oil is collected at the outer periphery of the bowel which is cleaned regularly. Sealing water
is not required in this mode of operation.
Through centrifuge oil is circulated to the oil tank again. So, centrifuge can be used to clean
certain amount of oil, whether turbine is in operation or not. Centrifuge is having a top up connection
through which fresh oil can be transferred through centrifuge to main oil tank.
17.2.6 Overhead tank
Lube oil overhead tank is used for the safety of turbine. A tank is placed at a height and oil is
always filled on this tank. Incase of failure of oil pumps, automatically oil from this tank start flowing by
gravity and supply oil to bearings. This system ensures supply of oil h to turbine bearings in spite of failure of
oil pumps, particularly emergency oil pump, during coasting down.
Auxiliary System of Steam Turbine 257
Over flow oil Over head
Tank
Main oil Tank
Sight Glass
filling .. -
valve
Control
oil
Cooler Filter
Lubricating oil
to Bearings
Fig. 17.2 Lube oil overhead tank arrangement
General arrangement of overhead tank is a shown in the figure.
Oil after oil filter is taped to overhead tank. During normal operation, oil enters to the overhead
tank through the orifice continuously. Oil, overflowing from overhead tank is drained to main oil tank. In
this line a sight glass is provided to check whether oil is overflowing continuously or not. When oil pumps
are running, pressure in the main lubricating line is more, so oil from overhead tank is not allowed to flow
by gravity through NRV. When oil pump fails, oil pressure drops in the line. In this case oil from overhead
tank start flowing through NRV, by gravity and supplied to bearings. Drain oil from bearing is again routed
to main oil tank as usual: So the main oil tank should have enough capacity to accommodate entire oil of
overhead tank. Over head tank capacity is so designed that it can supply oil to bearing for 20 — 30 minutes.
During starting, oil can be filled up at this tank by opening quick filling valve. Interlock provision
is given, so that turbine can't be started if this tank is not filled up. Also level switch is provided to initiate
alarm if tank level becomes low.
This system is very safe for turbine. So along with emergency oil pump this system is adopted in
most of the cases.
17.2.7 Oil accumulator
Oil accumulator is provided on the governing or control oil line of the turbine. This accumulator
maintains oil pressure in the line during momentary fluctuation of oil pressure during oil pump change over
or sudden operation of servomotor of governing valve.
In the accumulator an inert gas filled bladder is provided. Gas pressure inside the bladder is
maintained slightly below the normal oil pressure of the line.
During normal operation, oil pressure of the line compress the bladder and oil is occupied in the
oil space of the accumulator. When, pressure at the line drops, the bladder is expanded, due to inside gas
pressure. So it pushes out oil of oil space to the oil line and takes care momentary oil pressure fluctuation.


Auxiliary System of Steam Turbine 259

Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
17.3 Condensate system
In a steam turbine, steam is passed over sets of fixed and moving blades to rotate the rotor.
After doing work, steam is exhausted to condenser where it is condensed with help of cooling water.
This condensate is collected at the bottom portion of the condenser known as hot well. As steam enters into
turbine continuouslyso condensation also takes place continuously and it is required to evacuate this
condensate continuously. Otherwise condenser will be filled up. Evacuation of condensate is done with a
pump called as condensate extraction pump (CEP).

Inert gas filled

bladder

Cooling water —^ Condenser

Heater
Oil Space

Oil cutlet DM Water

Oil inlet
Make up
Fig. 17.3 Oil Accumulator
Hot well
The pressure of the gas inside the bladder is to be checked regularly and if pressure drops it is to
rl. Filter
be refilled. Generator

Fig. 17.5 Condensate System

Two condensate pumps of 100% capacity each are used to evacuate this condensate from hot
well of condenser. One pump is kept in operation and another is kept standby. Interlock provision is
provided so that the standby pump starts when running pump trips, pressure of the condensate discharge
line drops, or hot well level become high. An isolating valve and a strainer is provided at Suction side.
To avoid any air lock at the pump or suction line, a vacuum balancing line is provided. During starting of
any CEP this vacuum balance line is opened, so that any air that is present in the line is socked due to
condenser vacuum. After running of the pump this line can be closed. Vacuum balance of standby pump
is always closed to avoid any air ingress from gland of the pump. Non return valve is provided at discharge
of each CEP.
Condensate discharged from CEP is passed through ejector condenser and gland steam condenser
before sending to Deaerator. Here it absorbs heat of the ejector steam and gland steam respectively and
temperature of condensate increases. This arrangement increases efficiency of plant. Ejector steam and
gland sealing steam is cooled and the condensate formed is discharged to condenser. By this arrangement,
costly DM water is saved which would otherwise be vented to atmosphere.
Cooler Filter
With help of two control valves, hot well level of condenser is maintained. Control valve CV -1
is opened more when hot well level is high, to discharge more water to Deaerator. Simultaneously Control
valve CV-2 closes. When hot well level is low, CV-1 closes and CV -2 openes more to recirculate coniensate
to the condenser. In case hot well level is low or during initial startup, DM water makeup is given to the hot
well from DM tank.
Fig. 17.4 Cube oil Circuit


260 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Auxiliary System of Steam Turbine 261
Condensate from CEP also passes through LP heater to gain heat from the extraction steam of When high pressure steam is passed on a convergent —divergent nozzle, a low pressure is created
turbine and finally sent to Deaerator. Again from Deaerator, through feed pump, this condensate is fed to at the throat. So, when steam is passed through Ejector -1, it pulls non condensing gas from condenser.
boiler. Steam along with this gas mixture is passed to inter stage condenser. At this inter stage Ejector condenser,
In case there is leakage in condenser tube, cooling water may be mixed with the condensate. condensate from CEP flows inside the tube. The motive steam and gas mixture is condensed at this inter
In this case, hot well level goes high.-Condenser tube leakage can be detected by testing hardness of the stage condenser and condensate produced is drained to condenser through a "U" loop tube. `U' loop is
condensate. On-line hardness testing meter at the condensate line is helpful to detect condenser tube used to maintain some head in the line to avoid air ingress to the condenser. In this way heat of motive
leakage instantly. steam is utilized to increase the temperature of main condensate.
When vapor load is more, ejectors are connected in stages. In the figure a two stage ejector is
17.4 Gland sealing .system shown. Vacuum is again created at the inter stage condenser through Ejector -2, like ejector -1 as discussed
Gland sealing system is already discussed in section 16.6. For initial charging of the gland, steam above. Non condensing gas and steam mixture of inter condenser is passed to after condenser, where it is
from PRDS is obtained. Gland seal condenser is used to increase plant efficiency and save DM water. condensed again with the help of main condensate. Finaly non condensing gas is vented out to atmosphere
17.5 Steam ejector and vacuum system through a vent. A Rota meter is fitted at the vent to measure quantity of non condensing gas vented to
As discussed earlier, vacuum is maintained in condenser to facilitate easy flow of steam from atmosphere. Condensate produced;at the after cooler is sent to main condenser through a trap.
turbine and to condense exhaust steam easily. Also steam can be expanded more in turbine to get more A trap is placed so that only condensate can go to condenser.
work done. Steam ejectors are classified as':
Vacuum is maintained by continuously evacuating non condensing gases from the condenser
• Single stage or multi stage ejector
with help of air pump or Steam ejector. Pressure of non condensing gases decrease condenser efficiency
and hence plant efficiency. • Condensing or non condensing ejector
For removing non condensing gas or to create vacuum in the condenser, normally steam ejector During starting of turbine, when more vapor to be extracted from condenser, starting ejector is
is used. It is also called as steam jet ejector or venturi pump. This is like a pump in which, venturi effect of taken in to service. Starting ejector is a single stage non condensing ejector. Here, air and steam mixture is
a converging and diverging nozzle is used to convert pressure energy of steam to velocity energy, to create vented to atmosphere without condensing. Once vacuum is obtained, main ejector is taken in to line.
suction effect. Steam Ejector is having no moving part.
Working principle of ejector :
A high pressure motive steam enters to ejector chest through nozzle and then expanded. Pressure
Non Condensing
Gas from Condenser energy of steam is converted in to velocity. Increased velocity causes reduced pressure which socks vapor.
Diffuser section then compress the steam vapor mixture and exhausted to a condenser where this mixture
Ejector-2 Vent is quickly condensed.
Rotameter
Ejector -1
Motive Steam
Nozzle
Auxiliary Converging Diverging
steam tf Intel Outlet
II II II
II u n Nozzle t Diffuser
II After Condenser Motive
II , ll I ,I( Il i Steam Outlet
u I.1 II
Inter Condenser -Trap :
To Diffuser Throat
To Condenser
Condenser
Air from Condenser
Condensate
out Fig. 17.7 Ejector
Condensate
In Merits of Ejector
Fig. 17,6 Steam Ejector system • Simple construction
Steam ejector arrangement is shown in the figure. This is a multi stage condensing ejector. It can • Easy installation
be seen that there are two ejectors connected back to back. Ejector connected to the condenser air line is • No moving parts
called as inter stage ejector and the other ejector is called as after ejector. One condenser is connected
• Long useful operating life
to both the ejectors as shown, to condense the motive steam used for vacuum creation. Condensate
produced by this steam is sent to condenser. • Easy to operate.


262 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Auxiliary System of Steam Turbine 263
Operating procedure of Ejector system : Steam, from turbine, flows at the shell side of condenser and cooling water flows inside the tube.
• Circulate condensate through ejector condenser Main components of a surface condenser are shown in the figure.
• Open steam of ejector -2. So it will crate vacuum in inter ejector condenser. Exhaust Steam from Turbine
Open steam of ejector -1 Flange
Expansion
Open air valve of condenser Tube Joint
Flanges Tube
Vent Sheet Flange
Stet Vent Flanges
17.6 Condenser
t t
Condenser is an important Auxiliary equipment of any steam turbine. Exhaust steam of turbine Tubes
Inlet Outle a
is exhausted in to condenser, where it is condensed in vacuum. As discussed earlier, by maintaining vacuum Water Box Water B ox 10
r CO
in condenser, maximum energy can be extracted from steam and turbine efficiency increases. Condensate
obtained is utilized again at boiler for steam formation.
There are different types of condenser. Some of the important type condensers are listed below.
r
• Jet type condenser I.
• Air condenser Holwell
• Surface condenser 1
r.^ --- Condensate Drain
I. Jet type condenser v
Circulating Circulating
In this type of condenser, cooling water come in direct contact with steam to be condensed. Inlet Water • Outlet Water
To
Exhaust Steam Condensate
I / Cooling Pump
water inlet Fig. 17.9 Surface Condenser
Main components of a surface condenser are :
• Shell
• Tube
• Water box
• Hot well
o Air outlet
o Rapture disc

Fig. 17.8 Jet type Condenser
This type of condenser is not used in power plants, as the condensate produced is confaminated
with cooling water and can't be used in boiler.
II. Surface condenser
This type of condenser is widely used at power plants. Cooling water is not mixed with condensate
in this case. Condensate obtained is pure and can be used in boiler. This is a shell and tube type heat
exchanger. Shell of the condenser is closed. Tubes are arranged inside the shell in which cooling water
flows. Condenser neck is connected to the exhaust hood of turbine. Ar'i expansion joint is provided in
between to facilitate thermal expansion.
Shell
Shell is the outer most body of the condenser -and heat exchanger tubes. It maybe cylindrical or
rectangular in shape. Shell shape is determine by size of the condenser, plant layout and manufactures
design preference. It is fabricated from steel plates. Baffle plates are provided to get the desired flow path
of cooling water. Tube sheet and intermediate plates are provided for fitting and provide support to long
condenser tubes.
In some design, condenser is partitioned into two halves. Each half is having independent cooling
water in let and out let system. In this design, one half of the condenser can be taken out of service for
maintenance keeping other half in operation. In this condition, load is reduced as condensing capacity of
the condenser reduces.
Water boxes, cooling water inlet and outlet piping, air pipe and steam inlet neck are welded to
the shell of condenser.


264 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Auxiliary System of Steam Turbine 265
Tube The law sates- "The pressure of mixture of gases (here it is air and steam) is equal to sum of
Tubes are fixed in condenser by expanding both ends at both side tube sheets. Normally tubes individual gas pressure. Where individual gas pressure means, pressure would be exerted, if it would occupy
are made of stainless steel, brass or bronze. Cooling water flows inside these tubes. There is chance of scale the same place by that gas alone " .
formation at the waterside of the tube, if cooling water quality is not maintained properly. This scale formation Pc = PA + PS
reduces heat transfer and hence efficiency of condenser. So, the tubes are required to be cleaned regularly. ---
Close spaced tubes are provided at the air outlet. By this arrangement, air extracted by ejector is Pc = Pressure of air and steam combination
cooled. This section is called as air cooling section. Suitable baffle is provided to ensure that steam is not PA = Partial pressure of air
extracted along with air. -- PS- Partial pressure of Steam
Water Box Example :
Water boxes are the end portion of the condenser. In this area, water is entered, exit and turn the Suppose in a condenser, the vacuum gauge reading is 0.92 kg/cm2 (vacuum) and the condensate
direction. By opening water box tube ends are exposed for cleaning. Water box cover is tightly fastened with temperature is 35°C. We have to calculate the partial air pressure and volume of air present inside the
shell to ensure there is no leakage of cooling water. There is chance of settling of sludge at this area. So, condenser.
drain points are provided. To vent out any air present in the water box, vents are p°ovided.
Condenser vacuum gauge reading is 0:92 kg/cm2
Hot well So, Absolute pressure (Pc ) = Atmospheric pressure — vacuum gauge pressure
Bottom portion of the condenser is called as hot well, where condensate is collected. Level of = 1.0332 - 0.92 = .1132 kg/cm2
hot well is maintained with control valves as discussed earlier. For filling hot well initially, a make up point From steam table,
is provided. Level gauge is provided to measure hot well level.
corresponding to 35°C the steam pressure (P s ) is 0.057 kg/cm2
Air outlet
So, PA = 0.1132 — 0.562 = 0.0562 kg/cm2
As discussed earlier, air extracted by ejector is cooled at air cooling section. In two section Volume of air per M3 of condenser volume can be find out as per Ma = PAV / RT
condenser, two air outlet pipes are connected to two sections of the condenser. These two pipes are
,! = 0.0562 *104*1 / 29.27 *, (35 +273) =0.0623 M3
connected together before going to ejector with suitable isolation facility for both sections. By this arrangement,
one section can be isolated during maintenance of that section. Where R = gas constant. For atmospheric air it is 29.27kg-m/k/°K

Rapture disc 17.6.2 Condenser efficiency

A rapture disc is provided at the condenser to take care of accidental high pressure in the condenser.
In this case, rapture disc raptures and pressure is released without causing any harm to the turbine.
Vacuum break valve
In some case, it is required to stop turbine as soon as possible (reducing coasting down time).
During vacuum condition in condenser, turbine takes longer time for coast down. But if there is no vacuum,
coast down time decreases. In some fault condition like high vibration tripping, it is desired to stop the rotor
as soon as possible to minimize further damage to the turbine. Some fault condition on which vacuum
breaking is required is listed below.
• Loss of lubrication
• High vibration
• .High axial expansion
• Generator differential protection
In these fault conditions, vacuum break valve, which is normally a solenoid operated valve,
opens. Interlocking of opening this valve is made accordingly. Before vacuum build up for pqext starting of
the turbine, this valve is to be closed.
17.6.1 Dalton's law of partial pressure
In a condenser, mixture of steam and non condensing air exists. It is required to know the partial
pressure of air and steam. From the partial pressure of air, volume of air present in the condenser can be
calculated. This is done with the help of Dalton's partial pressure theory.
Condenser efficiency is the ratio of temperature raise of cooling water used in the condenser to
the difference of vacuum temperature and inlet cooling water temperature.
This is represented as-
Condenser efficiency (II . ) = Temperature raise of cooling water / Vacuum temperature — inlet
cooling water temperature
Example :
Suppose cooling water inlet temperature is 30 °C and Outlet temperature is
38°C. Condenser Vacuum is- 0.95 kg/cm 2 (gauge)
Absolute pressure of Condenser =1.0332 — 0.95 = 0.0832 kg/cm 2
From the steam table corresponding to 0.0832 kg/cm 2 , Absolute Temperature or Vacuum
temperature = 41.46 °C
Temperature raise of cooling water is = 8°C
So, Efficiency of condenser (rh n ) = 8 / 41.46 - 30 = 69.8%
17.7 Cooling water system
In a condenser cooling water is circulated to condense exhaust steam of the turbine. Exhaust
steam is having considerable amount of heat energy. This heat energy is required to be transferred to
cooling water to condense steam. So the cooling water temperature rises. This cooling water is required to
be cool down, to again use it in condenser (in case of close loop system). This cooling is done at cooling
tower. From cooling tower, cooling water is circulated through condenser by help of cooling water pumps.
Suppose exhaust steam of turbine is having 0.85 dryness fraction and condenser vacuum is
0.08 kg/cm2 (Absolute).


266 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

Auxiliary System of Steam Turbine 267
From the steam table enthalpy of steam corresponding to 0.08 kg/cm 2 Absolute =
17.7.1 Cooling tower
41.2 +.85x574 = 529.1 kcl/kg
Cooling tower is a structure in which hot water is made droplets with help of nozzles to increase
This exhaust steam is to be cool down to 41.2 °C (corresponding to 0.08 absolute pressure).
contact surface of water and allowed to come in contact with atmospheric air.
So, (529.1— 41.2) = 487.9 kcal/kg heat energy is required to be transferred to cooling water to condense
this steam to get condensate at 41.2 °C. So, huge amount of cooling water is required for this. Atmospheric air is having certain capacity to absorb water vapor at a given temperature. Water
Weight of cooling water required for condenser is given as vapor is created due to evaporation of water droplets. For evaporation of water heat is required. This heat
is obtained from remaining water. So this remaining water is cooled as heat is removed from it for evaporation.
Ww = Ws(H-h i )/t2 — t1 Rate of evaporation and hence drop in cooling water temperature depends upon following factors.
Where
Ww = Weight of cooling water L Water surface area exposed to atmospheric air
Ws = Weight of steam to be condensed II. Time of expose
H = Total heat of steam entering in to condenser III. Velocity of air flow .
h1= Total heat of condensate IV. Relative humidity of atmospheric air or difference between dry and wet bulb temperature.
t1 = Inlet temperature of cooling water V. Direction of air flow with respect to water flow
t2 = Outlet temperature of cooling water VI. Inlet water temperature
There are two types of cooling water circulation system. These are : Relative humidity is calculated from difference of dry and wet bulb temperature. This indicates
I. Open or once through system how much water vapor the atmospheric air contains. It is always ideal to cool water up to wet bulb
II. Closed system temperature. But practically this is not possible. The difference between wet bulb temperature and out
going cooling water temperature is called as cooling tower approach.
In open or once through system, cooling water is pumped to the condenser from a river or sea
and after cooling, hot water is discharged to the river or sea. This system is used in power plants located In a cooling tower, water enters from the top and distributed evenly and made droplets with
close to sea or any river. In most of the power plants closed system is used. In this system hot water is suitable nozzle arrangement. Air flows from bottom of the tower. It is routed through louvers to flow in cross
cooled at a cooling tower and cold water obtained is again sent to condenser. or parallel direction to come in contact with water droplets. Air flow velocity is maintained naturally or
Arrangement of open and close cooling water system is shown below. through fans. The tower is made from wood, steel or concrete. There are different types of cooling tower.
net Steam Some of them are listed below.
I. Natural draft cooling tower
Il. Hyperbolic cooling tower
III. Induced draft cross flow cooling tower
IV. Induced draft counter flow cooling tower
Generator
In natural draft cooling tower, air velocity is created naturally. Hyperbolic cooling tower is a
natural draft cooling tower. Air velocity is created due to chimney effect. Air flow is due to density difference
between atmospheric air, outside chimney top and that of hot air inside the tower. This density difference
creates pressure difference for flow of air. In this case, to get more pressure difference, height of tower is
required to be made more.
But the performance of these natural draft towers is dependant only upon atmospheric condition,
not upon the load condition. So the cooling of cooling water is not controllable.
Mechanical draft cooling towers are used widely at power plants. Velocity of air is created by a
fan. Mostly induced draft type cooling towers are used. Speed of the fan can be varied to increase or
decrease air velocity. So, the tower can be operated efficiently.
Induced draft counter flow and induced draft cross flow type cooling towers are found widely
used at power plants.
Cooling
Tower Induced draft counter flow cooling tower
River A mechanical fan is located at top of the tower. Water is distributed throughout the area of tower
:Pump
and made droplets with the help of spray nozzles. Mist eliminators are placed above distributed pipe line
Fig. (a) open cycle system Fig. (b) Closed cycle system
and nozzle to restrict escape of vapor mist to atmosphere. Hot water is allowed to flow, down to the basin
Fig. 17.10 Cooling water circulation system by gravity.


268 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Auxiliary System of Steam Turbine 269
Water is made droplets with help of nozzles. Water is distributed throughout the mixing area with
help of perforated trays or wooden fills. It falls down to cold water basin by gravity.
Mist eliminator
When fan is started air is entered through the louvers and flows in the cross direction to the
Distribution system
falling water droplets. It moves up due to suction of fan through drift eliminator which helps to separate
Spray nozzles water m ist.
Air velocity and hence cooling can be increased or decreased by increasing or decreasing
Fill material
fan speed.
_ Fan blade is made of cast aluminum or fiber reinforced plastic (FRP), attached to a hob and is
connected to a driving motor through a suitable reducing gear. Variable speed drive can be used to increase
or decrease fan speed as per requirement. As bigger size fans are used, so there is chance of heavy
vibration. Vibration switches are provided to stop the fan in case of excessive vibration. To check oil level
and top up oil in gearbox, provision is made outside of the tower.

Fig. 17.11 Induced draft counter flow cooling tower

When fan is started, atmospheric air is socked and enters through the louvers. This air moves up
and comes in contact with downward water droplets. It carries the heat of water and discharge to atmosphere
through the fan. Flow of air and water is in counter direction. So, the temperature difference between hot
water and cold air remains almost same throughout the mixing area. So, this type of tower is
thermodynamically most suitable. Cold water.is collected in a basin from where water is drawn out for
further use in condenser. This complete arrangement is called as a cell. Cells are connected side by side in
parallel to meet the requirement of plant.
In the basin blow down points are provided to drain out settled sludge and debris.
Induced draft cross flow cooling tower Fig. 17.13 Cooling tower with multi-cells
In this design, air flows over water droplets in cross direction. Air flows in the horizontal direction
where as water droplets flow down in to the l'.asin by gravity in vertical, direction. For bigger capacity plants numbers of cells are connected in line to meet total cooling water
requirement.
Moist, warm air out
Spray nozzles, fills and distributors are required to be kept clean from scale, algae blockage etc.
to get proper distribution of water in cooling tower. Drift eliminators are to be properly checked to minimize
Hot water in
drift loss of water. Basin blow down is to be given regularly to drain out settled sludge from the basin.
Distribution basin When cooling tower is placed in a dusty atmosphere, along with air lot of dust particle ingress to
the tower and mixed with cooling water. In this case, sand bed type side stream filter is installed. Part of the
cooling water from cold water basin is circulated through this sand bed filter. Dust particle is filtered and
Air in clean water sent to basin. Later on, sand bed filter is backwashed.
Some terms used in cooling tower are discussed below.
I. Cooling Range
Temperature difference between hot water entering the tower and cold water leaving the tower is
Fill material called as cooling range.
Cold water out II. Approach
The difference between temperature of cold water leaving the tower and wet- bulb temperature
of atmospheric air is known as the approach.
Crossflow type design
Fig. 17.12 Induced draft cross flow cooling Tower
 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
III. Wet bulb temperature
Wet Bulb temperature can be measured by using a thermometer with the bulb covered in wet
muslin. This is the minimum temperature which may be achieved by purely evaporative cooling of a water-
wetted ventilated surface.
Wet bulb temperature is always lower than dry bulb temperature.
IV. Dry-Bulb Temperature
Dry Bulb Temperature refers basically to the ambient air temperature. It is called "Dry Bulb"
because the air temperature is indicated by a normal thermometer, not affected bu rnoisture-o t e air.—-h
V. Drift
Water droplets that are carried out of the cooling tower with the exhaust air is called as drift. Drift
droplets have the same concentration of impurities as the circulating water of the tower.
VI. Drift Eliminators
Drift loss rate is normally reduced by putting baffle-like devices, called drift eliminators, through
which air has to travel after leaving the fill and spray nozzle zones of the tower.
VII. Fill
Inside the tower, fills are arranged to increase contact surface as well as contact time between air
and water. It provide better heat transfer and efficiency of the tower increases. Film type and Splash type
fills are used.
VIII. Capacity
The amount of water (M 3/Hr) that a cooling tower can cool through a specified range, at a
specified approach and wet-bulb temperature is called as capacity of the cooling tower.
IX. Makeup
The amount of water required to replace normal losses caused by blow down, drift, and evaporation.
X. Heat Load
The amount of heat to be removed from the circulating water in a hour is called as heat load of
the cooling tower. Heat load is equal to the rate of water flow per hour multiplied by range.
XI. Cycle of concentration (COC)
As pure water is evaporated, minerals are left behind in the circulation water. As evaporation
continues, water becomes more concentrated than original make up water. The ratio of level of solids of the
circulating cooling water to the level of solids of the original raw make up water is called as cycle of
concentration (COC).
Water balance in cooling tower
During continuous operation of cooling tower, water is evaporated continuously. As water is
evaporated, minerals are left behind in the circulating water. Concentration of solids in water become more
than the original make up water. So, blow down is required to remove a portion of concentrated water,
which is replaced with fresh make up water. Term cycles of concentration (COC) is the ratio of solids of the
circulating cooling water to the level of solids of the original raw make up water. If the circulating water has
five times the solids concentration than that of the make up water, then the COC is 5.
Required Make up is the sum of following three losses.
1. Evaporation Loss
Evaporation loss (E) = C* A T *Cp I H„
Auxiliary System of Steam Turbine
Where,
C = circulation rate in M3 per hour,
0 T = temperature difference between hot and cold water in °C.
C, = Specific heat of water (1 kcal/kg- °C)
Hv = Latent heat of vaporization of water (540 kcal/kg)
2. Windage or drift loss
This is a relatively small amount of entrained water lost as fine droplets in the air discharge from
a tower. Windage carries solids of circulating water with it and reduces dissolved solids in the circulating
water.
The approximate drift loss (W) of different types cooling tower is given below.
About 0.3 to 1.0 percent of circulation, for a natural draft cooling tower without drift eliminators.
• About 0.1 to 0.3 percent of circulation for an induced draft cooling tower without drift eliminators.
• About 0.005 percent of circulation for an induced draft cooling tower with drift eliminators
3. Blow down loss
In the evaporation process non volatile impurities of make up water are concentrated in the
circulating water. Te minimize excessive concentration of these impurities, some quantity of circulating
water is removed from the system. This is called as bleed off or blow down. Amount of bleed off can be
determined from following equations:
% B (blow down) + % W(windage) _ % E (evaporation) / ( cycles of oncentration-1)
17.7.2 Cooling water treatment
Condenser of a turbine is a critical component in power plant. Cooling water is circulated in its
. tube. Scale deposit in this tube may affect heat transfer. So it is very important to avoid scaling of condenser
tube. Cooling water circulation may result corrosion of water box and tube. There may be growth of algae
and bacteria in the water. This growth may choke the circulation system.
To get optimum life of the condenser and better efficiency, quality of cooling water is required to
be maintained strictly. For this, various chemical treatment is carried out. Some of the chemical treatment
is discussed here.
I. Anti scale and corrosion treatment
Deposit of scale in cooling water system reduces efficiency of heat transfer and restricts water
distribution pipe line. Scale is deposited by precipitation and crystal growth at a surface in contact with
water. Salts of calcium and magnesium are responsible for scale formation. Suitable anti scaling chemical
is added in the cooling water to minimize scale. Anti scale chemicals prevent scale forming compounds
present in the cooling water to precipitate.
To avoid corrosion in the cooling water system corrosion inhibitor is used. Corrosion inhibitor is
a chemical which effectively decreases the corrosion rate when added to cooling water.
There are different anti scaling and corrosion inhibitors available in market supplied by different
water treatment companies with different brand name. These chemicals are dosed in to cooling water
regularly.


272 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

Dispersants are used in cooling water to control fouling. Dispersant is a chemical that increases
surface charge of the suspend particulate. Electrostatic repulsion between like-charged particles prevents
agglomeration, which reduces particle growth. The absorption of dispersant makes particles more
hydrophilic and less likely to adhere to surfaces. Thus, dispersants affect both particle-to-particle and
particle-to-surface interactions.
To measure corrosion rate of cooling water, corrosion coupon is installed at the cooling
water circuit.
H. Biocide treatment
To control growth of slime, organic bacteria and algae, biocide is dosed in cooling water. This is
done mostly in shock dosed method.
Biocides are grouped into two categories, oxidizing and non oxidizing, depending upon the
mechanism used to kill organisms. Oxidizing biocide attack cell component and kill the organism while
non oxidizing biocide damage the cell wall or interface with the cells metabolic process.
Oxidizing Biocides
An oxidizing biocide attacks microorganisms by oxidizing (an electron transfer reaction) the cell
structure, disrupting nutrients passing from cell wall. The most commonly used oxidizing biocides are
chlorine, bromine (halogen), and chlorine dioxide (C10 2).
When chlorine is added in water it produces Hypochlorous acid (HOC!) and hydrochloric acid
(HCI) as per the following equation. Hypochlorous acid (HOC!) attacks the microorganism.
Cl2 + H2O - HC! + HOC!
HOCI dissociate in to Hypochlorite (OC1) as PH increases.
HOC1 H H+ + OC1-
Hypochlorite (OC!) is also an oxidant, but is weaker than HOC1. Sum of HOCI and OC1 is called
as free Chlorine.
Hypobromous acid (HOBr) is also a effective oxidant. It is formed by the reaction of sodium
bromide (NaBr) with Hypochlorous acid.
HOC! + NaBr – NaCl + HOBr
Some other oxidizing biocides are-
Auxiliary System of Steam Turbine
273
HI. Acid treatment
PH of cooling water increases due to continues evaporation and concentration of salts. Particularly
sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3 ) and sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3
) concentration in cooling water is responsible
for increasing PH. When sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO 3
) is heated it produces sodium hydroxide or caustic
soda (NaOH) and Sodium carbonate (Soda ash – Na 2CO3 ) as per the equation below.
NaHCO3 – NaOH + CO2 +H2 O
2NaHCO3 – Na2 CO3 + H2O + CO2
Both sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium carbonate (Na 2CO3 ) are alkaline. So, Cooling
water PH increases. To maintain PH of cooling water sulphuric acid is dosed.
Blow down
Due to continuous evaporation of water, dissolved solid level increases. So, to keep the dissolved
solids under control blow down is given. Due to water loss in cooling tower, mainly for evaporation and drift
loss make up water is required to be added in the system. Ratio of dissolved solids of circulating water to
that of make up water is called as cycle of concentration (COC). With efficient anti scale treatment and
suitable make up quality up to 8 COC is possible. Accordingly blow down is given to maintain cooling
water dissolved solid level under control.
000

• Sodium Hypochlorite (NaOC!)

o Calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OC1) 2)

• Ozone

• Hydrogen Peroxide

Non-Oxidizing Biocides
A non-oxidizing biocide is one that functions by mechanism other than oxidation, including
interference with cell metabolism and structure. Non oxidizing biocides are mostly organic based biocides.
Combination of oxidizing and non oxidizing biocides is frequently used. Methylene bisthiocyanate (MBT) is
a commonly used non oxidizing biocide. There are many water treatment companies supplying non oxidizing
biocide at their brand name.


Operation of Steam Turbine 275

4. Start the pump. If there is variable speed drive then start the pump at lower speed and gradually
increase the speed.

18
18.1 Introduction
Operation of steam turbine is a complex process. Before starting the rolling of a turbine, auxiliary
systems, discussed earlier are to be properly put in service. Special care is required to be taken for starting
of Turbine, particularly during cold start. We will discuss about operation of individual systems one by one
so that it will be easier to understand the complete system.
Normally for start up of a turbine some sequence of operation is followed. We will discuss the
operation of different systems as per sequence in subsequent sections.
18.2 Charging of Steam pipe line or Heat up
From Boiler, steam is carried to turbine by main steam pipe line. In cold condition special care
is to be taken to heat up this steam line and allow thermal expansion gradually, before getting full load on
the turbine.
Drain points are provided at the steam line to drain out condensate, present in steam pipe line
that is formed due to condensation of steam. First of all these drains are opened before charging steam on
that pipe line. After the condensate is drained out, main steam stop valve of boiler is opened slowly (most
commonly the bypass valve). Some steam is allowed to flow through the pipe. Pipe starts gaining heat from
the steam and steam is condensed. This condensate along with some steam is allowed to come out through
drain. These drains are throttled slowly and closed when no more condensate but only dry steam is coming
out from the drain. Steam traps provided in the pipe line are kept in line once drains are closed.
If vent is provided at the pipe line before Emergency stop valve of turbine, then this is to be
opened to allow steam to flow, so that pipe line up to ESV can be heated up.
Main steam stop valve of boiler is to be opened slowly so that the line temperature will increase
gradually. Ensure the expansion is not restricted any where. Once the temperature of pipe line reaches
normal level, stop valve of boiler can be opened fully.
18.3 Operation of cooling water system
To circulate cooling water in the condenser, cooling water pumps are to be started. Following
steps are followed to circulate cooling water in the condenser.
1. Ensure level of the cooling tower basin is normal.
2. Keep suction valve of the pump in open condition and discharge valve in closed condition.
3 Ensure inlet and outlet cooling water valves of condenser arjd hot water distributor valves of
cooling tower are in open condition.
'[274]
5.
6.
7.
8.
Open the discharge valve.
Observe cooling water is falling on the cooling tower.
Open the vents provided at condenser water box to remove trapped air.
Increase speed or Start other pump to get required amount of cooling water flow at the condenser.
-- 9.-- Observe all the cooling water pumps are sharing load.
10. Once turbine is started and loaded, cooling tower fans can be started one by one as per requirement,
to get desired cooling water temperature.
18.4 Operation of Lubrication oil system
Before starting the turbine, the Tube oil system is to be started. Lube oil is required to flow
through each bearing. To start lube oil system following steps are to be followed.
'1. Ensure lube oil tank level is normal.
2. Valves provided at oil line at oil filter and oil cooler are in open condition.
o 3. Cooling water outlet valve of oil cooler is in close condition.
4. Ensure suction and delivery valve of oil pump are in open condition.
5 Start oil pump.
6. Adjust oil pressure by adjusting recirculation valve if any.
7. Check oil filter differential pressure. If it is high, change the filter cartridge or change the filter.
8. Ensure oil is supplied to each bearing and governing oil is available. Adjust oil pressure at various
bearings.
9. Maintain oil temperature by adjusting cooling water outlet valve of oil cooier.
10. Keep the standby oil pump and Emergency oil pump ready.
11. Ensure overhead tank is full.
18.5 Barring gear operation
Before rolling, turbine is required to be kept on barring operation at least one hour before. To put
the turbine on barring operation, following steps are required to be followed.
1. Ensure lube oil system is in service and oil is circulating at all the bearings and oil pressure is at
desired level. 1 . 5 . 5 10
2. Start jacking oil pump, if provided to lift the rotor.
3. Engage barring gear clutch.
4. Start barring gear motor.
5. Observe rotor is rotating at barring speed without increase in bearing vibration and temperature
and there is no abnormal sound.
18.6 Gland steam charging
Once the above systems are in service, gland steam can be charged at gland. Care is to betaken
while charging gland steam in a cold turbine. As the gland area of turbine is at normal temperature during
cold condition, hot gland steam may produce thermal shock at that area. To avoid this, steam is to be
charged slowly and the condensate produced is to be drained out through gland drain. Following steps are
to be followed for gland steam charging.


I,-
r. oa ^f pari w
., o
Boiler Operation
276, Engineering & Power Plant Operation of Steam Turbine 277

1. Ensure auxiliary or motive steam is available from PRDS at desired pressure and temperature. 18.7 Condensate system operation
2 Open gland steam header and gland drains. Exhaust steam of turbine is condensed at condenser with help of cooling water. The condensate
3. Open control valve CV 1 slowly. produced is evacuated from condenser by help of Condensate extraction pump (CEP). This condensate
Observe steam is coming out from gland steam header drain and front gland vent. passes through gland seal condenser and Ejector condenser to gain heat of the gland steam and ejector
4.
steam respectively. So the temperature of condensate increases there. Before feeding to deareator for
5. When gland steam header temperature is reached to desired level, close the header drain.
further use at boiler, this condensate is further heated at LP heater (if provided) by using LP steam extraction
6. Open control valve CV 1 more to achieve gland steam header pressure. --- of turbine. -
7. Observe steam is vented out from rear gland. To put this condensate system in operation following steps are required to be followed.
8. Put the control valves in auto mode with desired set value.
1. Ensure condenser hot well level is adequate. Otherwise fill the hot well with make up DM water.
Aux. Steam 2. Open suction and discharge valve of the pump. Ensure Differential pressure of the strainer is
1 normal.
3. Open condensate inlet and outlet valves of gland seal condenser, ejector condenser, and HP / LP
heater.
4. Open Pump gland cooling valve and Start the pump.
5. The condensate will pass through gland seal condenser and ejector condenser and through
recirculation control valve it should be re circulated to condenser again.
6. If level of hot well is more, then discharge valve can be opened otherwise the recirculation valve to
be kept open for recirculation of condensate.
7. Once steam starts entering into turbine, discharge control valve can be put in auto mode to
maintain level of hot well.
If the condensate extraction pump is to be started, when there is vacuum inside the condenser,
then the vacuum balance line valve is to be opened to avoid any air, trapped inside pump and pipe line.
11111111
18.8 Vacuum build up
Front
Gland Gland drain Before main steam is entered in to turbine there should be vacuum in the condenser. As discussed
drain earlier, during starting, the starting ejector is used to evacuate air from condenser. This is a single stage non
condensing type ejector. Following steps are to be followed to build up vacuum by starting ejector.
1. Ensure auxillary steam at desired pressure and temperature is available.
^ D^ Dti1 2. Ensure the vacuum break valve of the condenser is closed.
CV-2
Auxiliary Steam Drain 3. Ensure cooling water is circulating in the condenser and turbine gland is charged fully.
4. Open steam valve of the staring ejector.
5. Observe steam is vented to atmosphere.
To Condenser
6. Open ejector air valve.
Fig. 18.1 Gland steam System Observe vacuum inside condenser is increasing slowly.
7.
If there is gland steam condenser then this condenser is to be charged first. Before opening Through starting ejector, vacuum in the condenser can be obtained faster. But the steam used in
control valve CV 1. To charge gland following steps are to be followed. this ejector is not utilized. It is vented to atmosphere. So, main ejector is to be taken in to line, once turbine
is loaded and starting ejector is to be stopped. To put main ejector in line following steps are followed.
1. Circulate cooling water (discharged condensate from CEP) through gland learn condenser.
1. Ensure condensate extraction pump (CEP) is running.
2. Open motive steam of gland steam condenser ejector.
2. Open the cooling water (discharged condensate from CEP) inlet and outlet valve of the ejector
3. Open gland vent valve.
condenser, which is to be put in service.


278 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Operation of Steam Turbine 279
3. Vent out air from water box of the ejector condenser.
4. Open the condensate drain valve of inter ejector condenser and after ejector condenser of that
ejector which is connected to main condenser. G
3500 RPM 5500 RPM
5. Open steam valve of after condenser ejector.
E
6. Open steam valve of inter condenser ejector. i 20 rpm/sec
7. Observe condensate is drained out from both the condenser (drain line will be felt warm if touched)
D
. Slowly open air valve of the ejector and observe vacuum-is increasing. 10 rpm/sec

When vacuum is stable then starting ejector can be stopped by closing air valve first then the
steam valve of that ejector.
To take out the main ejector out of service following steps are followed. 1000 RPM 100
A B rpm/
10 rpm/sec sec
1. Stop air valve of the ejector.
2. Stop steam valve of inter condenser ejector.
20 rpm/sec
3. Stop steam valve of after condenser ejector.
0
4. Stop drain valve of inter and after condenser. Barring
speed
5. Stop water inlet and outlet valve after the condenser is cooled.
t Time - ^
18.9 Turbine startup
Fig. 18.2 Turbine Statement up Curve
Once the above discussed systems are in operation and full vacuum is obtained inside condenser,
turbine can be started. Like boiler, turbine is required to be started in two different conditions. Example of a startup curve of a steam turbine is shown at above figure. This is example of a cold
start up curve of a 5500 rpm steam turbine having one critical speed zone. This is given here for discussion
I. Cold start up purpose only. Exact curve for different steam turbine is different and advised by turbine manufacturer. This
II. Hot start up startup procedure is to be followed either manually or auto governing system.
We will discuss one by one about this curve.
In cold startup, turbine is started from cold condition. In this case special care is taken for proper
0-A
heat up of casing and rotor for proper thermal expansion. As both rotor and casing are in cold condition,
it requires longer time for heat up. But in case of hot startup both casing and rotor are in hot condition. So This is the rate of speed raise up to low idle speed. After opening emergency stop valve, control
valve is opened slowly to raise speed of the turbine up to low idle speed of 1000 rpm at a rate of 20 rpm/
it can be started within a short period.
sec. Steam enters to the turbine at a slower rate.
Before discussing further, we will discuss about startup curve of the turbine. This curve gives an A-B
idea, how turbine reaches its full speed in cold and hot condition. This is the low idle speed of the turbine. At a speed of 1000 rpm control valve opening stops.
Startup curve Turbine continues to run at this speed for 10 minutes. This is called as socking time of the turbine. Turbine
is allowed for heat up for thermal expansion. In case of bigger turbine having heavy mass of rotor and
To allow proper thermal expansion of casing and rotor the turbine manufacturer advise to follow casing, more time is required. During hot startup, less time is required.
startup procedure. We should not enter steam immediately to turbine as it may damage the turbine due to B-C
uneven expansion. This is the rate of speed raise up to high idle. Turbine is allowed to ramp up at a certain rate as
All rotating shafts deflect during rotation. The Magnitude of deflection depends upon stiffness of advised by the turbine manufacturer. In this case it is 10 rpm/sec up to 2700 rpm.
the shaft and its support, total mass of the shaft and its attached parts. Turbine shaft material has its own C-D
natural frequency. When turbine rotates on such a speed that frequency of shaft become close to its natural It is the critical speed zone of the turbine. To avoid this zone, speed of the turbine is raised at a
frequency, machine causes noise & high vibration because of resonance due to matching of frequency. faster rate. In this case the zone starts from 2700 rpm to 3000 rpm and the rate of raise of speed is 100
rpn>,/sec.
Shaft became dynamically unstable and large vibration is developed. Running of Steam Turbine at this
D-E
speed is avoided. It occurs at a speed called as critical speed. Beyond critical speed vibration becomes
normal. After passing the critical zone again turbine speed is raised at lower rate up to high idle speed. In
this case the high idle speed is at 3500 rpm and the rate of raise of speed is 10 rpm/sec.


280 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Operation of Steam Turbine 281

E-F 4. Ensure lubrication oil is available during coasting down.

This is called as high idle speed. Like low idle speed, turbine is kept at constant speed for some 5. When speed become zero, put the turbine on barring operation.
time for socking. In this case it is 3500 rpm and hold time is 10 minutes. 6. Stop ejector system.
F-G 7. Continue cooling water supply in condenserfora-4 hours.
From point F turbine speed raises up to rated speed at certain rate. In this case it is 20 rpm /sec.
8. Continue lube oil supply and barring operation till casing temperature drops to around 90 °C.
For this starting curve, turbine takes 27 minute 27 second to , reach at full speed during cold
startup. Like this there is hot start up curve also. But the time required to reach at full speed is less. Once 9. Stop lubrication oil and barring device.
turbine reaches at full speed it can be loaded gradually. 18.11 Emergency situations in turbine
Rolling of turbine
Steam turbine is a critical rotating equipment. High temperature and pressure steam is used to
To start rolling of turbine following steps are followed. Depending upon mode of starting (auto or rotate the turbine at high speed. Mass of the rotating part is high. There is always chance of severe
manual) and types of governing system (hydraulic or electro hydraulic) there may be some change in steps mishapen leading to fatal accident and damage to high coast equipments, in case any system goes wrong.
described below. But these are some basic steps disused for understanding. Generation of power may be interrupted for a longer period, leading to heavy loss to the plant. So, the
Power plant engineer should be trained enough to face any emergency situation at any time and properly
1. Ensure lube oil and control oil is available, cooling water is flowing in condenser, turbine is on
handle this emergency situations.
barring, gland is properly charged and vacuum is available.
Some of the emergency situations in a steam turbine are mentioned below.
2. Steam pressure and temperature are within limit.
1. High speed.
3. All the turbine tripping interlocks are healthy.
2. Failure of lubrication oil system.
4. Ensure ESV is in closed position and control valve at minimum position.
3. High vibration.
5. Reset turbine from remote control desk or locatturbine panel.
4. High bearing temperature.
6. Open ESV.
5. Blackout condition.
7. Open control valve gradually in auto or manual mode to follow start up curve.
6. Failure of barring device.
8. Observe control valve position, bearing temperature, lube oil pressure at bearings, bearing vibration,
7. High condenser level.
any abnormal sound during startup.
8. High axial displacement.
9. Ensure barring device is disengaged.
9. Steam, water, oil leakages.
10. Observe expansion of casing, rotor and differential expansion.
10. Fire.
11. Maintain lube oil temperature by adjusting cooling water at oil cooler.
11. Low/high steam parameters.
12. At critical speed zone the speed to be raised faster and bearing vibrations should be within limit. 12. Low condenser vacuum.
13. Once turbine reaches full speed check all the parameters. 13. Failure of cooling water system.
14. If the main oil pump is mechanically coupled with turbine rotor then stop AOP and check oil
pressure. 1. Over speed

18.10 Turbine shutdown
During shutdown of turbine also, proper care is required to be taken. The shutdown may be
normal/planned shutdown or emergency shutdown. In planned shutdown turbine is stopped in a planned
way. But in case of emergency shutdown turbine is required to be stopped immediately or it trips automatically.
In emergency shutdown it is to be ensured that tube oil supply to all the bearings are available during
coasting down. In some emergency situation vacuum break valve of condenser can be opened to stop the
turbine quickly.
For planned shutdown of a turbine following steps are followed.
1. Reduce load of the turbine. If it is a generator, open the generator breaker after reducing load.
2. Reduce speed of the turbine up to minimum governing speed.
3. Stop ESV.
Due to failure of governing system, the turbine speed may become dangerously high. Rotor can
rotate momentarily, without damage up to 110 % of rated speed. At higher speed rotor stresses increases.
Due to high centrifugal force, the blades which are fixed to the rotor may come out due to failure of blade
root and cause sever accident and damage to turbine. To avoid dangerous over speed, turbine is provided
with mechanical and electrical over speed trip arrangement. Tripping limits are set in such a way that
turbine speed does not exceed beyond 110% of rated speed. These over speed t ripping limits are to be
checked regularly. Mechanical over speed device is to be set within safe limit and checked at suitable
interval. At any circumstances over speed tripping limit is not to be by passed.
2. Failure of lubrication oil system
Lubrication oil is used to lubricate and cool down bearing metal. In some incident the lubrication
oil supply may interrupt due to failure of pumps, leakage in oil line, or chocking of oil filter. This condition
may damage bearings and gear box.

282 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
If such incident happens for any reason, the turbine is required to be stopped as soon as possible.
Costing down time can be reduced by opening vacuum break valve. Oil supply is to be restored as early as
possible. After resuming oil supply, if possible, turbine is to be rotated manually to find out any damage.
Bearings are to be inspected. If any damage found, same is to be replaced.
3. High vibration
Rotor of the turbine rotates at high speed. Any deformation or unbalance of the rotor produces
high vibration. Some time, deposit on blades and damage of any rotating part may create heavy vibration.
Damage of journal bearing may also produce vibration. The moving and rotating parts of turbine are
closely spaced. Due to disturbance in rotor shift or differential expansion there is chance of rubbing of these
parts. Rubbing creates high vibration and abnormal sound.
So, at any case high vibration of turbine is not to be overlooked. In case of high vibration, the
turbine should be stopped immediately and turbine internals are to be inspected to avoid further damage.
4. High bearing temperature
High bearing temperature occurs due to inadequate oil flow in the bearing or metal to metal
contact in-between bearing and rotor. High temperature damages Babbitt material of the bearing.
In case of high temperature of bearing, the turbine is required to be stopped. Oil supply to the
bearing is to be checked and if required bearing is to be opened for inspection. At any case, high bearing
temperature tripping is not to be by passed.
5. Black out condition
Due to disturbance in electrical system, station power system, supplying power to auxiliary
equipments of turbine and boiler may fail and no power is available at the power plant. This situation is
called as black out condition. In this situation no power is available to run any equipment. There is no
power for plant lighting also.
It is to be ensured that turbine has tripped and DC oil pump is started. After coast down turbine
is to be rotated through hand barring if power supply of barring device is not available. Once power is
available, oil pump is to be started and turbine may be put on barring. Cooling water supply is to be
restored. Some plants have emergency power source from auto start Diesel Generator sets which is started
automatically incase of failure of supply mains. Power for emergency equipments like- oil pump, barring
gear, stop valve etc are obtained from this emerging source.
6. Failure of barring device
When turbine is stopped in hot condition, it is to be put on barring. In some situation just after
stopping turbine, barring gear may be found not working. It is not recommended to keep the rotor in stand
still condition in this situation. By any means rotor is to be rotated. The rotor position may be changed by
180° continuously at some interval.
7. High condenser hot well level
Due to problem in condensate extraction pumps or any other equipment at condensate system
condensate can not be evacuated from hot well. So, hot well level become high. Also due to malfunction
of level transmitter, actual level may go high. In this situation there is possibility that water level in condenser
increases and enters in to turbine through exhaust hood. Condenser vacuum reduces drastically in this
condition. If at any case water enters in to a running turbine, it creates a serious situation and damages the
turbine.
Operation of Steam Turbine 283
Turbine is not to be allowed to run at high hot well level and when level transmitter is not
showing actual level. Load is to be reduced on turbine in this situation and if situation is not controllable,
turbine is to be stopped. To avoid this situation local hot well gauge glass to be checked regularly.
8. High axial displacement
There is very small_axial clearance between rotating part and stationary part of a turbine. Rotating
part of the turbine is supposed to be placed at exact center of the clearance of stationary parts. When the
rotor center is changed it is reflected by axial displacement. At high axial displacement, rotating part of the
turbine may come in contact with stationary part. So the turbine is to be stopped in case there is high axial
displacement or axial shift. Rotor float with respect to stationary parts to be checked if required.
9. Leakages
For the operation of turbine there are different pipe lines, in which different fluids flow. These are
I. Main steam line.
II. Auxiliary or motive steam line
III. Cooling water line
IV. Condensate line
V. Oil line'
VI. Air line
In case of failure of flange gasket or damage of pipe line, the fluid conveyed may leak, affecting
turbine operation. In some cases leakage is so severe that immediate stoppage of turbine is required. In
some case turbine can be stopped in a planed way to arrest the leakage. Depending upon the severity of
leakage and its effect on plant operation and safety, action is to be taken.
10. Fire
Fire is always an emergency situation at any plant. But at turbine this situation is different. High
temperature steam is used to drive steam turbine and also large quantity of lubrication oil is handled. So
there is always chance of fire. Precaution is to be taken to handle this situation to avoid damage to man
and machine. Turbine is operated at higher temperature. So, Proper grade fire extinguisher and fire fighting
equipment is to be used, so that, it will not damage turbine further. Operating personals working at turbine
are to be trained to use appropriate technique to extinguish fire. Fire hydrant lines and fire extinguishers are
to be kept ready at proper location.
11. Low steam parameters - O. r} t ? pry rtr t^ pr
Due to problem at boiler, low temperature or low pressure steam may enter in to turbine. This is twig
to be avoided. At any case low temperature and pressure steam below permissible level should not be
allowed to enter in to turbine. This may damage turbine internals.
' Due to high water level in boiler, priming may take place. Priming decreases steam temperature
as boiler feed water enters in to steam line. If turbine is allowed to run in this condition, unsaturated steam
enters in to turbine and damages turbine severely. Low temperature steam is condensed towards last stage
blade of turbine. It also produces thermal shock on the hot turbine.
In this case turbine should be stopped immediately.
12. High steam parameters
Like low steam temperature and pressure, high temperature and pressure steam is not desirable
for turbine operation.


284 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Operation of Steam Turbine 285
High steam temperature may damage turbine as the metallurgy of the turbine is designed for a HI. Exhaust steam loss
particular temperature. High pressure steam may damage internal sealing fines etc. This is the major loss in a steam turbine. Major portion of heat energy is wasted in condenser
13. Low condenser Vacuum which is taken out by cooling water. This is discussed earlier. The exhaust steam carries out huge quantity
of latent heat, which is then taken out by cooling water to condense the steam.
Due to vacuum in condenser the steam from turbine is easily exhausted in to condenser.
If vacuum inside the condenser drops it restricts exhaust of steam of turbine. Back pressure is created in IV. Radiation loss
side turbine. Heat always radiates from the outer casing surface of turbine. So the turbine outer casing is
Vacuum may drop due to failure in cooling water system, failure of ejector or leakage in condenser required to be insulated properly to minimize radiation loss. Damage in insulation or less thickness of
air line.The standby ejector or starting ejector is tote immediately taken in to line. Leakage in air line is _Insulating material may increase this loss.
be arrested promptly or cooling water supply to be increased. If vacuum is not improved the turbine to be 18.12.2. Internal loss
stopped immediately.
These are the losses take place inside the turbine.
14. Failure of cooling water system I. Nozzle loss
Due to failure of cooling water pumps or chocking in cooling water circuit, cooling water supply When steam travels through a nozzle, loss takes place due to friction and formation of eddies.
may be reduced or interrupted. In this case, turbine exhaust steam can not be conc'ensed. Pressure of the
II. Blade friction loss
condenser will increase and the rapture disc of the condenser may rupture. Heavy backpressure will be
created on turbine. Steam glides over the blade in a steam turbine. Due to blade profile surface finish this loss takes
place due to friction.
In this case load is to be reduced first and care is to be taken to normalize cooling water supply.
If situation does not improve then turbine is to be stopped. Ill. Dit,c or wheel friction loss
15. Failure of plant automation system The moving blade wheel is required to rotate inside steam in the turbine. Presence of steam
produces friction and creates resistance to the moving wheel.
In some incidence, it is experienced; plant automation system fails due to failure of control
power supply, failure of PLC or due to some other reason. In this situation, it is difficult to keep the turbine IV. Partial admission loss
under control. No parameter is visible nor any control system works. In this case the turbine is required to As discussed earlier, the control valve is so connected that the valve opens one after another to
be stopped in a safer way. The operating engineer should apply his mind to act accordingly. increase the load on turbine. Each valve is connected to a set of nozzles.
Now days most turbines are designed for fail safe operation. Turbine automatically trips incase
of any malfunctioning or fault in any system. Control valve

18.12 Losses in steam turbine

In a steam turbine, total heat energy input in not converted in to mechanical energy. Some
losses take place during this conversion process. We can classify these losses in to various categories as
discussed below. By identifying these losses we may able to minimize these losses as much as possible to
increase efficiency of steam turbine.
18.12.1 External loss
This is the loss which occurs at outside of the steam turbine. Nozzle Sets
I. ESV and strainer loss
There is always a pressure drop of steam at any valve or any restriction. Strainer is provided at
ESV to restrict any foreign particle to enter in to turbine along with steam. As a result, there is pressure drop
at ESV and strainer, resulting in loss in heat energy of the steam.
II. Throttling loss at control valve
Control valve throttles steam flow to the turbine as per load demand of turbine. So, it results Fig. 18.3 Partial admission
drop in pressure. To minimize this loss, instead of single valve, multiple valves are connected to a common Due to partial admission of steam, only some set of nozzles are active and remaining are inactive.
operating lever and placed in such a way that a particular valve opens at particular position of the operating Eddies are produced in active blades and more energy is required to flush steam in inactive blade when they
lever. Steam is entered to turbine through these valves. This is taken care during design stage of turbine. came to active.


286 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Operation of Steam Turbine 287
V. Inter stage leakage loss Then as per above discussion
There is pressure difference in each blade stage of Turbine. Due to leakage of steam between Gross Turbine heat rate = Heat added in the Boiler / Kilowatt out put of Generator
these stages steam passes to next stage having lower pressure, without doing any work. This loss increases = (Enthalpy of steam - Heat in feed water)/ Kilowatt out put of Generator
due to damage of fins at blade tip and inter stage seals.
= 200 x 1000(830-150) / 50 x 1000 = 2720 kcal/kwh
VI. Mechanical friction loss Net Turbine Heat Rate:
Due to friction at bearings this loss takes place. Heat generated due to friction is carried out by
Net turbine heat rate is determined in the same as gross heat rate, except that the boiler feed
lubrication oil and cooled at oil cooler. pump power input is subtracted from the generator power output before dividing into the heat added in the
VII. Residual velocity loss boiler.
Steam exiting from one stage carries lot of kinetic energy and this is carried to next stage. If the Plant Heat Rate:
axial clearance between stages is more then some part of this kinetic energy is lost. In Turbine heat rate only losses in Turbine and Generator set is considered. Plant heat rate
VIII. Wetness loss includes inefficiencies and losses external to the Turbo generator set. Inefficiencies of the Boiler and piping
systems, power required for pumps and fans and energy uses for soot blowing, air compression, and similar
When steam passes over different stages, energy is extracted from it. Towards last stage of blade services are considered to calculate Plant Heat rate.
the steam becomes wet, carrying water particle. The velocity of water particle is less than that of steam. So
Gross Plant Heat Rate:
the kinetic energy of the steam reduces.
This heat rate (kcal/kWh) is determined by dividing the total heat energy (kcal/hour) in fuel added
18.13 Heat rate to the boiler by the kilowatt output of the generator.
Heat rate is a means to express Rankine cycle efficiency or thermal efficiency of a power plant. 18.14 Some Latest Development in Power Generation Industries
Normally it is expressed as kcal/ kwh. Less Heat rate means the cycle is efficient. As discussed earlier,
Regenerative and Reheat cycle is used to increase thermal efficiency and decrease heat rate of Power Plant. Electric power is the main source of energy for any industry. Power is generated at power plants.
Installed capacity of thermal power plant in India is around 99861.48 MW ( as on 31/12/09), which is
Turbine heat rate is the ratio of total energy utilized in turbine (Kcal) divided by the electrical 64.6% of the total installed capacity. Fossil fuel fired Thermal power plants meet major portion of our
energy output (kwh). Energy utilized in turbine is the difference between energy inputs to turbine to energy power requirement. Bigger size independent power producers (IPP,$) meet most of the power demand of the
extracted from turbine. Energy input is the steam mass flow rate to turbine multiplied by inlet steam country. Still the power demand is not fulfilled and lot of initiative is taken by Govt. of India to add more
enthalpy. Energy extracted is the enthalpy of total extraction steam plus heat available in condensate. It is generating facility in the coming days.
easier to calculate for a single source of steam passing through the turbine to a condenser, but complicated
for a reheat turbine with multiple extractions. Huge quantity of coal is used at thermal power plants. Coal consumption can be reduced by
improving efficiency of Thermal power plants. Lot of carbon dioxide gas is emitted from power plants due
Some time terms like- GrosslTurbine Heat rate, Net Turbine heat rate and Plant heat rate are to burning of coal. Reduction in coal consumption. can minimize carbon dioxide emission. Increase in
also used to specify efficiency of Power Plant. Heat rate is expressed as either gross or net heat rate, superheat steam temperaturewby 20 °Cincreases efficiency roughly by 1%. So lots of researc an .
depending whether the electricity output is gross or net generation. evelopment programs are under progress to use high temperature steam at thermal power plants.
Gross Turbine Heat Rate : Depending upon inlet steam condition, Thermal Power plants are classified as Sub critical, super
Gross turbine heat rate is determined by dividing the heat added in the boiler between feed water critical and ultra super critical units. Units operated with steam pressure below 225 kg/cmre called as
inlet and steam outlet by the kilowatt output of the generator at the generator terminals. The gross heat rate subcritical unit
s. Steam pressure above 225 kg cm2 and'super heat /reheat temperature up to 593 °C are
is expressed in kcal per kWh. For reheat cycles, the heat added in the boiler includes the heat added to main called as Supercritical units where as Pressure above 225 kg cm2 and superheat /reheat temperature more
steam and through the reheater. It is discussed earlier; Feed water heating is done through extraction steam than 593 °C are called as ultra Supercritical units. Net plant efficiency of subcritical, super critical and ultra
to reduce heat rate. super critical units are given below.
Example: Following Parameters are noted in a power Plant. Sub critical units — 38% — 40 %
Feed water inlet temperature to Boiler -150°C Super critical units — 40% -42%
Feed water flow - 200 Tons per hour Ultra super critical units — 43% - 46%
Steam Generation - 200 Tons per hour It is possible to use high temperature steam up. to 620 °C due to development of modern
- 100 kg/cm2 chrome and nickel based super alloyed material (T 92 and P 92). Many Super critical units are in operation
Steam pressure
for quite long period. World's first super critical unit (Philo 6 Power Plant of USA- 125MW) was commissioned
Steam Temperature - 540 °C during 1957 and was in operation till 1979. Super critical units of 1300 MW capacity are in operation at
Enthalpy of Steam (at.100 kg/cm2, 540 °C) - 830 kcal/kg Japan and USA since 1970 (TVA Cumberland Power Plant). World's largest and first once-through unit
Generator capacity -50 MW (OTU) supercritical CFBC Boiler of 460 MW capacity commissioned in late June 2009 at £agisza power


288 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

Operation of Steam Turbine 289
plant in Poland. Super critical technology is proven internationally for many years. Also it is experienced;
Selection of the unit capacity of a power plant (IPP or CPP) is very critical. Project cost of
availability of supercritical units is more than subcritical units.
thermal power plant is very high. So capacity of the plant should be selected carefully. Following cases can
With inlet steam pressure of around 250kg/cm 2 and superheat/reheat temperature of 566/592
°C, heat rate as low as 18 5kcal/kwh, is possible in a super critical unit. be considered while selecting unit size of any Power Plant.
Ultra super critical units are in operation in Japan, Denmark, Germany and China. Efficiency of Case 1 - Economical maximum continuous rating (EMCR) i
these units is still higher. 1000 MW ultra supercritical units are under operation in china.
This is the design rating of the set on which optimum heat rate of the set is obtained. EMCR of
To cut green house gas emission, strict emission norms are adopted by developed countries. the generating set is decided based on continuous load demand of the set. Normally, Turbine is designed to
As thermal power plants emit lot of green house gases so it is focused to minimize carbon dioxide gas
emission from thermal power plants by using efficient technology. About .95 Tons of Carbon dioxide gas is deliver guaranteed performance at designed parameters on continuous basis at EMCR. Heat rate at this
emitted per MWh of Electricity Generation. To increase efficiency of generating sets further, advanced ultra case is lowest. This is also called as rated capacity. In most of the cases, the set is operated at this load.
supercritical technology development program is under progress internationally. It is expected to raise steam
Case 2 - VWO- Normal pressure rating (VWO-NP)
parameter up to 380/700/720 within few years.
Single reheat type Subcritical units up to 500MW are in operation in India with steam parameters Each turbine is designed with some inherent margin to take care of future degradation. Earlier
of 170/537/565 (inlet pressure (kg/cm 2)/ superheated temp. (°C)/ reheat temp. (°C)). To operate Indian TG sets were mostly designed to rated capacity or EMCR. The inherent design margin was remaining
thermal power plants with higher efficiency, 660 MW super critical units (247/ 537/565) are under unutilized throughout life of the plant. But to get better pay back and to have some additional margin on
implementation ( Barh Unit 1 is expected to be commissioned shortly) and 800OMW supercritical generating power generation, this inherent design margin can be utilized to generate some additional power with very
stations are planned by IPP's of India. India is planning to adopt Ultra super critical units (280/600/620) of
little additional investment.
660 MW and 800 MW in near future.
Some of the suppliers of these big supercritical/ ultra super critical units are listed below, Around 5% design margin is kept to allow extra steam to flow through Turbine when the control
valve is fully opened. This extra flow is called as valve wide open (VWO) flow. At design steam parameters
Boiler Turbine
this 5% VWO flow can be utilized to generate approximately 105% of EMCR power. In this condition
1. Alston, France 1. Alston, France turbine may be designed for continuous operation to meet any additional power requirement in future or
2. MHI, Japan 2. MHI, Japan during peak load hours. At this generation level, set performance is predicted, but is not guaranteed.
3. IHI, Japan 3. Siemens, Germany Normally, boiler maximum continuous rating (BMCR) is designed to support VWO flow of the
4. Hitachi, Japan 4. Ansaldo, Italy turbine. In normal engineering practice 2% margin above VWO flow of TG is considered for BMCR.
5. Ansaldo, Italy 5. Hitachi, Japan Case 3 - VWO- Over pressure rating (VWO-OP)
6. Doosan, S.korea 6. Toshiba, Japan Turbine is designed to operate at approximately 105% of normal pressure. This inherent design
7. L&T,MHI 7. GE, USA margin can further be used to generate around 5% more power at VWO flow. So, around 110% of rated
power can be generated at VWO -OP condition. Set can be design run on this load for short duration
In India, Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd, L&T-Mitsubishi Heavy Electric combine, Bharat Forge-
during emergency. Performance of the set is predicted at this load.
Alstom and Toshiba-JSW are planning to set up supercritical boiler and turbine manufacturing facilities in
To meet this load, Boiler BMCR is not required to be increased as VWO flow remains unchanged.
the country.
Normally inherent Boiler margin can be used, so that Boiler should be capable to generate steam at 5%
18.15 Capacity selection of generating sets over pressure.
Other than IPPs excess power of Captive power plants are used to meet the energy demand of CHP, AHP and other Auxiliary systems may be designed to support VWO- OP condition.
the country. Small unit size captive thermal power plants are installed in industries which generates power
for captive use. These units are small in capacity and mostly the unit capacity is selected depending upon
the power demand of the industry. Govt. has taken initiative for trading of power by CPP'S through open
access. Electricity act 2003 and electricity rule 2005 are made accordingly. For sale of excess power of
captive power plants, power trading exchange (PXI) is providing platform for online trading of power of
CPP's. So many CPP'S are coming forward and increasing their generation capacity to earn revenue in
power market.
 Generator 291
19.2. Important parts of a Generator
Like any other equipment, generator has some important parts. Each part performs a specific function.
Some of the important parts of generator are discussed below.
19.2.1 Cylindrical rotor
Rotor and stator are the main parts of a generator. Rotor is placed inside stator. The air gap in
between stator and rotor is very less. In power generators of thermal power plants, cylindrical rotor is used.
This type of rotor is also called as non salient or drum type rQtor.
- Rotor of the generator carries field winding. When DC power supply is applied to this winding it
becomes magnetic. Rotor also carries a fan which circulates cooling medium inside generator to cool down
the generator.
19.1 Introduction The design of rotor is critical as the field winding, put inside the slots provided, has to rotate at
Generator is an important machine for power generation. The main aim of any power plant is to a speed of normally 1500 or 3000 rpm. Also mass of the rotor is high.
generate power. Boilers and turbines are used ultimately to drive the generator and generate power. Normally cylindrical rotors, for two or four magnetic pole design are used for generation of power
Generator is coupled with turbine and converts mechanical energy of turbine in to electrical energy. at power plant. Number of poles of the rotor depends upon Speed of the generator.
This electrical energy is distributed to various load points through transmission and distribution network. P=120f/N
Generator works on a very fundamental electrical principle called as Faraday's law of Where
electromagnetic induction, discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831. When a stationary coil is placed in a P = No. of poles
rotating magnetic field, the magnetic flux produced by the magnet is cut by the coil and electromotive force f = frequency
(EMF) is induced on that coil. As per this law N = Speed of the generator (rpm)
E= – d cl) Bldt In India, frequency of power generation is 50 hz. So, for 1500 rpm generator there are four poles
Where and for 3000 rpm there are two poles in the generator rotor.
E is the electromotive force (EMF) in volts The main components of the rotor are
o Shaft
(DB is the magnetic flux in webers
• Rotor core
Direction of electromotive force (negative sign in the above formula) is given by Lenz's law.
• Field winding
In a generator, field magnet is created at the rotor through DC power source. The rotor is
• Damper winding
coupled to the shaft of the turbine. So, voltage is induced in the stationary coil, placed at the stator of the
• Fan
generator. The stationary coil is wound to generate three phase power.
• Slip ring
AC output I. Shaft
The shaft of rotor is so designed that it can
carry both static and dynamic load of the
total rotor unit. Shaft is coupled to turbine
shaft directly or through a reduction ,gear. The
shaft also carries slip ring or exciter unit (in
case of brush less excitation). Permanent
Stator Winding
magnet generator (PMG) also coupled to the
rotor shaft. This heavy rotor is supported at
Rotor
both ends through journal bearings.
Rotor shaft is designed to carry rotor core
and fan.
II. Rotor core
D C Supply Hole for The core of the rotor is made of low loss
7.7 Ventilation
Field Winding dynamo grade laminated steel sheet. The
(b) Rotor Core
laminations are insulated to minimize
Fig. 19.1 Simple Generator
circulation of eddy current, produced in rotor
[290] Fig. 19.2 Stator and rotor Core
body. Core is made by stacking circular sheets.

292 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
Slots are made on this sheet to accommodate field winding and damper winding. Holes are
made for ventilation of the rotor core. Core is magnetized when DC supply flows in the field winding.
When rotor rotates, due to centrifugal force, stress is developed on core. So the core laminations
are properly fitted to the shaft. The insulated laminated core sheets are stacked properly and
fastened rigidly.
III. Field winding
Pre fabricated and properly shaped field are inserted in to the slots provided at the rotor core.
Windings are placed rigidly in the slots with suitable wedge packing. So that, during rotation the winding-
should not come out due to centrifugal force. Field winding is properly insulated with suitable grade of
insulation to have better insulation between inter turns of field winding and between winding to
rotor body.
End terminals of the winding are connected to get desired number of poles and brazed properly.
Two terminals are taken out from the winding for DC supply. In case of brush less excitation system these
terminals are connected directly to rotating diodes. Otherwise it is connected to collecting slip rings mounted
on the rotor.
The over hang portion of the winding at both ends are supported strongly to have enough
mechanical strength to avoid distortion.
IV. Damper winding
Damper winding is provided to minimize oscillation effect of rotor in case of load change on the
generator. Solid bars are placed at the damper winding slots. This winding dampens out any oscillation that
might be caused by sudden change in load.
V. Fan
To circulate cooling air or cooling medium (Hydrogen) inside the generator, two fans are provided
at both ends of rotor. Profile of the blade is so made that it soaks cold air when rotates. This cold air enters
from both ends and exhaust from the middle of the generator to avoid any hot zone.
VI. Slip ring
To supply field current to field winding, slip rings are provided. Slip rings are mounted on the
rotor. Field winding terminals are connected to these slip rings. DC supply is given to these slip rings through
a set of carbon brush. In brush less excitation system, slip rings are not provided. Field supply is given
through rotating diodes in this case.
19.2.2 Stator
Stator is the main part of agenerator, which carries main coils in which voltage is generated. As
these coils are stationary, so it is easier to insulate. High voltage up to 33 KV can be generated in this stator
coil. Like rotor, stator has also some important components like
• Yoke
• Stator core
• Stator winding
• Terminals
I. Yoke
Yoke is the frame on which stator core is fitted. It provides support to the stator core and is
screwed to base frame.
293
Generator
II. Stator core
Like rotor core, stator core is also made from laminated low loss dynamo grade steel. Laminated
sheets are cut in required shape to form a circular core. Like rotor this is not a single piece. Slots are cut in
these sheets to accommodate stator coil. Suitable opening is made in the core for free circulation of
cooling medium.
III. Stator winding
This is the coil on which power is generated. So, heavy thick pre fabricated and pre shaped
pp er windings are placed in the stator core for three phase power generation. As heavy current flows, so
co
stator winding is made of thick copper flats and are connected in parallel. Still lot of heat is produced due
to losses (I2 R or Copper loss) in the winding. It is required to cool the winding by help of cooling medium.
Mainly close circuit air or hydrogen system is used for cooling. Overhang portion of the winding at both
ends are rigidly supported with help of insulated spacers to avoid deformation in case of heavy fault
condition. Stator coil is properly insulated with suitable grade of insulating material and the coil is rigidly
placed with help of wedges on the slot.
To measure winding temperature, RTD sensors are placed at different locations inside the stator
coil. End connections of stator winding are suitably brazed to get three phases out put.
IV. Terminals
All the six terminals of the winding (2 for each phase) are obtained by suitable connection. These
six terminals are placed in a separate terminal box from where it can be taken out further.
19.2:3 Bearings
The heavy rotor of the generator is supported by two journal bearing. This bearing has to carry
total load of rotor at static and dynamic condition. So the bearing is designed accordingly. Oil is supplied
to journal bearings through lubrication oil supply line like turbine bearings. A thin oil film is created when
rotor rotates. To avoid oil leakage from the bearing, metallic labyrinths are provided. The bearing is fitted at
two bearing pedestals.
While rotating in side a magnetic field, eddy current is produced on the shaft. If this current is
allowed to flow through bearing, it will damage the soft Babbitt material of bearing. To avoid this situation,
one bearing is completely isolated from earth. Oil pipe line, fixing bolts and bearing pedestal of that bearing
is insulated suitably by placing insulating material in between. Other end of the shaft is earthed through a
carbon brush.
To measure bearing temperature, RTDs are fitted in the bearings and vibration probes are fixed
to monitor vibration.
19.2.4 Enclosure
The generator is enclosed properly to protect against live and rotating parts, protect against
ingress of oreign bodies, to guide cooling medium and to minimize noise.
This enclosure is made of rolled steel plates. It is fitted to the base frame and covers the entire
stator of the generator.
Suitable arrangement is made in the enclosure to guide the cooling medium to get efficient
cooling of the generator without any hot spot.
Incase of spark or flash over inside generator there is chance of fire, as some combustible
insulating material is used in generator. To avoid damage of generator due to fire, in bigger size generator,
smoke detectors are provided to detect any smoke inside the generator. Signal from smoke detector is used
to open a carbon dioxide line valve so that CO2 can be flooded inside the generator to extinguish fire if any.


294 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Generator 295

19.3 Cooling system of Generator
As high current flows on stator winding and rotor winding, losses take place in the generator.
This loss varies with load and hence current of the generator. Major contributor of heat produced is copper
loss and is equal to 1 2 R. Where, "I" is the current and "R" is the resistance of winding. This loss is converted
in to he . Also loss due to mechanical friction and windage takes place. Eddy current loss also contributes
owards heating of generator. To run the generator continuously at higher load this heat is required to be
taken out to save the generator from overheating. Insulation of generator is designed to withstand some
limited temperature. Maximum withstanding temperature of some of the widely used class of insulation, as
specified by National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) considering ambient temperature as
40°C, is mentioned below.
Class A – 105°C
Class B -130 °C
'Class F -155 °C
Class H -180 °C
Cooling of generator is an important function. If generator efficiency is 99%, then balance one
percent loss contributes to produce significant amount of heat.
For cooling of generator, closed system cooling method is adopted. The cooling medium may be
air or hydrogen depending upon size of the generator. We will discuss closed system air cooling and closed
system hydrogen cooling which are mostly used in power plants.
I. Closed system air cooling
In this system fixed volume of air is circulated inside the generator. Fans fitted to the rotor soaks air
from a closed system. This air is canalized through air gap, rotor air path and stator air passages and gain
heat. It is guided in such a way that the hot air coming out is passed over a cooling coil. Again this cold air is
circulated in generator with the help of rotor fan.
Cooling water is circulated in these cooling coils. Depending upon temperature of the stator coil,
cooling water flow is regulated.
In this system air is circulated in closed system hence dirty atmospheric air is not allowed inside
the system. So, deposition of dust inside the generator is avoided. The generator internal remain clean. As
moist air is not used, so insulation level of generator is maintained high.
Depending upon the size of generator and hence volume of air to be circulated, this cooling
system is designed.
II. Closed system hydrogen cooling
I2R Loss is more in bigger size generator, hence more heat is produced. To take out so much heat,
very high volume of air circulation is required. This system will become uneconomical. So, hydrogen is used
as cooling medium in this case.
Hydrogen's low density, high specific heat and thermal conductivity make it a' superior coolant
for generator and it lends itself to a compact, highly efficient, reliable design
As hydrogen-cooled generator's internal is completely sealed from the atmosphere, so atmospheric
dust, humidity, salt or chemicals have no effect on the generator. Due to absence of oxygen, oxidation does
not take place hence generator's high-voltage insulation life increases. This is a significant factor for generator
reliability.
Like closed system air cooling, hot hydrogen is cooled by cooling coils and circulated again for
cooling.
19.4 Excitation system
As discussed earlier, C supply is required to be given to field winding of a generator. This DC
supply is obtained from various sources. Supply of DC Power to field is called as excitation. Depending
upon sources of supply, generator is classified as
' Separately excited generator
• Self excited generator
an separately excited generator, DC supply to generator field is obtained from a different source,
which has no connection with generator's own generated supply. This type of generator is not used in power plan,
Un self excited generator, DC supply to field is temporarily given from other source. Once voltage
is build up in the generator, this source is changed to generators own generating supply. In this system, field
supply is obtained either from an excitation transformer or from an exciter, mounted on the generator shaft)
In the subsequent sections we will discuss about these two methods of excitation for self excited
generators.
I. Field supply from excitation transformer or static excitation system.
(In this system, temporary DC supply is given to the generator field. It is called as field flushing.
Normally this supply is obtained from an external battery Bank. Once some voltage is generated in the generator
this source is cut off automatically and field supply is changed to own generation of the generator.
Main supply for excitation is obtained from an exciter transformer which steps down the generated
voltage to field voltage level. Then it is rectified with help of a thyristor bridge and supplied to field winding
of the generator for excitation. This excitation transformer is connected to three phases out going bus of the
generator and located before generator circuit breaker. So, field supply is available even if the generator
breaker is in off condition. Thyrister out put is feed to the.rotor through a set of slip ring and carbon brush.
Generator
Breaker Excitation transformer
--- P. Thyristor

Also as it is lighter, so less energy is required to circulate hydrogen and is very less as compared
to air Due to high thermal conductivity, cooling of generator is very effective. Lesser amount of hydrogen
is required to cool the generator. So, hydrogen cooling system is very compact and reliable.
Field Breaker
Though hydrogen does not support combustion still explosion may take place when hydrogen is
mixed with air in certain proportion(To avoid this explosion special care is taken so that air can not enter
inside the generator. Fratne of the generator is tightly sealed to prevent hydrogen leakage. Oil seals are Generator —^ o
^--4—
. From Battery

installed on the shaft at each end of the stator to prevent leakage of hydrogen. Hyc:rogen pressure, inside
Stator g
Slipring
L. Field flushing
Breaker
generator is kept little higher than atmospheric pressure, so that atmospheric air can not ingress into
hydrogen cooling system) L Generator field winding
Fig. 19.3 Static Excitation System


296 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Generator 297

Excitation transformer is normally an air cooled transformer connected to each phase. This type AVR controls voltage of the generator in the same way as governor controls speed of the turbine.
of design was used few years back. Now a day's exciter is used widely in place of exciter transformer. AVR is a PID controller which gets feed back from the generator output voltage through a potential
transformer (PT) and generator current through a current transformer (CT). Accordingly an error signal is
H. Excitation through exciter generator or brushless excitation system produced which controls the firing of thyrister to control field voltage. Simple block diagram of an AVR with
In this system, a small generator, called as exciter is mounted on the generator shaft. Exciter exciter transformer is shown in the figure below.
generator arrangement may be with brush like static excitation system or brush lass.
In some design, exciter generator's out put is rectified like static excitation system and power is
supplied to field winding through slip rings. Excitation transformer
Now a day 's mostly brushless arrangement of excitation is used. In this arrangement, excitef
generator is a small generator having rotating Coil and stationary field. This arrangement makes excitation
system brush less. No brush is required to feed field current to main generator. So, it is maintenance free Voltage set point
and more reliable.
As told earlier, field of the exciter generator is stationary and coil is rotating. Voltage generated in
the rotating coil is rectified through a set of rotating Diode Bridge. Rotating diodes are mounted on an
insulated base. Rectified out put of this rotating diode bridge is connected to field winding of main generator
(rotating) through cable, which passes through drill way, made in the shaft of generator.

Slipring
Generator
Breaker L' Generator field

Fig. 19.5 AVR arrangement in static Excitation system

Here, out put of the excitation transformer is used for supplying field current of generator through
a thyristor bridge. Out put voltage of the generator is. continuously measured through a PT. This out put
voltage is compared with the voltage set point at AVR. If this does not match with the set point then an
Rotating part
error signal is generated. This signal changes firing angle of the thyristor. Accordingly field current is changed
to get desired voltage.
In this case the Thyristor Bridge has to conduct total field current. So size of Thyristor is large
and large amount of heat is produced from the thyristor panel.
In the next figure a simple block diagram for a brushless excitation system with exciter and
permanent magnet generator (PMG) is shown.
Main Generator Exciter

Main Generator Rotating Exciter coil

field Diode Bridge

Fig. 19.4 Brush less excitation system

Supply to the stationary field of the exciter generator is obtained from AVR. A separate source
or a permanent magnet generator (PMG) is used for obtaining power supply for AVR.
For cooling of this exciter, cooling medium of main generator is used.
19.5 Automatic voltage regulator (AVR)

CAVR system of a generator controls out put voltage of the generator automatically irrespective of
any load on generator. By raising or lowering field current (excitation) out put voltage of generator can be
raised or lowered respectively. Raising or lowering of field current is done with the help of AVR. When load
on a generator increases its output voltage drops. By raising field current, voltage can be raised to normal
Main Generator Rotating
level. Like this when load on generator reduces, voltage of generator increases. In this case field current is Diode Bridge Exciter
required to be reduced Fig. 19.6 AVR arrangement in Brush less excitation system

298 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
Here AVR is connected to control field current of the exciter, not main field current of generator.
So the thyrister is smaller in capacity.
Like previous case, at AVR, PT supply is compared with the set voltage and accordingly firing
signal of the thyrister is changed. Here, the Thyristor Bridge is connected to the supply, obtained from
PMG. which is mounted on generator shaft. As this is a permanent magnet generator, so field flushing is
not required in this case. Voltage is built up without external supply.
Out put of thyristor is changed according to AVR signal and fed to stationary field winding of the
exciter unit. No brush is required here as the field is stationary. Exciter is mounted in the same shaft of
generator. Coil of the exciter rotates with generator shaft. So voltage is generated at that coil in proportion-- _
to field current. This generated voltage of exciter is rectified in a diode bridge, which is fixed to the rotating
shaft. Diode out put is given to the field winding of main generator. For this, lead is connected from rotating
diode out put to field winding through hole machined at the generator shaft. Here also brush is not
required. So total excitation is brush less.
ether than voltage regulation AVR also perform following functions in modem power plants.
• Controls power factor of the generator
• Limits the stator current and rotor current
o Limits load angle
• Controls the flux rate (v/f) of the generator and hence eddy current loss.
• Detects failure of any diode
• Follow up the manual channel signal with that of auto channel for bump less change over.
• Change over from auto to manual mode
• Field flushing
❑ Field supression)
Normally AVR is having two mode of operation :Auto and Manual mode. In auto mode AVR
controls the voltage automatically along with above function. Where as, in manual mode, voltage is
controlled by giving raise and lower command manually. So there are two separate control circuit in AVR.
AVR changes automatically from auto mode to manual mode in case there is problem in auto control
circuit. For this, the manual control signal is adjusted always with auto control signal by help of follow up
circuit. So that change over of control mode is bump less without any significant effect on generator
voltage.
When generator is stopped during any fault, field breaker is opened along with main generator
breaker. But, as the field coil is inductive, o, huge energy is stored in generator field. This stored energy will
continue to magnetize the field for some time and generator will continue to"generate voltage for some time
till field energy is discharged. To avoid this situation, field supression arrangement is done. When field
breaker is opened a highly resistive load is connected across the field coil. So that, the stored energy, can be
dissipated shortly. This is called as field supression.
19.6 Voltage build up
Before synchronization of generator for loading, generator voltage is to be build up. Once turbine
attains full speed, voltage of the generator can be build up by closing field breaker of the generator. In the
generator which has PMG, field flashing is not required. Otherwise a separate DC supply is'given to the field
of main generator or excitation generator field for initial voltage build up, as there may not be residual
magnet in the field. When some voltage is generated at the generator terminal, then this external supply is
switched off and voltage is build up by its own supply. This activity is performed automatically in an AVR.
Before closing the field breaker it is to be ensured that the manual voltage set point is at minimum position.
Once voltage is build up, voltage can be adjusted to rated voltage by adjusting manual set point.
Generator 299
In AVR a null voltmeter is provided. This null voltmeter shows the voltage difference between
auto and manual channel of AVR. After obtaining rated voltage by adjusting manual set point, auto set
point is to be adjusted till this null volt meter reads zero. At this condition the out put of auto and manual
control channel is same. Now the AVR can be put on auto control mode. Voltage of generator will be
maintained by auto channel and follow up circuit will adjust the out put of manual channel accordingly.
Null voltmeter should read zero always.
19.7 Synchronization
Generator is required to run in parallel with other generator or with energy supply Grid. Auxiliary
power for the generator is obtained from other source during starting. So, to transfer this auxiliary load to
the generator itself, synchronization is req.... ' To run the generator parallel with other generating source to
share load, synchronization is made.
For synchronization of incoming generator, following three parameters are required to be matched
with existing power source or bus.
• Phase sequence
' Voltage
' Frequency
Double frequency, double voltage measuring device and a synchronoscope are commonly used
for synchronization of generator.
Double voltage measuring unit has two instruments independent of one another which indicates
voltage of bus and incoming generator. Voltage of incoming machine (Generator) is adjusted with voltage
of Bus (Other generator or Grid) by adjusting the field current of the generator or voltage set point at AVR.
Both the voltages should be equal before synchronization.
Double frequency measuring unit contains two frequency measuring instrument, which indicates
frequency of the bus and frequency of the incoming generator to be switched on. Both frequencies can be
measured simultaneously. Correct frequency is attained by setting speed of the turbine of incoming generator.
The generator is to be synchronized when both the frequency are same.
Phase sequence of the incoming generator and bus is checked with phase sequence meter and
the bus bars and cables are connected accordingly during erection of the generator. If the connection is not
disturbed, phase sequence is not required to be matched during every synchronization.
There are two methods to check the phase and frequency for synchronization.
They are :
• Lamp method — Dark lamp method, Bright lamp method
° Synchronoscope method
In dark lamp method three lamps are connected across three phases of incoming machine and
bus. When the phase and frequency of both bus and incoming generator are same then there is no voltage
difference across the lamps, so the lamps remain dark. Synchronization is done at the middle of darkness.
In bright lamp method the connection of the light is changed. It is connected across different phases of
incoming machine and bus.

300 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
-- de-synchronization or islanding scheme or grid Islanding scheme is adopted at power plants.
Fig. 19.7 GeneratorConnection arrangement
In power plants, Synchronoscope is used widely for synchronization. Synchronoscope is an
instrument which shows the phase relation of voltages of incoming generator and that of bus and indicates,
whether it is running slow or fast.
It works on the principle of rotating magnetic field. It is a small motor having a pointer, fixed at
one end of the rotating shaft which rotates over a circular scale. It has winding at stator and rotor connected
to two phases of bus and generator respectively. These two windings produce two different rotating fields.
If there is difference in frequency of these two sources then speed of these two rotating fields
also varies, producing a resultant flux which rotates the shaft. Speed of rotation of the pointer depends
upon the difference in frequency. The flux varies with proportion to difference between frequencies of these
two sources. So when there is more difference in frequency then the speed of the pointer is high. If
difference in frequency is less then speed of the pointer is less. If speed and hence the frequency of the
generator is higher than bus then the pointer moves clock wise. When speed and hence the frequency of the
generator is lower than bus speed then the pointer moves anti clock wise direction. When frequency of both
these sources is same then speed of both the rotating field is same and no flux is produced. Pointer remains
standstill at this situation. At this condition the generator breaker may be closed for Synchronization.
Frequency of the generator is adjusted by adjusting speed of the turbine. After synchronization
generator speed is to be raised to increase load on the generator.
Now a day's auto synchronization system is used in power plant which matches above parameters
automatically and synchronizes the generator.
voltage wave.
Generator 301
19.8 De synchronization or Islanding
When generator is running in synchronized condition with grid or other source, it is required to
isolate the generator from that source in case any fault occurs at that outside source to save the generator and
avoid tripping of generator. Otherwise the generator will supply fault current, which is dangerous for the
generator. Also incase of failure of grid, total outside connected load will come upon the generator, which is
beyond the capacity of generator. So, incase of fault or failure of grid or any other source, the generator is
required to be isolated from the system immediately and continue to operate at its own capacity. For this,
Grid Islanding scheme is a set of protective relays, connected at the bus. These relays sense a
disturbance at the grid and give a trip command to the Grid breaker, whenever grid disturbance exceeds a
set limit. By opening the breaker, generator is disconnected from the disturbed grid. The process of
disconnecting the generator from grid is called Islanding of the generator. A grid is said to be disturbed
during following situations.
• Under voltage (UN)
• Over voltage (ON)
• Under frequency (U/F)
• Over frequency (O/F)
• Rapid fall or rise in frequency (±df/dt)
• Power failure in the grid
• Fault in the grid
Following relays are connected to take care this situation and for successful islanding.
• Over voltage (ON) and under voltage (UN) relay
• Over frequency (0/F) and under frequency (U/F) relay
• df/dt relay
• Reverse power relay
• Vector surge relay
Under voltage (UN) and over voltage (ON) faults are taken care by simple voltage operated
relays. For detection of other faults following relays are used.
1. df/dt and frequency relay
This relay is a frequency operated relay. This relay can measure the rate of change of frequency
as well as high or low frequency in the system. When there is fault any where in the system, the generator
tries to supply fault current which is beyond its capacity. So turbine speed decreases. Frequency of the
generator falls. Rate of change of frequency is high in this situation. If this rate of change is more than the
set value then the relay is operated and opens the Breaker to isolate the generator from faulty system.
2. Vector surge relay
This relay is very effective for islanding of generator. This relay measures the vector angle of the


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Generator

19.9 Generator protection

Generator is a critical machine in any power plant. So it is required to operate this machine
within specified limits. But, as the generator is connected to different sources, any fault out side the
generator, affects loading condition of the generator. Also there is always a chance of internal fault inside
the generator. These faults are to be detected immediately and stop the generator to avoid further damage
to the machine. Otherwise the generator may be damaged seriously and will
take longer time to repair,
causing heavy loss due to stoppage in generation. Different protective relays are connected to take care of
1. -_ —I different fault conditions and stop generator to avoid damage.
r
-r I l,— r The function of protection scheme of generator is to detect and remove the faulty parts as
I i^ r quick as possible. A protective system should be
Vector \\ r Reliable (capable detecting all types of faults)
angle r
Selective (isolating only the faulty parts of the system)
Quick in operation
• Economical
Original
Wave • Simple in construction
Fig. 19.8 Vector Surge Rulay Some important and mostly used relays in a power plant for the protection of generator are
discussed below. A little discussion is made here to make the reader understand about the generation
The wave of generated voltage is sinusoidal. When there is a fault in the system or the grid supply protection system.
fails, a sudden jump of this wave takes place and phase position changes. The relay measures the cycle
duration continuously. Measurement is started after each voltage zero. As shown in the figure in dotted 1. Generator over current protection
line. The wave is shifted by some phase. So, the cycle duration increases. The deviation of cycle duration Over current is a condition when the current supplied is greater than the rated current of the
is in compliance with the vector surge angle. If this angle is more than the pre set value then relay is generator, resulting due to overload, short circuit, or ground fault. An over current protection relay protects
operated and opens the tie breaker. So generator is isolated and continues to run on its own capacity. the generator by opening the generator breaker when the current reaches a value that causes an excessive
or dangerous temperature rise in stator winding.
Other Source
To protect the generator from over current, over current relay is used. There are two types of over
current relay.
1 - dfldt Relay • Instantaneous over current relay
Tie Breaker 2 - Vector Surge Relay
3 - Reverse Power Relay ° Time lag over current relay
Instantaneous over current relay operates instantly when the magnitude of stator current increases
beyond certain predetermined value. This relay operates without intentional time delay. This is used for
faults close to generator and when the fault current is very high.
Time lag over current relay operates with a time delay. The time delay for operation of this relay
is adjustable. For a given setting, the actual time delay depends on the current through the relay coil. In
general, higher current causes a faster operation of the relay. The minimum current at which the relay
Generator Breaker operates (pick-up current) is also adjustable.
Time lag over current relays are having various characteristic depending upon steepness of the
Generator time-over current characteristic. These are-
Fig. 19.9 Connection of (standing Relays
o Definite time
o Inverse time
Vector surge relay is very first and reliable.
Definite time-over current relay is a simple instantaneous over current relay with specific current
3. Reverse power relay setting and controlled by a timer set to operate at a delay time.
This is a directional power relay. Mostly this relay is used in small captive power plants where no
power is supposed to be supplied to grid. When there is fault in the grid system, the generator will try to In inverse time over current relay, operating time of the relay is inversely proportional to the
supply fault load. So power from generator will flow in reverse direction towards grid. In this case the relay current. When current is high then operating time is less and when current is less, operating time is high.
will operate and isolate tie breaker to avoid reveres flow of power. This relay starts operating once the current increases beyond some pre set value. These relays are connected
at two or three phases.

304 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
2. Earth fault protection
Most of the time single phase earth faults are experienced in power distribution network. In this
condition any one phase is short circuited to ground, resulting in higher current in that particular phase and
in the neutral of the generator. Earth fault protection relay is connected to detect and trip the generator
incase of any fault that short circuits any phase with earth or leakage current to earth due to failure of
insulation. To limit the earth fault current of the generator, neutral point of the generator is earthed through
a Neutral grounding resister (NGR)
3. Generator differential protection
Differential protection is employed to detect any fault inside the generator winding and stop the
generator. This relay can sense any phase to phase or phase to earth fault, inside generator. If fault takes
place outside generator then relay remains non operative. Differential protection is a very reliable method of
protecting generator from the effect of internal faults.
In a differential protection scheme, current on both sides of the generator winding are compared.
Under normal condition, or during fault outside the generator, current on both sides are equal, so the relay
does not operate. Incase a fault develops inside generator winding; these currents are no longer equal. In
this condition only, the relay operates.
4. Reverse power protection
As the generator is required to run in parallel with other source, power may flow in reverse
direction and start to rotate the generator as a motor with turbine as a load on it. This condition is called
as motoring of generator and this may happen due to decrease or stop of steam supply. This is very
dangerous condition as it may damage the turbine. At any condition the generator is not allowed for
motoring action. To protect the generator from this situation, reverse power relay is used. Revere power
relay is a directional power relay. It is operated when the power flows in reverse direction.
5. Low forward power protection
This is a power relay which ensures the generator to supply certain minimum power. When the
generator load falls below this specified limit then this relay operates to isolate the generator from the circuit
by opening generator breaker.
6. Negative phase sequence protection
Due to unbalance loading in three phases of a generator or during fault condition, negative
phase sequence component is produced. This negative phase sequence component produces a magnetic
field which rotates in opposite direction to that of main magnetic field. Due to this double frequency, the
rotor is over heated. Negative phase sequence relay is used to detect and stop generator in case of this type
of fault.
7. Over voltage and under voltage protection
The generator output voltage should be within specified limit. The out put voltage may increase
due to failure of AVR system. This over voltage may damage the insulation of generator. Due to problem in
AVR or heavy fault condition in the system, generator output voltage may drop. Over voltage and under
voltage protection relays are used to take care of over voltage and under voltage respectively.
8. Over frequency and under frequency protection
The generator is required to run at specified speed to generate voltage at 50 cycles per second.
This frequency depends upon turbine speed. When speed of the turbine increases, frequency increases and
vise versa. When generator supplies fault current to the faulty source, speed of the turbine drops and hence
frequency. At this condition the generator breaker should open to protect the generator. Sudden load
through or any problem in governing system may raise speed of the turbine and hence frequency.
Generator 305
To take care of this type of fault and to protect the generator and turbine, over frequency and
under frequency relays are used.
9. Rotor earth fault protection
Field coil of the generator is inserted in the rotor slots and DC current is supplied for excitation.
This field winding is exposed to abnormal mechanical or thermal stress due to vibrations, over current,
choked cooling medium flow, etc. This may result breakdown of insulation between field winding and rotor
body. The purpose of the rotor earth-fault protection is to detect earth fault in the field winding of generator.
Failure of insulation of rotor coil in one location is called as first stage rotor earth fault. First stage
rotor earth fault or single earth fault is not very dangerous and does not cause immediate damage, because
the fault current is small due to low voltage. In this condition the generator may be allowed to run.
But if further earth fault occurs at a second location, it is more dangerous and appears as a rotor
winding interturn fault and causes severe magnetic unbalance and heavy rotor vibrations, leading to severe
damage. This condition is called as second stage rotor earth fault. In this condition, generator is stopped as
soon as possible. Normally, generator trips after a short time delay if second stage rotor earth fault is
detected.
Rotor earth fault relay is used to detect Pt stage rotor earth fault to initiate alarm and second
stage earth fault to trip the generator.
10. Field failure or loss of excitation protection
Loss of field supply or loss of excitation may occur due to opening of field terminal or blown of
field fuse or failure of diode. This condition is detected by field failure relay to stop the generator.
11. Stator over heating protection
If generator is not cooled properly or due to high current flow in generator, temperature of stator
winding increases. To protect winding from over heating, embed resistance temperature detectors (RTD) are
used in the slots below the stator coil. These detectors are placed at different points in the winding to detect
temperature through out the stator. Alarm and trip signal is produced by these RTD,s when the temperature
of any RTD exceeds set value.
19.10 Different operating conditions of generator
As discussed earlier the generator is,required to operate in parallel with other generator or with
grid as well as it may supply load in isolated condition. This isolated condition of operation is called as
islanding or solo mode of operation. In isolated operation mode, frequency of generator is maintained 50
hz irrespective of any connected load on the generator. This mode of operation is also called as Auto
frequency Regulation (AFR) mode or speed mode of operation.
In parallel operation the generator is operated in auto power mode. Out put power of the
generator is controlled where frequency of the generator depends upon frequency of connected grid system.
This operating condition is called as Auto Power Regulation (APR) mode or load mode of operation.
19.10.1 Parallel, mode of operation
In parallel mode of operation, voltage and frequency of the generator depends upon that of
connected grid. Load shared by the generator depends upon the load setting on the governor or steam input
to the turbine. The load is maintained constant according to load set point on the governor. To increase
load on the generator, set point on the governor is raised, which ultimately increases governing valve
opening to increase steam input to turbine.


306 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

In this case increasing steam in to turbine does not increase speed of the turbine and hence
frequency. Rather it increases load on the generator.

19.10.2 Isolated mode of operation

Some time generator is required to run in isolated mode. In this condition, generator run in
isolated condition without parallel with other generator or with grid system to supply load up to its own
capacity. This mode of operation is also called as solo operation or speed mode operation.
COMMISSIONING OF POWER PLANT
In this case, speed of the turbine is maintained_constant by governor to generate power-at-a--
frequency of 50 hz. Any variation in the load is taken care by increasing required amount of steam, by
opening governing valve. When load increases speed of the turbine reduces. Governor acts promptly to
bring back the required speed, to maintain 50 hz. In this case voltage and frequency of the supply is
maintained constant with help of AVR and governor respectively.
20.1 Introduction '
As the machine is not tied electrically to other generating source, so its parameters are not
Commissioning of power plant is a complex activity. Plant is started first time after erection.
dependant upon external fluctuations. This mode of operation is very simple.
As lot of activity is involved during erection and the prime focus is to complete the project within schedule
time and within budget, so some problem may come during initial start up or commissioning. Special care
is required to be taken during commissioning. Experienced manpower guided by original equipment
manufacturers specialists can make commissioning easier. The commissioning personals should be associated
during plant erection, so that they will have a clear idea about system of the plant. They should be familiar
with P & I (Process and Instrumentation) diagram as well as machine manuals.
Before commissioning they should go through the commissioning and operation instructions
supplied by the equipment manufacturer. The commissioning team should work under leadership of a
particular responsible person. All the activities of commissioning should be well documented and well
communicated to all the team members.
There is always risk during commissioning. So, proper safety precautions, are to be taken during
commissioning. Commissioning of power plant as a whole is the commissioning of all individual systems of
power plant. Once all individual systems are commissioned then all the systems can to be put in service to
finally run the turbine and start generation.
In the subsequent sections we will discuss pre commissioning,and commissioning activity of
individual systems. Depending upon type of boiler and size of plant, there may be variation in commissioning
methods. But in general there are some common activities which are mostly carried out during commissioning.
The main aim of this chapter is to give some basic idea about-Power plant commissioning and some major
activity involved. However for practical commissioning of any power plant, instructions given by equipment
manufacturer are to be followed.

20.2 Commissioning of boiler

Commissioning of boiler is a critical activity. It involves some statutory (IBR) requirement also,
like- hydro testing, safety valve setting, etc. Total boiler commissioning may be devided into following
activities. It will be easier to discuss each activity separately for better understanding.

20.2.1 Leakage test of pressure parts and flushing

Lot of welding work is carried out during erection of boiler pressure parts. X-ray test of some
welding joints are carried out to examine quality of welding. X-ray testing is also a statutory requirement.
Some percentage of total welding joints are tested by X-ray. As all welding joints can not be tested

[307]


Commissioning of Power Plant 309

308 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

through X-ray so, there is chance of welding defects in these joints. Initially these leakages can be detected
by filling the pressure parts with water. A small capacity pump is used for fill up the pressure parts.
DM water is used for initial fill up. Leakage from defective joint can be detected and rectified easily.
-Main Steam
During transportation, storage and erection some foreign particle may go inside the pressure
parts. So the pressure parts are required to be flushed thoroughly to remove any dust, dirt or foreign ®D4
Stop
particle. All individual drain points are to be opened to find out chocking if any. valve

20.2.2 Hydrostatic pressure test of pressure parts

Hydro test of a newly erected boiler is a statutory requirement. Also any minor leakage present
in the pressure part can be detected by hydro test. Procedure of hydro test is already discussed in earlier 4 op.
chapter. In case of new boiler hydro test is to be carried out carefully. Pressure is to be raised slowly and if Drain valve
any leakage found this is to be arrested.
20.2.3 Furnace leakage test
Boiler furnace is made of water walls, castable, refractoreies and solid plates. Flue gas should Circulation pump
not leak from the furnace or atmospheric air should not ingress into the boiler. There is lot of welding work
done in this area and chance of leakage is there. So before initial firing of boiler, it is required to be ensured
that there is no leakage at furnace and flue gas path of the boiler. For this, a simple test is carried out. All Acid tank
the door and dampers are closed and smoke is created inside furnace. Smoke will come out from the
leakage point of the flue gas path which can be detected easily and sealed. Some time a light is put inside Fig. 20.1 Acid Circulation arrangement
the furnace and flue gas path and out side of the boiler area is made dark. If there is any leakage then light
Normally, acid cleaning is not done for non drainable super heater coils. Acid solution from the
will come out. tank is pumped thrbugh a pump for circulation. The solution is drained out carefully after neutralization.
This test is carried out before applying insulation at out side of boiler furnace. Typical iron concentration of a new boiler is shown below.
20.2.4 Chemical cleaning of pressure parts
Oil grease and rust is present in pressure parts of a newly erected boiler. Pressure parts are to be
cleaned thoroughly before putting the boiler on service. Otherwise these particles will affect heat transfer
and create problem in circulation of feed water inside boiler. For this purpose chemical cleaning of boiler
pressure parts is carried out. Acid or EDTA cleaning and Alkali boil out is carried out for cleaning of
boiler Tubes.
Chemical cleaning procedure is discussed here in details. Acid cleaning process involves acid
cleaning, neutralization and passivation.
L Acid cleaning
Acid cleaning may be done by either circulation or fill and soak method. Circulation method can
be used to clean pressure parts of natural or forced circulation boilers.
Circulation type acid cleaning arrangement is shown in the figure. Acid solution is prepared in
acid solution tank. Temporary pipe line is fabricated to circulate acid in the boiler pressure parts. Arrangement
is so made that all drainable.pressure parts are connected for acid circulation. The inhibited acid solution Clearing time
is circulated through the unit at correct temperature. Circulating acid reacts with iron oxide of the inner Fig. 20.2 Fe concentration with cleaning time
surface of the boiler tube. So, concentration of iron on the solution increases. Iron concentration in the In fill-and-soak method, boiler pressure parts are filled with inhibited acid solution at correct
return acid solution from the boiler is measured continuously so that the cleaning progress can be find out. temperature and allowed to soak for a estimated time. It is not possible to obtain accurate representative
The cleaning procedure completes when all the iron oxide is removed and no further reaction with the sample of the cleaning solution during soaking period.
deposits is taking place, acid strength has reached a balance and iron concentration in the solution stabilizes. The main purpose is to remove iron oxide from the boiler tube and protect the tube metal.
As these results can be determined frequently during the cleaning process, this method can be more For this an inhibitor is added to the acid solution to protect the tube metal from the corrosive action of acid.
accurately controlled and can use lower strength solution than the fill and soak method. This inhibitor reduces the corrosion rate.

Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
After acid cleaning, the solution is drained out and then the pressure part loop is flushed with
clean, warm water until the flushing water effluent is free of acid and soluble iron salts
For acid cleaning normally hydrochloric acid or hydrofluoric acid is used.
II. Neutralization and Passivation
Once acid cleaning is over, an alkaline solution is circulated to neutralize the acidic effect in the
boiler tube. Ammonia, soda ash, tri sodium phosphate etc. are used for this. The cleaned surface of the
boiler tube after acid cleaning is very reactive. So a thin uniform layer of passive cohesive iron oxide (FeO)
2 3
__
is formed. Formation of this iron oxide layer is called as passivation.
20.2.5 Alkali boil out
Boiler is filled with normal DM water. Alkali solution, particularly soda ash or caustic soda is
added to the boiler drum. Normally the steam drum internals are removed and a temporary gauge glass is
fitted to the boiler drum to avoid damage of original gauge glass due to chemical action. All the instrumentation
tapings are isolated.
• As per the cold start up process, boiler is lighted up. Some time is allowed to dry out newly
applied refractory at the boiler furnace. After refractory dry out, pressure of the boiler is increased to get
sufficient circulation of water inside boiler.
On regular interval, the water sample is tested. Boil out is completed when phosphate, oil
particle, pH of the water stabilizes.
After alkali boil out, boiler is cooled down and the water is drained out boiler internal is rinsed
with fresh DM water.
20.2.6 EDTA Cleaning
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) is used now a days extensively for cleaning of boiler.
EDTA is circulated in the boiler pressure parts to clean the boiler tube inside surface. Circulation of the
solution takes place due to natural circulation of water during controlled operation of boiler like alkali boil
out. Cleaning neutralization and passivation can be achieved sequentially with the single solution under
controlled condition. Hence the cleaning and passivation time reduces drastically.
20.2.7 Safety valve setting
Safety valve setting is a statutory requirement. As discussed earlier, there are three safety valves.
One is installed at super heater out let and other two are placed at steam drum. Super heater safety valve
is set at lower pressure than drum safety valve.
To set these safety valves, boiler is lighted up. The safety valve to be set is kept on service and
other two are gagged.
Pressure on the boiler is raised slowly as per normal operation procedure of boiler. Fuel feeding
rate is kept at minimum. The safety valve is required to lift and reset at desired pressure as per boiler
pressure rating. Accordingly it is adjusted to get the lift and reset pressure.
Like this all the three safety valves are set. All the gaggings are removed. Percussion is to be
taken during initial pressure build up. The drum pressure gauge should be perfect and calibrated. If the
safety valve does not lift beyond the set pressure then the pressure of the boiler is to be reduced and setting
to be done again.
Commissioning of Power Plant 311
20.2.8 Commissioning of Boiler feed pump
Before commissioning of any equipment in power plant, electrical motor of that equipment is to
be commissioned first. Direction of rotation and Current drawn is to be checked. Motor is to be left to run
on no load for some time on decouple condition. Then only coupling is to be done.
Special care is to be taken while commissioning boiler feed pump. The dearetor is to be inspected
and cleaned thoroughly, to avoid any foreign particle on the feed pump suction line. Suction strainer of the
pump is to be cleaned. Cooling water should flow freely for gland and bearing cooling. Bearing should be
properly lubricated and pump is properly aligned with the motor.
Feed pump is to be started from local for the first time. Pump body temperature and any
abnormal sound, bearing temperature, motor current, discharge pressure, balancing pressure etc. are to be
checked regularly.
20.2.9 Commissioning of fans
There are various fans used in a boiler. These are ID, FD and PA fans. Before commissioning of
these fans, the driving motors are to be commissioned first before coupling. Individual fans to be started
from local keeping dampers on required position. Proper care is to be taken to remove any foreign particle
at the suction and discharge ducts of the fan. Once the fan is started for first time it is to be kept running
for some time before putting it on normal operation on load. Then interlocks of these fans are to be
checked.
20.2.10 Commissioning of fuel handling system
Like other drives of power plant, drives used for fuel handling system like- belts, crusher, screen,
oil pumps etc. are to be commissioned one by one. The safety interlocks are to be checked. There should
not be any oil/ gas leakage from the fuel pipe line. For coal fired boiler, the system as whole should run
perfectly with all interlocks. Weigh feeder should indicate accurate weight.
Other auxiliary system of the boiler like- ash handing system, ESP, etc. are to be commissioned
before putting boiler in operation.
20.3 Commissioning of Turbine
Like boiler, commissioning of turbine comprises different steps. These steps are discussed here to
give a little idea about the commissioning activity. The activity may vary from plant to plant depending
upon size and type of turbine. Still some common activities are discussed here for understanding.
20.3.1 Lube oil flushing
Lube oil is the life blood of any turbine. It lubricates the bearings. This oil is required to be very
clean and free from any suspended foreign particle and any contamination. Rust and dust particle are there
in pipe line before fabrication. During fabrication of lubrication pipe, welding debris may enter in to pipe
line. These particles can damage turbine bearings. So, the pipe line, storage tank and other connected
system of tube oil system are to be cleaned properly by circulating and filtering the oil before putting the
turbine on line. Oil flushing is an important task of turbine commissioning.
Mostly the lube oil line is soaked in acid solution for internal cleaning. Fabricated pipe line is
removed from the position for this. After acid cleaning and thoroughly rinsing with fresh water it is fitted
again. By this any dust, rusting and scale is removed. The lube oil tank is cleaned properly and recommended
grade of lube oil is filled in it.
During initial circulation of lube oil, oil is not permitted to enter in to Turbine bearing. Suitable
temporary arrangement is made for shorting the pipe lines for looping, so that oil can be circulated through
entire part of pipe line without entering in to bearings.
Filter cartridge of Lube oil filter is removed and oil pump is started for circulation of oil in the
pipe line. Any foreign particle in the pipe line is flushed out and returned to lube oil tank through return oil

312 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
pipe line. Any leakage noticed in the line is arrested. A wire mesh of higher size is put at suitable location at
the return oil line connected to tank. The debris are collected here and this mesh is cleaned regularly.
When no debris found in the mesh it indicates, there is no foreign particle in the oil line, above that mesh
size. Like this, gradually smaller mesh size wire meshes are fitted at the return oil line and circulation of oil
is continued till no debris are found. Circulation is carried out till 25 micron mesh is cleared. Both oil filters
and oil coolers are put on service interchangeably to flush both the oil filters and coolers. Then temporary
pipe line is removed and oil is allowed to flow through bearings as per normal system. Oil flushing may
require more time, depending upon pipe line condition and effectiveness of acid cleaning.
Once 25 micron mesh is cleared the circulation is stopped. All the oil in the lube oil tank is
drained out. Oil tank is thoroughly cleaned and fresh new oil is filled in the tank.
New filter cartridge is placed in the oil filter. Oil can be circulated as normal practice. Sufficient
quantity of oil filter cartridge is to be kept ready as there is chance of frequent filter chocking. Once the
system is stabilized new filter is to be put at both filters.
20.3.2 Steam blowing
To clean main steam pipe line connected to turbine, steam blowing is carried out. By blowing
steam, any particle in boiler and piping system that may damage the turbine internal, is dislodged and
blown out. Thermal cycling (heating/cooling) and high velocity steam flowing through the pipe line "shock"
the pipe and tend to break the mill scale and weld slag away from the pipe wall. Steam blowing should be
done prior to pipe line insulation to maximise thermal cycling.
Ideally, to obtain optimum cleaning, flow conditions in the pipe line during steam blowing
should equal or more than that of normal operation at maximum load.
Steam plowing creates abnormal and severe conditions on the boiler, and steam piping. Large,
rapid temperature changes occur during each blowing cycle. This cycling of temperature is more severe
than that of normal operation. Thermal stresses may be excessive in the heavy wall portions of the system
such as steam drums, headers and piping. So proper care is to be taken during steam blowing.
Before steam blowing, the pipe line is flushed with water. Normally hydraulic test is carried out
as per statutory requirement. After hydraulic test this water is flushed out. In some case, chemical cleaning
of this pipe line is also done by circulating acid solution as discussed earlier. After acid cleaning the line is
rinsed thoroughly with fresh water.
After pipe line cleaning and flushing, steam blowing can be started. Pipe line up to turbine ESV
is connected for steam blowing. FS V is removed and one temporary pipe is connected there. This pipe line is
open to atmosphere. Provision is made at suitable location to fix a target plate in this temporary pipe line.
Main steam
stop valve
Turbine Emergency
stop valve
Fig. 20.3 Arrangement for steam blowing
Commissioning of Power Plant 313
During steam blowing following precautions are to be taken.
o Check all pipe anchors and guides support of piping, including the temporary vent.
• Insure that pipe line has been inspected and hydro tested.
• Remove all control and instrumentation equipments like-control valves, de-super heater nozzles,
flow elements, thermo wells, pressure gauges, orifice plates, safety valves and instruments as these
may be damaged during steam blow.
Use visual communication, such as lights or flags, since audio communication may be difficult
due to high noise level during blowing.
• Insure personnel traffic is controlled in area during steam blow.
o Individuals involved in steam blowing should use ear plug.
For steam blowing boiler is allowed to generate steam as per normal operation. When drum
pressure reaches the value calculated to produce desired blowing flow quantity, blowing procedure can be
started. Now main steam stop valve or the blow off valve, fixed at the temporary blowing pipe line, is to be
opened to allow steam to flow through the pipe line and vented to atmosphere.
The drum level will be subject to extreme fluctuations during the blow. As blowing starts the
drum level will rise rapidly and may go out of sight in the gauge glass. After some time, as blow progresses,
drum water level will re-appear and may drop out of sight. Therefore, it is important that the drum level is
maintained slightly above normal operating level and small amount of feed water is supplied before start of
each blow. Feed water flow should be increased as soon as the water level drops back in sight, to prevent
excessive low water level at boiler.
It is difficult to avoid carryover from steam drum to super heater during blowing operation.
Therefore, boiler water should not be treated with non-volatile chemicals during this process, to avoid
deposits of solid material at super heater.
Fuel feeding is to be discontinued during all blows. This can be started again for next blowing.
Steam line is allowed to cool down before starting next blow.
The heating and cooling process detaches any scale and rust from pipe line and blown out.
Target plate is used to find out the clean ness of the pipe line. Highly clean and polished metal plates (Mild
steel or aluminum) are used as target plate. These plates are placed at the temporary blow pipe. To fix the
target plate suitable arrangement is made. When steam blowing is started the particle removed, moves on
high velocity and impact on the target plate. So, impressions are created on the target plate. This plate is
not fixed during first few blow. During initial blowing lot of particle is removed from the pipe line and lot of
impressions are created on the plate. After few blowing target plate is placed. Cleanness of the pipe can'be
judged by obsering the impressions on target plate.
In following situations normally blowing is concluded.
• No impression exceeding 0.8 mm diameter
o Impression exceeding 0.4 mm diameter not more than 2 numbers per 2500 mm2 of the target
plate surface
o Impression exceeding 0.2 mm not more than 10 numbers per 2500 mm2 of the target plate
surface,
• Impressions less than 0.2 mm
Once steam blowing is completed, the temporary pipe line is removed and main steam line is
connected to ESV.
All auxiliary pipe lines like- ejector steam line, gland steam line, Extraction line etc. are also
blown with steam to clean. For this, suitable looping is made and low pressure steam is used.

314 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
20.3.3 Turbine on barring
Special care is required to be taken while rotating the turbine first time through barring device.
As discussed earlier, the clearance of internal parts of a steam turbine is very less. If the turbine is not
properly aligned with gearbox or generator there is chance of damage during barring operation. The turbine
internals clearance and alignment should be within the limit as advised by the turbine manufacturer.
Before putting the turbine on barring, lube oil circulation is to be started. Bearing should be
opened and inspected thoroughly after oil circulation. If hand barring provision is there the rotor should be
rotated manually first. Barring gear motor should be started in decouple condition to check its rotation. If
barring is done hydraulically then oil supply line is to be made ready.
Bearing oil pressure at different Barings are to be set as per requirement. After coupling of
barring gear motor, the device is to be started. It will rotate the shaft at barring speed. Now check for any
abnormal sound, vibration or rise in any bearing temperature at suitable interval. If these are normal then
turbine can be put on barring for some time before starting of turbine.
20.3.4 Commissioning of condensate system
During erection, some foreign particle like- dust, welding debris even if left out hand gloves and
tools are found at condenser, condensate pipe line and deaerator. So, proper flushing and cleaning of this
system is required before putting it in line. Condenser is filled with DM water up to neck in the shell side to
check any leakage. Some time the shell side is hydro tested by insertinga blind plate at the neck flange of
the condenser.
After proper flushing of the condensate system water is circulated through condensate extraction
pump, putting all the systems connected to condensate system like- HP/LP heater, gland steam condenser
and main ejector condenser, in line. Both the CEPs are kept on service one by one. All the interlocks of
condensate system are checked.
During initial running of turbine some dislodged scale and rust from condenser and pipe line
choke the suction filter of CEP So differential pressure across the suction strainer is to be monitored
regularly till the system is stabilized.
20.3.5 Rolling of Turbine
Before rolling of turbine the barring gear is to be put on service. All the auxiliary systems are to
be commissioned and put on service. Once all these systems are stabilized turbine heating is started. All
casing drains are kept open. Steam can be charged up to ESV after ensuring proper line heating and drain
out of condensate.
Position of all support hangers of main steam line is to be noted at cold and hot condition. After
heating of steam line some adjustment may be required on these hangers to adjust loading of hangers.
Once all the auxiliary systems are put on service, turbine can be rolled preferably on manual or
semi auto mode. Sufficient time is allowed for socking of turbine. Casing and rotor expansion is measured.
It is to be ensured that the casing is expanded freely. At lower speed, parameters like — bearing temperature,
vibration, exhaust pressure and temperature etc. are to be measured and monitored regularly. If every thing
is normal, slowly speed may be raised. As per practice, special care is to be taken during critical speed band.
20.3.6 Over speed test
After rolling of turbine it is required to set the over speed trip limit of the turbine. As discussed
earlier, mechanical over speed tripping arrangement is provided in some turbine. To set over speed trip limit,
turbine speed is required to be increased up to that range. { •
Turbine is rolled as per normal practice. Sufficient time is allowed for heating and expansion of
casing and rotor. It is not advisable to carry out over speed test when turbine is not properly heated up. Now
speed of the turbine is raised up to maximum governing speed. Up to this speed the governor can control
Commissioning of Power Plant 315
turbine speed. If electrical over speed trip is provided then this trip limit is to be by passed. In Woodward
505 governor, by pressing over speed test button this electrical trip is bypassed.
After electrical over speed is by passed, speed of the turbine is further raised above maximum
controllable speed. When mechanical over speed limit is reached, the pin of over speed trip device, fixed to
the rotor, comes out due to centrifugal force and operate the trip lever to trip the turbine. Tension of this pin
can be adjusted by adjusting a spring, to set the desired over speed trip limit.
After mechanical over speed setting and testing, turbine is ready for loading.
20.4 Commissioning of cooling water system
Like other auxiliary system of power plant, cooling water system is to be commissioned before
turbine rolling. Cooling water pumps are commissioned like other electrical motor driven equipments. The
motor is commissioned first without coupling with pump. After successful commissioning of motor, alignment
is done and pump trial run is taken. Trial run of all cooling tower fans is completed one by one. There
should not be any abnormal vibration or sound in the fan or its gear box when run on load.
During commissioning, following main activates are carried out in cooling water system.
20.4.1 Commissioning of cooling tower
Lot of civil job is done during erection of cooling tower. After completion of cooling tower,
cooling tower and cooling water basin is cleaned properly. After cleaning of basin and tower, fresh water is
filled. Any leakage in the basin is checked. If any leakage found it is arrested. All spray nozzles are checked.
After starting cooling water pump, water distribution valves are properly adjusted to get uniform
water distribution at all the cells. Water should evenly distributed through out the mixing area of each cell
and fall freely in to the basin.
By starting cooling tower fan it is to be checked that drift eliminator is perfect and no mist
escaping.
20.4.2 Flushing and passivation
As told earlier there is chance of debris present inside cooling water pipe line and basin during
erection. Also the cooling tower is to be flushed thoroughly to remove unwanted solid particle. The cooling
tower basin is flushed out by opening the blow down valve.
After erection, pipe line up to condenser is hydro tested. This water is flushed out. If required this
pipe line is flushed with help of main cooling water pump or through a temporary pump with temporary
looping arrangement.
After flushing the system thoroughly, the pipe line is connected to the condenser.
And cooling water is circulated through condenser tube for some days for passivation and formation of
protective layer inside the condenser tube.
20.5 Commissioning of Electrical system
Before commissioning of boiler and turbine of power plant, electrical system is commissioned first.
Electrical system of power plant comprises following sub systems.
• HT Switch gear
o LT Motor control center (MCC)
• Unit auxiliary transformer
• Generator and excitation system
Neutral grounding resistance panel
o CT, PT and Lighting arrester panel
• Automatic voltage regulator (AVR)


g
Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Commissioning of Power Plant 317

o Generator protection system After checking above points physically, the panel bus bar is meggered thoroughly. Before charging
• Various electrical motors power on the bus bar, control supply is given to the panel and control function and interlock of the panel is
checked. Out going feeders are made off during this activity.
• Plant lighting system
Once all these points are completed bus is charged and kept under observation. Now one by one
• AC and ventilation system
outgoing feeders can be charged. Ensure that the protection system is in line.
• Emergency power or DG In this way HT and LT switchgears including power control centers (PCC) and motor control
o Station DC supply system Tie Breaker centers (MCC) are charged.
20.5.2 Commissioning of Transformers
After erection of transformer is over, transformer is filled with new transformer oil.
Unit Bus
Oil filtration is started to improve insulation resistance of transformer winding and break down value of
transformer oil. This filtration may take some days depending upon size of transformer and initial insulation
condition of the transformer. There should not be any leakage of oil from transformer body radiator or
bushings. Fresh silica gel is filled in the breather.
Unit Transformer
After oil filling in the transformer following tests are conducted.
Ratio test of transformer r•

• Insulation resistance value of primary and secondary winding

• Testing of all the protective relay including bucholz and winding temperature switch
o Earthing resistance
• Vector group test
❑ Oil breakdown value
Once all these tests are carried out and satisfactory result is obtained, the transformer is charged,
keeping secondary side open. Transformer is charged on no load. In this condition, transformer is to be kept
for some day. Any abnormal temperature raise, high current or high secondary voltage is monitored.
Once the transformer is found perfect on no load then loading can be done gradually on the
secondary side.
Neutral Grounding Resister 20.5.3 Commissioning of motors
HT and LT motors are used for various applications in power plant. LT motors are connected to
respective MCC,s and HT motors are connected to HT switch gear. Before taking trial of any motor for the
Fig. 20.4 Electrical System of power plant first time following points are checked thoroughly.
• Power cable is terminated properly at both ends and having desired insulation resistance value.
Some of the important commissioning activities are discussed below.
• The Insulation resistance (IR) value of the motor winding is sufficient enough.
20.5.1 Charging switchgear panels
Before charging any switchgear panel for first time following points are checked thoroughly. • Motor is properly earthed.

I. Panel wiring is complete • Motor is free in decoupled condition.

II. Panel is free from any unwanted material, wires, cables etc. • Motor is properly fixed to foundation.
III. Bus bar is properly supported with bus insulator and there is no loose connection • Control cable is laid properly and connected as per drawing.
IV. All cables are properly terminated. Over load setting is done as per current rating of the motor and proper rating fuse is put at the
o
V. Protective relays are tested and setting is properly coordinated. Relays are in operational
MCC.
condition.
• In case of HT Motor the breaker should operate perfectly.
VI. Internal control wiring is as per approved drawing.
VII. Panel is properly earthed and earth resistance is measured. • Space heater, if provided, is in line.


318 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Commissioning of Power Plant 319,

After checking above points, motor can be started from local in decoupled condition. Direction The value of PI generally should be above 2. In general, a high value of PI indicates good
of rotation is checked. There should not be any abnormal vibration, bearing temperature, current and condition of insulation. If the PI value is less then steps should be taken to dry the insulation and remove
sound in the motor. Motor is allowed to run on no load for some time. Interlock of the drive is checked. the contamination.
Motor trial is taken from remote or control room. II. Voltage build up
If a group of motors are required to run in interlock, individual motors are commissioned, by
Before voltage build up in the generator for the first time following points are thoroughly checked.
passing the interlock and then they can be tested with interlock.
• All the connection in the generator terminal is properly done.
Once no load trial run of a motor is found satisfactory then it can be coupled for load trail run
along with mechanical equipment. • IR and PI value of the generator winding is satisfactory.
20.5.4 Commissioning of generator protection system Hipot (Hi potential) test is carried out on generator stator winding (In most of the cases.Hipot test
is carried out at generator manufactures testing laboratory)
As discussed earlier, various relays are used for protection of generator. All CT,s and PT,s are to
• Neutral point of the generator is earthed through NGR.
be tested. Before trial run of generator, these relays are to be tested through primary and secondary test sets
and setting is to be done as per relay co-ordination. Control wiring of the protection panel is to be checked. • Generator protection system is in line.
That should be as per approved drawing. There should not be any loose connection at relay terminal or at • Protection and metering CT terminal is not open.
terminal box. The wiring of panel should be properly dressed.
• AVR function is tested independently with load.
Now control supply to the relay panel is charged. Tripping of each relay is simulated. The tripping
• Excitation system is thoroughly checked.
condition of generator and turbine should be tested along with annunciation with each relay operation.
• Turbine is running at full speed.
20.5.5 Commissioning of Generator
• Generator is properly earthed.
Commissioning of generator is a complex activity. This is the sum of some individual activity
from voltage build up at the generator to synchronization, loading and load shading on generator. Some of • Generator cooling system is in line.
the steps followed during commissioning of generator are discussed below. After above points are found satisfactory, field breaker can be closed. Voltage will build up
slowly. Now observe the out put voltage. There should not be any abnormal sound, spark, and smoke from
I. IR Value and PI value of winding
the generator, NGR, CT and PT panels.
Life of generator depends upon strength of the insulation. During transport, storage and erection,
At no load condition the generator should run for some time.
moisture may be absorbed by insulating material, which is required to be dried out.
With help of a megger the insulation resistance (IR) value of both stator and rotor winding is III. Open circuit and short circuit test
measured. IR test measures the resistance of electrical insulation between winding and core of the stator or In open circuit test of the generator, out put voltage is measured with various field currents during
rotor. Purpose of insulation is to block current flow between winding and the core. So, ideally this resistance 0
no load.
should be infinite. In practice, IR is not infinitely high. This value should be more than as specified by the
generator manufacturer.
Polarization index (PI) test of the generator winding is done to measure the absorption of current
due to polarization of insulation. PI is a variation of the insulation resistance with time. It is the ratio of IR
value measured after voltage has been applied for 10 minutes (R10) to IR value measured after voltage has
been applied for one minute (Rl).
Following procedure is followed during PI test.
• Remove all external connections to the generator and completely discharge the winding to grounded
machine frame.
• Through a 1000/5000 Volt motorized megger, apply DC voltage between the winding and ground.
• Continue to apply this voltage for 10 minutes. Field current
• Measure the insulation resistance and note it down. Fig. 20.5 Open Circuit Curve
o Stop the megger. The reading is plotted and the curve obtained as shown in the figure is called as open circuit curve..
• Completely discharge the windings to the grounded machine frame. In short circuit test the output terminal is shorted with a suitable shorting link. This link should be
• Start the megger and reapply voltage for 1 minute. capable to carry full load current of the generator, without over heating. Turbine is run at lower speed and
• Measure the insulation resistance and note it down. this speed is maintained constant through out the test. Small amount of field current is applied. As the
• Calculate the polarization index (PI) by dividing the 10 minute insulation resistance by 1 minute output terminal is shorted, so short circuit current will flow at a very less amount of field current. Now the
insulation resistance. field current is increased gradually, till full load current is circulated in the short link.

320 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
The curve of short circuit current verses field current is called as short circuit curve. This curve is
shown in the figure. t o,
Field current
Fig. 20.6 Short Circuit Curve
Mostly these two tests are carried out at the factory of generator manufacturer. Still open circuit
test is carried out during commissioning for checking and for future reference.
After these two tests, the generator is ready for synchronization and loading. Before synchronization
of generator for the first time, phase sequence is to be checked properly. Once the set is synchronized as per
the normal procedure discussed earlier, load on the generator can be raised. The winding temperature,
cooling air temperature etc. are to be monitored regularly.
IV. Load throw test
In this test the generator is tested to find out the behavior of AVI? and Turbine Governing system
during sudden reduction of load on the generator. The generator is allowed to run at more than 70% load.
Suddenly the tie breaker as shown in the figure below is opened.
Generator Unit Load
Fig. 20.7 Load throw test
By doing so, the load of the generator comes to station load. There should not be voltage shoot
up or over speed due to shading of such a huge load. AVR and Governor should be able to take care and
bring back these parameters in to control.
Commissioning of Power Plant 321
20.6 Performance guarantee (PG) test
Performance guarantee (PG) test is carried out to measure the performance of the equipment as
guaranteed by the manufacturer. The manufacturer of Boiler, Turbine and generator claims some minimum
performance during offer for supply of the equipment. After erection and successful commissioning of these
equipments, these perforrriances are measured before hand over from the manufacturer to the power plant
owner.
For measuring performance, some parameters are measured. Before PG test, test procedure is
prepared. In this procedure the parameters to be measured and the means of measurement is decided. It is
mutually agreed for how much time this test will be conducted. In some case it is carried out for one hour,
in some case it is conducted for one day. The frequency of measurement is also decided prior to
commencement of PG test.
Complete testing procedure is detailed as following.
^ Testing methodology : reference is often made to standard testing methodologies.
^ Testing equipment : who has to provide it; where it is to be located; how sensitive must it be?
° Tolerances : what is the margin of error
' Ambient conditions : what atmospheric conditions are assumed to be the base case? Accordingly
testing results will need to be adjusted to take into account any variance from these ambient
conditions.
To measure the parameters, some standard measuring equipments or calibrated instruments of
the plant process control, is used. Which instruments are to be used for measurement of which parameter
is decided prior to PG test. Once all these procedure is decided PG test can be carried out. Normally PG
test procedure is supplied by manufacturer. It is preferred to conduct PG test as early as possible after
commissioning.
In the subsequent section we will discuss the PG test procedure of boiler, turbine and generator
separately.
20.6.1 PG Test of Boiler
Boiler manufacturer claims mainly the following performance which is checked during PG test.
• Specific fuel consumption per kg of steam.
• Purity of steam.
o Efficiency of boiler.
• Steam pressure and temperature at various load condition.
• Minimum and maximum rating.
• Stability during load fluctuation.
o Stack gas quality.
To measure the above, it is required to measure some parameters. All the measuring instruments
are calibrated. A PG test log sheet is prepared to note down these readings in a predetermined time interval,
as mutually agreed. This log sheet is kept as record for reference in future.


322 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Commissioning of Power Plant 323

For measuring these parameters, normally the plant process instruments are used. Following To check these performances some parameters are measured. Following parameters are measured
parameters are normally measured to calculate above claimed performance. using process instruments or some standard testing instruments as decided mutually.

• Fuel flow • Steam flow

• Steam pressure and temperature
• Feed water flow
• Auxiliary steam flow
• Air flow
• Exhaust hood temperature
• Steam flow -. Condenser vacuum
• De superheating water flow • In let and out let cooling water temperature
• Steam pressure • Condensate temperature and flow
• Steam temperature
• All bearing vibration and temperature.
• Steam conductivity, silica
o Noise level around turbine
• Feed water inlet temperature
• Load on generator
• Exhaust flue gas temperature
• CBD flow • Control chamber pressure and temperature
• Excess air or 02 % in flue gas 20.6.3 PG Test of Generator
• Flue gas analysis
For the PG test of Generator following parameters are measured.
• Ash quantity
• Generator power
• Un burnt carbon in ash
• Terminal voltage
• Drum level
• Frequency
Boiler is allowed to generate steam at various load conditions. So that it can be checked its
• Current
capability to generate steam at required parameters and required efficiency. As far as possible it is required
to maintain input parameters like calorific value of fuel, inlet feed water temperature etc. as per design • Power factor
basis of the boiler, to obtain required performance. The heat transfer surface is to be kept clean by using o Winding and air temperature
soot blowers. If the input parameters are varied then suitable correction is made to calculate the performance.
Also during PG test load throw test is carried out as described earlier. Also generator is tested
Once PG test is completed successfully, PG test log sheet is signed by supplier and owner at 110% loading.
representative. This sheet should be kept for future reference to refer for any deviation in the performance.

20.6.2 PG Test of Turbine 0 0 0

Like boiler, Turbine manufacturer also claims some guaranteed performance as mentioned below.
• Specific steam consumption per KWH generation.
• Exhaust steam temperature.
• Condenser vacuum.
• Auxiliary steam consumption in ejectors and gland sealing system.
• Steam flow and heat content in bleeding/extraction steam at different load condition.
• Vibration and temperature of bearings.
• Noise level.
• Stability during load throws.
• Efficiency.

MAINTENANCE QF POWER PLANT
21.1 Introduction
Critical machines like turbine, pumps, fans compressors etc. are used at power plant.
Each machine is required to run trouble free to keep the power plant running. Failure at any of the machine
may lead to stoppage of power generation, costly replacement of machine or its parts. Also in case of
captive power plant, it may lead to other process loss. Availability of these machines increases the availability
of power plant.
Every equipment is having its own service life. Machine has its own life cycle. It has to pass
through various stages. Various types of failure are noticed at various stages of life cycle of a machine;
A plot of the failure rate over time for most of the machines looks like a bathtub. Life cycle of any machine,
called as bath tub curve is shown in the figure.
Infant useful service Decaying stage
stage stage
-^ Life Span
Fig. 21.1 Bath tub Curve
When a new machine is put in to service, some small failures are experienced, due to design
weak ness and defects during manufacturing. Number of teething problems are experienced in this stage
before machine is stabilized. Some time severe failures are also noticed. This failure is characterized by a
high but rapidly decreasing failure rate. This decreasing failure rate typically lasts several weeks to few
months. This stage is called as infant stage. Some machine stabilizes quickly; some takes longer time.
Modification in some parts or strengthening of some weak component may ,bring down the failure rate in
this stage.
[324]
Maintenance of Power Plant 325
After infant stage, the machine enters in to useful service life stage. Failure rate is very less in this
stage and remains mostly constant for the majority of useful life of the machine. Only some small failures
are experienced. Regular checking, lubrication, tightening, cleaning etc. is required to keep the machine
running trouble free. The machine gives useful service life with proper CLIT practices.
Due to wear and tear, stress etc. the machine life is ditoriated at the end of useful service life.
Decaying stage of the machine is started. Some bigger failures take place in this sage. Wear-out failures
take place at an increasing rate. It is required to take special care at this stage to keep the machine running.
In dictionary maintenance is defined as "the work of keeping something in proper condition".
Simply it can be said - maintenance is the action taken to prevent a machine or component from failure.
It is the activity to repair or avoid normal equipment degradation due to continuous operation of the
equipment and to keep it in proper working condition.
In this chapter, first of all, we will discuss some of normally adopted maintenance practices in
power plant. Then we will discuss some basic failures in power plant equipments and some maintenance
methods. We will also discuss some statutory procedures which are normally followed for repair of boiler
and pressure parts of the Plant.
21.2 Types of Maintenance practices
Various maintenance practices are adopted in power plant. All these practices are having their own
merits and demerits. Some time combination of more than one practices are followed.
The maintenance practice adopted, depends upon the criticality of plant, company's maintenance
strategy for avoidance of plant outage and risk involvement due to failure of power plant and equipment.
Depending upon the situation, a suitable maintenance practice is adopted. But as the failure of power
plant costs heavily and creates secondary losses also, so now a days sophisticated maintenance practices
are followed. In the subsequent sections all these maintenance practices are discussed.
21.2.1 Break down or corrective or reactive maintenance
In this maintenance practice, maintenance is carried out as and when required. When any break
down or failure of any equipment takes place, then only maintenance is carried out. This practice mostly
leads to failure of plant operation. The machine is allowed to run till it fails. As nobody knows or no action
is taken to check the healthiness of equipment, so reliability of the machine is very less. At any moment any
machine may breakdown and lead to plant stoppage.
In this practice no maintenance is carried out when the machine is running smoothly. There may
be some saving at the begining. But once there is breakdown, the cost of maintenance is high. Costly
critical spare is required to be replaced. Plant operation suffers, loosing heavily due to stoppage of generation.
Also due to failure of some critical equipments there may be severe damage to man and machine. Main
drawbacks of this system are :
o High cost due to unplanned down time of machine and plant.
• Increased repair cost due to replacement of costly spare and involvement of skilled maintenance
staff.
o Probability of failure of secondary equipment or process damage. Example — breakdown in
Lubrication oil system may cause sever damage to Turbine and stop power generation for quite a
long period.
• Inefficient use of Maintenance staff.
• Less opportunity for improvement as most of the time maintenance people are busy with break
down job.
This maintenance practice is not advisable at any power plant. Most of the maintenance engineers
are engaged to attend break down repair, hence getting less time for improvement in plant. To avoid this,

326 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
other suitable maintenance practices are to be followed. There may be some sporadic failure or breakdown
even if other sophisticated maintenance practices are followed. In this condition breakdown repair may be
carried out. But if other maintenance practices are followed efficiently then definitely there will be drastic
reduction in breakdown.
21.2.2 Preventive or schedule maintenance
In this practice maintenance is carried out on time based or machine running hour based schedule,
to detect, to repair or replace, to control degradation of components and to increase useful life of machine.
Through this maintenance practice, reliability, machine useful life and-availability increases-_ _-
Breakdown is minimized by avoiding degradation. Though this maintenance practice is not fully helpful
and efficient, still it is more acceptable than breakdown maintenance practice.
In this practice a maintenance schedule for each equipment is prepared. This schedule may be
time based (daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly or yearly) or machine running hour based (1000 hours, 5000
hours etc.). Necessary maintenance like checking, inspection, lubrication, bearing replacement, oil changing
etc. are carried out as per schedule.
Some of the terms used in preventive maintenance are discussed below.
I. Maintenance schedule
This is simply a chart that shows various maintenance activities, and how often it should be done.
Maintenance frequency of any equipment is decided upon following factors.
• Age of equipment
• Criticality of equipment
• Past history of failure
• Manpower availability
Schedule of maintenance for more critical and old equipment having more failures in the past
may be planned at smaller interval. For new, non critical equipment, maintenance schedule may be planned
at longer interval.
All the equipments of power plant may be covered in this schedule. Different maintenance
frequency is marked differently in the chart. Once a schedule is prepared, it can be translated to actual
dates to plan when to perform various preventive maintenance activities. Different type of maintenance is
carried out during different schedule as per the predetermined job list mentioned on the check list. After
completion of that particular schedule maintenance job, chart is updated. Frequency of maintenance may
be revised depending upon machine condition during last maintenance.
II. Check list
A check list for each equipment, listed on the schedule maintenance chart is prepared. In this
check list, list of jobs that are to be carried out during different schedule are described. Jobs to be carried
out during, monthly maintenance is not same as yearly maintenance. Jobs to be carried out are decided
based on the factors described earlier.
HI. History book
Each. and every equipment should have a history book. Detail specification of the equipment
and spares used in it are listed in this history book. Jobs carried 'out on the equipment like — date of job
done, nature of job done, condition of the equipment before maintenance, abnormality found, spares
changed/replaced during maintenance, condition of equipment after maintenance, etc. are logged on
history book. From this history book history of failures of that particular equipment can be obtained and
Mean time between failure (MTBF) can be find out easily. It provides lot of information about past failures
and the repair methods. For inventory planning also this is helpful.
Maintenance of Power Plant 327
IV. Lubrication schedule
For any moving equipment lubrication plays major role to get desired useful life of that equipment.
Proper lubrication program of any plant can minimize failure. Moving parts are required to be lubricated to
minimize wear and tear. So each plant should have a well designed lubrication schedule. First of all each
points of lubrication in an equipment are identified. Types of lubricants to be used are decided as per the
recommendation of equipment manufacturer. Quantity of lubricant and frequency of lubrication is decided
upon running pattern of the equipment, lubrication condition and past experience. Like this each point of
—lubrication of all equipments are considered and a schedule is prepared.
As per the lubrication schedule lubrication is carried out and recorded. Lubricant used should be
free from contamination.
Merits of schedule or preventive maintenance
Preventive maintenance is a planned maintenance program. The component to be changed is
planned well in advance. The job to be carried out is well known. So man power requirement can be
forecasted easily. As the maintenance is carried out periodically, so rate of failure of equipment reduces and
hence loss of generation can be minimized. Equipment life and availability increases.
21.2.3 Predictive maintenance
In preventive or schedule maintenance practice maintenance is carried out at a predetermined
interval without considering actual condition of the equipment. Most of the time unnecessary repairs are
carried out which is not required at all, as per actual condition of the equipment. Fo maintenance cost in
schedule maintenance is more.
Suppose the bearing of a pump is to be replaced after 10,000 running hours. It is not considered
that the bearing may be in better condition and can be used for another 5,000 hours. The bearing is
replaced by a new one without considering actual bearing condition. In this case, maintenance cost can not
be optimized. Also the bearing may fail well before its schedule.
But in predictive maintenance practice, actual condition of the equipment is checked regularly.
Degradation is measured with help of diagnostic equipments and Maintenance is carried out accordingly to
eliminate this degradation and avoid significant failure. Maintenance is not time based but based upon
actual condition of the equipment in this case. So the maintenance cost can be optimized by using
equipment parts optimally.
Merits of predictive maintenance
• Reduces spares and inventory
• The equipment is used optimally.
• Reduces unnecessary repairs.
o Eliminates catastrophic equipment failure.
• Reduces costly down time.
• Maintenance can be done during idle period.
In power plants this predictive maintenance practice is most suitable. Some maintenance engineer
prefers to carry out maintenance thoroughly in a year during boiler annual inspection and avoid any plant
stoppage in between. Also the condition of the equipments is monitored to check the healthiness of equipment
and if required maintenance is carried out during minor stoppages or idle period.
The maintenance practice of any power plant is to be decided on the situation and flexibility of
the plant.

328 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
21.2.4 Condition based maintenance (CBM)
Condition based maintenance practice is nothing but a predictive maintenance practice.
Degradation of the equipment is measured by sophisticated instruments. Equipment condition is monitored
and suitable maintenance is carried out before any breakdown, preferably in the next available idle or low
load period. Condition of the equipment is monitored through various condition monitoring instruments.
Vibration, temperature, thickness, debris analysis and thermography are some of the condition monitoring
methods adopted.
__ everyone is involved in keeping the equipment in good working order to minimize production losses from
For example vibration measurement of any bearing can indicate bearing condition. Debris analysis
report of turbine oil can indicate any metal particle and hence operating condition of bearing. Raise in stage
pressure of the turbine indicates deposition on blades. Tube thickness of boiler can be measured to analyze
tube condition. Condition analysis can provide information if a trend is prepared and analyzed.
r
Equipment
failure
Time ----O.
Fig. 21.2 Equipment Condition monitoring
Equipment condition in any power plant is to be monitored properly. Trends of these parameters
are to be prepared to decide what type of maintenance is to be carried out.
21.2.5 Proactive maintenance
Proactive maintenance practices aims to eliminate the root cause of the failure. So, it is one step
ahead of other maintenance practices. Any failure is having some root cause. For example- turbine failure
due to failure of bearing can be eliminated by maintaining the quality of turbine lubrication oil. So, in
proactive maintenance emphasis is given to the clean ness of lube oil not to the bearing failure.
Proactive maintenance has following three steps.
I. Setting a quantified target relating to root cause of failure like lube oil clean ness
Il. Implementing maintenance plan to keep this root cause within target level like routine filtration of
oil, removal of contaminants.
III.
Routine monitoring of root cause with suitable technique like- testing of oil.
As the root cause of the failure is taken care so, probability of failure reduces.
21.2.6 Total Productive Maintenance (TPM)
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) is a Japanese concept. It is a Corporate Cultural Change
Programme", developed by Japan Institute of Plant Maintenance (JIPM), It is an approach to bring
changes in the culture and performance of plant operations by adopting structured Maintenance practices.
Maintenance of Power Plant 329
TPM is a proactive approach that aims to prevent any kind of failure before occurrence.This is a maintenance
program which involves a newly defined concept for plant and equipment maintenance for optimizing the
productivity of equipment through systematic equipment maintenance involving employees at all levels.
TPM focuses maintenance as a necessary and vitally important part of the plant. In TPM, Maintenance is
no longer considered as a non-profit activity.
TPM can not be implemented overnight. Normally it takes at least two- three years to implement
an effective TPM system. TPM activities are carried out in small teams with specific tasks. Under TPM,
equipment repairs, assists and set-ups. TPM aims to eliminate 6 big losses :
Breakdowns, which can result in long, expensive repairs
Set-ups, conversions, and changeovers
Idling and minor stoppages
Reduced equipment speed
Defects and Rework
Start-up Losses
5S:
First step of TPM implementation is 5S. 5S stands for five Japanese words that start with the
letter `S': Seiri, Seiton, Seiso, Seiketsu, and Shitsuke. It is translated into English, starting with Alphabet
"S". 5 S stands for workplace organization methodology. Problems cannot be clearly seen when the work
place is unorganized. Cleaning and organizing the workplace helps to uncover problems. Making problems
visible is the first step of improvement in maintenance.
SEIRI - Sort out :
The first step of the "5S" process is "Seiri" or sorting out. It refers to the act of sort out all
unwanted, unnecessary, and unrelated materials in the workplace by organizing the items as critical, important,
frequently used items, useless, or items that are not need as of now. Unwanted items are thrown out.
Critical items.for use are kept nearby and items that are not be used in near future are stored at some other
place. This is done to ensure that everything left near the workplace is related to work. Also number of
necessary items in the workplace are kept as minimum as possible.
SEITON - Systematic Arrangement:
The concept here is "A place for everything and everything in its place". By putting everything in
an assigned place it can be located quickly, as well as kept at that place quickly. Every single item is
allocated its own place for safekeeping, and each location is labeled for easy identification of what it's
for. To identify items easily, name plates and colored tags are used. Vertical racks are used for this purpose,
and heavy items are stored at the bottom position in the racks.
SEISO - Shine:
This involves cleaning the work place free of burrs, grease, oil, waste, scrap etc. No loosely
hanging wires or oil leakage from machines. "Seiso" focuses on not simply cleaning the working environment
once, but keeping it clean every day to maintain the facility and equipment long term.
SEIKETSU - Standardization:
"Seiketsu" consists of defining the standards by which cleanliness can be measured and
maintained'. It encompasses both personal and environmental cleanliness. Standardization is helpful to
detect abnormalities and unusual situations, so that people can react immediately.
SHITSUKE - Self discipline :
It denotes commitment to maintain orderliness and to practice the first 4 S as a way of life and
bring about self-discipline.

330 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
TPM has 8 pillars of activity each being set to achieve a "zero" target.
PILLAR 1 - Jishu Hozen (Autonomous maintenance):
This pillar focuses towards development of operators. They should be able to take care of small
maintenance tasks. Operators are responsible for daily maintenance activities of the equipments on which
they are working, to prevent it from deterioration and skilled maintenance people are utilized for more value
added activity and technical repairs.
PILLAR 2 - Kaizen:
"Kai" means change, and `Zen" means good (for thebetter). Basically kaizen is small improvements__
on continual basis. Kaizen requires no or little investment. A very large number of small improvements are
more effective in a plant than a few improvements of large value. This pillar aims to reduce losses in the
workplace that affect efficiencies
PILLAR 3 - Planned Maintenance:
It is aimed to have trouble free machines and equipments. With Planned Maintenance, focus is
shifted from reactive to proactive method of maintenance and use trained maintenance staff to train the
operators to maintain their equipment in a better way.
PILLAR 4 - Quality Maintenance:
This pillar focuses on maintenance for quality. Through this, defects are eliminated in a systematic
manner, using techniques such as prevention of defects at source, mistake-proofing and effective introduction
of operator quality assurance. It is believed, maintaining perfect equipment helps to maintain quality
products. Condition of the equipment is set and is checked / measured regularly to conform values are
within standard. Through this, possibilities of defects are predicted before occurring and counter measure is
taken before it takes place.
PILLAR 5 — Initial Flow or Early Equipment Management:
The knowledge which has been developed to achieve improvements in equipments through TPM
implementation is directed towards the development, design and implementation of new equipments/
projects which are to be procured and installed at plant. So, new plant and equipment is capable to achieve
its planned performance level immediately after commissioning.
PILLAR 6 - Training:
Work force is the assets of any organization. In this pillar of TPM, it is aimed to have multi-skilled
employees with high morale having capability to perform all required functions effectively and independently.
Education and training is given to people to upgrade their knowledge and skill to create sufficient number
of experts in the plant. It is the requirement to train them to "know why" instead of "know how". Employees
are grouped in to following groups depending upon their skill level.
1. Do not know.
2. Know the theory but cannot do
3. Can do but cannot teach
4. Can do and also teach.
Training is imparted accordingly, to increase their skill level.
PILLAR 7.Office TPM:
Administrative function is a support system to main plant production. Office TPM is followed to
improve productivity, efficiency at administrative areas and identify and eliminate losses. This is possible by
adopting suitable processes and procedures for better office automation. . etc. Due to abrasive combustion particles, tube is eroded and its thickness reduces, which lead to failure of
PILLAR 8 - Safety, Health and Environment:
Aim of this pillar is to provide safe and healthy working place in the plant and taking care of
environment. People are motivated to work safely and keep the working environment healthy. To create
Maintenance of Power Plant 331
awareness among people, slogans, Quiz, Drama, Posters, etc. related to safety, health and environment is
organized at regular intervals. Target is fixed to attain
1. Zero accident,
2. Zero health damage
3. Zero fire.
21.3 Failures in power plant
As discussed earlier each equipment fails during its operation due to degradation of its components,
due toabnormal operating conditions or due to faulty design. Failure of any equipment in power plant
leads to huge loss due to stoppage of plant. Some time failure may lead to sever accident. High temperature
and pressure steam is used at power plant. So failure in boiler or pipe line may create dangerous situation
for man and machine. Also failure of turbine may take longer time to repair and the repair cost is very high.
In power plants, different types of failure are experienced. Among them some are repetitive in
nature and some are sporadic. Maintenance staff of the plant are acquainted with repetitive nature of
failure like oil leakage, steam leakage. But failures which are very rare, requires higher skill to handle. These
sporadic failures are to be handled properly. All these failures are to be analyzed and the root cause of
failure is to be find out.
In the subsequent sections some major failures in power plant equipments are discussed.
Failure in boiler
Various types of failures are noticed in a boiler. For some small failures boiler is not required to
be stopped. It can be attained while boiler is on operation. In sorne cases boiler is to be stopped to attain
this failure. Some of the major failures in boiler are discussed here.
21.3.1 Boiler tube leakage
Leakage of water tube is commonly observed in a boiler. For attaining this problem boiler is to be
stopped and the leakage tube is to be replaced or repaired. Leakage can be detected by symptoms like-loss
of water, noise in boiler or disturbance in boiler water chemistry etc. If the leakage is minor, boiler can be
continued to run for some time. If leakage is severe, immediately boiler is to be stopped and cooled down
to take repairing job. It is not advisable to run the boiler for longer period with leakage tube. It may damage
some healthy tube also.
Leakage of the tube may take place due to following reasons.
o Scaling
• Erosion
• Corrosion
Scale may form at fire side and water side of the tube. Fire side scaling takes place due to
deposition of combustion product at the outer surface of the tube. This deposition forms hard surface on
the tube surface. Also due to poor water chemistry, water side scaling takes place. Presence of scale affects
heat transfer as it is bad conductor of heat. Tube fails due to over heating of tube material.
Corrosion also takes place at both fire side and water side of tube. Due to aggressive surrounding
medium, the tube is corroded. Failure of protective layer leads to pitting of tube. Corrosion makes the tube
material thin and it may fail.
Erosion is a mechanical phenomena and take place due to process like friction, impact, turbulence
tube finally.
Other than above reasons tube may fail due to corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion cracking.
Tube may burst due to starvation and over heating. Opening of this burst looks like mouth of a fish. So it
is called asfish mouth opening.


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Maintenance of Power Plant 333
332
There may be corrosion at the lower temperature zone of air heater and economizer due to expose the tube material to corrosive flue gas. This type of failure is characterised as series cracks that
sulphuric acid vapor dew point. This is called as acid corrosion or low temperature corrosion. initiate on the outside surface of the tube and propagates in to wall. These cracks are developed over longer
period. These failures are normally observed at furnace wall tubes.
21.3.2 Failure mechanism of boiler tube
VII. Caustic attack
As discussed earlier, leakage of boiler tube takes place due to scale, corrosion and erosion. In this
section we will discuss some more failure mechanism responsible for tube leakage. These failures are to be Where there is excessive deposit inside the tube surface, water flow in contact with tube reduces,
eliminated to minimize tube leakage. To analyze the causes of failure following mechanisms are to be causing local under deposit boiling and concentration of boiler water chemicals increases at that area. If
understood clearly. the boiler water PH is high it results in a corrosive attack and break down protective magnetite layer. This
failureiiacharacterized as localized wall loss at the inside wall of the tube.
I. Pitting
VIII. High temperature oxidation
Due to presence of oxygen in feed water, pitting is normally formed. Oxygen reacts with tube
metal to form iron oxide. The tube internal surface is corroded in deep grove spots called as pitting. This This can occur locally in areas that have the highest temperature like super heater, when out side
can happen in running boiler due to excessive oxygen in feed water or due to improper passivation. surface temperature is more than oxidation limit of tube material.
Pitting is normally observed near economizer feed water inlet area on running boiler. Due to IX. Graphitization
improper passivation this can observed at non drainable surfaces. During long term operation, when tube material is exposed to excessive temperature, it experience
II. Stress corrosion cracking dissolution of the iron carbide in the steel and formation of graphite nodules.
Stress corrosion cracking takes place where combination of high tensile stress and corrosion fluid This takes place in carbon steel tube of high carbon content or at carbon molybdenum steel. This failure is
are present. The damage is in the form of crack, which propagates from tube internal wall. There may be characterized as brittle with a thick edge fracture.
trans granular or inter granular crack in the tube wall. Normally this is observed near higher external stress X. Erosion
areas like attachments. It is characterized by a thick wall, brittle type crack. Erosion occurs due to impingement on tube external surface. The erosion medium may be
III. Corrosion fatigue abrasive particle of combustion product or steam. Mostly this happens due to impingement of ash or during
This type of failure takes place due to combination of thermal fatigue and corrosion. It happens soot blowing. This is characterized by metal loss from tube outer surface. Damage is oriented on the impact
due to improper design, water chemistry, and oxygen content in feed water. Due to combination of these, side of tube.
protective magnetite layer of tube inside wall is damaged and tube wall is exposed to corrosion. Normally
21.3.3 Failure of auxiliary system of boiler
this type of failure takes place near to external attachments. This failure is characterized as wide trans
granular cracks. Failure of any auxiliary equipment of a boiler may lead to stoppage of boiler. These auxiliary
systems normally consists of
IV. Short term over heat
Due to insufficient fluid flow in the boiler tube, particularly in super heater, tube metal temperature I. ID, FD and PA fans
increases to dangerously high level and lead to ductile rupture of tube. This is characterized by an opening II. Boiler feed pump
called asfish mouth. III. Fuel handling system
IV. Ash handling system
Some of the commonly experienced problems of these systems are discussed below.
I. ID, FIS and PA fans
Every boiler is having fans to supply fresh air, evacuate flue gas and for conveying fuel etc.
In these fans following problems are normally experienced.
• Vibration due to misalignment, disturbance in static and dynamic balancing due to deposition in
Fig. 21.3 Fish mouth opening fan impeller, and failure of bearing.
• Failure of bearing
V. Long term over heat
Due to restriction in flow, scale deposits etc. tube metal temperature increases and continue to o Wear out of impeller and shaft
operate for longer period and tube fails finally. This type of failure is characterized by minimal swelling and • High bearing temperature due to insufficient lubrication and chocking in bearing cooling system
a longitudinal split that is narrower than fish mouth opening. Tube metal is often has heavy external scale etc.
build up and secondary cracking. This can be seen in super heater and furnace wall tubes.
• Failure of coupling
VI. Fire side corrosion cracking
Tube outside surface is exposed to corrosive flue gas and subjected to thermal fatigue. All the fans are to be inspected thoroughly at fixed interval. The bearing condition is to be
This thermal fatigue can initiate crack on the less elastic scales deposited on the tube external surface and monitored. Proper lubrication schedule is to be followed. Alignment is to be set right if it is disturbed.


Maintenance of Power Plant 335

Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
334
H. Boiler feed pump
Boiler feed pump is a multistage high pressure pump. Normally there are more than one feed
pump for each boiler. So the standby feed pump can be taken in to operation immediately in case of any
problem. Following problems are normally observed in a feed pump.
• Chocking of suction strainer
• Leakage from gland
• Failure of bearing
• Failure of coupling.
Bearing condition of the pump is to be monitored continuously. Lubrication schedule is to be
followed. Any leakage from the gland can be adjusted by putting new gland seal or mechanical seal. Boiler
feed pump is to be overhauled by a skilled maintenance personal at a specific interval. Gland cooler and
suction filter are to be cleaned as and when required.
III. Fuel handling system
Stoppage of fuel handling system equipment can lead to a forced shut down of boiler. To avoid
this, proper maintenance program is to be followed to eliminate break down of equipments like — Coal
crusher, screen, belts, ball mill, coal feeder, fuel oil pump etc. These equipments are to be inspected
regularly and necessary repairing or replacing program is to be made well in advance.
I. Stress corrosion cracking
Like boiler tube, stress corrosion cracking takes place due to high stress and corrosive medium.
Turbine blade is subjected to high tensile stress caused due to centrifugal force. Stress corrosion cracking is
found in blades at the starting of condensation or low pressure zone. Steam quality also plays a vital role
in stress corrosion cracking. Crack developed in the blade may propagate as trans granular or inter granular
cracks on the blade body.
II. Pitting
Pitting may take place when passive protective layer of the blade is destroyed. Under the deposition
of blade very small anodic areas are formed in large numbers. So pitting corrosion take place. Normally
pitting is observed under blade deposits at the wet steam or LP blade stage. Pitting may take place at all
stage blades when the turbine is kept stand still for a longer period. This type of pitting is called as shut
down pitting.
III. Corrosion fatigue
Due to stress reversal, any material is supposed to fail. This is called as fatigue. Fatigue mechanism
speed up when the material is placed in a corrosive medium. Fatigue of material is produced due to thermal
state change (thermal fatigue) and creep (creep fatigue). Failure due to corrosion fatigue is experienced as
fracture. Corrosion fatigue can be avoided by maintaining steam quality as recommended by the turbine
manufacture.

IV. Ash handling system IV. Solid particle erosion

Ash of the boiler can not be evacuated in case there is problem in this system.
During operation, scale and iron oxide are dislodged from, steam pipe line and if it passes steam
There may be failure in ash feeder, ESP, ash transmitter, ash conveyers etc. These equipments are to be
strainer, it impacts the blade at high velocity. Due to this impact, erosion takes place on the blade.
inspected frequently to detect any deterioration and to be restored promptly.
Also during erection and `commissioning, some foreign particle may be present at the piping
Failure in turbine system, which creates solid particle erosion. This can be avoided by proper steam blowing before
Turbine internal is exposed to high temperature and pressure. As turbine is a high speed machine, commissioning.
so some failure is experienced during operation of turbine. Rotating and stationary blades of turbine are
deteriorated due to prolonged exposure to high temperature. Mostly, failure of blade is the main failure of Last stage blades are required to handle moist steam. If steam temperature is not maintained
a turbine. Some of the commonly experienced turbine failures are listed below. properly, water droplets are formed at this stage. These heavier water droplets are responsible for erosion of
last stage blades.
• Failure of blades
V. Deposits
• Failure of rotor
• Failure of bearing When the steam quality is not pure, impurities are deposited on turbine blade surface. Silica is
Wear out of steam seals carried over from boiler to steam due to improper steam separation. This silica is deposited on the blade
•
surface. Deposit on the blade, reduces turbine efficiency and leads to corrosion of blade. Turbine inter stage
• Failure of auxiliary system
or wheel chamber steam pressure can indicate the deposit condition of blade. When deposit is more, wheel
21.3.4 Failure of Turbine blades chamber pressure increases.

Failure of blades of turbine take place due to following failure mechanism. VI. Creep

• Stress corrosion cracking Creep is the tendency of a solid material to slowly deform permanently to relive stress. This is
more severe when material is exposed to heat for longer period. As the turbine blades and casing is exposed
❑ Pitting to high temperature for longer period there is chance of creep failure.
• Corrosion fatigue
VII. Fatigue
• Solid particle erosion
• Deposits Fatigue is reversal of stress on the material. Due to speed change, change in load etc. stress on
• Creep turbine blade changes. This may lead to fatigue failure. Normally the blade root is experienced to damage
due to fatigue.
• Fatigue

Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
21.3.5 Failure of Turbine shaft
Rotor of the turbine is also exposed to high stress and high temperature with corrosive medium.
After operation for a longer period there is chance of failure of rotor due to following failure mechanism.
• Normal wear
Fatigue
• Stress corrosion cracking
Shaft is subjected to mechanical and thermal stress-during operation. Also-dueto-change-in ----
load, start, stop etc. it is subjected to cyclic stress. So fatigue and stress corrosion cracking is experienced in
rotor.
21.3.6 Failure of Turbine bearing
Bearing of a turbine is lubricated and cooled by lubrication oil If supply of this oil is interrupted
while turbine is in service, then bearings will be severely damaged. During normal operation also, the soft
babbitting metal of bearing is subjected to wear. So bearing clearanc- increases. Bearing is required to be
changed when this clearance increases. Axial thrust of the turbine is taken by thrus t bearing. When this
thrust is high there is chance of failure of thrust bearing. Old bearing can be used after re babbiting.
Condition of bearing can be monitored by bearing temperature and vibration. Bearing is to be
opened when these values increase. Debris analysis of tube oil can indicate the wear out condition of
bearing. Problem of bearing should be detected at early stage and suitable action is to be taken, otherwise
it can create severe damage to turbine. Inter seals, stationary and moving parts may be damaged due to
rubbing.
To avoid bearing failure, quality of lube oil is to be maintained strictly as per recommendation of
turbine manufacturer and oil centrifuge is to be used regularly for this purpose. Lube oil filter is to be
cleaned when differential pressure increases.
21.3.7 Wear out of steam seals of Turbine
Steam seals are used to restrict steam to by pass any blade stage. Steam seals are also used at
gland portion of the turbine. Wear out of these seals are common. When steam seals are damaged, it
decreases efficiency of turbine, as steam is escaped to next stage without doing any work. Also sufficient
steam is found leaking from gland portion. These seals are damaged first, when there is any rubbing. So it
is required to replace these seals whenever required. These seals are to be inspected during every minor and
major overhauling of turbine.
21.3.8 Failure of Turbine auxiliary system
Some time it is required to stop turbine due to problem at an auxiliary system. Following problems
are normally experienced in turbine auxiliary system of a power plant.
• Failure of pumps ( oil pumps, CW pumps and Condensate extraction pumps)
• Steam leakage
• Condenser tube leakage
• Chocking of steam ejector nozzles
• Chocking, leakage of oil cooler tube
In most of the cases there is standby arrangement for above systems. Problems can be attained
by taking the standby system in line while turbine is in operation, without taking shutdown.
Maintenance of Power Plant
.337
I. Failure of pumps
Oil pump is used to supply lubrication oil to bearings, Condensate extraction pump is used to
evacuate condensate from hot well of the condenser and cooling water pump is used to circulate cooling
water in the condenser. All these pumps are having standby facility. The plant may be required to stop, in
case of failure of any of the pump and its standby pump is not available. Following problems are observed
in these pumps.
• Leakage of fluid from gland
Failure of bearing
• Misalignment
• Vibration
o Failure of coupling
• Failure of shaft sleeve
By implementing proper inspection schedule and condition monitoring technique, these failures
can be eliminated. Standby pumps are always to be kept ready, so that it can be put on service during
emergency. Standby pumps are required to be changed into service regularly, to ensure all the pumps are
available for use.
Gland leakage can be arrested by putting new gland packing or changing mechanical seal.
Condition of the bearing and alignment can be monitored by checking vibration and bearing temperature
regularly. Overhauling of pumps and replacement of wear out components, is to be carried out as and
when required.
Stoppage of turbine due to failure of above pumps can be eliminated if all the pumps are
available. Change over of these pumps can be done while the turbine is in operation.
II. Steam leakages
Due to degradation of jointing gasket and sealing material, some time, steam leakage is observed
from flanges, valve bonnet and gland. When leakage is sever, plant is required to be stopped to arrest this
leakage. Now a day's online sealing technique is available. These leakages can be arrested through online
sealing technique, without stopping the plant.
Some time leakage in pipe line is observed due to crack or puncture. Welding is required in
this case.
III. Condenser tube leakage
Due to corrosion, condenser tube is punctured. This can be detected when the conductivity of
condensate increases. As the conductivity of cooling water is high, so, mixing of cooling water with condensate
due to leakage of tube, increases conductivity of condensate.
This leakage is to be arrested as quickly as possible to avoid further damage of boiler tube. If the
condenser is having multi pass arrangement this leakage can be attended while turbine is in operation by ,
reducing load on turbine and isolating one pass. Both ends of the leaked tube can be plugged temporarily
and tube can be replaced later on.
Leakage of tube can be detected by filling condensate above the tube bundle, at the shell side of
condenser. Condensate will leak through the leakage point and come out from the tube end.
IV. Chocking of steam ejector nozzle
Any dislodged corrosion particle may chock throat of the ejector nozzle. In this case sufficient
vacuum will not be build up at the condenser. Standby ejector cap betaken in to line and the chocked
nozzle can be cleaned in this case.

Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
V. Chocking, leakage of oil cooler tube
Lube oil is cooled before it is supplied to bearing. Cooling is done at oil cooler. Cooling water
flows inside the tube and oil flows at shell side of the oil cooler. Scale and sludge is deposited at the inner
side of the tube affecting heat transfer. Out let valve of the cooling water is normally throttled to maintain
oil temperature. When the tube is chocked this valve is required to be opened more. This indicates that the
tube is getting chocked. Tube is to be cleaned before the condition, when oil temperature can not be
maintained by opening this valve fully.
Due to corrosion this tube may leak. As the oil pressure is more than cooling water pressure, so
at normal condition oil will mix with cooling water and can be traced at cooling tower. But there is chance
of mixing of cooling water in to oil, when the oil pump is not running or at the standby cooler. This leaked
tube is to be plugged as soon as leakage is detected.
21.3.9 Problem in cooling tower
As we know, cooling tower plays major role for efficient operation of steam turbine. Hot cooling
water from condenser is cooled at cooling tower which is again recalculated to the condenser. Reduction in
temperature of cooling water at cooling tower is required to maintain desired vacuum at condenser and
hence efficiency of Turbine. Difference of inlet and out let temperature of cooling water at cooling tower is
called as differential temperature. For effective cooling of water at cooling tower, fans are used. Due to
larger size blade, peripheral velocity of these fans is normally high. Any deformation of blade profile or any
problem at reduction gear box can create severe vibration and lead to damage these fans. So, proper care
is required to be taken to maintain these fans for continuous operation. Blade profile is to be checked
regularly and damaged blades are to be replaced. After changing the blade, rebalancing of fan is required.
Normally vibration switches are provided to trip the fan incase of excessive vibration. It is to be ensured that
the vibration switch is functioning properly.
Cooling tower fan is operated in moist atmosphere. It is found, base frame and foundation bolts
are badly corroded. It is to be checked regularly. Normally in most of the power plants, cooling tower is
neglected, causing severe damage to blades and gear boxes.
There is chance of contamination of lubrication oil of gear box. Failure of oil seals may cause oil
leakage from gear box. Gears will damage if oil level is not maintained at gearbox. To take care of this, oil
level of the gear box is to be checked regularly and if required oil is to be added. Oil is to be checked
' regularly to find out any contamination. Coupling of drive is to be checked regularly.
Where cooling tower is placed in a dusty atmosphere, the atmospheric dust mixes with water
and settled at tower basin as sludge. Basin blow down is to be given regularly to remove this settled sludge.
Suspended un-dissolved solid particle can be removed with help of side stream filter. During major shutdown
of plant, cooling tower basin is to be cleaned and basin wall is to be painted.
Algae growth chocks water distributor nozzles and fills, causing un-uniform water distribution.
Proper water treatment can eliminate this problem. Distribution nozzles may be chocked due to any foreign
particle. These nozzles are to be cleaned regularly and the damaged nozzles are to be replaced. Damage of
drift eliminators increases drift loss causing more water make up. Some times the distributor or fills are fall
down to basin and restrict water circulation. These materials are to be removed if found. Wire mesh
provided at the outlet of cooling tower is to be cleaned regularly.
By adopting efficient maintenance and condition monitoring practices, problem of cooling tower
can be minimized.
21.4 Non destructive test (NDT)
Power plant equipments are operated at high stressful condition. These are operated at high
temperature and pressure. Along with these condition, equipments, particularly turbine rotates at high
Maintenance of Power Plant 339
speed. So the mechanical stress is also high at turbine. It is essential to evaluate the condition of components
regularly. It is done with the help of some testing technique, without destroying the component. Evaluation
of component condition is done through non destructive test methods. With the help of NDT minor
abnormalities can be detected easily well in before, to avoid equipment failure. Some of the NDTs, normally
carried out in power plants, are discussed here.
• Dye penetration (DP) test
• Fluorescent magnetic particle test
• Ultrasonic test
• Hardness test
• Ultrasonic thickness test
• Radiographic test
• Metallurgical test
Through NDT, residual life assessment (RLA) of the component is done. NDT technique is
adopted to find out the condition of boiler, turbine and steam pipe line.
21.4.1 Dye- penetration (DP) test
This technique is adopted to find out any crack in the component, which is not visible to naked
eye. Very small crack, in metallic or nonmetallic materials can be detected by this testing.
Surface to be tested is cleaned thoroughly and should not be too rough. After cleaning, a colored
penetrating liquid is applied over the surface. This liquid penetrates into crack if any, due to capillary
action. Now surface is wiped up to clean the excess penetrant. A base liquid is applied over the surface. The
colored penitent which has entered inside crack is drawn back leaving a clear mark over the base liquid. For
clear visibility the penetrant contains dye or fluorescent material to make the impression visible under white
light or suitable ultraviolet light.
This is a very easier technique to detect crack on a clean surface. Normally this test is carried out
to check crack on boiler steam drum, Water header, tubes, boiler drums, turbine bearing, casing, rotor
shaft, blades etc.
21.4.2 Fluorescent magnetic test
This test is carried out to detect any surface or sub surface discontinuities due to inclusion of
nonmetallic object like void or due to internal or surface crack in a ferromagnetic material.
When the test piece is magnetized, magnetic flux is induced. If there is a flaw, inclusion or
discontinuities, on the surface, a leakage field is formed above the surface of discontinuities portion.
Magnetic particle dust mixed with kerosene is sprayed over the test piece. Due to leakage field some of the
magnetic particle applied, is migrated to the flaw where the magnetic flux leaks and forms a flaw indication,
indicating the location of discontinuity, its size, shape and extent. If the discontinuity lies deeper it will be
difficult to find by this method. The inspector visually identifies the flaw.
This method can be used to indicate crack on any size and shape of the test piece. This method is
used to find abnormalities of boiler drums, headers, piping, turbine shaft, casing and blades, HT bolts etc ..
.^^^K,..-:.:.-^,-.-.,^..,,,„^^^..^
21.4 .33 Ultrasonic test
Ultrasonic technique is used to detect any discontinuity in the material aryl to detect its thickness.
LXnnS
High frequency sound wave beyond audible range above 290,000 cycles per second is known as
ultrasound wave. This ultrasound wave of short wave length and high frequency is transmitted from a
probe placed over the test piece. A receiver probe (separate probe or same probe) is used to detect the
reflected wave or echo. If the material is homogeneous, the wave travels through the test piece and reflects

340 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
from the back surface. Incase any discontinuity exists on the wave travel path, some part of the wave is
reflected from the discontinuity and some part travels through the test piece, till it is reflected from the back
surface. The wave reflected from the discontinuity and back surface having traveled different path can be
indicated on a CRT monitor. From the CRT monitor, size, depsity and location of the discontinuity can be
found. Time taken for the reflection can detect the thickness of the test pJece.
This technique is adopted to detect any crack or flaw in boil s, turbine casing, bladertHT
bolts etc. This technique is also used to measure the thickness of boiler tube.
21.4.4 Radiographic test
In radiographic test electro magnetic waves such as X-ray and Gamma rays are used. Absorption
of these rays depends upon density and thickness of the material to be tested. A photographic film is used
to create an image to detect different density material. High density homogeneous portion, where absorption
is high, creates light areas on the film when developed. Where as, at the area of defect (flaw, crack, or
inclusion), where absorption is less creates black impression on the film, when developed. By observing the
film, the defect can be easily detected.
Radiographic test is widely used to inspect any defect at welding or casting, forging etc.
21.4.5 Metallurgical test
Metallurgical testing is carried out to find out material chemical composition. A sample from the
test piece is taken to find out different composition of the material at laboratory. Also the material is tested
through metallurgical microscope to check the grain boundary defects.
21.5 Different types of maintenance programme of Turbine
.^W Every power plant is expected to run continuously for years together. Turbine is operated It high
temperature and pressure condition. So, the stress developed on turbine is more. It has to operate finder
different condition like- load change, start, stop etc. Wear out and thermal stress reduces the efficiency and
reliability of the machine. So, it is advised to maintain the turbine on continuous basis, through suitable
maintenance and condition monitoring practices. Turbine manufacturer advises to carry out specific
maintenance other than regular inspection, checking and monitoring activities. This Specific maintenance is
' on running hour basis.
To calculate the equivalent running hours, number of starting of turbine and operating hours are
taken into account. For every start, around 30 hours is added to the operating hours of turbine. Deterioration
created by one starting is equivalent to 30 normal operating hours. So the turbine, which is frequently
started, requires maintainance sooner. The equivalent running hour is calculated as
Req =R+Nx30
n
Req = Equivalent running hours
Rn = Normal operating hours
N = Number of starts
Following two types of overhaul is advised by turbine manufacturer.
• Minor overhaul
• Major overhaul
Minor overhaul
Mostly at every 20000 to 25000 equivalent running hours, this overhaul is advised.
In this overhaul, casing of the turbine is riot opened. Following activities are carried out during minor
overhaul.
Maintenance of Power Plant
• Bearing cover is opened. Bearing condition is inspected and clearance measured.
• Condition of coupling and alignment of turbine is checked.
' Visual inspection of gears of gearbox and barring device is done.
°
Servicing of control system, adjustment of governing, protection and safety system is done.
• Radial run out of rotor is checked.
• Axial play of rotor is checked by removing thrust bearing.
• Any abnormality noticed during normal operation is attained.
Major overhaul
Due to continuous operation of turbine, wear out of turbine internals and deposit on blades take
place. So, it is required to open the turbine casing and inspect turbine internal curing major overhaul.
Normally this type of overhaul is advised after 75000 to 100000 equivalent operating hours. Following
activities are normally carried out during this overhaul.
• Turbine casing is opened. Internal parts of turbine are inspected.
• Deposit on blades are removed by sand blasting.
• Damage seals are replaced.
• All the activities listed on minor overhaul, are carried out.
• Governing valve seat lapping is done.
o Any damaged component is replaced.
o ND test is carried out to evaluate the condition of bearing, rotor shaft blades etc.
• Servicing of ESV is carried out.
• Rotor balancing is checked.
• Inspection of steam pipe line is carried out.
Apart from above overhaul activities, any abnormality found in between is attended .to keep the
turbine healthy. Daily checking of bearing vibration, temperature, axial displacement, inter stage pressure,
gland steam requirement etc. can provide information about turbine condition. Proper start up procedure
minimizes unusual thermal stress on turbine.
21.6 Annual Inspection of Boiler
Each boiler which is in operation is required to be registered with concerned IBR authority of that
state. Each boiler is assigned with a registration number. Normally this registration is required to be renewed
every year. The boiler operation is monitored as per the Indian boiler Act- 1923 and boiler regulation -1950.
Some of the important sections of these Act and Rule are highlighted in subsequent sections.
As per Indian boiler act 1923, the boiler is to be inspected every year by I3R inspecting authority
for renewal of the registration. For this annual renewal, it is required to follow some procedure. Every boiler
engineer should be familiar with this procedure, as every year he has to take care of inspection and renewal.
21.6.1 Procedure for annual inspection
As per section -8 of boiler act -1923, "The certificate for use of boiler shall cease to be in force
when-the period for which it is granted is expired". Normally the certificate is valid for one year.
Following steps are followed for renewal of certificate.
I. Intimation and deposit of inspection fees

342 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
Before expire of certificate, intimation regarding expected shutdown program of the boiler is
given to the concerned IBR authority along with required inspection fees. Inspection fee is deposited in the
form of treasury challan. The amount is decided as per heating surface of the boiler. Inspecting authority
fixes up a date for inspection of boiler after getting intimation and required inspection fees.
II. Cleaning of boiler
After shutdown of boiler, boiler is made empty and cleaned thoroughly. Tube outside surface,
steam drum, mud drum etc. are cleaned. Out side surface of tube can be cleaned through wire brush or
water jet. Furnace and water wall is cleaned thoroughly. All the man holes, hand he les are opened. All the
boiler mountings are removed. Necessary arrangement is made to facilitate the inspector to inspect the
boiler thoroughly for any abnormality like crack, bulge, blister, corrosion, erosion etc. on the pressure part
of the boiler. 24 volt hand lamp is provided inside the furnace for easy inspection. Scaffolding is made to
get access to critical areas.
III. Open inspection of boiler
On the schedule date, boiler inspecting authority carry out open inspection of the boiler. He may
require boiler general arrangement (GA) and other drawings for his reference. All these drawings are to be
made available.
Duty of owner for inspection as per Indian boiler Act-1923
For inspection of boiler, the owner shall be bound
a) To afford the inspector all reasonable facility for the inspection as may reasonably required by him.
b) To properly prepare the boiler and make the boiler ready for inspection in the prescribed manner.
c) To provide drawings, specifications, certificates and other particulars as may be prescribed.
On this day the inspector carry out open inspection of boiler. He mainly checks for any deformation
of the boiler which may lead to failure of boiler pressure parts. He checks internal and external condition of
the pressure parts for any abnormality like- crack, bulge, blister, corrosion, erosion etc. He may instruct to
cut some of the header or tube to check the iot ernal condition of tube or header. He will verify the safety
valve-,-blow down valve etc. are overhauled or not.
IV. Hydrostatic test
After open inspection of the boiler the man holes, hand holes etc. are closed. Safety valve flange
is made blind. Wier t is _fiilled in thj . boiler. There should not any air trapped inside boiler pressure parts. It
is advisable to raise the pressure up to working pressure of the boiler as per normal procedure described
earlier before visit of inspecting authority for preliminary test to find out the tightness of joints.
At the presence of inspecting authority, pressure is raised normally up to 125% to 150 % of
working pressure of boiler. The pressure gauge of inspecting authority is fitted and this pressure gauge
reading is refered for hydraulic test.
Boiler should withstand such pressure satisfactorily, without appreciable leakage or undue deflection
or distortion, for at least 10 minutes.
V. Provisional ordeir
After successful hydraulic test of boiler, the inspecting authority issues a provisional certificate
authorizing the use of boiler. The *alidity of this provisional order expire after six months or after issue of
final certificate.
Maintenance of Power Plant 343
VI. Final order
As the provisional order is valid for six months, before that final order is expected from appropriate
IBR authority based on the inspection report of the inspecting officer.
During annual inspection period, maintenance of other auxiliary equipments like fans, fuel handling
system, ash handling system, ESP etc. can be carried out. This period is to be utilized efficiently to increase
the availability of above systems. As far as possible this opportunity is to be utilized fully to run the boiler
trouble free for next one year.
21.6.2 Repairing procedure of Boiler
Each registered boiler in use is having a memorandum of inspection book maintained by the
concerned IBR inspecting authority. In this book date of inspection, inspection note, hydraulic test details,
pressure parts replaced etc. are noted. Each repair which is carried out on the pressure parts and the parts
which affects the satisfactory performance of boiler is noted there. For any such repair, prior approval of
concerned IBR authority is taken. Without permission of concerned authority, no repair, or alternation can
be carried out in a boiler. But during operation, some deterioration may take place which require repairing
like —fusion welding in pressure parts, pipe lines, headers, replacement of damaged pressure parts etc.
For repair of boiler following procedure is mostly followed.
I. Intimation and inspection fees deposition
Like annual inspection, intimation for repair is given to the inspecting authority. Required inspection
fee is deposited for inspection. On the fixed date inspector inspect the boiler to asses the repair job to be
carried out. Some time it may be required to make access to repair the faulty portion. For this some healthy
tubes may be required to be removed or cut. The inspector prepairs a detailed list of job to be carried out.
II. Repair Order
The repair job is entrusted to a approved boiler repairer, who can satisfy the concerned IBR
authority regarding quality of welding and other repair done by him. For this, a registered boiler repairer is
hired. A request letter is submitted to the inspecting authority to issue a repair order in the name of the
repairer selected by owner. After getting the repair order, repairing can be started.
III Material inspection
Materials which are to be used for repairing like- boiler tubes, fittings etc. are required to be
inspected by inspecting authority. For this, material test certificates and drawings are submitted. Inspecting
authority inspects all these materials for acceptance. The drawing is approved by him. Then only these
materials can be used for repairing.
IV. Fit up inspection
During repairing work the inspecting authority may like to visit the site to inspect the quality of
job in progress. Mostly before final welding of tubes or pipes, he inspects the fit up. Once the fit up
inspection is done he may permit for final welding. He may require to test skill of the welder. IBR certified
welder is utilized by the repairer to carryout the repairing job.
V. ND Test
To check the quality of welding, X-ray test is conducted. X-ray test report of welding is submitted
to the inspecting authority.
VI. Hydro test
Once the repairing job is completed, hydro test of pressure parts is conducted in the presence of
inspecting authority as per the procedure discussed earlier.
After successful hydro test of boiler, inspecting authority permits to put the boiler in service.


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Maintenance of Power Plant 345
344
R. Electrode
21.7 Welding
As told earlier, the electrode used in SMAW is consumed during welding process and it is covered
Welding is an important technique in power plant maintenance. Welding is a process that joins with flux to produce shielding gas and slag to protect the welding area from oxidation. These electrodes are
metal. Welding is done by melting the work piece and adding some filler material to form a molten pool. available in different core wire diameter and length. Diameter of the electrode decides welding current and
When this pool cools, it becomes a strong joint. In past days, riveting process was adopted in absence of hence thickness of the work piece to be welded.
welding. Now a days welding makes maintenance simpler and cost effective. So, welding technique is used
Depending upon the base material, type of electrode is chosen. These electrodes are available as
widely in power plants. Due to advanced welding technique, boiler design has became simpler. Repairing of
per American welding society (AWS) specification. Some of the AWS specified SMAW electrodes are
damaged boiler tubes, furnace, pipe lines etc. are done easily by welding.
-mentioned below.
Now a day's various types of welding techniques are used. Some of the commonly used welding
A 5.1 - Carbon steel electrode for SMAW
processes are discussed here.
A 5.4 - Stainless steel electrode for SMAW
I. Arc welding
A 5.5 - Low alloy ste.. electrode for SMAW
In this process, concentrated heat of an electric arc is utilized to melt the work piece, in to which
in power plants for welding of boiler tubes and pipes mostly A 5.1 electrodes are used.
some molten metal of consumable electrode, is added further. To create arc, direct current (DC) or alternating
current (AC) is used, depending upon the material to be welded and electrode used. Gas metal arc welding These electrodes are designated as E-XXXX (E 6013, E7018, E 8018 etc. ). Most of the time
(GMAW) or metal inert gas(MIG) welding, Gas —tungsten arc welding (GTAW) or tungsten inert gas (TIG engineers are confused about these numbers. It is explained here briefly. The maintenance engineer should
welding), shield metal arc welding (SMAW), are example of Arc welding. know the meaning of each digit of electrode for proper selection of the welding electrode.
H. Resistance welding I. E—XXXX
In this process heat is produced by passing high current across the joints. Due to resistance E — Designates Arc welding electrode.
caused by the contact between two surfaces and high current passed through it, high heat is produced and H. E-..QXX
small pool of molten metal is formed. Spot welding and seam welding are two types of resistance welding. First two digits designate tensile strength of the electrode in thousand pounds per square inch
III. Energy beam welding (kpsi). In this case it is 60 kpsi.
These are new process of welding. High energy density beam is utilized in this process. In this Electrodes with various tensile strength like E 70XX, E 80XX, E 90XX are available. Mostly for
welding, the size of weld area is very small. Laser beam welding and electron beam welding are example of carbon steel pipes and tubes E 60XX and E 70XX electrodes are used. For alloy steel pipes and tubes E
this type of welding. 80XX and E 9OXXelectrodes are used.
We will discuss about some of the widely used Arc welding process which are mostly used for HI. E—XX1X
maintenance at power plants. Third digit of the electrode designates position of welding that can be done with the electrode. In case
of 1 — it is suitable for all position welding and for 2, it is suitable for flat position and horizontal fillets only.
X21.7.1 Shield metal arc welding (SMAW)
IV. E — XX1
Some time this welding is called as manual metal arc (MMA) or stick welding. This is the most
Last two digits designate the suitable power source and type of flux covering over the electrode.
common type of welding that we come across. In this process consumable electrode is used.
These specifications are mentioned below.
Either direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC) is used to produce Arc between a flux
Electrode Current source Flux covering
coated electrode and the work piece. When high current flows and arc is produced, both work piece and
EXX10 DC +ve only Organic
electrode melts. When the flux coating of electrode melts it produces gas that serves as shielding and
protects the hot welding area from oxidation. Also a layer of slag is covered over molten metal pool, EXX1l AC or DC +ve Organic
protecting it from oxidation. Later on, after cooling this slag is removed by chipping. As the electrode is EXX12 AC or DC -ve Rutile
consumed continuously during welding process, so, the welding is required to be stopped friquently to insert EXX13 AC or DC±ve Rutile
a new electrode in to holder.
EXX14 AC or DC±ve Rutile, iron powder (Appr. 30%)
A. Power source of shield metal arc welding
EXX15 DC +ve only Low hydrogen
To create arc during welding, either alternating current or direct current source of power is used,
EXX16 AC or DC +ve Low hydrogen
depending upon the welding material and electrode used. This power source is capable to supply high
welding current at lower voltage. For AC source, welding transformer is used. For DC source, welding EXX18 AC or DC +ve Low hydrogen, iron powder (Appr. 25%)
generator or rectifier set is used. Electrode is connected to power source through a holder and current ' EXX20 AC or DC±ve High iron oxide
carrying cable. The electrode may be connected to +ve or —ve terminal of power source depending upon EXX24 AC or DC±ve Rutile, iron powder (Appr. 50%)
the electrode specification. Work piece is connected to earth or +ve terminal of the source accordingly.
EXX27 AC or DC±ve Mineral, iron powder (Appr. 50%)
Handle of the holder is insulated, so that welder can hold without risk of electric shock. Welding cable is
made of flexible copper or aluminum conductors to carry required welding current without heating. EXX28 AC or DC +ve. Low hydrogen, iron powder (Appr. 50%)


Maintenance of Power Plant 347

346 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
During melting of flux, shielding gas is produced, which shields the welding from atmosphere air.
In power plants most of the time low hydrogen flux coating type electrodes are used. The molten metal of work piece and electrode forms a pool. Slag which is formed due to melting of flux
Low hydrogen electrodes are used to avoid hydrogen cracking. E XX15, E XX16 and E XX18 electrodes coating is covered over this molten pool, restricting the hot surface from contact with surrounding atmosphere
are called as low hydrogen electrodes. Moisture continent on this type of electrode is required to be maintained and hence restricts oxidation. This slag layer is required to be removed after each pass or layer of welding.
less than .6%. For this, these electrodes are stored carefully and heated in an oven prior to use. The main disadvantage of this process is that - welding is to be interrupted for inserting a new electrode in
V. E-XXXX-A 1 to the holder.
This suffix is added for low alloy steel electrode to know approximate alloy in weld deposition. 21.7.2 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) or Tungsten Inert gas (TIG) welding
Some of the suffixes are- This type of welding is a non consumable electrode type welding. Here the electrode used for
Al --maintaining arc is made of Tungsten. A separate filler rod is used for welding. Inert gas, like Argon is
.5% Mo
supplied externally in to the welding area for shielding. So, some time it is called Argon welding also.
B1 .5% Cr, .5% Mo
B2 DC or AC source is used for this welding. By changing the diameter of the tungsten electrode,
1.25% Cr, .5% Mo
hence heat input, different thickness work piece can be welded. The welding process is very slow and
B3 2.25% Cr,1%a Mo
requires high skill. High quality welding is achieved through this process.Root pass welding of pipes and
B4 2% Cr, .5% Mo tubes are done by this welding process.
B5 .5% Cr,1%Mo Process of TIG Welding :
Cl 2.5% Ni
The welding holder used in this welding process is called as torch. Various diameter non-
C2 3.25% Ni consumable tungsten electrodes can be fitted in to this torch. Argon gas is supplied through the torch to the
C3 1% Ni, .35% Mo, .15% Cr welding area. Pressure of this gas can be adjusted through a gas regulator.The electrode is connected to the
SMAW electrodes are available in various sizes. These sizes are selected depending upon work power source through welding cable. Another terminal is connected to the work piece.
piece thickness and welding current required. Normally available sizes.are -
2.5mm - upto4mm
3.15 mm - 4mm to 10 mm —Ir. Filler
rod
4 mm - more than 10 mm Inert gas (Argon) passage
6mm - more than 22 mm
C. Process of SMAW
4,0 -1
I1l Non Consumable
This is a simplest welding process, mostly used in industries. This is a manual welding process, Tungsten Electrode
where the electrode is continuously consumed during welding process.
In this welding, one terminal of the power source is connected to the work piece and another to
^^a^^O111h^ Work pice
the electrode through a cable and holder. Initially electrode is touched to the work piece, so that arc is
initiated. Then the electrode is withdrawn to a certain distance to maintain arc. Heavy current flows
through the arc. So sufficient heat is produced to melt welding area of the work piece as well as electrode
\`\\\\^ff/////„////////,I'I
tip along with flux coating.
Flux Coating

Wire
Core Tungsten
Electrode
Weld Pool

Slag Weld Gas

Holder Passages

Electrode...* Power
source
Electrode Argon
Cable gas
Cylinder
Workpiece
Fig. 21.5 TIG Welding
Ground
Clamp Ground Cable
Fig. 21.4 SMAW Welding

Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
Arc is initiated by touching the electrode to the work piece. When arc is maintained then a
separate filler rod is inserted in to the arc area. Due to high heat of the arc this filler rod and welding area
of the work piece melts to form molten pool. Argon gas shields this pool from surrounding atmosphere.
After cooling of the pool, good quality welding is obtained. As no slag is produced so, chipping is not
required after welding. Current for the welding is adjusted by a regulator.
Filler rod
Like SMAW electrode, filler rods for TIG welding are available in various types. These filler rods
melt during welding process and this molten metal is mixed to the parent molten metal pool. So the filler rod
is consumed continuously. Filler rod is d( signated as S XX.
First alphabet "S" indicates the filler rod is solid. Second and third digit indicates the strength of
the material in kpsi. For S 80 filler rod 80 indicates its strength as 80 kpsi.Mostly S 70, S 80 and S 90 filler
rods are used for TIG welding of boiler tubes and pipes.
21.7.3 Pre heating
It is required to preheat some thick work piece to certain temperature uniformly through out the
thickness for better quality welding and to prevent or remove undesirable on the weld. Temperature of the
base metal, just surrounding the point of welding is raised either by gas burner, oxy gas flame electric heater
or induction heater. In multipass welding of some thicker jobs also preheating is required, between inter
pass welding. Normally preheating is required for welding job of higher wall thickness.
Preheating temperature is decided upon following factors.
(a) Composition of the base metal.
(b) Thickness of the base metal.
(c) Feasibility of post weld heat treatment.
During preheating, it is to be ensured that total thickness of area of preheats is heated uniformly.
Temperature of the base metal is checked with help of Thermal chalk. Thermal chalks are available for
various temperatures. The said chalk melts, when it is touched to the work piece. This conforms that the
work piece has attended the required temperature.
Reason of Preheating
o By heating the base metal, any moisture present at the area will dry out, this will help to avoid
porosity, hydrogen embrittlement or hydrogen cracking.
• The welding process uses high temperature during welding. There is high temperature difference
between cold base metal and welding area, causing differential thermal expansion and high stress
around welding area. Preheating minimizes this.
Preheating slows down cooling rate after welding, in the weld and base metal, producing more
•
ductile metallurgical structure.
21.7.4 Post weld Heat treatment (PWHT) .
Like preheating, post weld heating or stress reliving of weld area is carried out after welding of
thicker section base metal. Reason for PWHT are
• It is used for stress reliving of the welding joint area. This process removes internal. stress that may
develop during welding.
• It helps to obtain suitable metallurgical structure.
Maintenance of Power Plant 349
Steps of PWHT
I. Control temperature raise
Temperature of the base metal is raised at certain rate to attain the desirable temperature.
This is done by controlling current through the electric heater or induction heater. PWHT temperature is
selected as per chemical composition of the base metal.
H. Sock or hold temperature
Temperature of the base metal is kept constant at PWHT temperature for certain period. Socking
time may be one hour or two depending upon thickness of the material.
HI. Control cooling
After socking, the base metal is cooled slowly as per desired rate.
All the above process is recorded in a recorder. Temperatur,. sensor is used to measure the
temperature and record it.
21.7.5 Defects on welding
Welding is done to join two metal pieces together and the welding strength is required to be as
much as that of parent material. But during welding process some defects are noticed which weakens the
joint. A good quality weld is required to be free from all defects. Following defects usually noticed in a
welding.
• Crakes
Clue to unequal thermal expansion and contraction of metal during welding, crack develops.
• Lack of fusion
If sufficient heat is not available during welding process, fusion of parent material could not take
place.
' Porosity
Due to inclusion of slag, foreign material or gases, the joint is not homogeneous. This phenomenon
is called as porosity.
• Under cut
During welding process, root of the welding is fused more. This happens if the heat input is more.
The parent material melts more resulting under cut.
21.7.6 Testing of welding joints
Welding joint is required to be inspected thoroughly to avoid any defect. Strength of the joint
weakens due to defect on it. This may fail at any moment before the required stress level is reached.
Following testing and inspection methods are adopted to find out any defect in the welding joints.
• Visual inspection
The welding joint is inspected visually to find out any crack, under cut, lack of fusion or porosity.
Before inspection, welding slag over the welding is removed.
• Non destructive (ND) test
As discussed earlier, ND test is carried out to find out any defect in the welding. X-ray,
Die —penetration test, Magnetic particle test etc. are carried out. In power plants, mostly X-ray test
is used to check any defect in the welding in tubes, pipes or headers.
0 0 0


Control and Instrumentation 351

H. Signal processor
The input signal received from the sensor is processed or compared with standard signal to
obtain an output signal to indicate the parameter at the output device.
HI. Output device
CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION At output device, measured physical quantity is displayed. Display unit, recorder or plotter are
example of out put device. The output signal is used for process control also, which will be discussed later.
In modern process measurement, the principles used are so complex that we may not separate
_above three elements. Some time all these elements are integral part of a measuring instrument.
In a power plant mostly following process parameters are measured.
• Pressure
22.1 Introduction • Temperature
Control and Instrumentation (C&I) is an important system of any process plant. This system • Flow
measures and monitors the performance of any plant. So, some basic knowledge about C & I is required by
every power plant engineer. Now days the power plant is highly automated. In this chapter we will discuss o Level
in details about the scope and function of C& I in power plant. • Vibration
Control and Instrumentation are two functions i.e. Instrumentation and Control. Instrumentation • Weight
takes care of process measurement and control takes care of monitoring and control of these parameters • Speed
through suitable hardware and software. Now days process control is highly automated. Use of DCS and
We will discuss one by one about various process parameter measurements.
PLC, has made the plant operation very effic«; al id operator friendly. Various functions in power plant,
L

like- maintaining level, speed, temperature, pressure are done automatically through higher level of 22.3 Measurement of pressure
automation system. In the earlier chapter it is discussed about absolute pressure and gauge pressure. In power plant
Process measurement, measures the process parameters and show the operator exact condition it is required to measure the pressure of steam, water, air etc. For this measurement, pressure gauges are
of different process. used. For process control and measurement at DCS and PLC system, pressure transmitters are used. Various
principles are used for pressure measurement. Burdon tube and manometer are two important principle
It may not be possible to describe total scope of C & I in this Book. But sufficient care is taken
used for pressure measurement.
to describe some basics of C & I, to make the reader understand the function of C & I in a power plant.
22.3.1 Burdon tube Pressure gauge
22.2 Process measurement
Normally pressure gauges are installed at different locations of boiler and turbine field. Mostly
In a process plant it is required to measure various process parameters to know about current burdon tube type pressure gauge found in use.
process condition. The process measurement provides information about process value by measuring the
value of quantity or condition. Mainly process measurement comprises of three elements.
I. Sensor or input device
Pointer
II. Signal processor
III. Output device
For various process measurements, all these three elements may not be there. But for easy
understanding, we will discuss all these three elements. Burdon
tube
I. Sensor or input device
This is the device which is exposed to the process to be measured. For example thermocouples
and vibration probes. These sensors use various principles to convert physical quantity in to suitable signal.
Process

^' Sensor Signal Processor

Output device
Fig. 22.1 Process measurement
Process Connection
[350] Fig. 22.2 Burdon tube pressure gauge
 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation
\I
This type of gauge has a tube, bertn a circular arc, called as burdon tube. One end of the 22.3.2 Manometer
burdon tube is fixed and is connected to the pressure to be measured. Other end of the tube is free. When,
Manometer is a simple device to measure pressure. It has a transparent U. tube. This tube is
pressure is applied to the tube, radius of the circular arc increases. The movement of free end of the burden
partially filled with either water or mercury. Water or mercury is used widely'as their specific weight for
tube is transmitted to a sector. This sector moves a pointer connected t it over a calibrated scale to give
various temperatures are known and they don't stick to the tube.
mechanical indication of pressure.
When this pressure gauge is used for measurement of pressure of hot steam, sufficient care is to P2 l P

be taken, so that burden tube does not come in contact with hot steam directly. For this water sealing
arrangement is made. Following two methods are adopted for installation-ofpressure gauge _on_hot__
steam pipe line.
Case -1-

In this case, the impulse line is connected to top of the steam pipe line and pressure gauge is
fixed at a lower level. Due to condensation of steam, water seal is always available. '

Impulse Line ,

Fig. 22.5 Manometer

Pressure to be measured is applied at one end of the tube of the manometer. Reference pressure,
normally atmospheric, is applied to the other end of the tube. When level of the liquid is balanced, at that
condition.
P2 —P1 =yh
Fig. 22.3 Pressure gauge fixed at lower level
Case2 P2 — Unknown pressure
In this case the impulse line is connected to top of steam pipe line and pressure gauge is fixed at P1— Reference pressure
higher elevation than steam pipe line. A loop, to collect condensate is provided in the impulse line near y — Density,of manometer liquid
pressure gauge. h — Difference in level
Pressure gauge
Here it is assumed that the density of fluid whose pressure is to be measured is negligible.

22.3.3 Pressure Sensor / Transmitter

Pressure transmitter generates a signal which is proportional to the applied pressure. The applied
pressure is converted into mechanical movement first in a pressure sensor. This mechanical movement is
then converted into electrical signal. Following techniques are utilized to produce mechanical movement.
• Burdon tube
• . Spring and piston
• Bellows and capsule
• Diaphragm
• Strain gauge
Burdon tube principle is explained earlier. The movement of burdon tube, due to applied pressure
Fig: 22.4 Pressure gauge fixed at higher level acts as a presser sensor.


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
In spring and piston method, pressure is applied to a piston, which moves against the compression
of spring. The position of piston is proportional to applied pressure.
Spring
Piston
t Pressure
Fig. 22.6 Spring and piston type pressure sensor
When pressure is applied to a closed bellow, the bellow expands and produces mechanical
movement in proportion to applied pressure.
Fig. 22.7 Bellow type Pressure Sensor
Diaphragm type pressure transmitter is found mostly used for process pressure measurement.
When pressure is applied on the thin diaphragm, it expands. This movement of the diaphragm is utilized to
measure pressure. Movement
^ Diaphragms
Control and Instrumentation 355
In strain gauge principle, the mechanical movement changes in length of the element. This
movement of element can be utilized to change electrical resistance.
The mechanical movement obtained at above sensors is converted in to electrical signal. Following
methods are used to get electrical signal from mechanical movement.
I. - Piezo electric method
II. Capacitive method
Piezo electric method
In this type of pressure transmitter a piece of crystalline material is used. There are certain
substances which generate voltage when they are subjected to mechanical forces or stress. These substances
are generally crystalline which are available in two types
• Natural
' Synthetic
Natural crystalline are quartz and tourmaline and synthetic crystals includes Rochelle salts,
Barium titrate, Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (ADP).
Crystalline material produces an electric change on its surface when it is mechanically stressed.
This electric change is measured. The crystalline material is stressed due to mechanical movement of the
sensor as discussed earlier.
Capacitive method
In this method, mechanical movement of the sensor changes capacitance of the electronic
component which produces output signal proportional to pressure applied.
22.3.4 SMART Transmitter
Now day's SMART transmitters are used widely in power plants for measurement and control.
This transmitter is microprocessor based. It has following features
• It has memory
• Can be programmed
• Can convert analog signal to digital
o Can perform calculation
• Can diagnosis self faults
• Can communicate with remote location
• Less sensitive to effect of temperature and humidity
This transmitter is more preferred over simple electronic transmitter. Both analog and digital out
put signal is obtained from this transmitter at same time. Normally 4 - 20 mA out put signal is obtained
from this transmitter. This signal is less affected to electrical disturbances.

■- Casing 4-20 rnA

Analog output

Digital ' output

Pressure Communicator
Fig. 22.8 Diaphargm type pressure sensor
Fig. 22.9 Block diagram of SMART transmitter


356 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation
With help of a communicator, testing, configuring, feeding or acquiring data can be done on three types.
line. Communicator is a hand held interface device that allows digital instructions. The communicator can • Two valve manifold
be. connected directly to the SMART transmitter or in parallel any where in the loop. • Three valve manifold
Mostly variable capacitance (Diaphragm) and variable resistance (strain gauge or piezo electric) • Five valve manifold
methods are utilized for primary sensing of the transmitter. Two valve manifold is used for absolute or gauge pressure transmitter.
Electronic circuit
Transmitter
Output_

^ Drain /vent

^ Metalic Surface
PIE s22.11 Two valve manifold
Three valve manifold is used for differential transmitter. In this case when equalizing valve is
opened, pressure difference at both side of the moving diaphragm become zero. This valve is used to test
^ Movable sensing zero reading of the transmitter.
diaphragm

Transmitter

+ +
Port Port
Equalize valve
Fig. 22,10 Variable Capacitor type SMART Pressure transmitter
In the above figure, a variable capacitance transmitter is shown. When pressure is applied, the —^ Drain/vent valve
movable diaphragm deflects due to pressure difference between both sides of the diaphragm. The moving
diaphragm acts as a capacitance plate. Two metalic surface acts as the fixed plate of the capacitor.
When, the moving diaphragm deflects; capacitance between the moving and fixed plate changes. Fig. 22.12 T ree valve manifold
The electronic circuit measures variation of the capacitance between moving and fixed plate and generate Proper care is required to be taken while installing pressure transmitter. So that hot fluid is not
a signal which is proportional to differential pressure applied. directly applied to the moving diaphragm.
Variable resistance SMART transmitters are also used. The principle of operation is discussed earlier. 22.4 Measurement of Temperature
Absolute pressure, gauge pressure and differential pressure (DP) can be measured by these
Measurement of temperature is an important function in power plant. It is required to measure
transmitters. DP transmitters are also used to measure Level and Flow.
temperature of feed water, steam, flue gas, air etc. at various points. Temperature is a critical parameter to
Gauge pressure know about the process condition.
To measure gauge pressure, pressure is applied to one port of the sensor ,chile other port is kept
For measurement of temperature, various techniques are used. Like pressure measurement
open to atmosphere.
temperature measurement has main two elements i.e.- sensor and transmitter. The sensor is exposed to hot,
Absolute pressure fluid whose temperature is to be measured. Sensor uses following principles.
One port of the transmitter is closed (welded or vacuum sealed) when it is used to measure • Thermocouple (TC)
absolute pressure. When pressure is applied to the other port it indicates absolute pressure. • Resistance temperature device (RTD)
Differential pressure (DP) • Liquid expansion and vapor pressure
To measure differential pressure, pressure is applied at both the ports. Transmitter indicates the • Bimetallic
difference between two applied pressures. • Infrared
SMART pressure transmitters, are mounted over manifolds. The manifolds are available in • Pyrometer


358 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation 359
In power plant, mostly thermocouple (TC) and resistance temperature device (RTD) sensors are A special type of resistance is used some times. It is made of small piece of semi conductor
found in use. Liquid expansion method is used to measure temperature of process fluid at site. In non material. In this case a small change in temperature produces large resistance change. This types of sensor
contact type methods like pyrometer and infrared techniques, sensor does not come in contact with is called as thermister.
hot fluid.
22.4.3 Infrared temperature measuring device
22.4.1 Thermocouple This is a non contact type temperature measuring device. Here measurement of temperature is
When two different metal wires having different electrical properties are joined at both ends and done by measuring thermal radiation emitted by a hot body. This thermal radiation is called as infrared.
one joint end is heated then a potential difference is produced between two junctions. This phenomenon is Wave length of this radiation is longer than that of visible light.
called as seebeck effect. This potential difference is proportional to the temperature difference between___ —22.4.4 Liquid expansion type temperature measuring device
two joints or junction points.
In this type, sensor is filled with liquid such as mercury or a liquid as used as refrigerant. When
The junction voltage is measured which is calibrated to temperature scale. The emf generated is
given by, sensor is heated the liquid filled inside produces expansion or evaporation. So, the sensor become pressurized.
The pressure inside the sensor varies as the temperature rises. This pressure raise is measured and converted
E= a(T iT2 )+R(T2 -Tfl in to temperature scale.
Where 22.4.5 Temperature transmitter
a and 13 are the constants and depends upon type of thermocouple. Like pressure transmitter, temperature is used now days for process measurement and control.
Out put of the temperature transmitter is digital and can be connected to plant automation system like-
Measuring junction Voltmeter
DCS or PLC. Without installing transmitter also the out put signal of thermocouple and RTD type sensor
(Hot) can be connected to DCS or PLC, as these signals are electrical quantity.
But for transmission of these weak "ohm" or "mV" signal without disturbance, transmitters are
preferred. In temperature transmitter these weak low level signal is converted in to high level analog signal,
which can directly interface with an indicator, recorder or DCS/PLC.
These transmitters are microprocessor based and h, 'e various advantages. It is required to
install temperature transmitter close to sensor location, to avoid any signal disturbance. Out put 4-20 mA
signal is connected to the control device.
Temperature transmitters are available in three mounting options.
o Rail mounting
Dissimilar metal wire
Fig. 22.13 Thermocouple • Field mounting
Thermocouples are available in several forms. For industrial use the sensor comes in a metal enclosure. • Head mounting
22.4.2 Resistance temperature device (RTD) Rail mounted transmitter is fixed inside a junction box. The transmitter is fitted in to junction box
through rail arrangement. Normally, many transmitters are fixed in the junction box to which sensor cables
Electrical resistance of a metal conductor changes as its temperature changes. Resistance increases
of various sensors are terminated. Out put of all transmitter are taken to DCS or PLC.
when the conductor is heated and decreases when it is cooled.
Field mounted transmitter can be mounted directly at field as its construction is robust and can
The relationship between resistance and temperature is given as withstand difficult industrial environment. This type of transmitter is mounted closure to the sensor.
R=R° (1+aT)
Head mounted transmitter is an integrated part in the housing or connection head of the
Where temperature sensor.
R = Resistance of the conductor when heated to, temperature T
22.4.6 Thermo well
R° = Resistance of conductor at 0°C
Thermo well is widely used in power plants. It is used to provide protection to the temperature
a = Temperature co-efficient of resistance sensors. The sensor is kept isolated from direct contact with the medium, whose temperature is to be
Resistor Element
measured. Thermo well also allows removing or replacing sensor without danger of leakage of hot medium.
22.5 Measurement of Flow
In power plants, it is required to measure flow of fluids like cooling water, feed water, steam, air
etc. Various types of flow meters are used for this. Some of the common types are
• Mechanical flow meter
• Differential flow meter
• Electromagnetic flow meter
Connecting RTD Housing • Ultrasonic flow meter
Leads
Fig. 22.14 Resistance temperature device (RTD)
• Rotameter


360 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation 361

22.5.1 Mechanical flow meter Following elements are used as primary element of these type flow meters.
• Orifice
In this type of flow meter, there is a mechanism positioned at the path of flow of fluid, which
rotates continuously at a speed which is proportional to flow rate. Normally this type of meter is used to Nozzle
measure flow of liquid. Venturi
Mechanical flow meters are available in two groups. Theseelements actas anobstacle and placedat the flow path of the fluid, causing localized
1. Positive displacement type changes in velocity. This change in velocity produces change in pressure. The differential pressure is measured
through a DP transmitter.
• Reciprocating piston
_ _ This differential pressure on either side of the obstruction is tapped and measured. Flow is given
• Rotary piston by following equation.
• Nutating disc
e = KaP
• Helix type Where
H. Inferential type q=flow
• Single or multi jet type K = Meter constant
• Turbine type DP = Differential pressure
2
• Horizontal or vertical propeller type
Operating principle of displacement type is volumetric: Displacement of detecting element is
proportional to volume of liquid flow. Shaft of the meter rotates gnce for exact quantity of fluid is passed.
This rotation can be measured with mechanical or electronic device, which indicates the flow.
In inferential type flow meter, moving rotor of the meter rotates at a speed proportional to Flow direction
velocity of flow through the meter. Turbine meter is most commonly used meter in this type.
Turbine type meter has a rotor with multiple blades. The rotor spins as the liquid passes through (a) orifice di < d2
these blades. Speed of the rotor. is proportional to flow rate. This speed can be measured with help of
magnetic pick up tachometer or mechanical gear arrangement.
Magnetic
pickup

Body 'Flow direction

(b) Nozzle

Flow
direction

Flow direction
Rear (c) venturi
Front
ROtor Shaft Bushing Rotor
Support Fig. 22.16 Differential pressure type flow measurement
support
Fig. 22.45 Turbine type flow
• meter Orifice is popularly used primary device for DP flow measurement. This is a flat piece of metal
22.5.2 Differential pressire type flow meter with a specific sized hole bored on it. The orifice plate material•is suitable for pressure and temperature
This type of flow meter is widelyused in industries for flow measurement. In power plant, it is range of the fluid to be measured. The hole is concentric, eccentric or conical type. Orifice plate is inserted
used to measure flow of boiler feed water, condensate, steam etc. This meter is maintenance free as it don't in to pipe between two flanges.
have any moving part. Orifice plates are available in two designs.
Basic operating principle of differential. pressure flow, measurement is very simple. The pressure I. Thin orifice plate
drop across the meter is. proportional to square df flow rate or flow rate is proportional to square root of II. Sharp square edge orifice plate
differential pressure across the meter.


362 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation 363

22.5.3 Electromagnetic flow meter Time of travel or transit type flow meter have transducers mounted at each side of the pipe.
This type of flow meter can measure flow of any fluid which is electrically conductive. The basic Speed of the signal wave traveling between transducers increases or decreases with the velocity of liquid to
principle of operation depends on faradays law of electromagnetic induction. When an electric conductor be measured. A time differential relationship which is proportional to liquid velocity is measured. The liquid
moves inside a magnetic field in a direction perpendicular to its lines of force, an emf is generated which is whose flow is to be measured, should not have discontinuities as in case of Doppler type, so that there will
proportional to number of lines of force is cut by the conductor in unit time. be minimum ss^al scattering and absorption.
Here constant magnetic field is generated around the pipe by a magnet or energizing coils. I--^ Transmitter
The flowing liquid acts as a conductor. EMF is generated which is directly proportional to the flow. The I !_
1,1
generated emf is collected from two electrodes mounted at the pipe wall and is measured by some secondary
device; which-is then converted into flow.
Flow

Receiver

Fig. 22.19 Timer of travel type ultrasonic flow meter

22.5.5 Rotameter
Rotameter is an indicating instrument by which flow of most of the fluids can be measured. This is
a simple instrument. It has a metering tube and a float. The metering tube normally has a glass tube on
which scale is etched and suitable inlet and outlet connection provision is made. In earlier design rotation of
the float was created for keeping the float centering and stabilizing. So it was called rotameter. But now days
the float is non rotating type.
Flow of fluid takes place through the metering tube vertically upward. When flow takes place,
the float raises until a condition of equilibrium is reached. At this point the upward thrust on the float, due
to differential pressure which is generated due to flow of fluid through the tube, is equal to the weight of
float. Position of the float indicates flow.

Fig. 22.17 Electromagnetic flow meter

22.5.4 Ultrasonic flow meter
Ultrasonic sound wave is used in this type of flow meter to measure the velocity of flow of tht ,
fluid. These are available in two types.
I. Doppler type . Float
II. Time of travel or transit type
Doppler meter measures the frequency shifts caused by liquid flow. Two transducers are mounted
in a case attached to the pipe. One transducer is called as transmitter and another one is called as receiver.
Ultrasonic sound wave of known frequency is sent to the liquid whose flow is to be measured, through Scale
Metering Tube
transmitter. Solids, bubbles or any discontinuity present in the liquid causes reflection of wave, which is
received by the receiver transducer. As the liquid causing the reflection is moving, so the frequency of reflected wave
is shifted. This frequency shift is proportional to liquid velocity. This reflected signal is measured and converted =
suitably to find out the flow. Portable Doppler meters are available with rechargeable internal power pack.
Transmitter Discontinuity
Flow direction

Fig. 22.20 Rotameter

22.6 Measurement of level of liquid

Level measurement is one of the important process measurement. In power plant, it is required
Receiver to measure level of various liquid and solid materials. Liquid level like- water tank, DM Water tank,
Fig. 22.18 Doppler type Ultrasonic flow meter


364 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation
365
condenser hot-well level, Deaerator level as well as level of solids like coal bunker, ash hopper etc. are attraction. One side of the indicator is white while other side is red. When it is attracted by float magnet red
measured. In this section we will discuss about level measurement of liquid. Measurement of solid level will side is displayed. These flags are closely spaced and give a very distinct column corresponding to tank level.
be discussed later on.
Level measurement of liquid is of two types.
• Direct method
• Indirect method
Magnetised
Metal Flipper

Level measurement is obtained directly on this method. Mainly three types of level measurement
are used in this method.
• Sight glass type
• Magnetic level gauge type
• Float type
22.6.1 Sight glass type
This is a simple method of level measurement of any liquid in a tank. It consists of a scaled glass
Fig. 22.22 Magnetic level gauge
tube which is connected to lower and upper level of the tank with isolation valves. As level of the liquid in
the tank changes, level in the glass tube also changes. 22.6.3 Float type level measurement
This is a simple type of level measurement of a liquid tank. A float is used here. This float follows
the level of liquid due to its buoyancy. The float is attached to a cable on to which an indicating pointer is
attached. The pointer moves over a scale, which is calibrated in terms of level of the tank.

--^ Level gauge glass .

Tank —^ . ,\., • \ • \ .,.• \

, . 1 Float
's S

•*,,.:.,
... ....
—*Scale
.. . . ... .

Fig. 22.21 Sight glass type level measurement

The glass tube is protected by some metallic protective covering around it.
22.6.2 Magnetic level gauge type
Fig. 22.23 Float type Level gauge
Glass type level gauge is unsafe and the glass tube becomes invisible after continuous contact Indirect methods of level measurement
with medium. So, now a day's magnetic level gauge is widely used in place of a simple sight glass type
In this method, level measurement is done by measuring a variable that changes with level.
gauge glass. Some of the widely used methods are.
Magnetic liquid level gauge has a vertical measuring chamber which is connected to the tank at • Pressure gauge type
both the ends like glass type level gauge. This vertical measuring chamber contains a magnetic float. RF Capacitor type
Magnetic float is a permanent magnet and float inside this measuring chamber. It raises and falls according
Differential pressure type
to the liquid level of the tank. An indicating chamber which contains small metallic strip indicators is
attached to this measuring chamber. These metal strip indicators are flipper type. When the float magnet Ultrasonic type
of the measuring chamber passes over these metallic strip indicators, they rotate 180° due to magnetic Radar type


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant
22.6.4 Pressure gauge type
This is a simple indirect method of level measurement. In this method the pressure exerted by a
column or head of liquid in the tank is measured. A pressure gauge is fixed at the lowest level of the tank.
The pressure at this point changes with change in height of liquid inside the tank. The pressure measured is
calibrated to height of the liqù level.
Control and Instrumentation 367
applied sheathing of the probe acts as insulation between these two. As level of fluid changes the capacitance
also changes. The measured capacitance is converted in to level of tank.
22.6.6 Differential pressure type
Differential pressure (DP) method of level measurement is used widely in power plants to measure
level of various storage tanks.

DP Transmitter
Tank

Fig. 22.26 DP type level measurement

Fig. 22.24 Pressure gauge type level measurement
One port of the transmitter is connected to the lower level impulse line and another port is
22.6.5 RF capacitance type connected to the upper level impulse line. Level can be measured between these two tapings by measuring
RF capacitance (radio frequency) uses the electrical characteristic of a capacitor to measure level. the differential pressure between these two. When the tank is full, pressure at lower tapping is more and DP
is also more. When tank level is low then pressure at lower tapping is less and DP is less. When the tank is
at atmospheric pressure, upper tapping is not required. This end of the DP transmitter is kept open to
atmosphere.
The DP measured by this method is converted in to level.
22.6.7 Ultrasonic type
In this method, ultrasonic sound wave is used to measure level. A transmitter directs ultrasonic
wave down ward towards surface of the measuring material. Echo of this wave is received in a receiver.
Time taken by the wave from transmission to receiving indicates the level of proce3s material.
Metalic
probe
Sensor

Conducting
_y Non-conducting Medium
Medium
^ Ultrasonic wave
—^ Bare Metalic Probe Probe Insulation

(a) Non -Conducting Medium (b) Conducting Medium

Fig. 22.25 RF Capacitance type level measurement ^ Medium

A measurement probe is placed inside the tank. This probe acts as one plate of capacitor and
the tank metallic wall acts as another plate. These two plates are separated by the medium whose level is
to be measured. When level of the medium changes, capacitance of above capacitor also changes.
This change in capacitance is dependant upon level of the medium. In this case the medium should be
insulating material.
When the medium is conducting, an insulating coat or sheathing is applied over the measuring
probe. Probe acts as one plate of capacitor where as conducting medium acts as another plate and the
Fig. 22.27 Ultrasonic' type level measurement
 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation
Sensor (consisting of transmitter and receiver) is fixed at the top of the tank. This is a non Strain gauge is one type of load cell. Mostly it measures the resistance. It acts on the principle
contact type level measurement. . that - when a metal conductor is stressed or compressed its resistance changes, due to change in its length
and diameter. This principle is applied to make a load cell.
22.6.8 Radar type
22.8 Continuous weight measurement
In this method Electromagnetic micro wave is used. This is a non contact type level measurement.
Electromagnetic wave is directed downward to the process fluid surface through a sensor, consisting of In power plant it is required to measure the weight of material conveyed continuously through a
conveyor belt. Particularly it is required to weigh the coal that is fed to boiler through a conveyer belt.
transmitter and receiver. The receiver of the sensor receives back a portion of the energy that is reflected
from the process fluid surface which indicates level of the medium. For this purpose belt weigher is used. In this section we will discuss about a simple belt weigher
which is mostly used for belt weighing purpose.
22.7 Measurement of level of solids Belt weigher provides means of weighing bulk material while in motion. Belt weigher uses a load
In earlier section, we discussed the method of level measurement commonly used to measure cell to measure the material weight on the belt and send this signal to a processor where the conveyor speed
level of liquids. In power plant, it is required to measure the bunker, Sailo or Bin level of solids like coal, is also measured. The conveyed material applies a force proportional to its weight through the belt to the
Ash, etc. In this section we will discuss some commonly used methods to measure level of solids. load cell. Using these weight and speed of the conveyor, processor calculates the rate of material transferred
on the belt.
Following techniques are found in uses to measure the level of solids in Bins, Hoppers or Silos.
22.9 Measurement of vibration
• Ultrasonic
Measurement of vibration and axial displacement of turbine rotor is a critical function in any
• Guided wave Radar turbine turbovisory system. We can find very simple vibration measuring system in power plants,
o Radar For measurement of vibration, vibration measuring sensors are used as primary sensing element.
• Laser This sensor produces electric signal using eddy current principle.
• Load cells/ strain gauges' The sensor contains a coil which is wound on a permanent magnet. When a ferromagnetic
First four methods measure distance from sensor location to surface of the material and hence material is moved with respect to the magnet, magnetic flux crated by the coil varies and hence the induced
height of material in the vessel. Load cell and strain gauge measures mass of material by measuring the emf. This induced emf is proportional to the gap between magnet and ferromagnetic material. This gap
force exerted on a sensing element. voltage indicates the gap between the foromagnetic material and the sensor.
22.7.1 Ultrasonic method 22.10 Process control
Like ultrasonic level measurement of liquid, level of any solid in a vessel is measured. Process control is one of the important instrumentation function in any process industry. The out
The time between transmitted and reflected ultrasonic wave indicates the height of material in the vessel. put of any process is measured and corrective action is initiated, incase of any deviation from the desired
level. So, the process control is the combination of process measurement and corrective action in case of
22.7.2 Guided wave Radar method deviation.
The radar method of level measurement is called as time domin reflectometry (TDR). But in this For any process control there are following elements.
method there are chances of false echo from walls of the vessel. To overcome this difficulty guided wave
I. Primary measuring device or sensor
radar technique is used.
In this technique a rod or cable is used to guide the microwave as it passes down from sensor in II. Controller
to the material whose level is to be measured. By this technique the spread of microwave beam is controlled III. Actuator or out put device
by help of probe that is introduced directly in to the media. This guide probe concentrates radar signal Primary measuring device or sensors are
within a small diameter cylinder along the probe.
• Sensing devices
22.7.3 Laser method
In this method, distance from the sensor to surface of material is measured. A microprocessor • Switches or push bottoms
based measuring device calculates distance by multiplying the speed of light by the time taken by a laser • Proximity switches
pulse to travel from the sensor to a target and back. Infrared light is used in this case. The laser beam has
very little divergence, so that accurate targeting is possible. • Limit switches
22.7.4 Load cells/strain gauge method Actuator or out put devices are
Load cell is a popular device to measure weight. Weight of material is converted in to measurable o Valves
electrical output. o Solenoids
In this method the material in the bin, hopper or silo is weighed continuously through a load cell. • Motors
By knowing the weight of material, volume of the material is calculated! Entire bin is supported by load
o Actuators
cell, so that, any change in the material level in the bin, produces a change in weight which is measured in
load cell. o Positioners


Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation 371
For example let us consider the above tank. To keep the tank level always at 80%, we have to
Actuator consider close loop control system in this case.
or output device

Fig. 22.28 Block diagram of process control

Process parameter is measured by a measuring device or sensor which gives feed back to a
controller. Controller compares this input with preset value and-generates a signal, which actuates an—-
actuator or out put device, to bring back the process parameter to normal desired value.
Sensing device is discussed in the earlier section. Actuator or out put device will be discussed
later on. In this section we will discuss about controllers.
There are two types of control system. These are
I. Open loop control system
Level transmitter
II. Closed loop control system
Open loop control system
In this control system the out put device or actuator is actuated when the out put process value
is reached a preset value.
Fig. 22.31 Closed loop Control
ON/OFF
Controller Actuator
Signal In this case the level of the tank is continuously measured. When level falls below 80% then
controller generates a signal to open control valve to allow fluid to flow to the tank. When level become
Fig. 22.29 Open loop control system more than 80%, the controller out put closes the valve.
For exam le - Liquid is to be filled in the tank when the level of the tank falls to certain level. Continuously the out put is measured and used as feed back of the controller in this case.
Level switch of the t k operates when level becomes low and opens a valve to fill up tank.
Error Actuating
Set point signal Signal Output
--^ Controller Actuator

Fig. 22.30 Open loop control
Closed loop control system
In the above example the tank can be filled up by a level switch. But the level in the tank can not
be maintained to certain level automatically. In closed loop control system it is possible. The level in the
tank can be maintained up to desired level with very little deviation.
I
Feed back
Fig. 22.32 Closed Loop Control System
This measured feed back is always compared with the set point and control action is initiated if
there is any deviation. Difference between set point and feed back is called as error signal.
In power plant process control, this close loop control system is widely used to control process
variations. .
22.11 PID Controller
Most of the closed loop control system used now days to control process variations uses PID
Controller. This is a very simple controller having ability to control any difficult or complicated process and
with proper tuning, it can maintain the process value very close to set point.
In PID controller "P" stands for Proportional, "I" stands for Integral and "D" stands for derivative.
The error signal (difference of set point and feed back) is used to get out put signal from controller.
In Proportional (P) element the actuating signal is proportional to this error signal. In interregnal
(I) element the actuating signal is integral function of error signal and in Jeri' alive (D) element the
actuating signal is the derivative function of error signal.


372 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation 373,
To get better control effect the PID elements are tuned separately. Microprocessors are used for 22.12.1 Pneumatically operated control valve
PID controller. PID controller has three display windows to display process value (PV), set value (SV) and
actuator position. Pneumatic control valves are mostly used in power plants for process control. Following process
PV SV ACT
control are done by these valves in power plant.
o Boiler drum level control
• Final steam temperature control
• Hot well level control
Deaerator level control
• Steam pressure and temperature control at PRDS
Mostly diaphragm type control valves are used. In this valve there is a pneumatic actuator which
operates a valve for final process control. Linier motion of the valve spindle is achieved due to upward and
down ward movement of the actuator. Upward and downward movement of the diaphragm is obtained by
compressed air.
There is a flexible membrane called as diaphragm. When compressed air is applied on this
diaphragm, force is resulted which is equal to air pressure multiplied by area of diaphragm. Due to this
force, the diaphragm moves against a spring. This spring keeps the valve in required position (open or close)
in absence of air supply.
As the air pressure increases, force on the diaphragm increases. Spindle starts moving against
n force of the spring. This movement stops where spring tension is equal to applied force on the diaphragm.
Raise Normally two types of valves are used depending upon the process it has to control. These are
Auto 0. Manual
• Air to open
• Air to close
Lower
Fig. 22.33 PID Controller
The choice between these two depends upon to what position the valve should back in case of
failure of compressed air supply. Should the valve close or be wide open in case of failure of air supply,
It has facility to tune P I & D elements. Buttons are provided to change the set point and to put depends upon the nature of application and safety requirements.
the controller in auto or manual control mode. Operating
Air
Now a days PID controllers are programmed in PLC or DCS system.
22.12 Actuator or out put device
As discussed earlier, actuating signal obtained from controller is used to correct the process AdIME
parameter through out put device or actuator. Actuator or out put device is the final correcting device in
process control. Some of the important out put devices found in use for process control in power plant are
listed below.
SpringMilt Diaphargm ,II IU
• Control valve
Operating
• Variable speed drive air
• Solenoid valve
• Pneumatic cylinder Valve Valve
• Electrically operated valve (a) Air to Close (b) Air to Open

• Hydraulic cylinder Fig. 22.34 Pneumatic operated control valve

• Motorized positioner
Some of the above devices. are pneumatically operated and some are electrically operated.
Some time hydraulic operated actuators are also used. Main function of these devices is to control the
process parameter.
In air to close type control valve, the valve remains in open condition during absence of air
supply. When air is applied from the top over the diaphragm, the force exerted compresses the spring and
moves the spindle downward to close the valve. As the air pressure increases the valve plug moves progressively
and finally closes the valve. When air fails the valve spindle moves due to action of spring and opens
the valve.


374 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation 375
In air to open type control valve, the valve remains close during absence of air. Air is applied UP converter converts 4-20 mA electrical signal from DCS to pneumatic signal.
below the diaphragm. The force exerted, compresses the spring and moves the spindle upward to open the
valve. When air pressure increases the force on the diaphragm increases which compress the spring further
and opens the valve fully. When air fails, due to spring action valve closes immediately. A scale and pointer
is attached to the spindle to know the position of valve.
Basic design of any pneumatic control valve depends upon following aspects.
• _ Temperature of process fluid
• Pressure difference between upstream and downstream of the valve seat.
I/p
• Permissible leakage 4-20mA
Control Signal
• Fluid volume the valve has to handle Positioner
Positioner and I/P Converter
Above discussion provide us simple concept of pneumatic type control valve. Some time we will Air Supply

find a positioner and a I/P converter is attached to the valve.

Some time, due to higher friction and higher differential pressure, more air pressure is required to
operate a valve. In these valves, stronger springs are used to overcome these effects. In this situation a
positioner is fitted to the valve yoke and is linked to the spindle of the valve by feed back arm in order to
monitor the valve position. The positioner has three ports connected to compressed air supply, control Fig. 22.36 Control valve arrangement
pneumatic signal from controller or IIP converter and out put air to control valve as shown in the The arrangement of I/P and P/P converter and control valve is shown in the figure. Now days
figure below. SMART positioners are used which is microprocessor based for better process control.
Out put air
to valve 22.12.2 Solenoid valve
i Solenoid valve is an electromechanical valve. The valve is operated by electric supply. Mostly
these valves are ON or OFF type. The valve consists of a solenoid which is a coil. This coil is magnetized
Signal pressure when electric current passes through it. When the coil is magnetized it attracts a plunger which changes the
~- from controller or state of the valve position. The valve is available as normal open (NO) and normally closed (NC) type. In
I/P Converter
NO type valve the valve closes when current is supplied to it. Where as NC type valve opens when current
is supplied. A spring is used to bring back the valve to original position in case of failure of current.
Solenoid valve is available in two or three way port connection.
Air supply 22.12.3 Motorized valve
Fig. 22.35 Positioner
In some application motorized valve is used in place of pneumatic valve. Motorized valve uses
an electric motor to operate the valve. Spindle of the valve is connected to a motorized actuator. The valve
The positioner compares input pneumatic signal and valve position and provides output pressure may be globe, gate or butterfly type. Movement of the spindle depends upon the type of valve. In case of
to the actuator accordingly. Merits of positioner are listed below. butterfly valve the spindle rotates. Where as, in case of globe or gate valve the spindle movement is
longitudinal.
• It ensures linear relationship between input and control valve position irrespective of change in
differential pressure, stem friction etc. The actuator may be multi turn or part turn type. In case of globe or gate valve application the
actuator has to rotate so many times to open or close the valve. But in case of butterfly valve the actuator
• It acts as a signal amplifier. It obtains low pressure pneumatic signal from controller or IIP converter
has to move only 90°. To convert the rotational movement of the actuator to longitudinal, there is gear
and provide a higher pressure output signal to actuator diaphragm by using a separate high arrangement.
pressure input.
Motorized valves are used for three different application duties as-
• Valve positioning is accurate.
• Open- Close duty
• Valve response is faster. • Positioning duty
Above discussed positioner is also called as P/P converter. This positioner uses pneumatic signal • Modulating duty
to provide pneumatic output. Any control valve with P/P converter and I/P converter can be used in PLC or
In Open — Close type the valve is used either to open or close the valve. Intermediate positioning
DCS based automation system for process control.
is not possible in this case. Mostly these valves are rarely operated and the interval between operations is
more.


376 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation 377

In positioning duty, the valve can be hold at defined intermediate position between Open Piston
or Close.
Modulating duty type valve can be used in closed loop process control system where the valve
position changes continuously to maintain the process parameter.
Spring
A motorized valve consists of following main components.
Road
A. Motor
Single phase or three phase motor is used as actuator. Some time DC motor is also used.Motor----
moves in forward or reveres direction as per requirement to open or close the valve. The motor is having Cylinder
higher torque to take care of sticky valves. As the valve is to be placed at very extreme working atmosphere, Operating air
so, the motor is not fan cooled. So, normally this motor is not continuous rating. The motor requires time
to cool after certain time. Fig. 22.37 Single acting Pneumatic Cylinder

B. Gear Double acting Cylinder

To reduce the high speed of motor, gear arrangement is provided. The reduction ratio is high and In this type of cylinder air is used to move the piston at both the directions. Air is admitted in to
the gear is self locking type to prevent accidental closing or opening. the cylinder at both ends of the cylinder. When air pressure below the piston is more than that of above the
C. Clutch and Manual Leaver piston, piston moves forward and when air pressure above piston is more than that of below the piston,
piston moves backward. Cylinder Piston
During non availability of electric supply the valve can be operated through hand wheel. Clutch
[
arrangement is provided so that the hand wheel does not move during motor operation.
D. Limit and Torque switch
To stop the actuator at the end position (Full open or full Close) two limit switches are provided.
When the valve reaches end position the limit switch of that end operates and the motor is stopped. Hence Road
these limit switches protect over travel of the valve.
Torque switch is provided to prevent the actuator from over loading due to high torque.
E. Motor control switch gear
i
The motor control switch gear is placed inside the actuator where contactors or thyristers are Air Below Air Above
placed to switch on or off the motor as well as to rotate the motor in forward or °everse direction. Also piston piston
position feed back of the valve is obtained to indicate valve position at DCS or PLC. Fig. 22.38 Double acting Pneumatic Cylinder

22.12.4 Pneumatic cylinder 22.12.5 Hydraulic cylinder

Pneumatic cylinder or air cylinder uses compressed air to produce force and hence movement of
a piston in linear direction. When compressed air enters in to the cylinder it pushes the piston and air is
expanded. A rod is connected to this piston. Movement of the piston moves this rod in linear direction.
These cylinders are found in various sizes.
Pneumatic cylinder is normally used to operate dampers of ID and FD fans. Signal from the
controller is used to position the cylinder at a desired position.
Pneumatic cylinders are available in following types.
• Single acting cylinder
• Double acting cylinder
Single acting cylinder
In this type of cylinder, air is admitted in to the cylinder at one end. It pushes the piston against
force of spring. When air pressure increases the movement of piston takes place and when air pressure
reduces the spring moves the piston to "Home" position.
Pressurized oil is used in hydraulic cylinder to obtain liner movement of the piston. Pressurized oil
is admitted to one end of the cylinder. Due to pressure of oil, force, equal to F = P x A, is created on the
piston. Where "A" is the area of piston and "P" is the pressure of oil. This force moves the piston in forward
direction. Piston is fitted with suitable seals or 0- rings to prevent pressurized oil leakage. The piston is
connected to a rod which moves along with piston. This rod is connected to the device which is to be
controlled.
Rod gland is provided at the interface area between cylinder head and rod to prevent oil leakage.
Like pneumatic cylinder, hydraulic cylinder is also available in various sizes. Hydraulic cylinder is
used at turbine stop valve and governing valve.
22.12.6 Variable speed drive
Variable speed drive or variable frequency drive (VFD) is used for various applications in power
plants. For process control these drives are used at following areas.
• ID fan — to control draft of boiler
° FD fan- to control air supply to boiler
• Coal feeder — to control coal supply to boiler


373 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation 379

• Cooling water pump- to control cooling water supply to condenser Rectifier unit consists of a 3q diode bridge. The applied 30 AC power is converted in to DC
intermediate power in this unit.
° Cooling tower fan- to control water temperature
The DC power obtained from the Rectifier unit is converted to 30 AC power again with required
• Condensate extraction pump- to control hot well level
frequency. Electronic switches and thyristors are used for this. Desired voltage and frequency is obtained by
° Boiler feed pump — to control boiler drum level switching on and off, DC out put of rectifier unit through these electronic switches and thyristers. The out
Variable speed drive or variable frequency drive is used to control speed of the drive by controlling put wave form of the inverter is closely approximates a sine wave.
frequency of power supplied to an AC motor. As the frequency is varied, so these drives are called as variable
Out put voltage is varied by changing the width and polarity of switched pulses where as out put
frequency drive (VFD). Some time this is also called as variable voltage and variable frequency (WF) drive.
frequency is adjusted by changing the switching cycle time. Out put of this inverter unit is connected to the
Speed of a motor is given by
motor which controls various process parameters.
RPM=120xF/P
Where — 22.13 Plant Automation
F — frequency in Hz Automation is a very complex system in a process industry. Meaning of automation is automatic
P — Number of poles of the motor process measurement, logical calculation and control to a desired value in totality of the plant operation.
Block diagram of VFD is shown below. Now a days the automation is very improved and plant operation is automatic to such an extent that
human interface is eliminated to certain extent. High speed data processing capability of microprocessor,
Input power Variable Frequency power
brought revolution in to day's industrial automation.
Detail on plant automation is beyond the scope of this book. Hence we will discuss some main
features and some basic idea about plant automation system.
AC Motor Now a day's mainly programmable logic control (PLC) or Distributed control system (DCS) is
Operator interface
used for plant automation. This system can handle lot of data and make decision, based upon the pre
Fig. 22.39 Block diagram of variable friquency drive
loaded programming, to control the plant process. This system can handle very complex process operation.
Normally 30 AC power is connected to a variable frequency controller. Depending upon the The speed and accuracy of PLC and DCS is very high.
operator interface signal or out put signal from process controller, variable frequency controller generates a We will discuss about PLC and DCS in the subsequent sections in details.
30 variable frequency power which is connected to a 30 AC induction motor. Speed of AC motor varies
according to the frequency, to change the process parameter to a new value. 22.13.1 Programmable logic control (PLC)
During starting of VFD normally low frequency and voltage is applied to the motor. So the high PLC is a special computer device used for plant automation. PLC belongs to computer family
starting current can be reduced. Then voltage and frequency can be increased at a control rate called as having inbuilt random access memory (RAM) and read only memory (ROM) features. It has a central
"ramped up to accelerate", to obtain required out put. processor unit (CPU) for entire data processing. Single PLC can replace thousand of control relays.
Variable frequency controller PLC is programmed for a specific process control, which can be changed as per requirement.
This is the main part of the VFD. It changes the frequency of the power supply. This is a solid According to programming, PLC continuously measures process inputs and generate out put signals. PLC
state electronic power conversion device. For conversion of power the controller has two units. also provides process feedback and understands operator instructions. A simple block diagram of PLC is
• Rectifier unit shown below.
CPU Output Module
Input Module
° Inverter unit
r. ^
i 1

Output

Input
Motor

Programm
Logic

Fig. 22.41 Block diagram of PLC

PLC is used now days in almost all industries for process automation in place of hardware
Rectifier Unit Inverter Unit control system. PLC is available in various sizes and shapes.
Fig. 22.40 Variable frequency controller


380 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation
381
Small fixed type PLC In programming mode the program logic is downloaded from a PC to the memory of CPU,
Small fixed type PLC of smaller capacity is used for small control logic of some individual where it is stored. In run mode the program is executed to control the process. The program is stored at read
equipment, like- Compressors, Ash handling system, etc. The PLC used in this case is a smaller one, having only memory (ROM) which is backed up by lithium battery supply source. CPU scans input and update the
few inputs and outputs (1/0 s). The processor capacity is also low. output accordingly, based upon program. Scan time of CPU is very fast in the order of 1/1000 th of a
second or milliseconds.
All the components of this type PLC are mounted on a printed circuit board. Small logic program
is loaded to the PLC through computer. Most of the time, this PLC is used for a specific requirement. The CPU processing cycle is shown in the block diagram below.
PLC used for compressor is only look after the operational automation of compressor.
This type PLC has no slotted components. Defect on any circuit of PLC requires change of __
entire PLC unit. This PLC is used in small equipments and circuits, having lesser operational logic. Most of
the operational checks can be viewed on two or three line display window through scrolling push button
sets. This PLC can be mounted at any type of atmosphere close to the equipment. Scan Input Execute Update
Programm Logic output
Modular type PLC
This type PLC is used for complex process automation of a plant having critical logic with lot of
inputs and outputs (I/O s). All components of PLC are in the form of individual printed circuit board and Fig. 22.42 CPU Processing Cycle
housed within an enclosure called as module. These modules slide in to slots provided in the back plate. To Some time two CPU units are provided to get redundancy in processor.
facilitate connection of individual modules to back plate, slots are provided. Back plate is a large printed
22.13.2.3 I/O Module
circuit board. Different type of terminal blocks are provided to facilitate termination of input and out put
terminals. Input and outputs are connected to PLC through I/O Module. It provides physical termination
Mostly this type of PLC is mounted in Panels. This PLC is having larger process data handling between equipment and PLC. Different I/O Modules are used for different I/Os. Inputs and out puts are
capability depending upon the process complexity. classified as

Modular type PLC is widely used for plant automation. It has lot of merits. Some of them are • Digital input (DI)
listed below. • Analog input (AI)
o It is easier for trouble shooting.
o Digital out put (DO)
o Defective module can be easily replaced.
• Analog output (AO)
o Capacity can be easily expanded by adding more compatible modules.
• I/O modules can be expanded to add any further improved process control logic. In PLC various types of inputs and outputs are used. Some of them are analog signals, mainly
o 4-20 mA signals. Some of them are discrete or digital which give a signal that is either "ON" or "OFF".
Mounted in panels. So it can be located in a safe and controlled atmosphere.
Some time an isolation circuit is provided for inputs and out puts to keep the field signals isolated from
• Can be programmed at site as per requirement and can be updated time to time. the PLC.
• Larger capacity of PLC is possible. Different modules can be placed at different panels. Some important inputs and out puts are listed below.
22.13.2 Different modules of PLC Digital Inputs (DI)
As discussed earlier PLC is having different modules for different functions. In this section we will • Push button
discuss about some main modules of a PLC.
o Selector switch
22.13.2.1 Power supply module
o Limit switch
This module supplies power requirement of PLC. Some time two power supply modules are
used for redundancy in power supply. This module is some time also called as power pack. Power module o Relay contacts
contains a battery to supply power to the processor during failure of auxiliary power supply.
Analog inputs (AI)
22.13.2.2 CPU
o Pressure transmitter
Central processing unit is the main module of any PLC. This is the brain of PLC. CPU module • Flow transmitter
is fixed to base plate through sliding slots.
o Level transmitter
CPU consists of microprocessor, memory chip and other integrated circuits to control logic,
monitoring and communication. • Temperature transmitter


382 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant Control and Instrumentation 383

Digital out put (DO) Ladder circuit of the above example is shown below.

o Pilot light
Ci
Rung Cc)
• Solenoid
• Relay coil CC?

• Motor starter
--Analog out put (AO)- - tI _fr (M)
C+ C2
• Pneumatic control valve
END)
• Variable frequency drive

• Analog meter
+ve -ve
o Hydraulic or pneumatic actuator
Fig. 22.43 Simple Ladder logic
I/O modules are available in 8, 16, 32 or 64 channels to facilitate connection of 8, 16, 32 or 64
inputs or out puts. These modules are arranged in such a way that, in future some more modules can be This is a simplest example of ladder logic. Left and right of the ladder indicate positive and
added. Cable from field equipment is termi; . :lie I/O module through suitable terminal block set. ground of power supply. The rungs represent wiring between different components.
Digital or analog inputs or outputs are terminated to the respective module. Large critical process logic can be written on ladder diagram method having many rungs.
22.13.4 Other features of PLC
Other than above main modules some more modules are also found. These are -
Other than process control, PLC is having other data handing facility, which is required for
Ethernet module assessing plant performance. Some of these features are -
This is used for communication between PLC and operator consol. Some time more than one • Data logging
PLC are used for plant operation and there are more than one operating stations and engineering stations. Process information
Communication between them is possible through Ethernet cable and Hub arrangement. Alarm handling
Profibus module Report generation
This module is also used for communication in between PLC and in between PLC and • Trending
I/O module. 1. Process information
Real time process data is visible at the operator console to inform operator about process status.
22.13.3 PLC programming 2. Trending
As said earlier the logic program of PLC is stored in the ROM of PLC. This is downloaded to the The process data obtained is shown in graphical form. Trend of variation of any process parameter
PLC memory from a PC. Normally This PC is called as engineering station. This PC is connected to PLC indicates process behavior in the past for certain duration. Trend can be obtained for 1 minute to some
weeks.
through networking or Ethernet. In programming mode the program can be modified or edited. But in run
3. Alarm handling
mode the program is run without scope of modification. Process logic is written in various methods. Some
of the widely used methods are mentioned below. This feature of PLC provides alarm in audible form incase any parameter goes beyond certain
desired level. This abnormal situation can be recorded for future reference.
• Ladder logic 4. Report generation
• Function block Different report is possible to be generated by putting different type of queries. Recorded data
available in PLC memory is used for this.
Ladder logic is a very simple and widely used programming method. It uses symbols instead of
words. The completed program looks like a ladder though it represents an electrical circuit. 5. Data logging
Let us consider following case for an example. Real time process data is stored for future use. Capability of data handling depends upon the
memory of PLC. Each PLC is having certain memory level. So, after some time interval, back up of the
When level of the tank lowers limit switch LS 1 closes and coil Cl picl s up to start pump M.
logged data is taken and the data is deleted from memory for further data logging.
when level of the tank increases to certain level limit switch LS 2 closes to pick up coil 2 and pump stops.


384 Boiler Operation Engineering & Power Plant

22.14 Distributed Control system (DCS)

DCS is used in today's industrial automation having more complex process and having lot of
input out put signals. DCS combines various stand alone process controls to a common platform and
integrates all the required hardware.
DCS may be categorized as higher version of plant automation system. Now a day there is no APPENDIX
significant difference between PLC and DCS. DCS is same as earlier discussed modular type PLC having
all the discussed modules. PLC -Of different process are networked through Ethernet to geta common
centralized operating system. Workstations, engineering stations, various PLCs are integrated through
networking. Operator can access any data of any PLC subsystem from any workstation. This makes the
plant operation centralized and data can be obtained from a common information base.
Length
DCS combines different PLCs of different area. So it is not possible to differentiate PLC 1 centimeter = 0.3937 inches
from DCS.
12 inches = 1 foot
PLC PLC PLC 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters
2 3
1 foot = 0.3048 meters
3 feet = 1 yard
1760 feet = 1 mile
Work Station 5280 feet = 1 mile
Work Station
-1
-2 1 yard = 0.9144 meters
1 meter = 3.28083 feet
Fig. 22.44 PLC and DCS
1 kilometer = 3281 feet
22.15 Human Machine Interface (HMI) 1 kilometer = 0.6214 miles
1 micron = 10-6 meter
In any automation system, the data to be shown to the operator should be in such a way that it
can be,understood by operator and manipulation made by operator in the workstation is to be understood Area
by processor of DCS or PLC. For this, special software is required to be loaded. HMI is interface between 1 Inch' = 6.4516 cm2
Man and Processor to interact. These includes graphics, flow diagrams, Knobs, Levers, control buttons etc.
The manipulation made by operator is converted in to processor recognized language to control the desired lm2 = 1550.003 inch'
process. lm2 = 10.76391 feet'
At workstation PCs, operator works with HMI. We will find various separate pages in the Mass
workstation to control various parameters. These pages are animated to provide information to the user in 1 kg = 2.204 pound
a very friendly manner. These pages are made as per operator's convenience.
1 Metric Ton = 1000 kg
1 Ton = 907.1847 kg
0 0 0 Flow
1 M3/Hr = 35.314 feet3/hr
1 lit/hr = 1000cm3/hr
1m3/hr = 264.17 Gallons/hr
1 feet3/hr = 7.48 Gallons/hr
[385]
 Specification of some Pipe Lines and fittings used at Power Plant
Pipe Fittings Flanges Valves
Pipe line Fastners
Material Material Material Material
Material Shd. Standard Standard Class Standard Class Standard Class
specification specification specification specification
ASTM 182*
ASTM I82* Fl I ,F22 ANSI 1116.11 FIF22, ASTM 193
Main steam ASTM 335 ASTM 231" • ANSI ASTM 182 Fl 1. i,110• ASTM 217 ** ANSI 800* B7, ASTM
line Alley steel PAI, P22,P91 80 ANSI B36.10 W P11,RP22 816.9•' 3000* F22 ANSI BI6S 800** WC6, WC.9 816.34 600'• 194311
ANSI 816.11 ASTM 193
Aux. Steam ASTM 105 * * ANSI ASTM 105' ANSI 800• B7. ASTM
line Carbon steel ASTM 106 Gr 1I 40 ANSI B36.10 AST31231 WPB " B16.9•* 3000• AST\I x105 ANSI B16.5 300 ASTM 216 WCB** 1116.34 600" 194211
ANSI 616.11 4STM 193
Condensate AST\I 105 r * ANSI ASTM 105* ANSI 800' B7. ‘ STM
line Carbaa steel ASTM 106 Gr B W ANSI 836.10 ASTM 231W PB ** 816.9•` 3000' ASTU A105 ANSI BI6S 300 ASTM 216 \C'CB'• 1116.34 600" 19-12H
ANSI 816.11 ASTM 193
Feed water ASTM 105' • ANSI ASTM 105' ANSI 1500• B7. ASTM
line Carbon steel ASTM 106 Gr B 80 ANSI 836.10 ASTM 234 NC`PB'* B16.9** 3000• AST\I A105 ANSI 1116.5 900 ASTM 216 WCR" BI6.34 900• 191211
ASTM 106 Gr B/ ASTM 193
Cooling water IS 3589 Gr. 330 ASTM 105. ASTM ASTM 105* ANSI 800' B7, ASTM
line Carbon steel (sprat .veld) 40,80 ANSI B36.10 234 WPB ANSI 1116.11 3000• ASPM,V05 ANSI B16.5 900 ASTM 216 WAX" B16.34 150" 194 2H

Galvanised ASTSI 105

steel / IS: 1339 Part-I / Heavy IS 1239 Part II, •• ASTM 105* ANSI 800* ASTM
Air linel Carbon steel IS: 1239 Grade IS: 1239 /A234 Gr. WPB" ANSI 816.9 3000• AS'l'j1AI05 ANSI 1116.5 150 ASTM 216 WU*• B16.34 150•' 1363/1367

* For Size <50NB

** For iiee >so NB