ANALYSIS OF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THEORIES OF TRADE IN

INDIA- Anamika Tyagi*

Abstract:

Trade has undergone through numerous experimental and incidental periods. From evolution
of earth to until date, trade has changed its aspect, shape, etc. Trade has evolved through
multilateral or bilateral contracts between villages, cities, states and nations. Trade was though
concept came from cave dweller’s era, whereby no concept of trade was in existence; however,
barter system and mercantilism was present. Undated, untimely and unexpectedly, the
mercantilism came into being without any particular theorist who gave the concept and coined
mercantilism, i.e., in ancient eras of cavemen, kings, isolated island or; island/nation without
or; neither advanced nor upgraded Railways, Highways, Airways, Waterways, etc. On an island
whereby no literacy, money transaction and; national & international mode of transportation,
communication, connection, etc.; thereby along with barter system the idea of mercantilism
had and shall come. The critics of Mercantilism had brought comparative advantage. The critics
of Comparative advantage had brought absolute advantage. Mercantilism is the mother of
comparative advantage and absolute advantage. With advent of British Raj, Swadeshi
Movement, Meena Bazar; trade got its new dimensions; a unique blend of Mercantilism and
Comparative Advantage was developed. Mercantilism, Comparative Advantage & Absolute
Advantage are the theories, that is need to be clubbed together and read simultaneously for
better implementation of trade at international level. Repetitive mechanism of study should be
adopted and effectively implemented by each nation annually. Theoreticians developed
economics; some were scholars, teachers, students, researchers, thinkers, lawyers. Every
specialist from around the world, as per their own specialisation and individual thinking gave,
introduced, shaped, implemented and enforced theories. This paper highlights at last that, every
coin has two sides negative and positive side, the same is applicable herein; without conceptual
and all sort of understanding drawing any conclusion is an invitation to loss.

Keywords: Trade, Mercantilism, Comparative Advantage, Absolute Advantage, Economics

 Introduction:

The end number of theoreticians has stated, commented and discussed on these theories. The
theories are the soul and heart of economic growth. Earlier people had no national &
international connections and communications for trade. With the advent of mercantilism the
idea of nationalism came into being, which in a way help the domestic producers to increase
the level of export, become self-reliant, independent and generate employment. They were able
to boost the Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) through profit gained. The idea of
mercantilism not only restraint imports but also encourage contribution towards National
Income (NI) rather than state income or individual income. This idea gave way to transportation
of goods and services from one state to another and thus open doors for interstate trade.
Mercantilism is generated from mercantile, i.e., related to trade or commerce. With the advent
of comparative advantage, the idea of being best in what you are doing came. Comparative
advantage is about describing particular nation state’s capacity of production of best goods.
“Comparative” means comparison amongst best and better goods. “Advantage” means
grabbing an opportunity out of it. Thus, an idea of becoming an opportunist country/nation.
Comparative advantage is pathway to bilateral or multi-lateral trade, which encourages Export
Import (EXIM) Policy. This encourages transportation of goods and services outside the
periphery of nation (exports) and; welcomes delivery (imports) by Multi-National Companies
(MNCs). There is an illustration required to understand the comparative advantage because it
is an economy - based theory/approach and mercantilism does not required any illustration for
understanding purpose because it is simply a nationalism-based theory/approach. With the
advent of wealth of nation, the idea of “economics” plus “free trade/liberalization of
economies” as a whole came into being. Due to liberalization of economies, India adopted
liberalization of market in its policy in 1990s. Liberalization in one or the other way is pathway
to globalization. The reason behind researching is to build up or derive an understanding of
meaning of theories and their contributions in shaping the growth of international trade law.
 Existence of Mercantilism:

The first and foremost theory of trade law was theory of mercantilism. The advent of
mercantilism, economy or trade had arrived together in B.C. Trade was never being noticed or
documented formally but, a concept from cave dweller’s era, which was coined millions of
year after creation of civilized society1, which is inclusive of barter system and mercantilism.
If properly study the civilization scenarios, a conclusion can be drawn or a picture of
mercantilism without theorist, who would give the concept and coined mercantilism, i.e., in
ancient eras of cavemen, kings, isolated island or; island/nation without or; neither advanced
nor upgraded era of Railways, Highways, Airways, Waterways, etc. will come. However, after
several ages of trade’s formal inception or introduction (as a terminology, textual and
conceptual understanding came instead of merely a vague idea); the mercantilism was formally
incepted or introduced. Mercantilism means regulation of economic affairs, trade and industry
by government and; thus, promotion or encouragement of corruption, monopoly, poor quality,
and nationalism based undue influence, etc. The cave dweller’s era with weak or no mode of
national and international transportation, communication, connections. There was only
mercantilism and their hobby of manufacturing favourite goods cannot be drawn into the
category of comparative advantage as they were producing the thing that they love to produce
and not best to produce. India was not in connection from rest of the world from cave dwellers
era until 1498, this scenario is the second main reason behind mercantilism.
On an island whereby there was or is no literacy, money transaction and; national &
international mode of transportation, communication, connection, etc.; thereby along with
barter system the idea of mercantilism had and would come. “Mercantilism- the focus is upon
the cash flows, i.e., available to merchants or the state. Armies, navies and subsidies are
through cash, whereas much of larger economy did not involve such sort of monetary
transactions. Maximizing cash would flow makes debt more affordable, long term interest rates
lower and the state stronger. Advantageous for Britain repeatedly and Holland, and worked
against France. The larger point might be that economic systems are creatures of their time -
there is no universal recipe2.

1
Social Contract Theory- Empirical Analysis and Interpretation of Author in 2018
2
ECONOMIST TIMES-GUEST ISIIJA 23RD. AUG, 2013
//https://www.economist.com/node/21584095/comments//
 Author in its own words as analyses this:

Every nation-state has its own requirements so, as per their requirements (taking e.g. of Britain,
Holland, France) they have to thoroughly and annually study the different theories and analyse
these with constantly or most frequently changing market scenarios. Every country should
make an unequal applicability percentage of these theories.

Adam Smith had first used the word Mercantilism in his enormous contribution to field of
economics that not only helpful in shaping the growth of economy but international trade law
as well and, i.e., Wealth of Nations.

 Development of Indian Trade Law in context of theories:

1. Ancient India (Undated, Undocumented)

o Cave Dwellers and late recognised or discovered lands

The cave dweller’s era whereby, there was no airways, waterways, highways and; the
mode of national and international transportation, communication, connections was very
weak or not at all in existence. There was hardly any bilateral trade; they used to produce
everything they like. There was no such concept or idea of area of specialization. There
was only mercantilism. Many nations like those that India was unknown, unnoticed,
unidentified and; was discovered3 later on (until then nobody can ever see, believed of a
land called India), this scenario is the second main reason behind mercantilism. Similarly,
America, Australia, etc.; are some of discovered lands, which faced period of proper
bilateral trade from nations after their discoveries. Though many lands was undiscovered
and mode of transportation or travel was not in existence for many centuries but when
came, it was weak as people during their travel from one state/ nation to another used to
experience very much inconvenience, time consuming, tiresome journey, etc.

Assuming as per above factual situation: 99% mercantilism, 0% comparative advantage,

1% liberalization/wealth of nation

3
Discovered by Vasco Da Gama
 o Mayan civilization

When society formed, human from a primitive man changed his mind-set and standard of
living to a civilized society or, “civilization” or, “culture”, including Harappan and
Mohenjo-Daro civilization, Mayan culture, etc., 4 this leads to development of trade as
with the civilized and regulated rules of society, slowly and gradually the trade also faced
regulation and development.

Mayan Culture is a culture of a woman Maya who, was supposed to be called or assumed
as head of that particular culture. Food-Centric economy and Ritual -Centric economy as
they used to worship many gods and goddess through idols and; those idols was made
with a purpose of blessings and offering of food at final service to them. During that
period the food offering, become a ritual or routine or in other words a day-to-day activity.
People started adapting unique understanding that everything rest in food, which an
individual consume. The artistic food was produced to be offered before god and goddess
and; then given in charity to the helpless/needy.

E.g.

Corn, Honey, Beans, Fish, Vegetables, Squash, Yams

Even through refrigerated system or technique was used to manufacture Chocolate drinks
or fruit juices, which was made and sold. Earlier, caves or houserooms was used as
factory, wherein foods or other items were manufactured or produced.

Manufactured goods such as paper, books, furniture, jewellery, clothing, carvings, toys,
weapons, and luxury goods.

Long distance trade of salt, potato, stone by Mayan civilization

Wood, Limestone, Marble, Jade, Copper, Gold

4
Tyagi, A. (2019). IS SOCIAL CONTRACT A PATHWAY TO ANTHROPOCENTRISM - 12 the MARCH 2018
(1). [online] Academia.edu. Available at:
https://www.academia.edu/38221319/IS_SOCIAL_CONTRACT_A_PATHWAY_TO_ANTHROPOCENTRIS
M_-_12_th_MARCH_2018_1_.docx
[Accessed 5 Feb. 2019].
 Service sector was actually incepted and introduced through Mayan era only, though not
formally. Through service sector numerous mathematicians, farming consultants,
artisans, architects, astronomers, scribes and artists would sell their services.

Assuming as per above factual situation: 40% mercantilism, 50% comparative

advantage, 10% liberalization/wealth of nation

o Harappan Civilization

Trade was a culture of Harappa Civilization. Trading of different goods helped the Indus
Civilization expanded its culture and friendly relations with other civilization/nation e.g.
Mesopotamia, Rome, Greek are one of the best mates of Harappa and even Mohenjo-
Daro was sharing trading culture with Harappa. The areas along the coastline and rivers
supplies the plenty amount of water to the Indus Valley people, which was helpful for
agriculture, irrigation, etc.; and thus, also helpful in trade. The Harappa’s men were not
confined to their limits or periphery but went or reached beyond continents. Foreign
trades and seaports were found in Harappa Civilization, which gives clear and crystal
image of liberalization.

Imported goods are traded from such territories and the circumstances and environment,
which implicates with trade routes of long distance. Weight system such as stone cubes
of small size was the standard norms in weighing system of Harappa Civilization. Around
2,500 BC Harappa civilization was widely and deeply connected to outside.

Many railway lines and other advanced tools and techniques was found from the sites of
Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro5. Hereby, it is concluded that, the mode of connection,
transportation and communication with rest of the world was strong or efficient.

Anthropologist’s excavations make a tremendous revelation of Indus Valley

Civilization’s flourishing trade and agriculture based economy. The Indus Valley
Civilization made magnificent and efficient use of rivers available in that particular area
or encircling them.

5
Archaeological findings- History of Indus Valley Civilization-Doctrinal study and analysis by author in 2012-
2013
 Assuming as per above factual situation: 10% mercantilism, 50% comparative
advantage, 40% liberalization/wealth of nation

o Mohenjo-Daro Civilization

Sir John Marshall: “Never for a moment was it imagined that five thousand years ago,
even before the Aryans were heard of, the Punjab (sic) and Sind, if not other parts of
India, were enjoying an upgraded and singularly uniform civilization of their own, though
closely akin however, in some respects more superior than contemporary Mesopotamia
and Egypt.”

Author wants to confer that as through her findings that, the advanced and upgraded
society was the main reason behind an advanced and upgraded trade. Trade was
developed, reshaped and reintroduced through economic, technological and
transportation development. “The Mohenjo-Daro civilization’s site was discovered by
then archaeologist R D Banerji initiated a dig in 1922 to discover the Buddhist stupa and
monastery. Stunned the world because the expedition revealed one of the world’s first
modern cities or, first modern societies; including dug wells for accessing clean drinking
water”6. The wastewater systems was comprised of effluent drains built with brick
masonry that ran along unpaved streets, now significant portion of South Asia do not
have.

Assuming as per above factual situation: 10% mercantilism, 50% comparative

advantage, 40% liberalization/wealth of nation

2. Medieval India

o During Meena Bazar at Agra- Mughal Era (1526)

6
Tyagi, A. (2019). IS SOCIAL CONTRACT A PATHWAY TO ANTHROPOCENTRISM - 12 the MARCH 2018
(1). [online] Academia.edu. Available at:
https://www.academia.edu/38221319/IS_SOCIAL_CONTRACT_A_PATHWAY_TO_ANTHROPOCENTRIS
M_-_12_th_MARCH_2018_1_.docx
[Accessed 5 Feb. 2019].
 Mughal word came into being through Mongolia as the ancestors of Emperor Akbar, was
from Mongolia and they were called as Mongols. It is a doubt that, whether they were
Mongols or not as per historical texts or historical studies of various professionals,
Genghis Khan had only ruled China and other parts of Asia. In addition, the name like
Genghis Khan is often very confusing as, he was a mysterious leader or intruder who
came and capture almost powerful portions of Asia. Neither his place of origin is defined
in history in a proper manner nor his story. There is a need to understand Mughal’s history
and culture through paternal-maternal tree study. There is also need to refer to
Humayunama and Akbarnama for better linking or connecting it with Meena Bazar and
trade culture. The trade and Meena Bazar was introduced through or in the form of
Mongolian Culture or Mughal Culture. At that, time trade was not regarded as contract
but culture and soon it became a religious or cultural ceremony by the order of renounced
Mughal Emperor Humayun. The perspective of Meena Bazar was to raise women
employment7, as it is clear from name itself that is, Meena. The goods were expensive
and only for Indian sultanates. The proper records of trade with each individual was not
made. Humayunama and Akbarnama were drafted for the purpose of king’s contribution
to his subject in overall understanding and it gives a very vague idea about trade and not
a relevant source to be relied upon. However, through studying these two only an
information, which is though vague, can be obtained. Whenever, an outsider enters
Meena Bazar he/she always used to face economic exploitation and
racism/fascism/nationality bias. It was upon the mood of Begums that they actually want
to sell the product to a particular person or not even though he/she is a rich person. The
monopoly, corruption, barter system, mercantilism was at utmost level.

There was barter system and Meena Bazar was having no liberalization policies, but
mercantilism and comparative advantage. The Mughal Begums were used to manufacture
goods themselves and there was no import of goods8.

The Mughal Begums were used to manufacture by comparing with other Sultanate, state
and other person and identified or manufactured that stuffs only in which they (herein,
they mean “The Mughal Begums of Meena Bazar”) were best9. There was hardly any

7
Human Right/Right to work - Art. 23 of U.D.H.R., Art. 41 of Indian constitution
8
Mercantilism with History of India- Doctrinal study and analysis by author in 2017
9
Comparative Advantage with History of India- Doctrinal study and analysis by author in 2017
 such concept of wealth of nation. Mughal Begums were selling luxurious goods, which
is to be bought by only rich people including zamindars, kings, queens, etc.

Assuming as per above factual situation: 60% mercantilism, 40% comparative

advantage, 0% liberalization/wealth of nation

o During British raj in India (1600)

If Britain economy was on rise due to mercantilism as they were encouraging export and
not import. They were importing raw material at cheap rate and selling manufactured
products at high rate in Indian market. Not only have that, in trading with other nation-
state also had they used to discourage imported products. As the Britishers were
themselves responsible for violation of essential terms and conditions of contract, i.e.,
defined under Indian Contract Act, 1872. An agreement that is enforcement enforceable
by law is a valid contract. The Britishers were inflicting threat or force, that is, coercion
through police like “LATHI” Charge- the most brutal, the name spelling itself brings back
the memory of Jallianwala Bagh Massacre. The Britishers were misguiding or misleading
Indians by buying raw material from India at low price and selling finished goods of that
raw material only at high prices. In Indian Market, the local were not allowed to buy the
finished goods from Indians, i.e., domestic goods but they were forced to buy goods of
Britishers and they were not allowed to bargain for price. The demands and supply was
in the hands of Britishers and not consumers. Britishers were using undue influence as
they were supreme authority and Indians were slaves of them. The master and servant
relationship10 between Britishers and Indians opens the door of exploitation.

Assuming as per above factual situation: import in Britain was 10 %, export was 80 %
then mercantilism was 80 %: Liberalization/wealth of nation theory was 10 %, 0%
comparative advantage

o During British raj when M. Gandhi declared Swadeshi Movement (1905)11

10
Fiduciary and Tortious Relationship

11
Constitutional History & History of India- Doctrinal study and analysis of Swadeshi Movement by author in
2015
 Salt, clothes and many other things was swadeshi in India. As per the historical approach,
Swadeshi Movement has studied and grasped by Indians through 8th to 12th std. and even
in colleges during the course of law, humanities, political science. Swadeshi Movement
is a brief understanding of Nationalist Movement or Nationalism. Rule or Monopoly,
which was imposed by Britishers through coercion, fraud and undue influence. Through
nationalism, the idea of mercantilism was stepping in. Sequence of rising Nationalism
based Mercantilism, i.e.

Salt March Charkha Movement Khadi Movement

Assuming as per above factual situation: 95% mercantilism, 0% liberalization, 5%

comparative advantage

o Champaran Movement (1917)12

Champaran Movement is also can be called as Champaran rebellion of Bihar. The British
forcefully coerce or instigate the farmers to grow indigo and other cash crops on their
fertile land, and then sell these crops to them at a much cheaper price. The farmers was
now unable to grow other crops as scientifically proven that indigo deteriorates the
quality of the soil and fertility of the land. This result into reducing the trade of Indian
Agricultural Products from the Market. Harsh weather conditions and levy of heavy taxes
driving them into inevitable trap of poverty. The weather and taxes became another
reason behind reduction of Agricultural trade and hindering of economy. Gandhi visited
Champaran in April 1917. He incepted thereby the concept of civil disobedience
movement and placed demonstrations and strikes against the landlords. The outcome was
signing of an agreement by landlords with clause of providing peasants or farmers with
control and compensations, and even rejection towards the hikes in revenue and
collection. This result into some benefit to Agricultural trade in India.

12
Constitutional History & History of India- Doctrinal study and analysis of Champaran Movement by author
in 2015
 Assuming as per above factual situation: 25% mercantilism, 70% liberalization, 0%
comparative advantage

o Kheda Movement (1918)13

Kheda movement was an answer, reply towards, or response towards financial crisis
inflicted by vicious traps of revenue collection system or circle, i.e., British landlords,
Policing, British muscle powers/Goondas on the farmers of the Kheda village in Gujarat.
The village had faced massive floods and famine in 1918 and this result into the
destruction of the crop yields. The farmers urged for exemption from tax due to
destruction of crop yields from British government. However, the authorities were very
greedy and they even neglected death of farmers or relatives due to starvation or
malnutrition. Due to this, the agricultural trade of India was facing heavy losses and
causing a huge impact on Indian Economy as a whole resulting into debts on farmers and
especially peasants/ the actual tillers of soil. Mr. M. Gandhi and Mr. Vallabhbhai Patel
launched a crusade against the government along with or for farmers and asked for the
non-payment of taxes. The government in response to this movement, begun to threaten
the peasants with the seizure of their land. After five months of struggle, in May 1918,
the British government agreed for forgiving the payment of taxes by the farmers until the
flood got over and returned their lands, which was earlier seized. This result into little bit
rise in agricultural trade in India.

Assuming as per above factual situation: 5% mercantilism, 90% liberalization, 0%

comparative advantage

o Khilafat Movement (1919)14

After the World War I, inhuman treatment/allegations was provided to the Caliph and the
Ottoman Empire. When the Muslims begun to fought for the safety of their Caliph and
launched khilafat movement, Gandhi supported Muslim Brothers, i.e., Mohammad Ali

13
Constitutional History & History of India- Doctrinal study and analysis of Kheda Movement by author in
2015
14
Constitutional History & History of India- Doctrinal study and analysis of Khilafat Movement by author in
2015
 and Shaukat Ali as the motto of Gandhi was to rebel against British government for
restoring the collapse of the Caliph in Turkey and to achieve freedom for India. Gandhi
engaged with the Muslim community in 1919 for gaining political support in India’s
freedom struggle and in return supported Khilafat Movement led by two Muslim
Brothers. He was a notable spokesperson of the All India Muslim Conference. He had
decided to return the medals in South Africa and done the same as a rejection of British
Empire. The success of this movement results into friendly relation with Ottoman Empire
and India, which gave a good gain to trade of India. This brought the idea of invitation to
trading culture or fashion between two countries. Secondly, this will reduce the
communalism, which brings in shutdown of Shops, trading routes, etc., due to fear of
terrorism, communal riots.

Assuming as per above factual situation: 90% mercantilism, 5% liberalization, 5%

comparative advantage

o Non-Cooperation Movement (1920)15

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre was the sole and only reason behind Non-Cooperation
Movement of 1920. Gandhi was shocked and thereafter realized that the Britishers were
controlling Indians with pleasure because of receiving cooperation from Indians. An idea
of boycotting of liquor and other foreign goods, rejecting the government
schools/post/titles/offices. Non-cooperation’s adherence in a peaceful way result into
achievement of independence. Gandhi incepted and preached all over India, the concept
of Swaraj and thus, became a key note of Indian freedom struggle. The movement became
popular and reached the peak of endeavor the moment when people begun to boycott
establishments run by the British, i.e., schools, colleges, and government offices.
However, Gandhi himself ended movement after the incident of Chauri Chaura in which
23 police officials were murdered.

Assuming as per above factual situation: 90% mercantilism, 0% liberalization, 5%

comparative advantage

15
Constitutional History & History of India- Doctrinal study and analysis of Non-Cooperation Movement by
author in 2015
 o Quit India Movement (1942)16

Quit India movement was launched by Mahatma Gandhi on 8 August 1942 in the era of
Second World War. The India Congress Committee under Gandhi, asked for a mass
British withdrawal from India with Gandhi’s slogan being sang on streets “Do or Die”.
British officials was arresting entire Congress, they were imprisoned without trial.
Nevertheless, the demonstrations and protests was consistently going throughout pre-
independence’s Indian subcontinent. By the end of the World War II, Britishers made
clear indications of handing over the powers to India. Eventually, Gandhi called off the
movement resulting into acquittal of thousands of prisoners. Due to Jail Bharo Andolan
many people were arrested, this result into reduction in trading market as Britishers had
dragged almost more than half of India’s population in jail. This movement gave the
power to India and now Indian trading system or trading culture or trading fashion or
trading market is not in the hands of Britishers.

Assuming as per above factual situation: 99% mercantilism, 0% liberalization, 1%

comparative advantage

3. Morden India

o Victims of War and Territorial Disputes- (1947-1971)

The idea of mercantilism was present to extent as many outside goods were still
boycotted. The trading relation with countries like Pakistan was next to impossible. The
personal enmity was causing a great impact on trade. There was an ongoing war since
1947 of territorial dispute and due to this many trucks and transportation vehicles, which
are moving from India to Pakistan for trade, are not getting payments and economically,
verbally exploited in the name of territory, religion, nationality, etc.
In case of Pakistan, the hating behavior has occurred due to divide and rule policy of
British plus violence at the time of partition plus J&K’s unresolved dispute.
Similar territorial or trade dispute India has with China. Many Indian Businessman are
treated brutally in China. In case of China, the J&K’s unresolved dispute, 1963 or other
wars and many conflicts over China’s brutal treatment of Indian e.g.

16
Constitutional History & History of India- Doctrinal study and analysis of Quit India Movement by author in
2015
The diabetic Indian Businessman was not allowed to consume his medicine and he was
not provided with food or allowed to consume food.

The Indian traders had and still suffering from theft of their money by none other than
the high authorities of China, the traders of China.

The Indians are facing brutal and inhuman treatment in China and this result into huge
loss to friendly and diplomatic relations between two nations. This hinders the trading
culture between two nations

Reasons behind Indo-China Dispute

India’s step of giving asylum to Mr. Dalai Lamma, a Tibetan leader in Dharamshala

India’s war with China

India’s territorial dispute involving J&K with China

Reasons behind Indo-Pak Dispute

British- Divide & Rule Policy

Partition based Violence

Territorial Dispute of J&K

Pakistan connections with or Pakistan based Terrorist Organizations

LET-Lashkar - e - Taeba

JEM- Jasiah - e - Mohammad

Taliban

ISIS- Islamic State in Iraq and Syria

 Due to Pakistan connections with Terrorist based Organization, the trade of India with
Pakistan is also not up to the mark.
The Indian prime minister said that demonetization is to counter Pakistan-based armed
groups who attacks India and stated that, "enemies from across the border" 17 were
financially aiding through mass-producing counterfeit Indian notes.
This counterfeiting of notes result into financial victimization to Indians.18
India’s trade policies after 1971 and 1963 wars also get into trouble.

Assuming as per above factual situation: 90% mercantilism, 0% liberalization, 10%

comparative advantage

o Victims of Abuse of Power -Victimization during Emergency (1975 -1977)

State, National, or Financial Emergency was each emergency results into violation of all
the fundamental rights, which are guaranteed under Part III of Indian Constitution.
However, Art. 21 and 20 is an exception to Emergency. Thus, Art. 19(1) (g) provides
freedom of trade, business, occupation and profession. Emergency is a legal obstruction
or restraint to trade. Due to inevitable emergency rule declared by President on the aid
and advice of Prime Minister and her Council of Minister. The markets were shutdown,
import and export of goods was not possible as like other fundamental rights, freedom of
trade, occupation, business and profession was also abolished. Emergency was
obstruction to free trade and other emergency-based-issues or emergency-centered-issues
or emergency-raised-issues also responsible equally for restraining free trade. “Kartar, a
cobbler, was forcefully taken to the office of Block Development Officer (BDO) by six
police officers. Then, he was questioned with the utmost inhumane tone and way, which
is reflected to question itself without giving him a free speech, that he wants to answer or
not. The question that was raised before him, that is, how many children he had. Police
did not provide any justification for why asking such question or, the manner in which a
particular question has been asked. Police had dragged him inhumanly for sterilization
and travelled to place of sterilization in a jeep. He was not sterilized, that is why police

17
Hon’ble P.M. Mr. Narendra Modi
18
Victims of Terrorism and Victims of War or Territorial Dispute
 officers dragged him for sterilization. Kartar had suffered with bodily infection and pain
due to the procedure. This forceful and unprofessionally performed sterilization made
him so ill that he could not work for months”19. Thus, in this way a cobbler due to forced
sterilization in the era of emergency unable to provide service trade to his national/local
residents or local tourists and international customers/ international tourists. This is not
trade of goods but trade of service as the work or job of a cobbler is to repair, polish or
other affairs with respect to shoes, slippers and sandals, etc.

“Kishore refused to bow to the wishes of Sanjay Gandhi to sing for a Congress rally in
Mumbai during Emergency. Even though there was a ban on playing his songs on All
India Radio, he refused to apologize”20. The political influence, which instigates undue
influence or abuse of power21, which had been exercised by the government. The singer
is the performer as per Indian Copyright Act, 1957. The performer has the right to choose
to sing or not and banning him for retribution is not only restraint on his service trade
but also restraint on service trade of producer, director, lyricist, etc.; as they also have
a copyright over his work. As per the legal terminologies of Indian Copyright Act, 1957.
The undue influence was exercised and thus, it is a void contract as per Indian Contract
Act, 1872. Herein, Kartar - the cobbler, Kishore- the singer & other have copyright over
his song.

All Indians who faced emergency can be taken as they has suffered financial, physical,
psychological, social victimization22 because

Damage to property and cash due to which they were unable to participate in trade
Emergency, which is right from its inception, infringes Art. 19 (1) (g) which is guaranteed
under Part III of Indian Constitution, i.e., freedom of trade, business, occupation and
profession.
Rape Victims during emergency were facing social exclusions and due to this sexual
exclusion, nobody wants to employ her.
Sterilized victims, who were sterilized against their will in the name of family planning.

19
Mehta, Vinod (1978). The Sanjay Story. Harper Collins Publishers India.
20
https://www.thehindu.com/fr/2005/08/19/stories/2005081902110400.htm

21
UN Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power (29 November, 1985
- A/RES/40/34) aims to destroy abuse of power, same exercised herein by the government by imposing
frivolous emergency of 21 Months, that is 1975-1977 which restrain trade through sterilization or retributive
ban on trade.
22
Consequences of Victimization is the main reason behind restraint of trade
 Sterilized Victims are blamed at large for his/her own victimization23.
The Police for not being sterilized drag victims or even if a particular person is sterilized.
The sterilization happens in the name of Family Planning Scheme.
Political opponents were arrested.24 Due to this unlawful detention, they was unable to
work and feed those people, who were financially or socially depends on them. An impact
is caused on both their financial and social status.

In 1993, Green was the one who recognized the following eight experiences, which may
impose people to great extent of risk, resulting into developing of PTSD:

 Threat to life and limb

 Severe physical injury
 Being intentionally injured
 Being exposed to awful or disgusting scenes
 Violent or sudden loss of a loved one
 Witnessing or learning of violence to a loved one
 Learning of personal exposure to a noxious agent
 Having caused the death or severe injury of another

Indians were victimized repeatedly for 21 Months due to which PTSD - Post Traumatic
Stress Disorder had caused and definitely, their state of mind may harm their quality of
service, whether service in trade of goods or services25.

Assuming as per above factual situation: 40% mercantilism, 20% liberalization, 40%
comparative advantage

o Victims of 1984- 2018

Trade with Nepal is fantastic as both nations share a unique blend of same culture in one
or the other way. India has a common history with Nepal with respect to Gautam Buddha.
The common culture is not limited to Gautam Buddha but also has numerous sacramental

23
All the Indians, from the era of 1975-1977 had suffered Victim blaming occurs when victim of a
particular crime or particular wrongful act is held entirely or partially at fault for the harm that is imposed on
them

24
Abuse of Power
25
Repeat Victimization-repeat victims are victimized multiple times, e.g., victim of domestic violence or girls
are sent for forcible prostitution repeatedly.
practices, ideologies, travel customs, and undocumented/ undiscovered, i.e., hidden roots
of custom was prevailing in two nations. However, the deep understanding of culture was
established through gaining good trade relations with the Himalayan nation. It took
almost around 34 years to understand that, both nation has common culture and common
roots of culture. 34 years was taken by India to improve communication through using
common cultural mechanism and made the trade relations better. For making trade
relations better it is required to make diplomatic relations better.

Indian demonetization has placed a restriction on Indian Trade

Nepal, whereby Indian currency is in majority utilization for savings and transactions.

The Nepal government had banned Indian currency note’s utilization that is, of Rs 2,000,
Rs 500 and Rs 200 denomination.
The government has banned or criminalization of this custom of keeping or carrying
Indian bank notes higher than Rs 100 denomination.

“The government has banned the use, carriage and keeping of the Indian bills involving
200, 500 and 2,000 Rs. denominations. A formal notice shall be soon issued by the
government in this matter,” statement made by Nepal’s Minister for Information and
Communications Gokul Prasad Baskota.

This will surely affect Indian tourists visiting Nepal.

This will surely affect Nepalese laborers in India.

India is largest trade partner of Nepal and supplier of highest quality of consumer goods
in largest quantities.

The Indian government had introduced new banknotes of Rs. 2,000, Rs. 500 and Rs. 200
denominations after the demonetization of old notes with value of Rs. 500 and 1,000.
This is resulting into chaos in Nepal, Bhutan and others, whereby Indian currency is
massively utilized.

Nepal P.M. K.P. Sharma Oli said that demonetization would hurt the Nepalese people.
He would raise the matter with Indian leaders. People have used new Indian currency
almost for 2 years.
 The problems that was prevailing in 1947-1971 is still occurring and constantly growing
in 1971-1975 and even in 1975-201826. There is no end to hostile diplomatic relations,
which are encouraging restraint on trade. As discussed earlier in 1947-1971, that is the
current issues because it is required to link the war or war like situations with current
matters.

Territorial dispute of 1947 between India & Pakistan

Many trucks and transportation vehicles are not getting payments and economically,
verbally exploited in the name of territory, religion, nationality, etc.27

Further, India & Pakistan are separated and tied in unresolved dispute. Divide and Rule
Policy era, which showed its impact on 1947, which not only caused separation but also
violence. Britishers victimize both the population from the era of establishment of British
Raj from 1600 to194728. Divide and rule policy of British plus violence at the time of
partition plus J&K’s unresolved dispute.

Similarly, Many Indian Businessman are treated brutally in China. In case of China, the
J&K’s unresolved dispute, 1963 or other wars and many conflicts over China’s brutal
treatment of Indian e.g.

The two businessmen working for a Yemeni firm Euro Global Trading were hostages of
the Chinese traders, due to failure in payment of several million yuans.

Agrawal and Raheja were kidnapped and tortured on Friday

Agrawal told Times of India: “Please save us. We are afraid of leaving the police station
because we might be killed”.

Family members asked for help from the Indian consulate in Shanghai, diplomat S.
Balachandran was sent for negotiations from Chinese traders.

Balachandran was confined for about six hours in prolonged communication with the
Chinese traders and the court officials for acquittal of Agrawal and Raheja.

Balachandran, a diabetic, was not allowed to have food and medicines, when he asked
for food during the negotiations. He saw the desperate Indian businessmen and the angry
Chinese traders, after seeing this he was collapsed and taken to the hospital. Balchandran

26
Repeat Victimization, same as discussed in the 21 Month’s era of emergency (1975-1977)
27
Complaints provided to Central Government
28
Still, this policy is working as this policy had or is having a long-term impact on people, that’s why it is called
as Repeat Victimization by Britishers
 was moved to Shanghai on Jan 1 and hospitalized, whereby he was found to be out of
danger.

Indian Businessman were tortured and beaten for almost two weeks29 by the Chinese
traders. The medical test30was conducted by Psychiatrists, proved that Raheja’s mind is
affected31.

The way Diabetic Indian ambassador, diabetic Indian Businessman, etc. are victimized
in end number of cases; it is clear like crystal that a good trade relation cannot be
established.

“The Indian traders had and still suffering from theft of their money by none other than
the high authorities of China, the traders of China; and some of them are even missing”.32

The Indians are facing brutal and inhuman treatment in China and this result into huge
loss to friendly and diplomatic relations between two nations. This hinders the trading
culture between two nations

The Indian leaders were encouraged by the initiatives of World Trade Organisation
(WTO), which has its premise that trade liberalization will benefit all those who are
concerned. India became one among those countries who liberalize its economy in 1995
and adopted liberalization policy of 1995 under the guidance of our Hon’ble ex-P.M. Mr.
Manmohan Singh, a free and fair trade rule has been implemented. The liberalization of
trade restrictions and inception of WTO had resulted into expansion of trade between the
international communities.

Assuming as per above factual situation: 40% mercantilism, 50% liberalization, 10%
comparative advantage

29
Repetitive Victimization
30
Psychological Forensic
31
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
32
https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/another-indian-trader-goes-missing-in-yiwu/article3446648.ece
 “As compared to men, women are found to be a greater victim of religious bias,
conflicts and torture. The refugees at the time of war, refused to seek asylum under
the regime of ISIS. Even America is not ready to absorb the Muslim refugees. The
main reason behind this is 9/11 and other attacks. What the current President of
United States of America is up to: refuse to give food, shelter and security to Muslim
refugees. All Muslim refugees, whether they are from the ISIS conquered territory
like Iraq, Syria, etc. or, free nation are facing critics in America. ARTICLE 4 of
refugee convention 1951, dealt with the right of the refugees to have their own
religion. The Contracting States shall accord to refugees with the same treatment or
favors, which, they used to bestow to their nationals.
They shall have access to their freedom to practice their religion to religious
education of their children.”33

Religious intolerance against refugees, which is also titled in research paper, whose
points are above mentioned is providing the information and scenario, wherein the
rise of communalism, hatred, nationality disputes results into communal riots,
terrorism, internal disturbance which is the prime cause of shut down of shops,
destruction to goods, resources, property and thus affects trade to large extent. 34

This intolerance has created in some or the other way trading problems with India as
well.

There is also need to understand that cultural similarity is a way to free trade as we
have seen earlier in case of India and Nepal. The need to study the cultures of other
nations as well.

The trade of India with Thailand, Sri Lanka is fascinating due to the common culture
of Saree. The wife of Thailand King Maha Vijaya Longkorn was wearing Saree in
the photo. The Sri Lankan women also wear Sarees. The another cultural similarity
amongst Sri Lanka and India is explained below

In India, whenever any man or women is addressed, the word Sri comes into being

33
Tyagi, A. (2019). RELIGIOUS INTOLERANCE AGAINST REFUGEES (1).docx [online] Academia.edu.
Available at:
https://www.academia.edu/38221341/RELIGIOUS_INTOLERANCE_AGAINST_REFUGEES_1_.docx
[Accessed 12 Feb. 2019].
34
Repeat Victimization of refugee and locals through imposing intolerance policy
For e.g.

Shu Sri Sri Sri Mayavati Ji

Shu Sri Sri Sri Modi Ji

Shri Krishna

There are end number of Sri Spellings- Sri, Shree, Shri

Sri in Sri Lanka signifies the ethnicity of Sri Lankans. Similarly, Srinagar in India is
also inclusive of Sri. The language of Sri Lankans is Tamil same as those of
Tamilians in India. Earlier, there was only two languages in India, Sanskrit and
Tamil. From these two languages, the other languages came into existence, that is,
Hindi. After Hindi other languages, i.e., Telugu, Kannada, etc. came into being. Ram
Setu or Rama's Bridge was across the sea, which connects Pamban Island in Tamil
Nadu, India to Mannar Island in Sri Lanka. This Ram Sethu is actually making trade
easy. As per the NASA, the road is manmade and through this finding, the story of
Ramayana can be said as right. In this way, a cultural connection and good diplomatic
relations is automatically established.

Tamil is an official language of two countries: Sri Lanka, Singapore and official
language of the Indian state Tamil Nadu. Through this, the common culture can be
easily noticed.

The word “Singa” mean Sher in Hindi and Lion in English. Pore is actually pur like
Johnpur, Jodhpur, etc. It is found in various studies by author that, whenever
Britishers

spells any word they usually make phonetical mistakes and thus, some other meaning
is created

For e.g.

The Britisher was unable to spell Deeli and rather used the word Delhi and Indians
now adopt it

Similarly,

Mumbai became Bombay

Kolkata became Calcutta

 Bangla became Bengal

Keral became Kerala

Karnatak became Karnataka

Asam became Assam

Haiderabad became Hyderabad

Tamil Naad became Tamil Nadu

Thus, author wants to confer that earlier it was Singapur and not Singapore just like
Bangalore was earlier Bengaluru.

The Britisher and many Englishmen, Europeans was unable to spell Singapur or
Bengaluru properly and; the result was Singapore or Bangalore. Due to spelling
errors and phonetical mistakes, which was usually done by them, the meaning and
understanding changed completely. Secondly, the colonial era of British Raj is
responsible for making misrepresentation of two cultures. However, it was not
witnessed nor any evidence was found due to tampering or manipulating of facts but
the links or connections of Singapore to be the part of India was noticed, the date and
time was not measured, noticed, or mentioned in that era Singapore was part of India.

4.Study on Ancient, Medieval, Modern Ages of India

 Stone Age
NATURAL LAW
• Wheel Buying - Selling contract, vegetable contract, etc. No coin contract- A complete
barter system
• Wheel, Stone Weapons, Bullock Carts,etc. are inventions

Social Contract MONARCHY LAW THAT IS, KING OR QUEEN-MADE

Age/Coin Age LAW/DIVINE LAW/ NATURAL LAW
• Half through barter system, & half through coins. Every ruler had its own coins. There
was no uniform currency and no uniform law. King can do no wrong- Common Law of
England. "Law is the commmand of soverign backed by sanction" by John Austin.
• Telephone, Telegraph, Coins, etc are the inventions

Current
Age/Currency MONARCHY RULE, DEMOCRATIC RULE OR MONARCHS
Age/Paper Notes & AS TITULAR HEAD, ETC.- EVERYHTING IS LAW
Coin Age
• No barter system. End of barter system brings in more validity in contracts. Legal
mechanism can be used for effective implementation of contracts.
• Uniformity in currency
• Constitution is the supreme law of the land in context of India, Nepal, etc.
• Smart phones, Cyberspace, Smart Watches/Digital Watches, Google specks, etc are
inventions

[Fig 1: Author’s Categorization of Law as per Ages (Herein, categorization of author

confers about law changes with change in ages. As per the change in ages, the mindset,
the lifestyle- dressing sense, the behavior, the social & moral values, the inventions, the
understanding of people changes. “When time changes, the law changes”.)]35

Stone Age- Ancient age,

Social Contract/Coin Age- Medieval Age,

Current Age/Currency Age/Paper Notes & Coin Age- Modern Age

As the ages, that is, Ancient, Medieval and Modern occurred, society witnessed change
in the mindset, the lifestyle-dressing sense, the behavior, the social & moral values, the
inventions, the understanding. The time, law and contract has different routes but in one

35
Tyagi, A. (2019). SIGNIFICANCE OF MOOT COURTS IN LAW SCHOOLS.docx. [online] Academia.edu.
Available at:
https://www.academia.edu/38303406/SIGNIFICANCE_OF_MOOT_COURTS_IN_LAW_SCHOOLS.docx
[Accessed 7 Feb. 2019].
 or the other way reaches the same goal of economic, psychological and cultural
development.

A pilot study on best products of India - comparative advantage

Since ancient times, India is best in Cotton Industry
India is best in spices

 Turmeric, Mangoes and Rice

 Automobiles
 Mineral stones & Gems : Both production & processing
 Software Services; On the product space we have not excelled that much.
 Analytics; Indian high IQ English speaking population is acting as a major
competitive/comparative factor for this service.36
Wealth of nation - Adam smith said wealth of nation - a science of wealth37
Liberalization brings in globalization38
The researching for exploration of theoretical understanding of “tri”-theories:
Mercantilism, Comparative Advantage and Wealth of Nation. The adoption of
Mercantilism, Comparative Advantage and Wealth of Nation.

 Mercantilism - mother of comparative advantage:

Mercantilism also pave way to what a nation is not good at producing. This result into monetary
loss to the producers, investors, etc.; who owns that particular specialized field or industry39.
Comparative Advantage results into inception of a general understanding called intellectual
property right, which was difficult to understand in the era of mercantilism. The field of a
particular person’s specialization is her/his copyright, GI, patent, etc. Earlier, in the cave
dweller’s era whereby no patent present on invention, it is really unrecognizable who actually
invented wheel because at that time no country was identified or introduced to the world as a
whole. The credit of wheel’s invention is provided to entire population, which is not fact but
a general statement. Similarly,

36
https://www.quora.com/What-is-Indias-comparative-advantage

37
https://slideplayer.com/slide/4413990/
38
Mr. Rajiv Gandhi introduced Computer in India during 1990s. Mostly, distribution of high connectivity of
internet and technological advancement, etc.; is in Gujarat

39
Performers, producer’s, investor’s right as per Indian Copyright Act, 1957.
Discovery of fires,

Invention of weapons,

Invention of clothes,

Invention of huts,

Invention of paintings,

Invention of bullock carts,

Invention of bungalows,

Invention of houses,

Invention of palaces,

Invention of crockeries,

Invention of bricks,

Invention of books,

Invention of feather-pens,

Invention of spears,

Invention of horse carriers,

Invention of ropes,

Invention of chairs,

Invention of tables,

Invention of crowns,

Invention of trees/plants (through soil, water & seed),

Invention of palanquins,

Discovery of time- when it is morning, evening, afternoon,

Discovery of navigation system (through trees and wind),

Invention of ancient rainwater harvesting tools & techniques,40

Invention of chapattis (through wheat flours),

Invention of rock or stone made mixers, that mixes vegetable or spice or fruit or others,

Invention of wood or bamboo made bridges,

Invention of wood or bamboo made dams,

May be invention or may be discovery of invisible inks,

Invention of mirror,

Invention of shoes and hats,

Invention of languages,

Invention of concept of cities/towns/villages in nation,

Invention of king or ruler concept or social contract theory/concept,

Invention of society/group/community/civilization,

Invention of idols,

Invention of agriculture,

Invention of irrigation tools & techniques,

Invention of culture,

Invention of dance,

Invention of music,

Invention of name, identity, individualism,

etc.; by first man was unknown and unidentified.

The first person, who discovered or invented above-mentioned cannot be known due to
Mercantilism and absence of Comparative Advantage and due to other factors as well.

40
Found even in Mohenjo-Daro cities
 Mercantilism & Comparative Advantage - mother of Absolute Advantage:

International Trade Law (ITL) is a unique aspect as even during the mercantilism period there
was a system of trade and the economic growth however, each coin has two sides. The eco-
legal aspect of trade whether it is multilateral and bilateral trade helps in shaping the growth of
international trade law. Theory of Mercantilism is the mother of comparative advantage and
wealth of nation because the criticism of mercantilism gave birth to or became pathway to
comparative advantage and wealth of nation. The theoreticians had made or introduced the
theories with an understanding of achieving a common purpose, i.e., welfare of nation,
economic growth, etc. Mercantilism, Comparative Advantage, Wealth of Nation has been
discussed at various point of time as theories in this paper as its contributions, achievements,
criticisms itself pave ways to each other and shaping the growth of international trade law.
Every theory has its own identity or individuality need. 41 Each theory has been destined
towards shaping the growth of international trade law.

The unbiased practices that was earlier prevailing in the society during almost all eras of
mercantilism from Meena Bazar era to swadeshi movement era like Male employment – 90%
and Female employment – 10%; Barter system (mostly in rural areas during Swadeshi
Movement) - 100%; Women like Sati, Rape Victim were not employed42; etc., was stopped
after introduction of absolute advantage.

Liberalization policies also open platform to women in MNCs to employ or to be employed by

MNCs via Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) 43 and hinders the ambiguous system of
barter system, results into betterment in quality and measuring of good quantity.

If goods are to be quantified instead of, being exchanged then it shall provide or is providing
true value or amount of good.

No. of Good to be provided per monetary calculation in Rs.

If 1 kg of Rice = 100 Rs.

1 kg of Watermelon = 200 Rs.

41
Darwin’s theory of individualism- if person’s thinking and mentality is different, then his/her theories also
differs
42
Women unemployment during colonial period - study by Author in 2015
43
Author had attended and participated on 25th & 26th of July for a “Seminar on CSR ACT,2013” in United
World School of Law
Then exchange of Rice for Watermelon and vice versa would be a loss

If 1 litter of Guava juice = 20 Rs.

1 kg of wheat = 50 Rs.

Then exchange of Guava Juice for Wheat and vice versa would be a loss

No. of commodity/ No. of commodity = loss

No. of commodity/ amount of money = profit

Through the critics of Mercantilism, comparative advantage came into being. Through the
critics of Comparative advantage, absolute advantage came into being. In cases wherein, the
nation is good at nothing at that time or point the comparative advantage lacks. For fulfilment
of all terms for low opportunity cost i.e., comparative advantage, certain essentialities are:

Resources

Weather

R & D44

Land suitability Labour, Capital Investment 45

Geographical Indication is need to be properly studied , understood and; to be reshaped,

redefined, regenerated by each nation on annual basis together for better evaluation or
result of opportunity cost . This is most tough job, herein Comparative advantage lacks
and theory of absolute advantage comes into picture.

For e.g.

India is a good place for cotton as:

Family business from ancient times

Thus, skill, labour, expertize, land suitability, capital investment

The bilateral trade was first step to multilateral trade. Similarly, comparative advantage and its
criticism is step to absolute advantage. Comparative Advantage was criticised and when Adam

44
An important point to be discussed in Business Management & Principle of Management-Research
& Development
45
Factors determined under economics for industry, factory- Land, Labor and Capital
 Smith by analysing the former introduced absolute advantage and said no need to divert or
regulate economy by government, then idea of liberalisation came into being. Liberalisation,
which later brings in Globalisation.

Due to comparative advantage’s criticism, absolute advantage came and; then, the following
things can be known through trade and transportation of goods and services and; through
communication and connections:

The one who invented a new kind of Cheese, i.e., France46

The one who invented Robert

The one who invented laptop, etc.

Can be known or identified and; even their nation can be known or identified.

Thus, criticism is pathway to inception of each theory and; thus to be applied, enforced and
studied together instead of individually. However, author of this paper puts emphasis majorly
on liberalization policies, which was encouraged, introduced, or incepted through Adam
Smith’s theory of Wealth of Nation, that is, Absolute Advantage.

 Research Questions:

What are the contribution of each theory in shaping the growth of development of trade law in
India?

How did different situations or diplomatic and cultural relations affect theories or trade in
India?

How does theories jointly & severally & not individually destined towards shaping the growth
of International trade law?

 Conclusions:

46
France has GI over Roquefort Cheese ,i.e., Blue Cheese
 The theories can be utilized together instead of their individual utilization. Though each theory
is dissimilar in its efficiency, utilization, meaning, conceptual understanding and
implementation ideas due to difference in person’s perception, thinking, mentality, ideology;
who gave such theories and thus Darwin’s theory of individualism, which confers that, “ no
individual is same” comes into picture. However, these theories are jointly & severally utilized;
and universally adopted & accepted; and serve a common purpose of shaping the growth of
international trade law. The summing up of every theory like Mathematical calculation is
essential requirement and brings in effective implementation of these theories towards
international trade law. Hereby, making an understanding that each nation state should adopt
all (three) theories instead of making a biased or unjust decision as jointly & severally effective
utilization of these theories will boost up the economic growth of every nation state. All
theories has tremendous advantage and; to be used and studied thoroughly and; repeatedly for
drawing a better conclusion for every year by every nation state

 Hypothesis:

The outcome is togetherness of theories and; all are accepted and adopted in every nation
though each theory has its own contribution, i.e., cannot be judged; however, all the theories
will be & should be applicable in unequal percentage in every nation-state. The applicability
percentage of each theory is based on or as per nation state’s own requirements as it is
dependent upon each nation-state individually, though its unequal percentage is an essential
requirement because no theory can be applicable at 100% or in its entirety.