17

Metro tunnels

“It is cheaper to do things right the first time.”

Phil Crosby

17.1 INTRODUCTION

A new era of underground space technology has begun with extensive networks of under-
ground metro systems all over the world, due to the grace of God. No mega city may
function efficiently without a mass transit system of high performance. They offer to
everyone fast, safe, comfortable and cheap access to the different areas of a city. The
under-city tunnels are also being excavated for a direct by-pass traffic as in Australia.
Following are the advantages of underground metros in the mega cities (Sharma,
1998):

(i) Crossing of hills, rivers and a part of oceans (straits).

(ii) Increase in market value of adjacent land and saving in man-hours.
(iii) They also favor a more aesthetic integration into a city without blocking view of
beautiful buildings, bridges, monuments and religious functions.
(iv) Very high capacity in peak hours in any direction. It forms a part of integrated
total city transportation system for convenience of people.
(v) It protects the residents completely from severe round-the-clock noise pollution
from surface traffic.
(vi) Efficient, safe, more reliable, faster, comfortable and environmentally sustain-
able and technically feasible in developing nations also. It requires just 20 percent
of energy that is consumed by road traffic. It reduces road accidents and pollution
due to the decrease in vehicular traffic.

With more and more use of underground transit systems, it is necessary to prepare the
contingency plans accordingly to take care of emergency situation. A good example of this
is of black out in USA and Canada on August 14, 2003. More than thousand persons were

Tunnelling in Weak Rocks

B. Singh and R. K. Goel
© 2006. Elsevier Ltd
258 Tunnelling in weak rocks Metro tunnels 258

stranded in subways, but the police have been trained to evacuate people from subways
and skyscrapers without increase in panic.
The opinion polls carried out in the USA, Japan and 14 European countries show
clearly the public moral support for environmental protection, even at the expense of
reducing the economic growth.
The metro rail system uses ballastless track without joints which makes it almost free
of maintenance. Signals are in the driver’s cabin only and the software controls automatic
driving of the engine, so the train stops exactly at the same position within ±10 cm on
the dot, hence, disabled persons can enter the coaches comfortably. The driver only opens
and closes the door. Underground stations (with cross passage below tracks) are air-
conditioned, and there are parks above underground stations. Performance is the best
publicity. The life of the metro is about 100 years. The underground stations should meet
the fire safety and evacuation norms (Heijboer et al., 2004).
Tunnels are ventilated properly; one fan pumps air and the other acts as an exhaust to
take out smoke, in case coaches catch fire. These fans are switched on by station masters.
The train will move to pumping fan side so that passengers do not die of smoke. All
coaches are connected with see-through end for further escape.
Unfortunately construction costs for underground systems are a major deterrent when
city officials consider the option of underground metro. Table 17.1 compares relative
costs of the various types of infrastructures on the basis of a study conducted by French
Tunnelling Association.
It is the experience of road users that open cut method of construction leads to a
lot of inconvenience to the society and disruption of the environment, which must be
compensated financially if any justifiable comparison between cut and cover method of
construction and tunnel boring is to be made.
The photograph of a rail metro tunnel is shown in Fig. 17.1, which shows the pre-
fabricated lining which is suitable for various soil, boulder and rock conditions except
squeezing grounds (due to the high overburden pressure) and flowing grounds within
water-charged–wide-shear zones (due to seepage erosion or piping failure). These may
not occur in shallow tunnels.

Table 17.1 Relative costs of interstations structures.

Infrastructure Equipment Total Ratio

Location (a) (b) (a)/(b)
At grade (surface) 25 30 55 0.45
Elevated (super structure) 100 30 130 0.75
Long span bridge 250 30 280 0.90
Cut and cover 100 to 200 40 140 to 240 0.70 to 0.80
Tunnelled 150 to 500 50 200 to 550 0.75 to 0.90
259 Tunnelling in weak rocks Metro tunnels 259

Fig. 17.1 Precast lining in a metro tunnel (Ref: http://www.railwayage.com/sept01/

washmetro.html).

The work culture of Delhi Metro Rail Corporation is that there is no clerk with very
few peons, which is the key to success. There is no witch-hunting for a wrong decision. The
decisions were not delayed. Wrong decisions were automatically noticed and get corrected.
Punctuality of staff plays an important role. NATM was adopted. Ten trees were planted
for every cut tree. All underground stations are built by cut and cover method. The entire
site was closed by walls on all sides. Exhaustive instrumentation is done to learn lessons
for construction of future metros. The rehabilitation of structures (damaged by subsidence
along tunnels) is the responsibility of all contractors to save excessive time which is lost
in litigation by management (see http://www.delhimetrorail.com).

17.1.1 Findings of international tunnelling association

The International Tunnelling Association (ITA, 2004) has presented the following
observations after analysis of data from 30 cities in 19 countries.

(i) The typical cost for surface : elevated and : underground metro systems were
found to be approximately as 1 : 2 : 4.5.
(ii) It is generally accepted that underground systems are more expensive to operate
than elevated or surface system.
(iii) Due to the requirement of large investment (capital and recurring costs) and the
significant urban and environmental impacts, the choice is nearly always resolved
politically. The government has to subsidize the cost to reduce the cost of ticket.
The metro is not commercially viable.
(iv) The over-whelming choice (of 78 percent alignment) for urban metro systems is
underground with very little at grade (surface) alignment. They are typically
260 Tunnelling in weak rocks Metro tunnels 260

designed to be of high speed and capacity (20,000 passengers per hour per
direction) serving the city center.
(v) In many cases – for example in the center areas of older cities (with 2–7% area
of streets only) – for functional, social, historic, environmental and economic
reasons; there is no alternative to the choice of an underground alignment for
new transit systems.
(vi) Noiseless technology may be used in the tunnelling.

17.2 SHIELDED TUNNEL BORING MACHINES

Tunnel boring machines (TBMs) with features-purpose-built to the specific ground condi-
tions are now the preferred mode for bored tunnelling in mega cities. The high capital cost
is justified by the length of tunnel more than 2 km [Pearse, 1997 cited by Sharma (1998)].
These TBMs offer the following advantages over the drilling and blasting method in the
metro tunnels.

• Explosives are not used. Hence the operations in densely built-up areas produce
much lower vibrations.
• Little or no overbreak.
• Excavation is fast. Time is money.
• Lower initial support capacity saves cost.
• Less labor cost.
• Reduces surface settlement to very low levels resulting in assured safety to the
existing super structures.
• Reduces risk to life of workers by (i) rock falls at face or behind the TBM,
(ii) explosives, (iii) hit by vehicles and (iv) electrocution.

In case of massive rock masses, open face tunnel boring machine is used as discussed
in Chapter 15. Recently, dual mode shield TBMs are developed to bore through in all
soil, boulders and weak rocks (in non-squeezing ground) under high ground water table.
During tunnelling, the ground water table is lowered to the bottom of the tunnel by drilling
drainage holes to keep ground dry. It works on the principle of shield TBM on which
both scrapper picks as well as disc cutters are mounted on the cutter head. Table 17.2
summarizes the salient features of dual mode TBM and earth pressure balance machine
(EPBM). During initial excavation at New Delhi underground metro, it was found that
a large number of scrappers and buckets are getting detached from the cutter head. This
was probably because of the presence of too many boulders in the soil strata. As a result,
the bigger boulders were entangled in the large space between the arms and thereby
knocking off the scrapper and buckets. Then protective plates and deflector strips were
added around the buckets to avoid direct impact of boulders on the buckets, in addition to
261 Tunnelling in weak rocks Metro tunnels 261

Table 17.2 Salient features of tunnel boring machines (Singh, 2003).

EPBM – earth pressure Dual mode TBM shielded

S.No. Item balance machine tunnel boring machine
1. Manufacturers Herrenknecht of Herrenknecht of Germany
Germany
2. Diameter 6.490 m 6.490 m
3. Length of shield 3.8 m (7 m including tail 3.9 m (6.9 m including tail
skin) skin)
4. Weight of shield 252 MT 325 MT
5. Length of complete system 57 m 70 m
6. Cutter head rotation 1 to 7 rpm 1 to 6 rpm
7. Torque 4000 kNm 4377 kNm
8. Tunnel lining Precast segmental RCC Precast segmental RCC
9. Finished diameter 5.7 m 5.7 m
10. No. of segments per ring 6 (5+1 key) 6 (5+1 key)
11. Thickness of lining 280 mm 280 mm
12. Length of ring 1.2 m 1.2 m
13. Grade of concrete M-45 M-45
14. Weight of each ring 16 tons 16 tons
15. Joint sealing EPBM gasket and EPBM gasket and
hydrophilic seal hydrophilic seal
16. Power required 3 MW for each machine 3 MW for each machine
17. Planned progress 10 m per day 6 m per day
18. Maximum progress achieved 28.8 m per day 7.2 m per day
so far

other modifications. Thereafter dual TBM has succeeded (Singh, 2003). The advantage
of fully shielded TBM with segment erector is that there is no unsupported ground behind
the shield. That is why TBMs have failed in poor grounds yet dual TBM has succeeded
(Broomfield & Denman, 2003) in soils, boulders and weak rock mass in non-squeezing
ground condition (H < 350 Q1/3 m).
It is necessary to inject the foam along with water at the cutter head which has the
following advantages:

• Reduced permeability and enhanced sealing at the tunnel face.

• Suppresses dust in rock tunnelling.
• Excavation of wet soil or weathered rock is easier.
• Soil does not stick to the cutters.
262 Tunnelling in weak rocks Metro tunnels 262

There is no experience of success in TBM tunnelling through squeezing grounds any

where in the world. It is understood that TBM may stuck in the highly squeezing ground
or flowing ground. Therefore, both TBM and shielded TBM are not recommended in the
squeezing ground and flowing conditions.
Obviously water lines, sewer lines, etc. have to be protected during tunnelling at
shallow depth below congested mega cities. Some times a sewer line is ruptured during
tunnelling. Enormous stinking sewerage is spread on the roads. It is difficult to repair sewer
lines quickly. In soil area the ground water table (GWT) is lowered below the tunnel base
before tunnelling is done in relatively dry soil. The subsidence profile due to lowering of
GWT is, however, wider compared to that due to tunnelling. Careful underpinning of the
foundations or columns of the old cracked building is done to adjust to the subsidence
increasing with time, such as at Delhi.
There is a tendency very often to term the “geological surprises” as the cause to justify
time and cost over-runs in completion of tunnelling projects. This could be true in some
cases, yet managers should be cautious.

17.3 PRECAST LINING

In some projects, fiber reinforced–precast-concrete linings have been adopted. Precast-

concrete–segmental lining is now used both in soil, boulders and weak rock masses.
TBM is capable of placing them in position all round the circular tunnel with the help
of segment erector. Segment bolts are then tightened by impact wrenches twice. The
curved alignment is achieved with the help of tapering of the lining rings. All the rings
are tapered and curvature is obtained by suitably adjusting the orientation of rings. Before
taking inside the tunnel, the segments are checked on ground for any cracks/damage. As
water tightness is extremely important for the durability of the tunnel lining, a double
gasket system comprising a durable-elastomeric gasket and a water sealing made from the
hydrophobic material is used. These gaskets are located in grooves cast into the edges of
the precast concrete segments. Together with the high precision casting of the segments
achieved by precision steel molds, gaskets will ensure the durable and water tight tunnels.
Hydrophobic seals expands upto 250 percent, once it comes into contact with water.
Thought should be given to fire-resistant design of concrete lining, as fires in trains
are common these days. Extra thickness of concrete covers (∼ =75 mm) should be provided
over the steel reinforcement. Under-reinforced concrete segments may be used to ensure
the failure in ductile phase, if it occurs.
Grouting is carried out simultaneously with the tunnelling. There are inbuilt ports
in the tail skin of TBM. These are used in primary grouting of annulus (void between
excavation profile and outer face of the precast ring). Grouting is continued upto 3 bars
(0.3 MPa) pressure. Excavation is not commenced until the previous lining is completed.
Secondary grouting is also done within 14 days of ring erection. Every third ring is grouted
263 Tunnelling in weak rocks Metro tunnels 263

to pressure of 3 bars (0.3 MPa). Secondary grouting will fill up any void left during
primary grout due to its shrinkage.

17.4 BUILDING CONDITION SURVEY AND VIBRATION LIMIT

Open trenches and shafts are excavated by drilling and blasting method for connection
to the underground metro system. The controlled bench blasting method is used in open
excavation, under busy and congested roads which are flanked by old or heavy buildings
and monuments. Before designing the controlled blasting, the entire rock mass is explored
thoroughly (Chapter 11, see article on smooth blasting). The trial blasts are detonated to
determine the safe-scaled-distance (= R/W1/2 , where W is the weight of charge per delay
of detonators and R is the distance from the blasting pattern), according to the nature of
structures.
The next step is to assess the condition of buildings standing near the blast site to
determine how much vibration can be sustained by these structures, specially old buildings
and ancient monuments if any. Table 17.3 specifies permitted peak particle velocities
(PPV) as per German standard. It may be reminded that ISRM has recommended almost
twice PPV values.
Archaeologists suggest that no surface metro station should be built within protected
100 m periphery of a protected (heritage) monument. In such cases, an underground metro
station may be a better choice.

17.5 IMPACT ON THE STRUCTURES

The blasting works may affect the surrounding structures slightly in spite of the controlled
blasting. In worst case, small cracks may develop in RCC and masonry. The air over-
pressure may also create cracks in glass works of doors and windows in nearby areas.
Table 17.4 summarizes the various types of damages to structures. A huge compensation

Table 17.3 Permitted peak particle velocities (PPV) on structures.

S.No. Condition of structure Max. PPV (mm/s)

1. Most structures in “good condition” 25
2. Most structures in “fair condition” 12
3. Most structures in “poor condition” 5
4. Water supply structures 5
5. Heritage structures/bridge structures 5
264 Tunnelling in weak rocks Metro tunnels 264

Table 17.4 Building damage classification (Burland et al., 1977; Boscardin & Cording, 1989 cited
by Agarwal & Gupta, 2002).

Max tensile
Description Description of typical damage and strain (%)
Risk of degree of likely form of repair for typical Approx. crack due to
category damage masonry buildings width (mm) subsidence
0 Negligible Hairline cracks – Less than
0.05
1 Very slight Fine cracks easily treated during normal 0.1 to 1 0.05 to
redecorations. Perhaps isolated slight 0.075
fracture in building. Cracks in
exterior brickwork visible upon close
inspection.
2 Slight Cracks easily filled. Redecoration 1 to 5 0.075 to
probably required. Several slight 0.15
fractures inside building. Exterior
cracks visible, some repointing may
be required for weather tightness.
Doors and windows may stick
slightly.
3 Moderate Cracks may require cutting out and 5 to 15 or a 0.15 to 0.3
patching. Recurrent cracks can be number of
masked by suitable linings. cracks greater
Tack-pointing and possibly than three
replacement of a small amount of
exterior brickwork may be required.
Doors and windows sticking. Utility
services may be interrupted. Water
tightness often impaired.
4 Severe Extensive repair involving removal and 15 to 25 but also Greater
replacement of sections of walls, depends on than 0.3
especially over doors and windows. number of
Windows and door frames distorted. cracks
Floor slopes noticeable. Walls lean or
bulge noticeably, some loss of bearing
in beams. Utility services disrupted.
5 Very severe Major repair required involving partial Usually greater –
or complete reconstruction. Beams than 25 but
lose bearing, walls lean badly and depends on
require shoring. Windows broken by number of
distortion. Danger of instability. cracks
265 Tunnelling in weak rocks Metro tunnels 265

may have to be given to the owners of the damaged buildings nearby according to the
specified class of damage (Agarwal & Gupta, 2002).
The traffic is stopped during blasting time for a few minutes and all the roads, other
exits/entries to the blasting site are closed for safety reasons. The flying of rock pieces
during an urban blasting may have severe consequences.

17.6 SUBSIDENCE

The subsidence of ground and differential settlement of nearby structures takes place due
to underground tunnelling. The dewatering due to excavation causes more widespread
subsidence due primarily to the settlement of overlying loose deposit of soil, silt or clay
specially. In totally rocky areas, the subsidence is very small and does not cause any worry.
The following instruments are recommended for precision monitoring of structures.

• Precise levelling points,

• Tiltmeters,
• Crack gauges embedded in the nearby structures and
• Vibration monitoring of old/ancient structures.

In case the actual settlement is expected to go beyond the predicted subsidence, the
whole construction methodology must be reviewed. Table 17.4 may be used which speci-
fies the maximum tensile strain caused by subsidence (= increment in spacing of columns
divided by the distance between columns, expressed in percentage).

17.7 PORTAL AND CUT SLOPES

It is better to locate the portals deeper into the ground or mountain where rock cover of
at least equal to width of tunnel is available. The slope of the portal should be stable.
Otherwise the same should be reinforced properly with the rock anchors. Alternatively
a thick breast wall (1 m) of concrete should be constructed to ensure stability of portals
(Singh & Goel, 2002).
It is needless to mention that the side slopes of open trenches should be stable. Deoja
et al. (1991) have suggested in Table 17.5, the dip of safe cut slopes with and without
protective measures for both rocks and soils. The rail lines are also being built in hilly
terrains. Table 17.5 is also recommended for deciding safe cut slope angles in the hills. The
utmost importance of the stable cut slopes is highlighted by the fact that landslides/rock
falls have taken place just near portals suddenly after heavy rains, thereby causing very
serious train accidents sometimes.
266 Tunnelling in weak rocks Metro tunnels 266

Table 17.5 Preliminary design of cut slopes for height of cut less than 10 m (Deoja et al., 1991).
Stable cut slope without
any breast wall or minor Stable cut slope with
Type of soil/rock protection protection work (vertical : breast wall (vertical :
S.No. work horizontal) horizontal)

1. Soil or mixed with boulders

(a) Disturbed vegetation 1:1 n : 1*
(b) Disturbed vegetation overlaid Vertical for rock portion Vertical for rock portion
on firm rock and 1:1 for soil portion and n : 1 for soil
portion
2. Same as above but with dense 1 : 0.5 5:1
vegetation forests, medium
rock and shales

3. Hard rock, shale, or harder rocks 1 : 0.25 to 1 : 0.10 and Breast wall is not
with inward dip vertical or overhanging needed
4. Same as above but with outward At dip angle or 1 : 0.5 or 5:1
dip or badly fractured dip of intersection of
rock/shale joint planes
5. Conglomerates/very Vertical cut to reduce 5:1
soft-shale/sand rock which erosion
erode easily
* n is 5 for H < 3 m; 4 for H = 3 − 4 m and 3 for H = 4 − 6 m.

The approach road/rail line to tunnel should be widened sufficiently. Catch drains
of proper depth and width should be made on both sides of the track, according to the
height and slope of cuts and size of boulders on the slope. A fence of 3.5 m height should
be erected along both drains and tied to steel poles at about 2 m center to center with
horizontal bracings at 1 m center to center. Then poles are anchored in the slopes. The
price is paid back if the wire net (4 mm φ wires welded at 10 × 10 cm or alternative)
withstands the impact of rock fall jumping. The wire net should then be replaced soon, if
required (Hoek, 2000).

REFERENCES

Agarwal, R. and Gupta, A. K. (2002). Rock excavation by controlled blasting in underground metro
corridor of Delhi MRTS. ISRM Symposium - Advancing Rock Mechanics Frontiers to Meet
the Challenges of 21st Century, New Delhi, IV 67- IV 78.
Broomfield, J. D. and Denman, D. (2003). TBM rock tunnelling in India. Seminar on Productivity
and Speed in Tunnelling, Dehradun, India, 194-206.
267 Tunnelling in weak rocks Metro tunnels 267

Deoja, B. B., Dhittal, M., Thapa, B. and Wagner, A. (1991). Mountain Risk Engineering Hand-
book. International Centre of Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu, Part-II,
Table 22.15.
Heijboer, J., Hoonaard, J. Van den and Linde, F. W. J. (2004). The Westerschelde Tunnel.
A.A. Balkema, The Netherlands, 292.
Hoek, E. (2000). Practical Rock Engineering. Chapter 9, 2000 edition,
http://www.rocscience.com/hoek/practicalrockengineering.asp.
ITA (2004). Underground or above ground? Making the choice for urban mass transit systems.
Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 19, 3-28.
Mair, R. J., Taylor, R. N. and Burland, J. B. (1996). Prediction of ground movements and assess-
ment of risk of building damaged due to bored tunnelling. Conf. Geotechnical Aspects of
Underground Construction in Soft Ground, 713-718.
Sharma, V. M. (1998). Metro stations and rail tunnels of metro projects. National Workshop on
Underground Space Utilisation, ISRMTT, New Delhi, 131-163.
Singh, Bhawani and Goel, R. K. (2002). Software for Engineering Control of Landslide and
Tunnelling Hazards. A.A. Balkema, The Netherlands, 344.
Singh, M. (2003). Delhi metro line No.2 - tunnelling by shield tunnel boring machines. Seminar on
Productivity and Speed in Tunnelling Dehradun, India, 207-218.
268 Tunnelling in weak rocks Metro tunnels 268