Quick Exam Notes NA Science Chemistry PDF

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02 NA QEN Sci Chemistry ttp.pdf 1 5/26/2015 9:25:36 AM

N(A) Level
SCIENCE
(CHEMISTRY) See C. P.
B.Sc. Hons., Dip.Ed.
A. B. Terence
B.Sc., M.Ed., M.A. (IDT), PGDE
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00 Copyright_Quick EN NA SciChem.indd 1 7/7/2016 5:14:49 PM

PREFACE
Quick Exam Notes N(A) Level Science (Chemistry) is specially compiled to help students prepare for
important tests and examinations.
Clear Presentation Format

Notes are presented in point form for ease of understanding and systematic learning. Students will be able

to review important concepts and examples quickly.
Useful Illustrations
A variety of diagrams, graphs and tables are included. Students will be able to understand concepts and
processes easily through these helpful visual aids.
The Editorial Team
01 Pre&Cont_Quick EN NA SciChem.1 1 5/26/2015 9:54:20 AM

CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: Experimental Chemistry 1

1.1 Experimental Design
1.2 Methods of Purification and Analysis
1.3 Pure Substances
1.4 Identification of Gases

CHAPTER 2: The Particulate Nature of Matter
CHAPTER 3: Formulae and Stoichiometry

14
31
3.1 Writing Chemical Formulae
3.2 Chemical Equations
3.3 Ionic Equations
3.4 Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)
3.5 Relative Molecular Mass (Mr)
CHAPTER 4: Acids, Bases and Salts 42
4.1 Acids
4.2 Bases
4.3 pH Scale
4.4 Types of Oxides
4.5 Preparation of Salts
Quick Exam Notes NA SciChem.indb2 2 5/22/2015 8:23:23 AM

CHAPTER 5: The Periodic Table 52
5.1 Periodic Trends
5.2 Group Properties
CHAPTER 6: Metals 59
6.1 Properties of Metals
6.2 Alloys
6.3 Structure of Metals and Alloys
6.4 Reactivity Series
6.5 Extraction of Metals

CHAPTER 7: Atmosphere and the Environment
7.1
7.2
Air
Air Pollution
71
CHAPTER 8: Organic Chemistry 74

8.1 Fuels and Crude Oil
8.2 Alkanes
8.3 Alkenes

Chapter 1 Experimental Chemistry
CHAPTER 1
EXPERIMENTAL CHEMISTRY
1.1 Experimental Design

Measurement
1. Scientific measurement is based on the metric system and the units used are called the SI units or
International System of Units.
2. The SI units have seven base units from which all other units are derived as shown in the table below.

Physical quantity
Mass
Length
Name of unit
kilogram
metre
Abbreviation
kg
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
© Singapore Asia Publishers Pte Ltd

3. Different types of apparatus are required for the measurement of the physical quantities listed on the
previous page.
(a) Mass
• The mass of a substance is the amount of
matter it contains. GT
789M %
• The mass of a substance is measured using a 00

00
00
4 5 6 CE /
123X -
0. =
+
beam balance or an electronic balance (refer

0HZ
0V/5
9V AC20
：DC mm
W 0X95
：0.2 0X29
：30 5mm
5X19
：29

to figure 1.1).
• The SI unit is the kilogram (kg). beam balance electronic balance
• Other units include the milligram (mg) and Figure 1.1
the gram (g).

(b) Time
• Time is measured using a stopwatch (refer to
figure 1.2) or stopclock. FH
QF HU
PVRW
WU
FH
QF HU
Scc
PVRW
WU
KP
U
Q
KP
FH
1/100 Sec &+521&*5$3+
Scc
Q UL
D LR
HQ
&K XU
CHRONOGRAPH
• The SI unit is seconds (s).
LF
&+521&*5$3+
˖
S

QU
D LR
&K XU
˖
S
• Other units include the millisecond (ms),
minute (min) and (h).
digital stopwatch analogue stopwatch
Figure 1.2

(c) Temperature
• The temperature of a substance is measured with a thermometer (see figure 1.3).
• There are different types of thermometers, such as:
(i) mercury-in-glass thermometer,
(ii) alcohol-in-glass thermometer,
(iii) electronic thermometer.
100 110
10
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
C
-10ºC(min) 110ºC(max)
mercury-in-glass thermometer
Singapore Asia Publishers 76

.8
electronic thermometer
Figure 1.3

76

.
(d) Volume
• Volume is measured in units of cubic centimetres (cm3), cubic decimetres (dm3) and cubic
metres (m3).
• The volume of a substance is measured using the following types of apparatus (refer to figure 1.4):
(i) beaker,
(ii) syringe,
(iii) measuring cylinder,
(iv) pipette,
(v) burette,
(vi) volumetric flask.
Singapore Asia Publishers 100 cm3
graduation
mark
250 cm3
syringe measuring
marked beaker volumetric
cylinder (standard) flask
graduated pipette
pipette (bulb)
burette
Figure 1.4 Types of apparatus for measuring volume

• Beakers and measuring cylinders measure approximate volumes of liquids.

• Syringes measure volumes of gases or liquids.
• Burettes and pipettes measure very accurate volumes of liquids.
• Volumetric flasks measure fixed accurate volumes of liquids.
1.2 Methods of Purification and Analysis

1. Filtration
Filtration is used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid.
• The filter paper is folded as illustrated in figure 1.5 and placed in the filter funnel.
• Moisten the filter paper with the solvent of the liquid/solid mixture being filtered

(most likely this will be deionised water) and press the filter paper against the top
wall of the funnel to form a seal.
• Pour the mixture into the filter funnel.
• The insoluble solid remains in the filter funnel as
residue and the liquid passing through the filter
is collected as the filtrate.
• The residue cannot pass through the pores in the
filter paper while the liquid particles are small
enough to pass through it (refer to figure 1.6 on
the following page).
Figure 1.5 Folding filter paper

(residue)
large particles of
solid are trapped
by the filter paper
mixture of
solid and
liquid filter paper with
small holes
filter funnel
small particles
of liquid pass
filter paper through the
filter paper
Singapore Asia Publishers filtrate
Figure 1.6 Filtration
2. Crystallisation
• Crystallisation is used to separate a soluble solid (solute) from its solution (for example, crystallisation
of copper(II) sulfate).
• Copper(II) sulfate solution is heated in an evaporating dish to produce a saturated solution.
• The hot saturated solution is cooled and blue crystals of copper(II) sulfate crystals will start to
form.
• The crystals are removed by filtration.
• The crystals are washed with a little cold water and dried by pressing between dry sheets of filter paper.

3. Sublimation
• Sublimation is used to separate a mixture of solids, one of which sublimes.
• Sublimation involves a solid changing directly to the gaseous state on heating without going through
the liquid state (melting).
• On cooling, the gas changes back to the solid state directly.
• Figure 1.7 shows how sublimation can be used to separate iodine from a mixture of iodine and sand.
• A mixture of iodine and sand is heated in a beaker. The iodine sublimes and then crystallises back
to the solid state directly when the iodine vapours come in contact with a cold surface. The sand is
not affected by the heat and remains in the beaker.
• Other common substances that sublime include solid carbon dioxide (‘dry ice’), naphthalene
(mothballs) and most ammonium salts.
Singapore Asia Publishers crystals of iodine

cool filter funnel
mixture of iodine evaporating dish

and sand
heat gently
Figure 1.7 Purification by sublimation


4. Distillation
(a) Simple Distillation
Simple distillation is used to separate the solvent from a solution containing a non-volatile solute
(refer to figure 1.8).
• The solution is boiled to vaporise the volatile liquid.
• The vapour is cooled by cold water in the condenser to condense it to a liquid (the distillate)
which is collected in the flask.
• The anti-bumping granules (or boiling chips)
give a smoother boiling action.
• This method can be used to purify water (e.g.
sea water) because the dissolved solids have thermometer

a much higher boiling point and will not
vaporise with the steam.
• This method can also be used to obtain warm water out
chemically-pure water for medical and
Liebig condenser
industrial uses.
solution
cold water in
anti-bumping granules
(boiling chips) HEAT
distillate
Figure 1.8 Simple distillation

(b) Fractional Distillation

Fractional distillation is used to separate two or more miscible liquids with different boiling points
(refer to figure 1.9).
• The liquid or solution mixture is boiled to vaporise the most volatile component in the
mixture.
• The vapour passes up through a fractionating column, where the separation takes place.
• As the vapour from the boiling mixture enters the fractionating column it begins to cool and
condense. The highest boiling or least volatile liquid tends to condense more.
• The lower boiling or more volatile liquid
gets further up the column. Gradually up thermometer
the column the different liquids separate

from each other so that the less volatile
warm water out
liquid condenses back into the flask and pure
samples of the more volatile liquid distil over condenser
fractionating
to be collected. column
• The first liquid, with the lowest boiling point,
cold water in
is called the first fraction and each liquid
distils over when the top of the column
reaches its particular boiling point to give the distillate
second, third fraction etc. flask
• To increase the separation efficiency of the tall liquid boiling chips
mixture
fractionating column, it is usually packed with for smooth
boiling
glass beads, short glass tubes or glass rings
etc. which greatly increase the surface area
for vaporisation and condensation. Figure 1.9 Fractional distillation

• Fractional distillation is used in industry to separate the different fractions from crude oil,
liquified air and fermented liquor.
• Fermented liquor is a dilute solution of ethanol formed by the fermentation of glucose by
yeast.
yeast
glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide
• Fractional distillation is used to extract the ethanol.
5. Chromatography
Chromatography is a technique used to:
• separate the components in a mixture;
• identify the substances present in a mixture;

• determine if a substance is pure.
Chromatography is based on the following principle:
• Different substances have different solubilities in the same solvent.
- Hence, the more soluble solutes will move faster in the solvent and be carried further ahead of
the less soluble solutes.
- This leads to the effective separation of the solutes and their identification.
Paper Chromatography
There are two types of paper chromatography (refer to figure 1.10).
(a) Ascending paper chromatography – where the solvent moves up the chromatography paper.
(b) Descending paper chromatography – where the solvent moves down the chromatography paper.
This is used for mixtures containing substances with higher Mr.
© Singapore Asia Publishers Pte Ltd 10

solvent trough for

solvent
chromatography
paper
sample
sample
solvent

Ascending paper chromatography Descending paper chromatography
Figure 1.10 Paper chromatography

The steps involved in ascending paper chromatography are described here but the principle for both
methods is the same.
Example Identifying the dyes present in black ink.
Experimental Procedure (refer to figure 1.11a)
• A strip of filter paper is cut and a pencil is used to draw a line about 2 cm from one end of the paper.
• A drop of the black ink is placed on the drawn line together with drops of known pure dye
samples.
• The paper is then placed in a beaker of an appropriate solvent (e.g. distilled water). The solvent
level must be just below the pencil line containing the dyes.
• The chromatogram is removed when the solvent has reached the top of the paper and is allowed
to dry.

Results and Deduction (refer to figure 1.11b)

• The black ink sample shows two separate spots which indicates it is not pure but a mixture of at
least two dyes.
• The two spots are in line with those of the pure blue and pure yellow dyes. This implies that the
black ink sample contains both the pure blue and yellow dyes but not the red dye.
solvent front
beaker
X = sample of
black ink
chromatography paper
R = red dye

B = blue dye
pencil line
Y = yellow dye
X R B Y
X R B Y
water
Experimental set-up Results
Figure 1.11a Figure 1.11b
1.3 Pure Substances

1. A pure substance contains only one type of substance (which can be in the form of an element or
a compound).
2. Pure substances have a fixed melting point and a sharp boiling point.
3. Thus, pure substances will melt and boil at a constant temperature.
4. The identity of a pure unknown substance can be identified by comparing its melting point and boiling
point with those found in the Data Book.

5. The presence of impurities will:

• lower the melting and freezing points of a pure substance;
• raise the boiling point of a pure substance.
Hence, mixtures melt and boil over a range of temperatures (that is, the melting and boiling points are
no longer constant).
1.4 Identification of Gases

1. The table below summarises the tests used to identify gases.

Gas Colour and odour Test Observation

Carbon dioxide colourless and odourless Pass the gas through limewater. A white ppt forms.
Place a lighted splint at the Lighted splint is extinguished

Hydrogen colourless and odourless
mouth of the test tube. with a ‘pop’ sound.
Insert a glowing splint into the The glowing splint is rekindled

Oxygen colourless and odourless
gas. (relights).

Chapter 2 The Particulate Nature of Matter
CHAPTER 2
THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER
States of Matter and Kinetic Particle Theory

1. Matter is any substance that occupies space and has mass.
2. Matter is made up of particles (atoms, molecules or ions).
3. It exists in three states: solid, liquid and gas.

4. Table 1 below summarises the properties and differences between the three states.

Property Solid Liquid Gas
Shape fixed not fixed not fixed
Volume fixed fixed not fixed
cannot be cannot be can be easily

Compressibility
compressed compressed compressed
Density (relative) high density medium density low density
Table 1

5. Matter can be converted from one state to another. The processes associated with changes of state are
shown in figure 2.1.
Gas
co
n
io
nd
at
en
va
lim
n
io
sa
po
b
at
tio
su
ris
im
n
at
bl
io
su
n
freezing
Solid Liquid

melting
Figure 2.1 Changes of state
6. The Kinetic Particle Theory explains the changes that occur when matter changes state. Generally, heating
causes particles to gain kinetic energy and move about more rapidly. The movement can be rotational,
vibrational or even translational in nature. Sufficient energy overcomes forces of attraction and ultimately
causes a change of state. Conversely, cooling or reducing the amount of kinetic energy of particles has
the reverse effect.

Figure 2.2 below summarises the changes that occur at the particulate level as explained by the
Kinetic Particle Theory.
heat heat
Singapore Asia Publishers Solid: Ice
Solid – The particles are:

1. very close together;
Liquid: Water
Liquid – The particles are:

1. further apart;
Gas: Steam
Gas – The particles are:

1. furthest apart;
2. arranged regularly; 2. not arranged regularly; 2. randomly arranged;
3. held together very tightly 3. not tightly held 3. free to move
(strong forces of attraction); (weaker forces of attraction); (very weak forces of attraction);
4. held in fixed positions. 4. moving freely throughout its 4. moving very fast in all
volume. directions.
Figure 2.2

Atomic Structure
1. Matter is made up of atoms. Atoms themselves are made up of three sub-atomic particles: protons,
neutrons and electrons.
Table 2 below shows the relative charges and approximate relative masses of these sub-atomic
particles.
Particle Symbol Relative mass Relative charge
proton p 1 +1
neutron n 1 0

electron e 1/1840 -1
Table 2
2. The protons and neutrons are located at the centre of the atom in the nucleus.
3. Electrons are arranged in shells around the nucleus
18e–
as shown in figure 2.3. The first shell (nearest to the
nucleus) can hold a maximum of 2 electrons and the 8e–
p+
second and third shells can hold a maximum of 8 and 2e–
n
18 electrons respectively.
Figure 2.3 Atomic structure


4. Every element has its own proton (atomic) number, symbol Z, and nucleon (mass) number, symbol A.
5. The proton (atomic) number of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of its atom (this is
also equal to the number of electrons).
6. The nucleon (mass) number of an element is the total number of protons and neutrons in its atoms.
For example, the symbol for sodium (Na) is written as:
nucleon no. (A) 23

11Na
Chemical symbol
proton no. (Z)
There are 11 protons, 11 electrons and 12 (23 – 11) neutrons.

7. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
For example, how many protons, neutrons and electrons do the following substances contain?
40 35 37
(a) Ca (b) Cl (c) Cl (d) K+ (e) O2–
20 17 17
Solution:

Elements Protons Neutrons Electrons
40
Ca
20
20 40 – 20 = 20 20
35

17
Cl 17 35 – 17 = 18 17
37
17
Cl 17 37 – 17 = 20 17
K+ 19 39 – 19 = 20 19 – 1 = 18
O2– 8 16 – 8 = 8 8 + 2 = 10
Note: 1. Cl-35 and Cl-37 are isotopes of chlorine as they have the same number of protons (same element) but different
number of neutrons.
2. In the case of ions, the number of electrons will not be the same as the number of protons as atoms lose or gain
electrons during ion formation.

Elements, Compounds and Mixtures

1. An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical
methods.
2. A compound is a substance containing two or more elements joined together by chemical bonds.
3. A mixture contains two or more substances that are not chemically bonded together.
Table 3 below summarises the differences between compounds and mixtures.
Compound Mixture

Component substances cannot be separated by Component substances can be separated by
1 physical methods; a chemical method is required physical methods
for separation
Its physical and chemical properties are different Its physical and chemical properties are the same
2
from that of its elements as its component substances
3 Fixed composition by mass Variable composition by mass
4 Has fixed
melting and boiling
points Melts and boils over a range of temperatures
Table 3


Molecules
1. A molecule consists of two or more atoms chemically joined together (by covalent bonds).
2. A molecule can consist of atoms of the same element (e.g. Cl2 , O2) or atoms of two or more different
elements (e.g. CO2 , CH3Cl) as present in compounds.
3. Molecules can exist as simple molecular structures such as methane and carbon dioxide molecules
or giant molecular structures like poly(ethene), diamond and graphite.
Small molecules:
H H

| |
H—C—C—H O C O I—I
| |
H H
ethane carbon dioxide iodine
Macromolecules:
H H H H H H
| | | | | |
—C—C—C—C—C—C—
| | | | | |
H H H H H H
part of poly(ethene) polymer

Ionic Bonding
1. To obtain the electronic configuration of a noble gas,
(a) atoms of metals lose electrons to form positive ions (cations);
(b) atoms of non-metals gain electrons to form negative ions (anions).
2. Atoms lose or gain electrons to form a stable duplet (first electron shell of 2 electrons) or a stable octet
(of 8 electrons), achieving the electronic configuration of a noble gas.
3. Valence electrons are the electrons found in the outermost shell used in bond formation.
4. The loss of an electron leads to the formation of a positive ion with a corresponding single positive charge.

Thus, if a magnesium atom loses 2 electrons, it forms a magnesium ion with a +2 charge. Likewise,
the gain of an electron leads to the formation of a negative ion with a corresponding negative charge.
Chlorine atom can gain 1 electron to form a chloride ion of a -1 charge while oxygen atom can gain 2
electrons to form an oxide ion of charge –2.

For example, Na has the following electronic configuration: 2.8.1
Losing its valence electron will give it the electronic configuration of neon (2.8).
Cl has the following electronic configuration: 2.8.7
Gaining 1 electron will give it the electronic configuration of argon (2.8.8).

Therefore, a sodium atom will transfer 1 electron to a chlorine atom as shown below.
Na + Cl
sodium atom chlorine atom

(2.8.1) (2.8.7)
+ –

Na+ Cl–
sodium ion chloride ion

(2.8) (2.8.8)
5. The production of positive and negative ions leads to the formation of an electrostatic force of attraction
between the two ions. This attractive force forms an ionic bond.
For example, Mg has the following electronic configuration: 2.8.2
Losing its 2 valence electrons will give it the electronic configuration of neon (2.8).
Cl has the following electronic configuration: 2.8.7
Gaining 1 electron will give it the electronic configuration of argon (2.8.8).

Therefore, a magnesium atom will transfer 2 electrons to two chlorine atoms as shown below.
Cl Mg Cl
electron electron
transfer transfer
chlorine atom Mg atom chlorine atom
– 2+ –

Cl Mg Cl
chloride ion, Cl– magnesium ion, Mg2+ chloride ion, Cl–

6. Ionic substances do not exist as

discrete molecules but form giant
lattice structures in which the
oppositely charged ions are held in
fixed positions by strong electrostatic
attraction.
7. Figure 2.4 shows the lattice structure
of sodium chloride. The ions are
arranged in a regular lattice structure

with each Na+ ion surrounded by
six Cl– ions and each Cl– ion in turn
= Na+ = Cl –
surrounded by six Na+ ions.
Figure 2.4 attice structure of
L
sodium chloride
Properties of Ionic Substances

1. Ionic substances have high melting and boiling points. Ionic substances do not exist as discrete
molecules but form giant lattice structures in which the oppositely charged ions are held in fixed positions
by strong electrostatic attraction. Therefore, the ionic lattice structure is strong because a lot of energy
is required to overcome the strong forces of attraction.

2. Ionic substances conduct electricity in the molten state or when dissolved in water. In the solid state,
the ions are held in fixed positions in the lattice structure so ionic substances cannot conduct electricity.
In the molten state or when dissolved in water, the ions are mobile and so electrical conduction is
possible.
3. Ionic substances dissolve in water but not in organic solvents.
Covalent Bonding
1. Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of pairs of electrons between atoms of non-metals.
The shared pair of electrons results in the formation of a single covalent bond. This is so for the atom

to obtain the electronic configuration of an inert gas.
2. Atoms can share more than a single pair of electrons as shown in the formation of oxygen and nitrogen
molecules on the following pages. Each bond contains a pair of electrons to form a single covalent
bond.
• Sharing 4 electrons leads to the formation of a double covalent bond.
• Sharing 6 electrons leads to the formation of a triple covalent bond.
3. The formation of covalent bonds can be shown by ‘dot and cross’ diagrams. To differentiate between
the electrons contributed to the formation of the covalent bond, dots are used to represent the valence
electrons of one species of atoms and crosses for the other species of atoms as illustrated in the examples
on the following pages.

• Hydrogen atoms attain the electronic configuration of helium by sharing a pair of electrons.
H + H H H
H atom H atom H2 molecule

(1) (1)
• An oxygen atom has a 2.6 electronic configuration. Therefore, it needs 2 more electrons to achieve
the stable 2.8 electronic configuration of neon. In an oxygen molecule, each oxygen atom contributes

2 electrons for sharing to form a double bond.
O + O O O
O atom O atom O2 molecule

(2.6) (2.6)

• A nitrogen atom has a 2.5 electronic configuration. Therefore, it needs 3 more electrons to achieve the
stable 2.8 electronic configuration of neon. In a nitrogen molecule, each nitrogen atom contributes
3 electrons for sharing to form a triple bond.
N + N N N
N atom N atom N2 molecule

(2.5) (2.5)

• In the formation of a water molecule, oxygen contributes 1 electron for sharing with each hydrogen
atom.
H H
H + O + H O
H atom O atom H atom Water molecule

(1) (2.6) (1)

• A carbon atom has a 2.4 electronic configuration. Thus, it needs 4 more electrons to achieve the
stable 2.8 electronic configuration of neon. In methane, one carbon atom shares 1 electron each with
four different hydrogen atoms. The carbon atom achieves the inert gas structure of neon while each
hydrogen atom achieves the inert gas structure of helium.
+ H
H + C + H H C H

+ H
H Methane molecule
• In the formation of carbon dioxide, each carbon and oxygen atom shares 4 electrons between them
to form a double bond.
O + C + O O C O
O atom C atom O atom Carbon dioxide molecule

(2.6) (2.4) (2.6)

Properties of Covalent Substances

1. Covalent substances have low melting and boiling points. The covalent bonds between atoms are
strong but the attractive forces between molecules (intermolecular forces such as van der Waals force)
are relatively weak and easily overcome. For instance, the covalent bonds that hold the atoms in H2O
molecules together are almost 25 times as strong as the intermolecular forces between water molecules.
(It takes 464 kJ/mol to break the H—O bonds within a water molecule but only 19 kJ/mol to overcome
the intermolecular forces between water molecules.)
2. Covalent compounds do not conduct electricity because covalent molecules do not carry charges which
are required for electrical conductivity.

3. Covalent substances are insoluble in water but dissolve in organic solvents.
Table 4 below summarises the properties of ionic and covalent compounds.

Covalent
Ionic
simple macromolecules
usually solids often gases or volatile liquids are solids
have high melting and boiling points have low melting and boiling points have very high melting points
usually soluble in water often insoluble in water insoluble in water

conduct electricity when molten
do not conduct electricity do not conduct electricity (except graphite)
or aqueous
Table 4

Chapter 3 Formulae and Stoichiometry
CHAPTER 3
FORMULAE and STOICHIOMETRY
3.1 Writing Chemical Formulae

1. Each element in the Periodic Table is represented by a chemical symbol, either a single letter or two
letters. The first letter is always in upper case and if there is a second, it is in lower case.
2. Valency is the combining power of an element or an ion. It is used to deduce the formula of the compound.
3. The table below shows the valency of some typical elements.

Element Symbol Valency Element Symbol Valency
helium He 0 calcium Ca 2
neon Ne 0 barium Ba 2
hydrogen H 1 zinc Zn 2
fluorine F 1 copper Cu 1 or 2
chlorine Cl 1 iron Fe 2 or 3
bromine Br 1 lead Pb 2 or 4
lithium Li 1 sulfur S 2, 4 or 6
sodium Na 1 nitrogen N 3 or 5
potassium K 1 phosphorus P 3 or 5
silver Ag 1 aluminium Al 3
magnesium Mg 2 carbon C 4
Note: Groups I, II and III elements generally have a valency equal to their group number. Group VII elements have a valency of 1.
Transition elements can have more than one valency.

4. The table below shows the valency of some typical ions.

Cation Symbol Valency Anion Symbol Valency
hydrogen H +
1 fluoride F –
1
ammonium NH4 +
1 chloride Cl –
1
silver Ag +
1 bromide Br –
1
sodium Na +
1 iodide I –
1
potassium K +
1 hydroxide OH –
1
barium Ba 2+
2 nitrite/nitrate(III) NO2 –
1

calcium Ca2+ 2 nitrate/nitrate(V) NO3– 1
copper(II) Cu2+ 2 hydrogencarbonate HCO3– 1
iron(II) Fe2+ 2 ethanoate CH3COO– 1
magnesium Mg2+ 2 oxide O2 – 2
lead(II) Pb2+ 2 sulfide S2 – 2
tin(II) Sn2+ 2 sulfite/sulfate(IV) SO32 –- 2
zinc Zn2+ 2 sulfate/sulfate(VI) SO42 – 2
nickel(II) Ni2+ 2 carbonate CO32 –- 2
aluminium Al3+ 3 chromate(VI) CrO42 – 2
chromium(III) Cr 3+
3 dichromate(VI) Cr2O7 2 –-
2
iron(III) Fe 3+
3 phosphate PO4 3–
3

5. In writing the formulae of simple binary covalent compounds, the total valency of each of the two
combining elements must be equal.
6. In writing the formulae of ionic compounds, the total number of positive charges must be equal to the
total number of negative charges to give a total sum charge of zero for the ionic compound.
7. Thus, the simplest way to write the formulae of covalent and ionic compounds and to satisfy points 5
and 6 stated above is to switch the valency of the elements or ions to get the simplest ratio of combining
elements or ions. The valencies are always written as subscripts.
Example 1 Write the formula of water.
Elements present: H O

Valency 1 2

Switch valency
2 1
Formula: H2O (the subscript 1 is not written)
Example 2 Write the formula of ammonia.

Elements present: N H
Valency 3 1
Switch valency
1 3
Formula: NH3

Example 3 Write the formula of sodium chloride.

Ions present: Na+ Cl–
Valency 1 1
Switch valency
1 1
Formula: NaCl
Example 4 Write the formula of magnesium oxide.
Ions present: Mg2+ O2–

Valency 2 2
Switch valency
2 2
Simplest ratio: 1 1
Formula: MgO
Example 5 Write the formula of aluminium nitrate.
Ions present: Al3+ NO3–

Valency 3 1
Switch valency
1 3
Formula: Al(NO3)3

Example 6 What is the formula of uranium(VI) oxide?

Elements present: U O
Valency 6 2

Switch valency
2 6
Simplest ratio: 1 3
Formula: UO3

Example 7 A metal X forms a carbonate of formula X2(CO3)3.
What is the formula of the nitrate of X?
As the valency was switched in the formula X2(CO3)3, the actual valency
of X is 3.
Thus, the formula of the nitrate of X is:
Ions present: X3+ NO3–
Valency 3 1

Switch valency
1 3
Formula: X(NO3)3

3.2 Chemical Equations

1. Chemical reactions are often summarised as word equations or chemical equations.
2. The reactants are written on the left-hand side (LHS) of the equation and the products on the right-hand
side (RHS).
3. The chemical equation also shows the ratio of reactants required to the ratio of products formed.
4. State symbols are often written to show the physical state of the chemicals.
[(s) = solid; (l) = liquid; (g) = gas and (aq) = aqueous]
5. How to write an equation
(i) Write down the word equation for the reaction.

(ii) Substitute the words with the chemical formulae.
(iii) Now balance the equation.
(a) Balance the number of atoms of an element on the LHS and RHS.
(b) Numbers can only be written in front of a chemical formula and the subscripts cannot be
changed.
(c) If complex anions (SO42–, CO32–, etc.) are not changed on the LHS and RHS, then count them as
a group.
(d) Generally, leave the H and O atoms to the last as they are usually the easiest to balance.
(iv) Write the appropriate state symbols.
Example 1 Write the chemical equation for the formation of sodium chloride.
(i) sodium + chlorine → sodium chloride
(ii) Na + Cl2 → NaCl

(iii) As there are two Cl on the LHS, write a 2 in front of NaCl to balance Cl. As there are
two Na on the RHS now, write a 2 in front of Na on the LHS.
2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl
(iv) Write the state symbols.
2Na (s) + Cl2 (g) → 2NaCl (s)
Example 2 Write an equation for the reaction between aluminium and sulfuric acid.
(i) aluminium + sulfuric acid → aluminium sulfate + hydrogen gas
(ii) Al + H2SO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + H2

(iii) Add a 2 in front of Al on the LHS.
As SO4 stays as a single unit, add a 3 in front of H2SO4.
2Al + 3H2SO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + H2
Now, balance the H by adding a 3 on the RHS.
2Al + 3H2SO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + 3H2
2Al (s) + 3H2SO4 (aq) → Al2(SO4)3 (aq) + 3H2 (g)
Example 3 Write an equation for the reaction between sodium carbonate and hydrochloric acid.
(i) sodium carbonate + hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride + carbon dioxide + water
(ii) Na2CO3 + HCl → NaCl + CO2 + H2O

(iii) As there are two Na on the LHS, add a 2 in front of NaCl to balance the Na. The CO3
does not remain intact so the C and O have to be counted separately. The C is balanced
on both sides.
Balance the Cl by adding a 2 in front of the HCl.
Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O
The H and the O are already balanced.
Na2CO3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

3.3 Ionic Equations
1. The procedure is similar to writing chemical equations.
2. Ionic substances in aqueous solution completely dissociate into ions.
3. Spectator ions (i.e. ions not participating in the reaction) are omitted.
4. The equation must be balanced in terms of the number of atoms of each element as well as the total
charge on the LHS and the RHS.
5. How to write an ionic equation
(i) Write the balanced chemical equation.
(ii) Separate the ions in solution.
(iii) Cancel out spectator ions.
(iv) Rewrite the equation with the state symbols.

Example 1 Write the ionic equation for the reaction between sodium carbonate and hydrochloric acid.
Na2CO3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
2Na+ + CO32– + 2H+ + 2Cl– → 2Na+ + 2Cl– + CO2 + H2O
2Na+ + CO32– + 2H+ + 2Cl– → 2Na+ + 2Cl– + CO2 + H2O
2H+ (aq) + CO32– (aq) → CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Example 2 Write the ionic equation for the neutralisation of sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid.
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
Na+ + OH– + H+ + Cl– → Na+ + Cl– + H2O
Na+ + OH– + H+ + Cl– → Na+ + Cl– + H2O


H+ (aq) + OH– (aq) → H2O (l)

3.4 Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)

1. The relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element is the average mass of all the isotopic atoms present in
1
the element compared to ___
th the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
12
average mass of 1 atom of an element
2. Ar = ___________________________________
1
___
12 mass of 1 atom of carbon–12
Example 1 Calculate the Ar of bromine.
Bromine consists of 50% 79Br and 50% 81Br.

[(50 × 79) + (50 × 81)]
Ar = ____________________
=
80
100
So the relative atomic mass of bromine is 80 or Ar(Br) = 80.
Example 2 Calculate the Ar of chlorine.
Chlorine consists of 75% chlorine-35 and 25% chlorine-37.
[(75 × 35) + (25 × 37)]
Ar = ____________________
= 35.5
100
So the relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 or Ar(Cl) = 35.5.

3.5 Relative Molecular Mass (Mr)

1. The relative molecular mass (Mr) of an element or a compound is the average mass of its molecule
1
compared to ___
th the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
12
average mass of 1 molecule of a substance
2. Mr = _______________________________________
1
___
12 mass of 1 atom of carbon–12
3. The relative molecular mass of a substance can be calculated by adding together the relative atomic
masses of all the atoms present in its molecular formula.
Example Calculate the Mr of sulfuric acid, H2SO4.

Relative atomic masses are H = 1, S = 32 and O = 16.
Mr = (1 × 2) + 32 + (4 × 16) = 98 (molecular mass of sulfuric acid)
4. The relative formula mass (same symbol, Mr) is used for ionic substances.
Example Calculate the Mr of calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2.
Relative atomic masses are Ca = 40, H = 1 and O = 16.
Mr = 40 + 2 × (16 + 1) = 74 (formula mass of calcium hydroxide)

Chapter 4 Acids, Bases and Salts
CHAPTER 4
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
4.1 Acids
1. An acid is a substance which produces hydrogen ions as the only positive ions when it is dissolved in
water.
2. Some common acids are shown below.

Name of acid Formula Ions produced
hydrochloric acid HCl H+, Cl–
nitric acid HNO3 H+, NO3 –
sulfuric acid H2SO4 2H+, SO4 2–
ethanoic acid CH3COOH H+, CH3COO–
3. The properties of an acid are due to the H+ ion formed when the acid molecule dissociates in water.
4. The number of hydrogen atoms in an acid which can be replaced by a metal is called its basicity.
Example HCl has one replaceable hydrogen atom so it is monobasic.
H2SO4 has two replaceable hydrogen atoms so it is dibasic.
H3PO4 has three replaceable hydrogen atoms so it is tribasic.

5. Physical properties of acids

• Acids have a sour taste.
• Acid solutions turn blue litmus red.
• Acid solutions have a pH value less than 7.
6. Chemical properties of acids
(a) Reaction with metals
(b) Reaction with bases
(c) Reaction with carbonates
Reaction with Metals
• Dilute acids react with metals above copper in the reactivity series to produce salts and hydrogen gas.

• Reactive metals like sodium and potassium react explosively with acids.
metal + dilute acids → salt + hydrogen gas
Example
magnesium + dil. sulfuric acid → magnesium sulfate + hydrogen gas
Mg (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
Example
zinc + dil. hydrochloric acid → zinc chloride + hydrogen gas
Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Reaction with Bases

• Acids react with metal oxides and hydroxides to form salt and water only.
• Acid-base reactions are known as neutralisation reactions.
metal oxide + dilute acid → salt + water
metal hydroxide + dilute acid → salt + water
Example
copper(II) oxide + dil. nitric acid → copper(II) nitrate + water
CuO (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) → Cu(NO3)2 (aq) + H2O (l)
Example
sodium hydroxide + dil. hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride + water

NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
• The Na+ and Cl– ions do not change during the reaction process but remain in solution. As such, the
actual process of neutralisation is between the H+ and OH- ions to form water. Thus, a neutralisation
reaction can be represented by the following simplified ionic equation.
H+ (aq) + OH– (aq) → H2O (l)
Reaction with Carbonates
• Acids react with metal carbonates to form salt, water and carbon dioxide gas.
metal carbonate + dilute acid → salt + water + carbon dioxide
Example
calcium carbonate + dil. hydrochloric acid → calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)

4.2 Bases
1. A base is any metal oxide or hydroxide.
2. A base can also be defined as a substance that reacts with an acid to give a salt and water only.
3. A soluble base is called an alkali. Alkalis are always metal hydroxides formed when a metal oxide
dissolves in water to produce hydroxide (OH–) ions.
Example CaO (s) + H2O (l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq)
4. The OH– ion is responsible for the alkaline properties.
5. Physical properties of alkalis
• Alkalis are bitter.

• Alkalis feel soapy to touch.
• Alkaline solutions turn red litmus blue.
• Alkaline solutions have pH values greater than 7.
6. Chemical properties of bases/alkalis
(a) Reaction with acids
Alkalis react with acids to form salt and water only (refer to section 4.1, 6b).
alkali + acid → salt + water
(b) Reaction with ammonium salts
Bases liberate ammonia when gently warmed with ammonium salts.
base + ammonium salt ∆ salt + water + ammonia
Example
sodium hydroxide + ammonium chloride ∆ sodium chloride + water + ammonia
NaOH (s) + NH4Cl (s) ∆ NaCl (s) + H2O (g) + NH3 (g)

4.3 pH Scale
1. The pH scale is used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution.
2. The pH scale ranges from a value of 0 to 14 as shown in figure 4.1 on the following page.
3. A neutral solution has a pH value of 7.
That is, [H+] = [OH–].
4. An acid has a pH range less than 7.
That is, [H+] > [OH–].
• The smaller the pH value, the stronger the acid.

5. An alkali has a pH range greater than 7.
That is, [H+] < [OH–].
• The higher the pH value, the stronger the alkali.
Note: [H+] and [OH–] refer to the concentration of the respective ions in solution.

REACTION 14.0 • Household Lye

Extremely Alkaline 13.0 • Bleach
Extremely Alkaline 12.0 • Ammonia
Extremely Alkaline 11.0 • Milk of Magnesia
Strongly Alkaline 10.0 • Borax
Moderately Alkaline 9.0 • Baking Soda
• Sea Water
Common Range
Slightly Alkaline 8.0 • Blood for Most Natural

Neutral 7.0 • Distilled Water Waters
• Milk
Slightly Acidic 6.0
• Boric Acid
Moderately Acidic 5.0 • Orange Juice
Strongly Acidic 4.0
Extremely Acidic 3.0 •• Lemon
Vinegar
Juice
Excessively Acidic 2.0
Very Extremely Acidic 1.0 • Battery Acid
0.0
Figure 4.1 The pH scale

6. To find the pH of a solution, an indicator like the Universal Indicator is used.

7. An indicator is a substance or mixture of substances that, when added to the solution, gives a different
colour depending on the pH of the solution.
8. Figure 4.2 shows the pH values associated with particular colours of the Universal Indicator.
pH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
colour RED ORANGE YELLOW GREEN BLUE PURPLE-VIOLET
Strong ACIDS Neutral

ALKALIS Strong
strength
Weak Weak

The pH of Soil
Figure 4.2 pH scale and universal indicator colours
1. The pH value of soil can vary from 4 to 8 depending on the type of soil.
2. Plants do not grow well in soils that may be too acidic or alkaline.
3. Therefore, it is important to be able to control the pH value of soil for optimal growth of plants and
crops.
4. Soil that is too acidic can be treated with bases such as calcium oxide (quicklime) or calcium hydroxide
(slaked lime) to neutralise the soil.

4.4 Types of Oxides

1. Oxides are formed when elements burn in oxygen.
2. Metals form metallic oxides and non-metals form non-metallic oxides.
3. Metallic oxides are generally basic oxides (e.g. Na2O, CaO, MgO).
4. Non-metallic oxides are acidic oxides (e.g. SO2, CO2).
5. Amphoteric oxides show both acidic and basic properties (e.g. PbO, Al2O3, ZnO).
For example, ZnO can react with both acid and alkali to form salt.
• as a base: ZnO (s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
• as an acid: ZnO (s) + 2NaOH (aq) → Na2ZnO2 (aq) + H2O (l)

sodium zincate (a salt)
6. Neutral oxides do not react with either acids or bases. Thus, they do not form salts.
Examples include water (H2O), carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen monoxide (NO).
4.5 Preparation of Salts

1. A salt is an ionic compound formed when the hydrogen of an acid is partly or completely replaced by
a metal or an ammonium ion.
2. Rules of solubility for salts in water
(i) All Group I metal salts are soluble in water.
(ii) All nitrate salts are soluble in water.
(iii) All ammonium salts are soluble in water.
(iv) All ethanoate salts are soluble in water.
(v) All halide (Cl-, Br-, I-) salts are soluble in water except silver and lead(II).

(vi) All sulfate salts are soluble in water except lead(II), calcium and barium.
(vii) All carbonate salts are insoluble except sodium, potassium and ammonium.
Note: All hydroxides are insoluble except sodium, potassium and ammonium (calcium and barium hydroxides are sparingly
soluble).
All oxides are insoluble except sodium and potassium (calcium and barium oxides are sparingly soluble).
3. Preparing Soluble Salts

(a) metal and acid
(b) metal oxide and acid
(c) metal hydroxide and acid
(d) metal carbonate and acid

Metal and Acid
This method is suitable for fairly reactive metals like Mg, Fe, Al and Zn (but not for Na, K and Ca
as the reactions are too vigorous).
• Add the metal in excess to a given volume of dilute acid till no further reaction is observed
(no more bubbles of hydrogen gas are produced).
• Filter off the excess unreacted metal.
• Heat to evaporate the filtrate until saturation.
• Cool the filtrate, filter off the crystals and allow to dry.
Metal Oxide and Acid
This method is suitable for most metal oxides but usually requires warming.
• The steps are the same as those in ‘Metal and acid’.

Metal Hydroxide and Acid

This method is suitable for soluble metal hydroxides (alkalis).
• Titrate an acid (in a burette) against a fixed volume (measured with a pipette) of alkali (in a conical
flask) in the presence of a suitable indicator till neutralisation occurs.
• Repeat the first step without the indicator present (as volumes of the acid and alkali are now
known).
• Heat to evaporate the neutral salt solution till saturation.
• Salts without water of crystallisation can be evaporated to dryness while salts with water of
crystallisation can be evaporated till saturation and crystals start to form. The crystals are then
filtered off and allowed to dry on filter paper.

Metal Carbonate and Acid
Add the metal carbonate in excess to a given volume of dilute acid till no further reaction is observed
(no more bubbles of carbon dioxide gas are produced).
• Filter off the excess metal carbonate.
• Heat to evaporate the filtrate until saturation.
• Cool the filtrate, filter off the crystals and allow to dry.
4. Preparing Insoluble Salts
Insoluble salts can be prepared by precipitation.
Example
Insoluble silver chloride can be prepared by adding silver nitrate solution to sodium chloride
solution.
• Filter to remove the precipitate of silver chloride formed.
• Wash the precipitate with distilled water.
• Dry the precipitated silver chloride with filter paper.

Chapter 5 The Periodic Table
CHAPTER 5
THE PERIODIC TABLE
1. Elements in the Periodic Table are arranged in periods (horizontal rows) and groups (vertical columns).
Refer to figure 5.1 on the following page.
2. The elements are arranged sequentially in the period in order of increasing proton (atomic) number.
3. The period number indicates the number of occupied electron shells in the atoms of the elements (that
is, all elements in Period 3 will have three occupied electron shells).

4. A group contains elements having the same number of electrons in their outer shell, which results in
group elements sharing similar chemical properties. The electrons in the outer shell are termed valence
electrons.
5. Valence electrons determine the properties and chemical reactivity of the element and participate in
chemical bonding. The Roman numerals found above each group specify the usual number of valence
electrons.

I 0
1 symbol of 4 relative atomic mass 4
1 H II the element He III IV V VI VII He
proton number
Helium name of the element Helium
Hydrogen 2
1 2
7 9 11 12 14 16 19 20
2 Li
Lithium
Be
Beryllium
B
Boron
C
Carbon
N
Nitrogen
O
Oxygen
F
Fluorine
Ne
Neon
3 4 Transition elements 5 6 7 8 9 10
23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5 40
3 Na
Sodium
Mg
Magnesium
Al
Aluminium
Si
Silicon
P
Phosphorus
S
Sulfur
Cl
Chlorine
Ar
Argon
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 64 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
4 K
Potassium
Ca
Calcium
Sc
Scandium
Ti
Titanium
V
Vanadium
Cr
Chromium
Mn
Manganese
Fe
Iron
Co
Cobalt
Ni
Nickel
Cu
Copper
Zn
Zinc
Ga
Gallium
Ge
Germanium
As
Arsenic
Se
Selenium
Br
Bromine
Kr
Krypton
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
85 88 89 91 93 96 98 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
133 137 139 178 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209
6 Cs
Caesium
Ba
Barium
La
Lanthanum
Hf
Hafnium
Ta
Tantalum
W
Tungsten
Re
Rhenium
Os
Osmium
Ir
Iridium
Pt
Platinum
Au Gold
Hg
Mercury
Tl
Thallium
Pb
Lead
Bi
Bismuth
Po
Polonium
At
Astatine
Rn
Radon
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
7 Fr
Francium
Ra
Radium
Ac
Actinium
Rf
Rutherfordium
Db
Dubnium
Sg
Seaborgium
Bh
Bohrium
Hs
Hassium
Mt
Meitnerium
Ds
Darmstadtium
Rg Cn
Roentgenium Copernicium
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
140 141 144 150 152 157 159 162 165 167 169 173 175
Lanthanides Ce Cerium
Pr Nd
Praeseodymiun Neodymium
Pm
Promethium
Sm
Samarium
Eu
Europium
Gd
Gadolinium
Tb
Terbium
Dy
Dysprosium
Ho
Holmium
Er
Erbium
Tm
Thulium
Yb
Ytterbium
Lu
Lutetium
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
232 231 238
Actinides Th
Thorium
Pa
Protactinium
U
Uranium
Np
Neptunium
Pu
Plutonium
Am Cm
Americium Curium
Bk
Berkelium
Cf
Californium
Es
Einsteinium
Fm
Fermium
Md No
Mendelevium Nobelium
Lr
Lawrencium
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Key:
Metal Semi-metal Non-metal
Figure 5.1 The Periodic Table


5.1 Periodic Trends

1. Electronic structure and ionic charge
• Moving from left to right across a period, the number of valence electrons increases progressively
from 1 to 8.
• Elements in the same group have the same number of outer shell or valence electrons and this is
the same as the group number.
• For example, all Group I elements will have a similar electronic structure, as will all Group VII
elements.
Group I Group VII
lithium Li 2.1 fluorine F 2.7

sodium Na 2.8.1 chlorine Cl 2.8.7
potassium K 2.8.8.1 bromine Br 2.8.18.7
• Due to the same number of outer shell electrons, elements in the same group usually form the same
type and number of bonds.
• For example, atoms of Group I elements lose their single outer electron to form +1 ions while atoms
of Group VII elements gain an electron each to form –1 ions.
• To summarise:
Group No. I II III IV V VI VII 0
Valence electron 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Charge +1 +2 +3 – –3 –2 –1 –
Example Na +
Mg 2+
Al3+
– P3–
O2–
Cl –
–


2. Metallic and non-metallic characteristics

• The metals are found on the left side of the Periodic Table while the non-metals are found on the
right side.
• From left to right in every period, the elements change from metals to non-metals.
• Elements with 1, 2 and 3 valence electrons tend to lose their electrons to form positively charged
ions (showing metallic character).
• Elements with 5, 6 and 7 valence electrons tend to gain electrons and become negatively charged
ions (showing non-metallic character).
• As figure 5.1 shows, the dividing line between metals and non-metals runs diagonally through the
Periodic Table with the elements close to this dividing line having some properties of metals and
some properties of non-metals (they are labelled as semi-metals or metalloids).

5.2 Group Properties
Group I (The Alkali Metals)
1. Atoms of the elements in Group I have 1 valence electron each.
Lithium Li 2.1
Sodium Na 2.8.1
Potassium K 2.8.8.1
2. General physical properties
• soft, low-density metals
• low melting points and boiling points
• good electrical conductors

3. Trends down the group

• The density of the elements increase down the group.
• The melting points and boiling points decrease down the group.
4. Reaction with water
• The Group I metals react with cold water to form alkaline solutions and liberate hydrogen gas.
Example 2K (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2KOH (aq) + H2 (g)
• The reactions become more vigorous down the group.
Group VII (The Halogens)

1. Atoms of the elements in Group VII have 7 valence electrons each.
Fluorine F 2.7
Chlorine Cl 2.8.7
Bromine Br 2.8.18.7
Iodine I 2.8.18.18.7
2. Halogens exist as diatomic molecules, for example, Cl2, Br2 and I2.
3. General physical properties
• non-metals
• low melting points and boiling points
• do not conduct electricity

4. Trends down the group (in state and colour)

• The melting and boiling points increase down the group as the intermolecular forces get stronger.
Therefore, the states change from gaseous to liquid, and then solid.
• The colour intensities of the halogens increase down the group.
Halogen State Colour
Fluorine gas pale yellow
Chlorine gas greenish-yellow
Bromine liquid reddish-brown
Iodine solid shiny black

5. Displacement reactions

A halogen higher in the group can displace a halide ion in solution lower in the group.
Example
Halogen NaCl (aq) NaBr (aq) NaI (aq)
Cl displaces Br to form a reddish-brown solution. Cl displaces I to form a black precipitate.
Chlorine No reaction
Cl2(g) + 2Br –(aq) → 2Cl–(aq) + Br2(aq) Cl2(g) + 2I–(aq) → 2Cl–(aq) + I2(s)
Br displaces I to form a black precipitate.
Bromine No reaction No reaction
Br2 (g) + 2I–(aq) → 2Br –(aq) + I2(s)
Iodine No reaction No reaction No reaction

Group 0 (Noble Gases)

1. Atoms of the elements (except helium) in Group 0 have 8 valence electrons each.
Helium He 2
Neon Ne 2.8
Argon Ar 2.8.8
Krypton Kr 2.8.18.8
2. The noble gases are colourless monatomic gases at room temperature.
3. Noble gases are chemically unreactive because their outermost shells have 8 electrons, a stable octet
configuration. (He has duplet structure.)

Chapter 6 Metals
CHAPTER 6
METALS
6.1 Properties of Metals

1. The structure of metals can be used to explain their physical properties.
Property Reason
High melting and boiling points, hence,

The atoms of metal are closely packed and arranged in an orderly
1 solid (high density) at room temperature
manner with strong attractive forces between them.
and pressure (except mercury)
Due to the regular arrangement, layers of atoms slip over one another
2 Malleable and ductile
when a force is applied.
As the atoms are closely packed, heat energy can be transferred from
atom to atom by vibration as well as with the movement of the valence
3 Good conductors of heat and electricity
electrons. The mobility of the valence electrons enables conduction of
current.

Chapter 6 Metals
6.2 Alloys
1. An alloy is a mixture of a metal and other element/s (which may be non-metals).
2. Examples of alloys
Alloy Constituents
Brass 70% copper and 30% zinc
Stainless steel iron, chromium, nickel and carbon
Pewter tin (97%), antimony and copper
Solder tin and lead

6.3 Structure of Metals and Alloys
1. Figure 6.1 shows the structure of a typical metal. The atoms are closely packed and arranged
in an orderly manner that allows layers of atoms to slip over one another when a force is applied.
FORCE
Figure 6.1

Chapter 6 Metals
2. Figure 6.2 shows the structure of an alloy.

atom of another metal
The presence of a foreign atom disrupts FORCE
the orderly arrangement of the atoms of
the pure metal. This prevents layers of
atoms in alloys from slipping over one
another when a force is applied.
3. Therefore, alloys tend to be stronger and Figure 6.2
harder than pure metals.
6.4 Reactivity Series

1. Figure 6.3 shows the positions of various Potassium
metals in the reactivity series. Hydrogen Sodium
is sometimes included in the series as it Calcium • reactivity increases
is useful in identifying the metals below Magnesium • lose electrons more readily
it that do not react with acids to produce Aluminium • form positive ions more readily
hydrogen gas. Zinc • stronger reducing agents
Iron
Lead
(Hydrogen)
Copper
Silver
Figure 6.3 The reactivity series

Chapter 6 Metals
2. Reaction of metals with water

Metal Reaction with water Equation

Potassium Reacts explosively with cold water 2K (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2KOH (aq) + H2 (g)
Sodium Reacts violently with cold water 2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
Calcium Reacts readily with cold water Ca (s) + 2H2O (l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Reacts very slowly with cold water but Mg reacts readily
Magnesium Mg (s) + H2O (g) → MgO (s) + H2 (g)
with steam
Aluminium Hot Al reacts strongly with steam 2Al (s) + 3H2O (g) → Al2O3 (s) + 3H2 (g)

Zinc Hot Zn burns in steam Zn (s) + H2O (g) → ZnO (s) + H2 (g)
No reaction Red hot Fe reacts slowly with steam

Iron 3Fe (s) + 4H2O (l)  Fe3O4 (s) + 4H2 (g)
with cold to produce tri-iron tetroxide
Lead water
Copper No reaction with steam
Silver

Chapter 6 Metals
3. Reaction of metals with dilute hydrochloric acid

Metal Reaction with dilute HCl Equation
Potassium 2K (s) + 2HCl (aq) → 2KCl (aq) + H2 (g)

Reacts explosively
Sodium 2Na (s) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + H2 (g)
Calcium Reacts vigorously Ca (s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Magnesium Reacts rapidly Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Aluminium Reacts fairly fast 2Al (s) + 6HCl (aq) → 2AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2 (g)
Zinc Reacts moderately fast Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Iron Reacts slowly Fe (s) + 2HCl (aq) → FeCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Lead Reacts very slowly Pb (s) + 2HCl (aq) → PbCl2 (s) + H2 (g)
Copper
No reaction
Silver
Note: 1. Aluminium is a reactive metal but the initial reaction with dilute HCl is slow because it is protected by a thin layer
of aluminium oxide on its surface.
2. Reaction for lead stops due to the formation of insoluble PbCl2.

Chapter 6 Metals
4. A summary of the reactions of metals

Metal Reaction with water or steam Reaction with dilute acids
Potassium
Explosive reaction
Sodium Reacts with cold water
Calcium Violent reaction
Magnesium
Aluminium Moderately fast reaction

Reacts with steam
Zinc

Iron
Slow reaction
Lead
Copper No reaction with water or steam

No reaction
Silver

Chapter 6 Metals
5. Displacement of metals from solution

• In general, a more reactive metal will displace the ions of any less reactive metal in the reactivity
series from solution.
• This implies that a metal which is higher in the reactivity series has a greater tendency to form positive
ions.
Example
A piece of magnesium ribbon is placed in aqueous copper(II) sulfate.
Observation: 1. Part of the magnesium ribbon dissolves.
2. The remaining part of the ribbon becomes coated with a layer of reddish-
brown copper.

3. The blue copper(II) sulfate solution becomes pale, and finally colourless.
Deduction: The magnesium, which is higher up in the reactivity series, has displaced
copper from the solution and itself formed Mg2+ ions.
Chemical equation: Mg (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
Ionic equation: Mg (s) + Cu2+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + Cu (s)
6. Deducing the order of reactivity from experimental results
Example
Powdered samples of metal R and metal S were reacted with solutions of nickel(II) sulfate and iron(II)
sulfate separately. The table on the following page shows the resultant colour changes observed.

Chapter 6 Metals
nickel(II) sulfate iron(II) sulfate
metal R green solution turns colourless pale green solution remains unchanged
metal S green solution turns colourless pale green solution turns colourless

Predict the order of reactivity for the four metals: R, S, nickel and iron.
Solution: R is able to displace green Ni2+ ions from solution so it is higher up the reactivity series than
nickel.
R is not able to displace Fe2+ ions, so it is lower down the reactivity series than iron.
S is able to displace green Ni2+ ions from solution so it is higher up the reactivity series than
nickel.

S is able to displace Fe2+ ions, so it is higher up the reactivity series than iron.
Therefore, the order of reactivity from most to least reactive is S > iron > R > nickel.
6.5 Extraction of Metals

1. Due to the general reactive nature of metals, they are normally found combined with non-metals such
as oxygen, sulfur and the halogens in the form of ores.
2. Metal ores are a finite resource and so can be depleted if we do not conserve nor recycle used metals.
3. Metals must be extracted from their ores.
4. The two methods most commonly used for extraction of metals from their ores are:
(i) electrolysis of the molten ore (of reactive metals such as K, Na, Ca, Mg and Al);
(ii) reduction of the ore (of fairly reactive metals such as Zn, Fe, Sn and Pb) with carbon.

Chapter 6 Metals
5. The table below summarises the methods for the extraction of metals from their ores.

Metal Method of extraction
Potassium
• Very reactive metals
Sodium
• The metals form very strong bonds within their respective ionic compounds
Calcium
• Electrolysis of the molten ore must be used to decompose the compound to
Magnesium
obtain the metal
Aluminium
• Less reactive metals
Zinc
• The metals form relatively weaker bonds within their respective compounds
Iron
• These metals are found as sulfides or oxides
Tin
- sulfides are heated in air to produce oxides

Lead
- the oxides are then heated with carbon to produce the metal
iron ore + coke + limestone

Extraction of Iron
1. The main ore of iron is haematite (Fe2O3). waste gases
2. Iron is extracted from haematite in a blast furnace.
3. Haematite, coke and limestone (CaCO3) are added
at the top of the furnace.
4. The furnace is heated by hot air.
hot air
molten slag
molten iron
Figure 6.4 A blast furnace used in extracting iron

Chapter 6 Metals
5. The following reactions take place in the blast furnace.

(i) Coke reacts with hot air to produce carbon dioxide and heat.
C + O2 → CO2 + heat
(ii) Carbon dioxide reacts with more coke to form carbon monoxide.
CO2 + C → 2CO
(iii) Carbon monoxide reacts with iron(III) oxide to produce molten iron.
Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
• the molten iron runs to the bottom of the furnace
(iv) Limestone is decomposed by heat to produce lime (CaO) and carbon dioxide.
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
(v) Haematite contains many impurities, one of which is silicon dioxide (SiO2). The acidic SiO2 reacts

with the basic CaO to produce slag which floats on the top of the molten iron.
SiO2 + CaO → CaSiO3 (calcium silicate or slag)
Corrosion of Iron (Rusting)

1. Iron rusts in the presence of oxygen and water.
2. Rust is hydrated iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3.nH2O.
3. Rusting is an oxidation reaction because it involves iron gaining oxygen (Fe → Fe2O3) or atoms of iron
losing electrons (Fe → Fe3+ + 3e–).

Chapter 6 Metals
4. Rusting can be prevented by stopping either/both oxygen and water from coming into contact with
iron. The table below illustrates some measures that can be taken to prevent rusting.
Method of prevention How it works
Coating the iron surface with oil, grease,

1 Prevents air and water from reaching the iron
paint, plastic or another metal
Attaching or coating the iron surface with Sacrificial protection: the more reactive
2 a more reactive metal, e.g. zinc plating zinc corrodes in preference to the iron, thus
(galvanising) protecting the underlying iron

5. Underground steel pipes are protected from rusting by attaching blocks of magnesium to them with
insulated copper cables. The magnesium protects the pipes by corroding slowly in place of the iron as
it is a more reactive metal. This is another example of sacrificial protection.
Recycling of Metals
1. As metal ores are a finite (limited) resource, it is important to recycle metals in order to ensure they last
for a longer time.
2. Benefits of recycling metals
• Conserving metals, especially valuable ones like gold and platinum
• Cost savings, as extracting new metals from their ores can be expensive because more fuel
is needed
• Protecting the environment from pollution that results from mining ores and extracting metals

Chapter 6 Metals
3. Social, economic and environmental issues associated with recycling metals

• The lack of awareness regarding the benefits of recycling metals may hinder people from taking an
active role in such programmes.
• Metals are recycled only if they are economically beneficial. It is cheaper to extract iron from its ore
than recycling it, which discourages recycling.
• The cost of separating used metals from other wastes can be high.
• Alloys may not always be recycled as it can be difficult to separate the different metals.
• Recycling certain metals can lead to the production of pollutants too.

Chapter 7 Atmosphere and the Environment
CHAPTER 7
ATMOSPHERE AND the ENVIRONMENT
7.1 Air
1. Air is a mixture of gases. Its composition is shown in the table below.
Component Composition by volume

nitrogen 78%

oxygen 21%
noble gases 1% (mainly argon)
carbon dioxide 0.03%
7.2 Air Pollution

As a result of human activity, harmful gaseous chemicals are released into the atmosphere. These chemicals
can cause health problems to people, and harm to animals and plants. They can also cause damage to
buildings and the environment.
1. Carbon Monoxide (CO)
(i) Source: Incomplete combustion of carbon-containing substances, for example, petrol, diesel,
coal, oil and natural gas.
(ii) Effect: CO is poisonous. Small amounts of it can cause death.

(iii) Solution: CO emission can be minimised by ensuring the complete combustion of fuels. Motor
vehicles fitted with catalytic converters oxidise CO to relatively harmless CO2.
2. Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
(i) Source: Burning fossil fuels containing sulfur compounds, for example, coal and petroleum.
Naturally from volcanic eruptions.
(ii) Effect: SO2 dissolves in rain to form acid rain which causes:
• the erosion of buildings or structures made of steel or concrete;
• the destruction of forests by increasing soil acidity;
• the death of aquatic plants and animals in lakes and streams due to increasing

acidity levels.
SO2 causes eye irritation and breathing difficulties.
(iii) Solution: Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) can be used to remove SO2 produced as flue gas from
power stations and other industries.
• Calcium carbonate decomposes on strong heating.
CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
• Both CaCO3 and CaO react with the SO2 .
CaCO3 (s) + SO2 (g) → CaSO3 (s) + CO2(g)
CaO (s) + SO2 (g) → CaSO3 (s)
• The CaSO3 is then oxidised in air to form unreactive CaSO4 .

3. Oxides of Nitrogen (NO and NO2)

(i) Source: Motor vehicle exhaust (from internal combustion engines) and lightning activity.
(ii) Effect: They dissolve in rain to form acid rain and cause the same problems as SO2.
Cause respiratory difficulties which lead to lung damage.
(iii) Solution: Catalytic converters fitted to cars convert NO and NO2 to harmless N2.
4. Methane (CH4)
(i) Source: Bacterial decay of organic matter.
Human activities like agriculture, mining and waste disposal.
(ii) Effect: Traps heat to cause global warming or the ‘greenhouse effect’.
(iii) Solution: No easy solutions are available at present.

5. Unburnt Hydrocarbons
(i) Source: Car exhaust containing chemicals from the incomplete combustion of petrol.
(ii) Effect: Some hydrocarbons are toxic, e.g. benzene is a carcinogen.
Result in the formation of ozone and photochemical smog.
(iii) Solution: Catalytic converters fitted to vehicles.
6. Ozone (O3)
(i) Source: Photochemical reactions (action of sunlight on other pollutants like NO2 or hydrocarbons)
resulting in the formation of photochemical smog.
(ii) Effect: Causes eye irritation and respiratory problems.
(iii) Solution: Reduce emissions of unburnt hydrocarbon fuels.
Note: 1. Ozone naturally exists in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere).
2. The ozone layer is able to absorb ultraviolet radiation which can cause skin damage, skin cancer and eye damage.
3. The ozone layer is being depleted by reacting with chlorine from chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used as refrigerants, aerosol
propellants and industrial solvents.
4. This has caused holes in the ozone layer and allowed more ultraviolet radiation to reach the Earth’s surface.

Chapter 8 Organic Chemistry
CHAPTER 8
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
8.1 Fuels and Crude Oil

1. Fossil fuels such as petroleum and natural gas are common sources of energy.
2. The main constituent of natural gas is methane. Complete combustion of methane results in the formation
of carbon dioxide, water and a large release of heat.

3. Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons (compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen). Therefore,
different constituents of petroleum can be separated into useful fractions by fractional distillation
(figure 8.1).

THE FRACTIONAL names of C atoms boiling USES of the fraction –

DISTILLATION OF fractions in the range depends on its properties
PETROLEUM molecule in °C
Fuel Gas,
methane gas fuel easily liquefied, portable energy
LPG, –160 to
1 to 4 source; bottled gas for cooking (butane); higher
Refinery 20°C
fractionating pressure cylinders (propane)
Gas
column to
separate the Petrol 20 to
components 5 to 11 fuel in cars
(Gasoline) 60°C
in crude oil
feedstock for petrochemical industries, i.e. valuable
decrease in ... 60 to
Naphtha 7 to 13 source of organic molecules to make other things,
• boiling point 180°C
cracked to make more petrol and alkenes
• viscosity

• carbon atoms Paraffin 120 to
10 to 16 fuel for heating and cooking, fuel for aircraft engines
in molecule (Kerosene) 240°C
15 to 25 220 to fuel for diesel engines

increase in ... Diesel
250°C
• volatility
• ease of
ignition Lubricating 250 to
20 to 70 used as lubricants, waxes and polishes
Oils 350°C
crude oil
over forms a thick, black, tough and resistant adhesive on
heater Bitumen over 70
400 °C 350°C cooling, used for making road surfaces
Figure 8.1

A ‘homologous series’ is a group of compounds with a general formula, similar chemical properties and
displaying a gradation in physical properties (e.g. melting and boiling points, viscosity, flammability) due
to an increase in the size and mass of the successive molecules in the series.
Naming Organic Molecules
Each compound’s name can be separated into two main parts.
• The prefix (front portion) shows the number of carbon atoms and the suffix (back portion) shows the
homologous series it belongs to.
• For example, meth– denotes 1 carbon atom and –ane denotes alkanes.
Thus, methane (CH4) denotes the first member of the alkane series.
Ethane (C2H6) denotes the second member.

8.2 Alkanes
1. A homologous series with the general formula CnH2n + 2 (n is an integer  1).
2. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons, that is, they contain only single carbon-to-carbon covalent bonds.
No. of carbons Name Formula No. of carbons Name Formula
1 methane CH4 6 hexane C6H14
2 ethane C 2H 6 7 heptane C7H16
3 propane C3H8 8 octane C8H18
4 butane C4H10 9 nonane C9H20
5 pentane C5H12 10 decane C10H22

3. The structural formulae of the first three alkanes are shown below.
Name Structural formula

H
|
methane H—C—H
|
H
H H
| |
ethane H—C—C—H
| |

H H
H H H
| | |
propane H—C—C—C—H
| | |
H H H
Properties of Alkanes
1. Alkanes are relatively unreactive due to their strong single covalent bonds. They do not react with
acids, alkalis or oxidising agents.
2. As the intermolecular forces increase, the boiling points increase as the molecules become larger:
the first four members are gases, the next twelve are liquids and the rest are waxy solids.

3. Combustion
Alkanes burn to form carbon dioxide and steam.
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g) + heat
4. Substitution Reactions
• A substitution reaction occurs when one or more atoms of an organic compound are replaced by
one or more other atoms.
• Alkanes undergo substitution with chlorine to form chloroalkanes.
For example, methane reacts with chlorine gas in the presence of sunlight (catalyst) to form a range
of products.

sunlight
CH4 (g) + Cl2 (g) CH3Cl (g) + HCl (g)
methane chlorine chloromethane hydrogen chloride
sunlight
CH3Cl (g) + Cl2 (g) CH2Cl2 (g) + HCl (g)
chloromethane chlorine dichloromethane hydrogen chloride
sunlight
CH2Cl2 (g) + Cl2 (g) CHCl3 (g) + HCl (g)
dichloromethane chlorine trichloromethane hydrogen chloride
sunlight
CHCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g) CCl4 (g) + HCl (g)
trichloromethane chlorine tetrachloromethane hydrogen chloride

8.3 Alkenes
1. A homologous series with the general formula CnH2n (n is an integer  2).
2. Alkenes are unsaturated, that is, they contain the C = C (carbon-to-carbon double bond) functional
group.
No. of carbons Name Molecular formula Structural formula
H H
2
ethene C 2H 4 | |
(n = 2)
H—C=C—H

H H H
| | |
3
propene C 3H 6 H—C=C—C—H
(n = 3)
|
H

Cracking of Alkanes
• Cracking is a process where large long-chain alkane molecules are broken into smaller molecules.
• Cracking of hydrocarbons is important to produce the necessary amounts of smaller molecules
required for the commercial production of other products.
• Cracking long-chain alkanes produces smaller alkanes, alkenes and hydrogen gas.
• The process usually requires a catalyst such as Al2O3 and a temperature of between 400ºC - 500ºC.
400 – 500°C
large alkane molecules small alkanes + alkenes + hydrogen
Al2O3 (catalyst)
Examples C2H6 → C2H4 + H2

C18H38 → C8H18 + C10H20
alkane alkane alkene
Properties of Alkenes
1. Combustion
Alkenes burn to form carbon dioxide and steam.
C2H4 (g) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g) + heat
2. Addition Reactions
Addition reactions involve the breaking of the double bond with the subsequent addition of a molecule
such as Br2, H2O or H2 to form a new saturated molecule.

(a) Addition of Bromine

• Alkenes decolourise orange-red bromine readily.
• This is an important test for alkenes.
• The bromine is able to break the double bond in alkenes and form dibromo-alkanes. This
test allows alkenes to be differentiated from alkanes which are saturated and thus cannot
undergo addition reactions.
Example CH2 = CH2 + Br2 → CH2Br – CH2Br
ethene 1, 2-dibromoethane
gaseous ethene

orange-red colourless
bromine solution
solution

(b) Addition of Hydrogen

• Alkenes react with hydrogen gas to produce alkanes.
• The process is called hydrogenation.
• It requires heating and a nickel catalyst.
Example
nickel catalyst
C2H4 (g) + H2 (g) C2H6 (g)
∆
ethene ethane
3. Polyunsaturated Food
• Food products containing carbon-to-carbon double bonds within their structures are described as being

polyunsaturated.
• Vegetable oils are polyunsaturated and considered to be healthier than their saturated counterparts.
Margarine
• Margarine is manufactured by reacting vegetable oil with hydrogen in the presence of a nickel
catalyst.
• The H2 adds to some (not all) of the double bonds and increases the relative molecular mass of the
vegetable oil molecule to increase its boiling point and make it a solid at room temperature.

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CHAPTER 1: Experimental Chemistry 1

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CHAPTER 3: Formulae and Stoichiometry

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CHAPTER 8: Organic Chemistry 74

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1.1 Experimental Design

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Electric current ampere A

Amount of substance mole mol

Luminous intensity candela cd

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• The mass of a substance is measured using a 00

beam balance or an electronic balance (refer

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digital stopwatch analogue stopwatch

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Figure 1.4 Types of apparatus for measuring volume

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• Beakers and measuring cylinders measure approximate volumes of liquids.

1.2 Methods of Purification and Analysis

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Figure 1.5 Folding filter paper

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Figure 1.6 Filtration

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mixture of iodine evaporating dish

Figure 1.7 Purification by sublimation

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Figure 1.8 Simple distillation

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(b) Fractional Distillation

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solvent trough for

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