The importance of natural fractures in a tight reservoir for potential

CO2 storage: a case study of the upper Triassic – middle Jurassic

Kapp Toscana Group (Spitsbergen, Arctic Norway)
K. OGATA1*, K. SENGER1,2,3, A. BRAATHEN1, J. TVERANGER2 & S. OLAUSSEN1
1
University Centre in Svalbard (UNIS), PO Box 56, 9171 Longyearbyen, Norway
2
Centre for Integrated Petroleum Research (CIPR), Uni Research,
Allégaten 41, 5020 Bergen, Norway
3
Department of Earth Science, University of Bergen, Allégaten 41, 5020 Bergen, Norway
*Corresponding author (e-mail: kei.ogata@unis.no)

Abstract: In the Longyearbyen CO2 laboratory project, it is planned to inject carbon dioxide into a
Triassic–Jurassic fractured sandstone–shale succession (Kapp Toscana Group) at a depth of 700–
1000 m below the local settlement. The targeted storage sandstones offer moderate secondary por-
osity and low permeability (unconventional reservoir), whereas water injection tests evidence good
lateral fluid flow facilitated by extensive fracturing. Therefore, a detailed investigation of fracture
sets/discontinuities and their characteristics have been undertaken, concentrating on the upper
reservoir interval (670– 706 m). Datasets include drill cores and well logs, and observations of out-
crops, that mainly show fracturing but also some disaggregation deformation bands in the sand-
stones. The fracture distribution has a lithostratigraphical relationship, and can be subdivided
into: (A) massive to laminated shaly intervals, offering abundant lower-angle shear fractures;
(B) massive to thin-bedded, heterogeneous, mixed silty– shaly intervals, with a predominance of
non-systematic, pervasive bed-confined fractures; and (C) massive to laminated, medium- to
thick-bedded, fine- to coarse-grained sandstones with a lower frequency of mostly steep fractures.
These domains represent pseudo-geomechanical units characterized by specific fracture sets and
fracture intensity, with indicated relationships between the bed thickness and fracture intensity,
and with domains separated along bedding interfaces. We discuss the impact of these lithostruc-
tural domains on the fluid flow pathways in the heterolithic storage unit.

In the Longyearbyen CO2 laboratory project (LYB
CO2 lab) the possible depth interval for an injection
of carbon dioxide is a siliciclastic unit located at a
depth of 700 –1000 m in the subsurface beneath
the High Arctic community of Longyearbyen, Sval-
bard (Fig. 1). The project, initiated in 2007 by the
University Centre in Svalbard (UNIS), involves
partners from both academia and industry (Braathen
et al. 2010; Baelum et al. 2012). The principal aim
is to utilize the proximity of suitable reservoir rocks
to store CO2 from the local coal-fuelled power
plant. Research focuses on understanding the behav-
iour of CO2 in the subsurface while at the same time
contributing to the reduction of local emissions of
CO2. The coal-powered co-generation 10 MW heat
and power plant, located only 5 km from the plan-
ned injection site, emits approximately 64 000
tonnes of CO2 annually, from the combustion of
about 26 000 tonnes of locally mined coal. The pro-
ximity of the energy source (i.e. coal mines), power
plant and injection site, in combination with the
fact that Longyearbyen is a nearly closed energy
system, makes it a highly suitable candidate for
demonstrating the complete carbon value chain
(Braathen et al. 2010).
In order to investigate the suitability of the
planned sequestration site, the Longyearbyen CO2
lab has drilled and cored four wells during the
period of 2007– 2010 (the drill site locations are
shown in Fig. 2), two of which penetrated the reser-
voir (Dh2 and Dh4: Fig. 3). The target reservoir has
no mapped closure and it crops out approximately
15 km NE of the planned injection site. However,
borehole analyses on the Dh4 well recorded more
than 50 bar underpressure at 870 m (Braathen et al.
2010) showing the presence of an efficient trap,
probably either a stratigraphical or a combined
stratigraphical –structural trap, and supporting the
sealing efficiency of the cap rock. Although there is
no clear evidence of large faults or major structural
features in the area close to the planned injection
site, the reservoir interval is vertically sandwiched
between two main décollement zones. These zones
relate to the Palaeogene contractional event respon-
sible for the development of the transpressional fold-
and-thrust belt that characterizes the western part of

From: Spence, G. H., Redfern, J., Aguilera, R., Bevan, T. G., Cosgrove, J. W., Couples, G. D. & Daniel, J.-M. (eds)
2014. Advances in the Study of Fractured Reservoirs. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 374, 395–415.
First published online September 10, 2012, http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP374.9
# The Geological Society of London 2014. Publishing disclaimer: www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics
396 K. OGATA ET AL.

BFZ
North Pole Sevemaya Zemlya
CANADA
RUSSIA

LFZ
Arctic Ocean

Franz Josef Land

B
RUSSIA
Greenland
DENMARK

Greenland Novaya
A
Sea Zemlya
EN
RUSSIA ORD
Svalbard ISFJ LYB CO2
NORWAY Lab

BFZ

LFZ
Barents Sea

Arctic Circ NORWAY RUSSIA

le
ICELAND SWEDEN a BELLSUND

50 km
HORNSUND
Hor
nsu
nd F

LFZ

Western hinterland
ault

Basement-involved
BFZ
Zon

SØRKAPP
fold-thrust complex
e

N
Thin-skinned fold-thrust belt
150 km
Eastern foreland province c

Basement-involved
Western hinterland Central Zone Eastern foreland province
fold-thrust complex
Hornsund
Fault Zone
BFZ
West LYB CO2 LFZ East
Cp Cp Tr Lab
Ca Cp JC JC
A JC
B
Tr
T
0 Cp 0
Cp
Ca Cp
Ca D Ca
D
D

50 km
d

Fig. 1. Location and tectonic setting of the Svalbard archipelago and position of the Longyearbyen CO2 lab site (LYB
CO2 Lab). The planned injection target, the Kapp Toscana Group, is sandwiched between the upper and middle
décollement zones associated with the West Spitsbergen fold-thrust belt, a direct result of the Palaeogene
transpressional tectonics. (a) The location of the Svalbard archipelago in the context of the North Atlantic. The
archipelago lies within the High Arctic, approximately half way between northern Norway and the North Pole. (b) Main
structural lineaments on Svalbard, aligned predominantly NNW–SSE. (c) Tectonic overview map of Spitsbergen,
illustrating the West Spitsbergen fold-and-thrust belt (modified from Bergh et al. 1997). (d) Schematic cross-section
across Spitsbergen, emphasizing the LYB CO2 lab targeted reservoir/storage unit. The cross-section’s location is
marked in (c). Figure modified after Bergh et al. (1997). BFZ, Billefjorden Fault Zone; LFZ, Lomfjorden Fault Zone;
D, Devonian; Ca, Carboniferous; Cp, Permian; Tr, Triassic; JC, Jurassic– Cretaceous.
 NATURAL FRACTURES AND CO2 STORAGE
Svalbard (see Fig. 1c, d) (Bergh et al. 1997; Braathen
et al. 1999). Based on vitrinite data (Throndsen
1982), the reservoir is thought to have experienced
maximum burial of approximately 4.5 km in depth
during the Eocene, prior to an estimated uplift of
about 3.5 km in the Oligocene–latest Neogene.
However, a number of workers using additional
methods consider this to be an overestimation (see
the work of Blythe & Kleinspehn 1998 for an exten-
sive review). Rapid unroofing during Quaternary
times is attributed to the widespread glaciations in
the area (Ingólfsson 2011). The deep burial led to
mechanical compaction with dense grain packing as
well as extensive quartz cementation (Braathen et al.
2010). Matrix permeability in Dh4, as measured
from drill core plugs, is typically less than 2 mD
(where 1 mD ¼ 10215 m2), with porosity values vary-
ing from 8 to 18% (Farokhpoor et al. 2010, 2011).
Despite these low measured permeabilities, three
water injection tests confirmed the good injection
potential of the target reservoir. A 5 day injection
test conducted in August 2010 suggested an aver-
age flow capacity of 45 mD . m in the lowermost
part of the reservoir (870–970 m: Braathen et al.
2010). The injectivity is thought to be primarily
a function of the natural fractures identified both
in the drill cores and in the outcrops. Accordingly,
a detailed understanding of the fracture systems
observed in the reservoir is essential for predicting
the behaviour of CO2 and other fluids in the reservoir.
In this contribution we investigate the upper part
of the reservoir succession, presenting a case study
of selected examples from an extensive dataset of
natural fractures obtained from both borehole and
outcrop data. When fully processed, the data will
be utilized in fluid flow modelling. At this stage,
our aim is to highlight the importance of natural
fractures when viewed as potential CO2 storage on
Spitsbergen, as well as to illustrate the need for well-
constrained and reliable outcrop data as input to the
reservoir modelling and simulation.
Geological setting
Tectonic development
The Svalbard archipelago is an uplifted part of the
NW margin of the Barents Shelf (Harland 1997).
Our study area is situated on the NW margin of the
Central Spitsbergen Basin (CSB), a major synclinal
feature (see Fig. 1c, d). The CSB’s boundaries align
to the predominant NNW –SSE structural grain
prevalent on Svalbard (Nøttvedt et al. 1993). Follo-
wing the Caledonian Orogeny, assumed Devonian
crustal-scale extension and localized Carboniferous
rifting, Svalbard evolved into a stable platform
during the late Carboniferous –Mesozoic time,
397
drifting northwards during the deposition of the
Mesozoic succession. The opening of the North
Atlantic led to dextral movement along the De
Geer Zone (i.e. the Hornsund Fault Zone) between
Svalbard and East Greenland during the Palaeogene
(Eldholm et al. 1987; Braathen et al. 1995; Leever
et al. 2011). This caused oblique compression and
the development of the West Spitsbergen fold-and-
thrust belt (WSFB), and the consequent Terti-
ary CSB, a foreland to wedge-top basin comprising
an infill of mixed continental and marine clastics
(Steel et al. 1985; Braathen et al. 1997; Helland-
Hansen 2010). The development of the WSFB dur-
ing the Palaeocene –Eocene generated a series of
eastwards-extending thrust sheets soled by décol-
lement zones along evaporite and shale intervals
(Bergh et al. 1997). This folding and thrusting can
be linked to a significant fracturing. However, Late
Cretaceous magmatic dyke –sill intrusion (Mina-
kov et al. 2012) and Quaternary unroofing and
decompaction probably also added fractures to the
succession.
Stratigraphical development
The targeted storage unit is an aquifer made up of a
siliciclastic succession belonging to the upper Trias-
sic –middle Jurassic Kapp Toscana Group. It com-
prises the De Geerdalen Formation and elements
of the overlying Wilhelmøya Subgroup (Figs 2 &
3) (Worsley 1973, 2008; Knarud 1980; Mørk et al.
1982; Harland & Geddes 1997; Mørk & Worsley
2006). The 270 m-thick drilled section of the De
Geerdalen Formation includes shales, siltstones
and sandstones deposited in a near-shore, paralic
(lagoonal –delta plain) environment with net sand-
stone of approximate 30% (net/gross (N/G) ratio
of c. 0.3). Most palaeogeographical reconstructions
suggest a NW-prograding deltaic system (Mørk
et al. 1982; Steel & Worsley 1984; Riis et al. 2008;
Glørstad-Clark et al. 2010). The overlying 20 m-
thick Norian–Bathonian Knorringfjellet Formation
of the Wilhelmøya Subgroup is interpreted as a con-
densed siliciclastic unit (i.e. remanié), probably a
lag resulting from coastal reworking of deltaic sedi-
ments (Mørk et al. 1982; Harland & Geddes 1997;
Nagy et al. 2011). These units are overlain by a
250 m-thick shale unit of the middle –upper Juras-
sic Agardhfjellet Formation and the 200 m-thick,
predominantly shaly, Lower Cretaceous Rurikfjellet
Formation: together these two units form the cap
rock of the reservoir/storage unit (i.e. ‘lower aqui-
fer’) (Fig. 3). The Upper Jurassic Agardhfjellet For-
mation is widespread regionally and its time-
equivalent stratigraphical interval represents the
major source, and commonly the main cap rock,
of many of the oil and gas fields on the Norwegian
continental shelf (Spencer et al. 2008). Above the
398 K. OGATA ET AL.
 NATURAL FRACTURES AND CO2 STORAGE
cap rock, an approximately 60 m-thick deltaic unit,
the Barremian Helvetiafjellet Formation, comprises
an ‘upper aquifer’. Above this, the 120 m-thick over-
burden consists of a 60 m-thick, Aptian –Albian,
mixed sandstone–shale unit of shallow-marine
to inner-shelf affinity belonging to the Carolinefjel-
let Formation, and a 60 m-thick interval of Quatern-
ary and Holocene fluvial sand/gravel and marine
clay. The thickness of the permafrost in the area
is estimated to be approximately 100 m (Humlum
et al. 2003).
Methods
Borehole analyses
An optical televiewer was used to characterize
the fractures between 442 and 706 m, whereas the
narrow drill hole diameter (46 mm) in the deeper
parts of the borehole prevented data acquisition
from deeper levels (Elvebakk 2010).
Detailed (1:10 scale) structural logging of the
reservoir section (668– 970 m) in the drill cores of
Dh4 was carried out to describe the physical char-
acteristics and frequency distribution of natural dis-
continuities (as defined by Schultz & Fossen 2008),
primarily distinguishing between closed and open
ones, with a focus on fractures/cracks. The recog-
nition of true pre-coring features has not been easy
because of the high degree of decompaction and
drilling-induced stresses deforming the cores. The
characterization of discontinuities includes the fol-
lowing standard parameters (see Singhal & Gupta
2010 and references therein):
† orientation – spatial attitude and geometrical
features (e.g. strike, dip-angle);
† mid-point depth – vertical position of the dis-
continuity half-way point within the well;
† spacing – perpendicular distance between adja-
cent discontinuities of the same set;
† persistence – minimum relative length of the
discontinuity trace;
† linear density – number of discontinuities per
unit length;
† connectivity – intersection and termination
characteristics of discontinuities;
† relative aperture – relative perpendicular distance
between the two margins of the discontinuity;
Fig. 2. Location of the study area within the context of the regional geology of Central Spitsbergen. The inset map
shows the study area at Deltaneset and the location (circled) of the stratigraphical log presented in Figure 7; the
approximate grid co-ordinates of the stratigraphical log tying the various scanlines are: 0521174 East, 8697326 North
(UTM Zone 33X, projection ED50). The cross-section illustrates the open nature of the reservoir succession, which rises
to the surface in the NE, as well as the relationship of the drill site (Dh4) with the Deltaneset outcrop locality. Redrawn
and modified after Major et al. (2001). Shapefiles of the geological units from the NPI-Geonet project are used.
399
† asperity – wall-rock morphology along the dis-
continuity surface;
† wall coatings and infillings – solid material
occurring as coatings or filling along the discon-
tinuity surface.
The differentiation between natural and drilling-
induced fractures (excluded from the final count)
was performed taking into account: (1) the overall
appearance (e.g. fresh v. weathered); (2) their conti-
nuity across the core (e.g. through-going v. core-
confined, point of origin/termination within v.
outside the core); (3) the occurrence of mineraliz-
ation/coatings; (4) anomalous trends (e.g. abrupt
hooking toward pre-existing fractures and core
boundaries; and (5) the matching/mismatching of
the fracture sides (Kulander et al. 1977). As the
retrieved cores were not oriented, azimuth infor-
mation is only available from televiewer data in
the uppermost 39 m of the reservoir interval (667 –
706 m total depth (TD)).
Outcrop analyses
To complement the borehole information, fieldwork
was conducted at Deltaneset in Central Spitsber-
gen, where the reservoir interval reaches the surface
(for the location see Fig. 2). Natural fractures were
counted along scanlines, allowing the construction
of frequency plots along individual intervals. The
orientation of each fracture was measured, using
both a geological compass and a GeoClino digital
clinometer. As for the cores, natural fractures were
classified based on their mesoscale characteristics
(see earlier), including in this case observations of
their outcrop-scale vertical continuity (bed-confined
v. through-going). Furthermore, stratigraphical log-
ging (1:50 scale) was conducted throughout the
Knorringfjellet Formation and the upper third of
the De Geerdalen Formation in order to correlate
the outcrop data to the borehole data. Scanlines were
surveyed along various stratigraphical intervals and
within a range of different lithologies in order to
capture potential variations in the fracture character
related to stratigraphy. Strike data are corrected for a
magnetic declination of 68 east of true north.
A total of 59 scanlines were collected during the
field campaign. In the present paper, 13 representa-
tive scanlines for the three major lithostructural
400 K. OGATA ET AL.
 NATURAL FRACTURES AND CO2 STORAGE 401

associations (LSAs) are presented (Table 1). These
lithostructural domains or units are primarily
defined on the basis of the considered lithological
interval: (A) massive to laminated shaly intervals:
(B) massive to thin-bedded, heterogeneous, mixed
silty–shaly intervals; and (C) massive to laminated,
medium- to thick-bedded, fine- to coarse-grained
sandstones and conglomerates. Each domain is fur-
ther characterized by a distinct occurrence of preva-
lent systematic and non-systematic fracture sets,
sedimentary facies, bed thicknesses and degree of
cementation. These units are regularly distributed
throughout the sedimentary succession and reflect
contrasting rheological behaviour, forming distinct
intervals characterized by a specific type of fractur-
ing and, thus, inferred to represent proxies of geo-
mechanical units (Shackleton et al. 2005).
Apart from the generalized scree/soil coverage
of the outcrops, we also took the frost– defrost
cycles and glacier dynamics-related slope unloading
into account as possible factors influencing fracture
patterns and apertures.
Fracture characterization
Borehole data
The reservoir interval in Dh4, from 672 to 970 m,
exhibits relatively high frequencies of both vertical
and horizontal sharp and tabular discontinuities
(Schultz & Fossen 2008), particularly fractures and
deformation bands. Manual counting identified 870
individual, predominantly low-angled, and subordi-
nately high-angled, open fractures in this interval
(Fig. 4). In the upper part of the reservoir (between
672 and 706 m TD) the acoustic televiewer iden-
tified 35 fractures, whereas for the same interval
the manual logging revealed at least 108 fractures
(Fig. 5). This incongruity is probably related to the
predominance of discontinuities below the instru-
ment resolution that are, instead, highlighted on the
direct observation by the high decompaction of retri-
eved cores (e.g. strong preferential splitting of cores
along bedding surfaces, laminae and structural dis-
continuities), which is probably supported by the
underpressure recorded in the reservoir. For the
reservoir succession the N/G ratio is only around
25– 30%, defined on the total sand thickness.
Successions of mudstone and shale, ranging in
thickness from metres to tens of metres, host the
majority of fractures. Fractures preferentially occur
within fine-grained lithologies (massive to lami-
nated and interbedded shales and siltstones) and,
among these, low-angle (08 – 458), usually slicken-
sided and non-mineralized fractures predominate.
High-angle (.458) fractures and veins preferably
occur within coarser-grained units (fine to coarse
sandstones). The other closed (with infillings) preva-
lent discontinuity types recognizable within coarser-
grained lithologies are sharp hairline microfaults
(mostly normal) with very-fine-grained material and
calcite fillings, and disaggregation deformation
bands (Fossen et al. 2007; Fossen 2010), usually
bearing a phyllosilicate core. The fine-grained, infill-
ing material can be interpreted as a shale gouge or
membrane, possibly also related to the localized
dissolution of the cataclastic material into clay min-
erals. Some of these features are millimetre- to
centimetre-thick, tabular deformation zones charac-
terized by granular flow (no grain breakage), taken
as evidence of soft-sediment deformation (e.g. folded
laminae, fluidal structures). Deformation bands
comprise up to 30% of counted discontinuities in
medium-coarse sandstones. Mineralized fractures
(mainly high-angle, calcite- and pyrite-filled veins)
seem to concentrate in coarse-grained lithologies,
especially within and around crystalline rocks (e.g.
doleritic intrusions) and carbonate-rich beds (e.g.
bioclastites). Open fractures predominantly display
dip angles of less than 458 and are mostly hosted in
fine-grained lithologies. Less than 30% of open frac-
tures exhibit steep (.458) dips. These are concen-
trated in coarse-grained lithologies.
In general terms, high-angle fractures are predo-
minantly represented by Mode I fractures (i.e. joints),
whereas low-angle ones belong to Mode II and III
fractures (i.e. shears/tears), with some evidence of
mixed modes. Zones with high fracture frequencies
observed within the Janusfjellet Subgroup (i.e. part
of the lower Adventdalen Group) cap rock are asso-
ciated with the upper main décollement zone,
appearing as centimetre- to metre-thick zones of
unconsolidated, ‘crushed’ shales (shale gouge), sur-
rounded by a dense network of generally conjugate,
low-angle shear surfaces. Other minor peaks in frac-
ture frequencies are found within the reservoir

Fig. 3. Overview of the stratigraphy penetrated by the LYB CO2 lab project drilling campaign from 2007 to 2010
in Adventdalen, Spitsbergen. Boreholes Dh1 and Dh3 cored the cap-rock succession, whereas the Dh2 borehole cored
the upper part of the target storage unit. The Dh4 borehole penetrated nearly the whole reservoir section. The black
rectangle indicates the proposed injection target, which is further analysed in this paper, and the stratigraphical
portion covered by analyses of cores. The red rectangle highlights the portion of the stratigraphical section investigated
in the field (see Fig. 7 for correlation). Several igneous intrusions, up to 2 m thick, are penetrated by Dh4, and are
illustrated in green. Please note that Dh1 and Dh2 are drilled at drill site 1 close to the airport, while Dh3 and Dh4 are
drilled at drill site 2 in Adventdalen (see Fig. 2 for the exact locations).
 402
Table 1. Summary of the selected scanlines used in this contribution

Total No. of No. Fractures/m Fractures/m TG BC Fractures/m TG BC Lithology Considered Lithostructural

No. of TG of BC (average) (maximum) fractures/m fractures/m (average) fractures/m fractures/m thickness association
fractures fractures fractures (average) (average) length- (average) (average) (cm) (LSA)
normalized length- length-
normalized normalized

221 106 115 7.4 15 3.5 3.8 6.3 3 3.2 Fine- to 20 C

medium-grained
bioclastic bedset
317 147 170 12.7 18 5.8 6.8 9 4.1 4.8 Finely laminated 200 A
silty – shale
interval
74 38 36 8.0 10 4.1 3.9 2.1 1.1 1 Medium-grained 30 C
sandstone bedset
192 107 85 6.4 13 3.5 2.8 5.4 3 2.4 Medium- to 150 C
coarse-grained
sandstone bed
144 88 56 4.8 12 2.9 1.8 4.1 2.5 1.5 Medium-grained 200 C

K. OGATA ET AL.
sand-supported
conglomerate
144 60 84 4.1 7 1.7 2.4 4.1 1.7 2.4 Thin-bedded 300 B
shale – siltstone
interval
124 31 93 5.2 9 1.3 3.8 3.5 0.9 2.6 Highly bioturbated 50 B
fine-grained
sandstone
54 12 42 6.4 8 1.4 4.9 1.5 0.3 1.2 Highly bioturbated 50 B
fine-grained
sandstone
147 65 82 5.7 9 2.5 3.1 4.2 1.8 2.3 Highly bioturbated 50 B
fine-grained
sandstone
76 29 47 2.9 7 1.1 1.8 2 0.8 1.3 Fine- to 200 C
medium-grained
sandstone bed
85 23 62 8.5 10 2.3 6.2 2.4 0.6 1.7 Massive shale 150 A
interval
76 31 45 4.6 10 1.8 2.7 2.1 0.8 1.2 Medium-grained 90 C
sand-supported
conglomerate
39 8 31 6.5 11 1.3 5.1 1.1 0.2 0.8 Medium-grained 90 C
sand-supported
conglomerate

The scanlines are collected across the stratigraphy of the upper reservoir section (for the location, see Fig. 7). See the text for an explanation of the shown parameters.
 OPEN DISCONTINUITIES CLOSED DISCONTINUITIES
TOP

TOP
TOP
TOP

TOP

e
g h
TOP

TOP

NATURAL FRACTURES AND CO2 STORAGE

b c TOP

TOP
d f i

I. II. Fig. 4. Synthesis of fracture information gathered from the drill

162 107 98 118 74 73 70 60 109 380 290 98 54 7 2 2 36 3 cores of Dh4. (a) Weathered (oxidized) fracture. Knorringfjellet
Formation, depth 676.56–676.83 m. (b) Hairline weathered
(oxidized) fracture. De Geerdalen Formation, depth 698.17 –
698.34 m. (c) Hairline fresh fractures. De Geerdalen Formation,
depth 716.77– 716.91 m. (d) Highly fractured interval. De
Geerdalen Formation, depth 753.00–753.36 m. (e) Disaggregation
deformation band, with phyllosilicate membrane and
approximately 1 cm displacement. Knorringfjellet Formation,
depth 679.71– 679.86 m. (f) Disaggregation deformation band.
Knorringfjellet Formation, 0.8 cm displacement, depth 678.54–
678.64 m. (g) Calcite veins in sandstone. De Geerdalen Formation,
depth 920.75– 920.96 m. (h) Calcite veins in shale. De Geerdalen
Formation, depth 966.42–966.48 m. (i) Mixed calcite –pyrite,
thick vein in shale. De Geerdalen Formation, depth 955.61–
955.70 m. The graphs indicate the relative fractions of the open and
closed types for different dip angles (to the left; diagram I) and in
different host lithologies (to the right; diagram II). The absolute
Lithologies
number of discontinuities within each category is given at the top
of each bar.

403
404 K. OGATA ET AL.

Fig. 5. Wireline logs and fracture measurements for the target reservoir interval in the upper part of the De Geerdalen
Formation and the Knorringfjellet Formation, as cored by Dh4. The wireline tools record the gamma ray, resistivity
and temperature logs (Elvebakk 2010). Major changes in the resistivity and calculated geothermal gradient logs
generally line up with heavily fractured intervals, possibly suggesting enhanced fluid flow. The fracture intensity plots
are subdivided into three dip angle categories, as well as into open and closed fracture intensity curves. GR, gamma ray;
Res, resistivity (ohm . m); Temp, temperature (8C); TV int, televiewer intensity; f/m, number of fractures per metre.

section related to specific stratigraphical intervals
(see Fig. 5).
The projected reservoir interval (storage unit) in
the Knorringfjellet Formation was fully logged
using wireline tools recording gamma ray, resistiv-
ity and temperature readings, as well as an acoustic
televiewer (Elvebakk 2010). This allows correla-
tion of the fractures registered by the televiewer
and the manual count (see Fig. 5). As the drill cores
were not oriented during recovery, the azimuthal
information cannot be compared. The stratigraphi-
cal fracture intensity (i.e. on the vertical axis), how-
ever, indicates some agreement, particularly within
the uppermost part of the De Geerdalen Forma-
tion. The fracture frequency is clearly highest for
the 08–308 dip angle category; this is generally con-
centrated within the finer-grained lithologies, as
discussed earlier. Furthermore, closed discontinu-
ities generally occur only within coarser-grained
units, especially in the upper third of the Knorringf-
jellet Formation, peaking at approximately 678 m.
Outcrop data
The presented scanlines dataset was primarily col-
lected in a valley located about 1 km east of Konus-
dalen (for the location see Fig. 2). The valley has
previously been studied for biostratigraphical pur-
poses (Wierzbowski et al. 1981; Chlebowski &
Wierzbowski 1983; Wierzbowski 1989), and is cur-
rently being investigated for its Jurassic marine
reptiles and hydrocarbon seeps (Hammer et al.
2011). Outcrops are often scree-covered and scan-
lines are, therefore, correspondingly short due to
 NATURAL FRACTURES AND CO2 STORAGE
limited exposure (Fig. 6). Nonetheless, the valley
provides full exposure of the Knorringfjellet For-
mation, as well as the uppermost 57 m of the De
Geerdalen Formation, and thus serves well for com-
piling a representative stratigraphical log for corre-
lation to the Dh4 borehole, approximately 20 km
away (Fig. 7).
Also in this case, the high-angle fractures are pre-
dominant and are mainly represented by Mode I frac-
tures (i.e. joints), while the subordinate low-angle
ones are expressed by Mode II and III fractures
(i.e. shears/tears), preferentially occurring within
coarse-grained and fine-grained intervals, respect-
ively. These structures have been distinguished in
two main populations, through-going (TG) or bed-
confined (BC), on the basis of their persistence within
the considered lithostratigraphical interval (e.g.
bed, bedset, lithological unit), their cross-cutting
relationships with the host lithologies and, where
possible, their continuity at the outcrop scale. In
this framework, compared to BC fractures, TG frac-
tures are defined by sets that are more homogeneous.
Localized high dispersions of structural orien-
tations are observed within the laminated to thin-
bedded, heterogeneous intervals (i.e. lithostructural
domain B), while the massive, generally homo-
geneous rocks are characterized by relatively more
even and clear distributions (i.e. lithostructural
domains A and C).
In general, the high-angle fractures seem to be
organized into two main sets, trending approxi-
mately east –west and NNE –SSW, and two subor-
dinate and less defined NW–SE and NE–SW sets.
The low-angle fractures, prevailing within the fine-
grained, massive to laminated intervals (i.e. litho-
structural domain A), are, instead, represented by
two principal sets striking approximately WNW–
ESE and NNE– SSW (Fig. 8).
The above-described fracture sets are expressed
differently within the investigated section, with evi-
dent strike rotations of the main trends. In the lower
part of the exposed De Gerdaleen Formation, the
main fracture set trends approximately east –west,
with a subordinate set trending NNE –SSW; while
the upper part of this formation is, instead, charac-
terized by WNW–ESE and ENE –WSW sets,
with minor occurrence of the east –west and the
NNE–SSW sets. The fracture sets of the Knorring-
fjellet Formation are represented by three main
ENE–WSW, NE–SW and NW–SE sets, with the
secondary occurrence of the NNE–SSW set, defining
in places a single broad fan of fractures (see Fig. 7).
Systematic high-angle fractures do not show
clear terminations within specific lithologies, ran-
domly tipping out into each defined lithostructural
domain, while low-angle ones seems to preferen-
tially die out at well-defined lithological boundaries
(e.g. master bedding surfaces and abrupt lithological
405
contacts), sometimes showing deflections where
they propagate across different lithologies.
It should be noted that the fracture sets character-
izing the conglomerate beds of the Knorringfjellet
Formation display evidence of generalized shear-
ing, with a relatively high frequency of striated
(i.e. slickensided) walls and, sometimes, other kin-
ematic indicators (e.g. calcite steps, en echelon
veins). Such structures are distributed in both high-
angle and low-angle fractures, exhibiting preferen-
tial strike-slip and dip-slip movements, respectively
(Fig. 9).
Throughout the investigated section, some evi-
dence of calcite and quartz veining and cementation
was observed within carbonate layers (e.g. lime-
stones, bioclastites) and medium- to thick-bedded
sandstones and conglomerates, respectively. Enhan-
ced, localized calcite cementation occurs within and
around fossiliferous carbonate beds and limestones,
especially in the upper part of the De Geerdalen
Formation; whereas the Knorringfjellet Forma-
tion is generally characterized by quartz-cemented,
coarse-grained beds. Enhanced cementation and
veining was also observed within and around deci-
metre- to metre-sized dolerite dykes and sills in the
lower –middle part of the De Geerdalen Formation.
Localized oxide-cemented parts are also observed
throughout the section, especially in the upper-
most De Geerdalen Formation and Rurikfjellet
Formation.
Iron and manganese oxides forming dark,
reddish- to purplish-coloured coatings on fracture
walls are widely distributed, especially on most con-
tinuous open cracks and on weathered surfaces.
Discussion and conclusions
The structural characterization of the reservoir sec-
tion was performed on the upper 100 m of the Kapp
Toscana Group, from which borehole and outcrop
data were available and thus comparable in the data-
base. Utilizing both data sources, we discuss the
genesis and the evolution of the investigated struc-
tures, their lithostratigraphical distribution and
their possible implications for subsurface fluid flow
in the reservoir and the cap rock.
Tectonic events and related structures
Based on cross-cutting relationships and the phys-
ical/geometrical characteristics of the investigated
structural discontinuities, we propose the following
chronological subdivision from oldest to youngest
(Fig. 10):
† High-angle disaggregation deformation bands
(clay-filled microfaults) affecting coarse-grained
beds. These are attributed to the early phases
406 K. OGATA ET AL.

Knorringfjellet Fm. CD_KD_4

CD_KD_5
~S CD_KD_3 ~N
De Geerdalen Fm.

CD_KD_2
CD_KD_1
ca. 10 m
CD Strat. Log

through-going fracture
bed-confined fracture
scanline path

CD_KD_5 considered interval ca. 2 m

A a

CD_KD_4 ca. 2 m

B b

CD_KD_3 ca. 1 m
ca. 50 cm
c

CD_KD_2 ca. 1 m

CD_KD_1 ca. 1 m d

Fig. 6. Overview of the investigated section (location informally defined as Criocerasdalen, approximately 1 km east of
Konusdalen), illustrating the location of the some selected scanlines (traces and scanline identities are labelled in red) as
well as the stratigraphical log (yellow dashed line). For scanline descriptions see Table 1. The location of the
 NATURAL FRACTURES AND CO2 STORAGE 407

of deformation, within basically unconsolidated
rocks. Calcite-filled veins may develop in the con-
tact zones of igneous intrusions due to expansion
and shrinkage during the heating–cooling cycle,
and possibly related aureole metasomatism and
hydrothermal circulation.
† Predominant low-angle fractures affecting fine-
grained horizons. These relate to layer-parallel
slip caused by a near-horizontal compression,
probably associated with the crustal shortening
during the Tertiary episode of transpression. The
competence contrast between layers could faci-
litate bedding-parallel slip along weak (fine-
grained) layers and subsequent strain accommo-
dation-induced fracturing in intercalated, stiffer
beds (e.g. coarse grained), probably reactivat-
ing the older high-angle discontinuities. Layer-
parallel shearing is evidenced by the predomi-
nance of low-angle slickensided fractures and
their apparent arrangement in conjugate systems.
Moreover, high- and low-angle, strike-slip and
dip-slip shear fractures in the thick conglomerate
beds of the Knorringfjellet Formation reflect an
approximately NE –SW-oriented compression,
as is also recorded in the western fold-and-thrust
belt (Bergh et al. 1997; Braathen et al. 1997). The
general lack of sealed fractures in fine-grained
lithologies may be attributed to the compartmen-
talization of mineralizing fluids provided by
layer-parallel discontinuities in shaly layers (i.e.
permeability anisotropy) with restricted com-
munication between fine-grained beds and sand-
stone layers. Considering the general inferred
patterns of intersection between these differ-
ent fracture sets, it is possible to argue for an
enhanced and generalized vertical connectivity,
with three main trends of lateral connectivity
directed approximately NNE–SSW, NW–SE
and east–west. In this framework, highly minera-
lizing permeating fluids (such as those resulting
from the water–rock interactions with carbon-
ate-rich and igneous lithologies) could cause
enhanced cementation of fractures within coarse-
grained beds and in the nearby host rocks (see
below).
† The most continuous, non-mineralized and wea-
thered open fractures could be interpreted as
unloading joints (Engelder 1987), newly created
or, most probably, developed through the reacti-
vation and interconnection of earlier discontinu-
ities resulting from the generalized extension
caused by Pliocene and Quaternary uplift and
subsequent unroofing. Oxide coatings on the
walls often characterize such open cracks, which
indicates subsequent circulation of fluids.
Lithostructural domains and fracture density
The fracture sets characterizing the studied strati-
graphical section have been subdivided into three
main lithostructural domains (A, B and C). The
classification is based on lithology, compositions
(e.g. sand/mud ratio, coarse- v. fine-grained popu-
lations), texture (homogenerous v. heterogeneous)
and sedimentary structures (e.g. massive v. lami-
nated). By combining these lithostructural associ-
ations with the considered thicknesses and the
fracture densities (i.e. fractures per metre (frac-
tures/m)), based in this preliminary analysis, the
following pattern emerges (Fig. 11):
† a positive distribution for domain A – fracture
densities increase with increasing interval
thicknesses;
† a slightly negative distribution for domain B – a
moderate decrease of fracture densities with
increasing interval thickness;
† a negative distribution for domain C – frac-
ture densities decrease with increasing interval
thickness.
Whereas an increase in fracturing is expected
within stiffer and thinner beds (Lorenz et al. 2002;
Shackleton et al. 2005 and references therein), an
opposite trend can be discerned for the shaly inter-
vals of domain A. Although only a part of the full
dataset has been included here, on-going analyses
suggest this pattern to be consistent for the whole
database.
This observation may be explained by an
enhanced strain concentration within the metre-
thick, homogeneous, massive to laminated shaly
intervals caused by predominantly generalized layer-
parallel shearing. The high content of organic
material, the general lamination and the compaction

Fig. 6. (Continued) stratigraphical log is illustrated in Figure. 2. In addition, five photo-mosaics with relative
interpretations of the represented scanlines are shown. Through-going (red) and bed-confined (black) fractures are
labelled in the interpretations. Stereoplots and fracture frequency histograms for these scanlines are shown in Figure 7.
The red circle in CD_KD_1 and CD_KD_2 indicates the 20 cm-long measuring handle for scale. Locations of close-up
photographs (lens cap for scale; 6.7 cm in diameter) are marked in the photo-mosaics: (a) high-angle fracture network in
an approximately 2 m-thick, coarse-grained layer (i.e. Slottet Bed of the lowermost Knorringfjellet Formation);
(b) jigsaw erosional relief of a medium- to coarse-grained sandstone bedset highlighted by tens of centimetre-spaced,
high-angle, through-going fractures; (c) high- and low-angle fracture network within a metre-thick shaly interval;
(d) detail of the closely spaced high-angle fractures within a centimetre-thick, well-cemented carbonate bed.
408 K. OGATA ET AL.

Fig. 7. Correlation of the Dh4 with the measured section at the Deltaneset field locality. The CD stratigraphical log (for
location see Fig. 6) correlates fairly well the Knorringfjellet Formation, and the upper third of the De Geerdalen
Formation with the upper part of the reservoir in the Dh4 (sedimentary log from Dh4 is compiled by Atle Mørk: see
Braathen et al. 2010). Stereoplots and histograms showing the fracture distribution of each scanline are represented
beside the stratigraphical log in correlation with the labelled scanline location to highlight their relationships with the
considered lithostratigraphical intervals. In the histograms, through-going (red) and bed-confined (grey) fractures are
distinguished, while the sedimentary succession is subdivided into three lithostructural associations (LSA), A, B and C,
on the basis of their sedimentary facies, lithology and fracture patterns (see the text for an explanation).

foliation (i.e. pseudo-bedding) of these lithologies In this framework, a strain decoupling due to fric-
may have contributed to the development of the tional slip and interface opening at the main litho-
low-angle shear fractures. logical boundaries (e.g. master bedding planes,
 NATURAL FRACTURES AND CO2 STORAGE 409

Fig. 8. Summary stereoplots showing the entire dataset from the selected scanlines (for a description of each scanline
see Table 1, and for locations see Figs 6 & 7): (a) planes to poles; and (b) 1% area contours density plot.

WILHELMØYA SUBGROUP
Knorringfjellet Fm.
CD_KD_4
CD_KD_5
Strike slip
Equal Angle slickenlines

Slickenlines
trend/plunge
a

Dip slip
slickenlines

Great Circle:
N = 17 ; first plane = 1 ; last plane = 17 b
Pattern = solid

Fig. 9. Stereoplot of the shear fractures and the kinematic indicators recognized within the coarse-grained,
thick-bedded and well-cemented beds of the Knorringfjellet Formation in the investigated section: for a description
of the considered scanlines see Table 1 (locations are shown in Figs 6 & 7). These shear systems suggest an overall
NE–SW-oriented axis of horizontal contraction (red arrows). (a) An example of strike-slip slickenlines in a high-angle
shear fracture (compass used for scale); and (b) an example of dip-slip slickenlines in a low-angle shear fracture
(lens cap used for scale).
410 K. OGATA ET AL.
CAUSES AND
MECHANISMS
NEOGENE
Unroofing
and uplift
decompaction and
generalized extension
PALEOGENE
Tectonic/sedimentary
burial and horizontal
compression
layer-parallel shearing
caused by crustal
shortening
MESOZOIC
Gravity and
differential
compaction
B C
igneous intrusions
A Shaly/massive-laminated
HA: High Angle
B Silty/thin-bedded
LA: Low Angle
C Sandy/medium-thick bedded
Fig. 10. Proposed model for the evolution of the investigated structural discontinuities within the different
lithostructural domains and their relationships with the main regional tectonic events.
erosional surfaces, diagenetic horizons) may have
played a major role in the structural segmentation
of the stratigraphical section (Cooke & Underwood
2001 and references therein).
Implications for fluid flow
Given the abundance of both vertical and horizontal
open fractures observed in the drill cores and in out-
crops, and very low matrix permeability, fractur-
ing appears to be relevant for fluid circulation.
This is supported by borehole water injection tests
and results obtained from the wireline logs, particu-
larly the resistivity and temperature logs (see Fig. 5).
The block diagram in Figure 12 shows a sche-
matic representation of the three-dimensional frac-
ture network within the individual lithostructural
domains A, B and C. Considering the abundance of
lower-angle fractures within the finer-grained units,
and reiterating that fluid flow in the tight reservoir is
essentially a function of the fracture network, these
are thought to represent zones of enhanced lateral
connectivity. Even if such fractures could be sealed
by elastic strain due to vertical stress, they are
STRUCTURAL
PRODUCTS
Activation, reactivation
of early structures
Reworking (opening) of
preceding fractures
Deformation bands (HA)
+ hairline fractures (HA)
Slickensided, polished,
conjugate fractures (LA)
Brittle micro-faults (HA)
Pyrite mineralization
Calcite mineralization
Disaggregation
deformation bands (HA)
A Ductile micro-faults (HA)
Ductile shear zones
(HA and LA)
Diffused soft sediment
deformation structures
NOT TO SCALE
thought to be prone to opening when subjected to
even relatively small pressure increments, especially
if the reservoir underpressure is considered. Coarser-
grained sandstone intervals, however, are thought to
enhance the vertical communication. Silty intervals,
defined by the lithostructural domain B, are charac-
terized by the predominance of non-systematic,
pervasive bed-confined fractures, and represent a
combination of both diffused and baffled lateral
and vertical flow between the two proposed end
members.
The interconnectivity of fracture clusters at
mechanical interfaces is critical to allow the verti-
cal migration of fluids through a layered medium
(Gudmundsson et al. 2010; Larsen & Gudmundsson
2010). Fracture length and lateral connectivity
between vertical, open fractures are also key factors
for horizontal fluid migration (Odling et al. 1999),
since they are expected to cause a pronounced per-
meability anisotropy that steers the fluid flow in a
specific direction. In the discussed case, besides a
generalized vertical connectivity, the main lateral
spreading of the flow is assumed to be directed
roughly WSW–ENE, according to fracture set
 NATURAL FRACTURES AND CO2 STORAGE 411

Fig. 11. (a) Cross (X –Y ) plot showing the relationships between the different lithostructural domains, average fracture
densities and considered bed thicknesses. Note the opposite trends shown by lithostructural association A with respect to
B and C. (b) Whisker-plot showing a summary of the fracture frequency distributions and fluctuations for each scanline
(see a for a colour-code explanation). In each box, min–max lower and upper quartile, and median are displayed.

intersections and the mean strike of the measured
subvertical fractures (see Figs 8 & 12).
Significance of fractures in the overburden
Fractured cap rocks, such as in the Snorre Field
(Caillet 1993), may cause leakage of CO2 and/or
hydrocarbons. The storage of CO2 in depleted
hydrocarbon fields is tempting, since the lowered
pressure allows more CO2 to be injected before
the capillary entry pressure of the cap rock is
exceeded. However, owing to the lower interfacial
tension in the CO2 –brine system compared to the
hydrocarbon–water system, the cap-rock sealing
412 K. OGATA ET AL.

Equal Area C.I. = 1.0 % / 1 % area

Equal Area C.I. = 1.0 % / 1 % area
Lower
Hemisphere
1 % Area Contours Diffused/baffled Lower
Hemisphere
1 % Area Contours

lateral and vertical

connectivity

N = 469
C Enhanced vertical
N = 822

connectivity

B
A Equal Area
Lower
C.I. = 1.0 % / 1 % area
1 % Area Contours
Hemisphere

Potential fluid
migration pathways

A Shaly/massive-laminated
Enhanced lateral
B Silty/thin-bedded
C Sandy/medium-thick bedded connectivity
not to scale N = 402

Fig. 12. Schematic diagram of the interconnectivity and intensity of fractures within the three lithostructural
associations: A, B and C (see the text for details). Corresponding stereoplots show the total considered fractures (plane
to poles) for each lithostructural association. The finer-grained lithostructural domain A is typically characterized by
conjugate, lower-angle shear fractures, leading to enhanced lateral connectivity. The coarser-grained units, however, are
typically dominated by steep fractures, and may thus enhance vertical connectivity. Note also the mixture of steep
and lower-angle fractures within the silty interval of lithostructural domain B.

pressure must be determined prior to injection
(Li et al. 2006). The increase in pressure related to
the potential CO2 injection furthermore may lead
to the reactivation of faults within the overburden
(Chiaramonte et al. 2008). Considering the poten-
tial storage of CO2 within the coarser-grained inter-
vals of the Knorringfjellet Formation, we must also
consider possible leakage pathways from these
units.
On Spitsbergen, even though the Janusfjellet
Subgroup cap rock is highly fractured, the differen-
tial pressure in the target reservoir and the overbur-
den affirms the efficient sealing potential of the unit.
Reactivation and opening of the predominantly
low-angle fractures may lead to enhanced lateral
migration at the base and/or within the cap-rock
succession but, owing to the low vertical connec-
tivity, the cap rock is deemed to be sealing. This
view has recently been corroborated by water injec-
tion tests.
Local enhanced sealing processes and
reservoir segmentation
Localized veining and enhanced cementation occurs
within and around beds or intervals characterized by
specific compositions and sedimentary features:
increased calcite and quartz precipitation relate to
the diagenesis of carbonate, crystalline and thick-
bedded, coarse-grained layers, respectively. Such
diagenetic horizons may represent intervals with a
baffled connectivity due to fracture sealing and,
thus, possibly contribute to vertical compartmentali-
zation of the reservoir/storage unit.
Moreover, the presence of dolerite intrusions
within the reservoir unit is manifested both in Dh4,
where a 2 m-thick sill occurs at 950 m, and by
seismic data that suggest thicker sills beneath the
well’s total depth of 970 m. Such bodies are also
found in outcrop: intrusive rocks of the Diabasod-
den Suite occur over large parts of the Svalbard
 NATURAL FRACTURES AND CO2 STORAGE
archipelago and are generally thought to be of Late
Jurassic or Early Cretaceous age (Burov et al.
1977; Maher 2001, Nejbert et al. 2011). In outcrop,
sills exhibit a thickness ranging from 1 to more
than 30 m, with off-cutting dykes generally minor
and localized. An exception is the probable feeder
dyke at Diabasodden, adjacent to the Deltaneset
field locality. The drilled dolerite in Dh4 shows, on a
small scale, that increased fracturing occurs around
the intrusion, probably associated with focused
strain during Tertiary contractional tectonics. Fur-
thermore, millimetre- to centimetre-thick, calcite-
filled fractures in the vicinity of this and other, even
thinner, dolerite bodies in Dh4 suggest increased
mineralized fluid circulation, possibly due to syn-
emplacement metasomatism and hydrothermalism,
and related calcite precipitation, within the contact
aureoles, or post-emplacement water– rock interac-
tions. The mechanical deformation of the sedimen-
tary succession could therefore either be related to
the intrusion phase (e.g. magma flow, bulging and
thermal shrinking) and/or to the subsequent tec-
tonic- related mechanical decoupling due to rheolo-
gical differences between igneous units and the host
rock at the post-intrusive stage.
In this framework, dolerite bodies may play a
double role in controlling the fluid flow: (1) acting
as conduits due to along-dyke wall and internal frac-
turing; and (2) acting as baffles or barriers for the
wall-rock fracture flow due to cemented fractures
in the contact aureole. Depending on their three-
dimensional architecture and fracturing-sealing
processes, dolerite intrusions could serve to com-
partmentalize the reservoir into high-conductivity
fracture corridors and low-conductivity domains of
cemented fractures. Further work addressing these
issues is currently in progress.
Implications for CO2 storage
The fractured nature of the reservoir, together with
its low matrix porosity, complicates the volumetric
calculation of the potential CO2 storage reservoir.
Numerical modelling has shown that, depending
on the chemical composition of the fluid, the reser-
voir and cap rocks, CO2 may both enhance porosity
through dissolution yet also decrease porosity and
permeability through the precipitation of calcite
(Gherardi et al. 2007). In the LYB CO2 lab case,
the storage potential of the target aquifer is funda-
mentally dependent on the interconnectivity, length
and aperture of the fracture system. Further, the
dynamic interaction between the fractures and the
host-rock matrix represents a substantial source of
uncertainty (Farokhpoor et al. 2010, 2011). At this
stage it is still unclear whether the Kapp Toscana
Group sediments are, indeed, optimal for storing
large amounts of CO2, but acquired evidence
413
suggests that the succession is likely to be suitable
for storing the modest, test-site-scale CO2 emissions
from the local power plant.
Concluding remarks
Carbon dioxide may potentially be injected into a
siliciclastic succession on Spitsbergen, Svalbard,
given the good injectivity of this naturally fractured
tight sandstone–shale reservoir/storage unit. Frac-
ture sets have been identified in both drill core and
outcrop data, and three major lithostructural
domains (A, B and C) can be identified throughout
the investigated section. In the massive to laminated,
shale-dominated unit A, low-angled slickensided
open fractures dominate and are probably related
to the regional Tertiary transpression. The other end
member, the massive to laminated, sand-dominated
unit C, is characterized by steeply dipping fractures,
probably reworked/reactivated and interconnected
during the later Quaternary unroofing. The inter-
mediate heterogeneous, laminated to thin-bedded,
silty unit B displays a predominantly non-systematic,
dispersed fracture network, representing a mixed
member in-between. Such fracture associations are
considered to represent the key factor in control-
ling the internal connectivity of the reservoir and
the direction of the fluid flow, by influencing lateral
and vertical fluid migration, respectively.
The LYB CO2 Lab project represents a unique
test site for potential CO2 storage in a naturally frac-
tured tight siliciclastic reservoir. The large amount
of available data from different methods, coupled
with the possibility of detailed studies on the reser-
voir and cap rock directly in outcrop, allow a com-
prehensive characterization of the potential storage
framework. The future exploitation of unconven-
tional reservoirs for subsurface CO2 disposal needs
to have the same degree of knowledge developed
for the currently emerging hydrocarbon exploration
for shale gas/oil and enhanced geothermal systems
(EGS). This should highlight the importance of
detailed structural studies, especially for the stimu-
lation (i.e. hydrofracturing) of tight reservoirs, the
construction of datasets gathering key parameters
for the characterization of the vertical –lateral frac-
ture connectivity within the reservoir – cap rock
system and, therefore, the prediction/mitigation of
the risk of leakage towards the surface.
This work is part of the ‘Geological input to Carbon
Storage (GeC)’ project funded by the CLIMIT programme
of the Research Council of Norway, with K. Senger’s field-
work supported by an Arctic Field Grant from the Svalbard
Science Forum. A. Rittersbacher, D. Richey and L. Farrell
are thanked for their assistance in the field. The GeC
project team works in close co-operation with the Long-
yearbyen CO2 lab project (http://co2-ccs.unis.no), which
414 K. OGATA ET AL.
is currently funded by Gassnova, ConocoPhillips, Statoil,
Statkraft, Store Norske, LNS, Lundin Norway and Baker
Hughes. Shapefiles from NPI-Geonet have been used to
construct the geological maps. The North Africa Research
Group at the University of Manchester is thanked for orga-
nizing the ‘Naturally Fractured Hydrocarbon Reservoirs’
workshop where this work was initially presented. Finally,
we would like to thank G. Spence and T. Bevan for having
supported the publication of this work, and R.H. Gabriel-
sen and C. Bond for their constructive reviews.
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