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Module 2 Unit 1
INTEGRATION: Standard Integrals
MODULE 2 INTEGRATION
LEARNING UNIT 1 Standard Integrals
OUTCOMES
At the end of this Learning Unit, you should be able to:

• Solve integrals using a list of standard integrals
CONTENTS
1. STANDARD INTEGRALS 2
1.1. Powers of ( x) 3
1.2. Powers of f ( x ) 4
1.3 Logarithmic Forms 4

1.4 Exponential Forms 5
2. POST-TEST 1 7
3. RESPONSES 8
3.1. Response 1 8
3.2. Response Post -Test 1 10
MAT2691 1
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 1
1. STANDARD INTEGRALS
You should have completed Module 1: Differentiation, by actively engaging

with all the Learning Units and achieved the outcomes as stated in each
Learning Unit.
Module 2 focuses on Integration. In Unit 1, we will revise what you have learnt
under the topic Integration, in Mathematics I. We will expand this list in the Learning
Units to follow, which will include all the integrals on the Table of Integrals on your
formula sheets found in Tutorial Letter 101.
The following list of standard integrals was used in Mathematics I.
ax(n +1 )
1. ∫ ax n dx =
n +1
+ c, n ≠ −1
[ f(x)]n+1 + c,
∫ [ f(x)] .f'(x) dx
n
2. = n ≠ −1
n +1
′
⌠ f (x)
3.  dx = n f(x) + c
⌡ f(x)
∫ ′ = e f(x) + c
f(x)
4. f (x).e dx
a f(x)
5. ∫ f ′(x).a f(x) dx =
n a
+c
6. ∫ ′ sin f(x) dx
f (x). =
− cos f(x) + c
7. ∫ ′ cos f(x) dx
f (x). = sin f(x) + c
8. ∫ f (′ x). tan f(x) dx = n sec f(x) + c
9. ∫ ′ cot f(x) dx
f (x). = n sin f(x) + c
10. ∫ ′ sec f(x) dx

f (x). = n sec f(x) + tan f(x) + c
11. ∫ ′ cosec f(x) dx

f (x). = n cosec f(x) − cot f(x) + c
12. ∫ ′ sec 2 f(x) dx

f (x). = tan f(x) + c
13. ∫ ′ cosec 2 f(x) dx

f (x). =
− cot f(x) + c
14. ∫ f ′(x).sec f(x). tan f(x) dx= sec f(x) + c
15. ∫ f ′(x).cosec f(x). cot f(x) dx =

−cosec f(x) + c
2 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 1
Carefully work through the following revision examples of integration.
1.1. Powers of ( x )
⌠ n ax(n +1 )
=
Use no. 1 from the list of standard integrals:  ax dx + c, n ≠ − 1
⌡ n +1
EXAMPLE 1
⌠
( )
2
Solve the integral  1 − x 2 x dx
⌡
Solution:
1
⌠
( ) ⌠
( )
2
 1− x x dx =  1 − 2 x 2 + x 4 x 2 dx
2
⌡ ⌡
⌠  1 5 9
=   x − 2 x + x 2  dx
2 2
  
⌡  
3 7 11
x 2 x 2 x 2
= −2 + +c
3 7 11
2 2 2
2 3 2 4 7 2 2 112
= x − x + x +c
3 7 11
EXAMPLE 2
⌠  1 1 
Solve the integral   3 + + 4 3 x  dx
⌡  x 2x 
Solution:
⌠  −1 1 1 
⌠  1 
( )
1 −
 3 + + 4 3x  dx
=  x 3 + 2x 2 + 4
3 x4  dx
⌡  x 2x    
⌡  
2 − 1 1
4 5
x 3 2 2 x 2 3x 4
= + + +c
2 1 5
3 2 4
3 2 1 1 4 4 3 54
= x 3 +2 2 x 2 + x +c
2 5
33 2 4
= x + 2 x + 4 3x 5 + c
2 5
MAT2691 3
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Module 2 Unit 1
1.2. Powers of f ( x )
⌠
Use no. 2 from the list of standard integrals:  [ f(x)] .f=
n
'(x) dx
[ f(x)]n +1 + c, n ≠ −1
⌡ n +1
EXAMPLE 3
Solve the integral ∫ sin 3 x.cos x dx
Solution:
∫ sin ∫ (sin x ) ( cos x ) dx ; f ( x ) sin x ;=

f ' ( x ) cos x 
3
3
=
x.cos x dx = n 3=
sin 4 x
= +c
4
EXAMPLE 4
⌠ x4
Solve the integral  dx
⌡ 4
x +6
5
Solution:
1.3. Logarithmic Forms
′
⌠ f (x)
Use no. 3 from the list of standard integrals:  = dx n f(x) + c
⌡ f(x)
EXAMPLE 5
2
⌠ cosec x
⌡ 1 + cot x
Solution:
⌠ − cosec x
( )
2 2
⌠ cosec x  f ( x) =
 dx =
−  dx

(1 + cot x ) ; f ' ( x ) =
−cosec2 x 

⌡ 1 + cot x ⌡ 1 + cot x
=
− n 1 + cot x + c
EXAMPLE 6
2
⌠ sec 2 x
⌡ a + b tan 2 x
Solution:
4 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 1
( )
2
⌠ sec 2 x 1 ⌠ 2b sec2 2 x  f ( x) =
 dx =  dx

( a + b tan 2 x ) ; f ' ( x ) =
2b sec2 2 x 

⌡ a + b tan 2 x 2b ⌡ a + b tan 2 x
1
= n ( a + b tan 2 x ) + c
2b
1.4. Exponential Forms
∫ f (x)
′ .e =
dx e f(x) + c
f(x)
Use no. 4 from the list of standard integrals:
EXAMPLE 7
∫ ( cos 2 x ) e
sin 2 x
Solve the integral dx
Solution:
1
∫ ( cos=
2x) e ∫ ( 2 cos 2 x ) esin 2 x dx  f ( x ) sin
= = 2 x ; f ' ( x ) 2 cos 2 x 
sin 2 x
dx
2
1 sin 2 x
= e +c
2
EXAMPLE 8
⌠ e tan 3 x
Solve the integral  2
dx
⌡ cos 3 x
Solution:
⌠ e tan 3 x  f ( x ) tan
= dx ∫ e tan 3 x .sec2 3x dx = = 3x ; f ' ( x ) 3sec2 3x 
2
⌡ cos 3x  
1
3 ∫ =
3e tan 3 x .sec2 3x dx
1 tan 3 x
= e +c
3
ACTIVITY 1:
Solve the following integrals:
⌠  −1 2 
  x − 3 x + 3 − 3 x + 2 x − 7  dx
2
1.
⌡  x 
⌠  3 1 2 4 
2.   x − 3 x + − 2 + 7  dx
2
⌡  x x 
3. ∫ (3sin x − 5cos x + 2 ) dx x
4. ∫ (sin x + sin 2 x − 3cos x + sec 2 x ) dx 2
5. ∫ (e x
− e 4 x + 7 tan 5 x dx )
MAT2691 5
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 1
⌠  1
3 5
6.  (1 + 2 x )2 − + 7 (1 + 5 x )  dx
⌡  1 + 3x 
7. ∫ ( ) ( )
x sec x 2 − 1 tan x 2 − 1 dx
8. ∫ x 2 sin x3dx
⌠ cosec ( n x ) cot ( n x )
9.  dx
⌡ x
∫ ( sin x − cos x ) dx
2
10.
⌠ ( x − 1)3 dx
11.  1
⌡ x 2
⌠ ex
12.  x +1 dx
⌡ a
Remember to check response 1 on page 8.
6 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 1
2. POST-TEST 1
Solve the following integrals using the list of standard integrals:
⌠ x4 + 5x2 − 3
1.  dx
⌡ x2
( )
2
⌠ a− x
2.  dx
 x
⌡
3. ∫ e3 x e3 x − 1 dx
⌠  sec x 2
4.    dx
⌡  1 + tan x 
⌠ x + sec2 x
5.  2 dx
⌡ x + 2 tan x
6. ⌠
cos 2 x
 dx
⌡ sin x cos x
n x
⌠ a
7.  dx
⌡ x
x
⌠ 2 x
8.  e tan .sec 2 dx
⌡ 2
⌠ dx
9. 
⌡ sin (1 − 2 x )
⌠  a 
10.   sec 2 2ax −  dx
⌡  cos 2 bx 
Remember to check response post-test 1 on page 10.
MAT2691 7
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Module 2 Unit 1
3. RESPONSES
3.1. Response 1
1. Use no. 1 (and no. 3) from the list of standard integrals:
⌠  −1 2  ⌠ 1 1 
  x − 3 x + 3 − 3 x + 2 x − 7  dx
2
=   − 3 x 2 + 2 x −3 − 3 x 2 + 2 x − 7  dx
⌡  x   x 
⌡  
3
1 x2
= n x − x 3 − 2
− 3. + x2 − 7 x + c
3
x 2
3
1
= n x − x − 3
2
− 2x 2 + x2 − 7 x + c
x
2. Use no. 1 (and no. 3) from the list of standard integrals:
⌠  3 2 4  ⌠  2 
dx   x3 − 3 x 2 + − 4 x −2 + 7  dx
1 1
  x − 3 x + − 2 + 7 =
2
⌡  x x  ⌡  x 
3
4
x x2 4
= − 3. + 2n x + + 7x + c
4 3 x
2
3
x4 4
= − 2 x 2 + 2n x + + 7 x + c
4 x
3. Use no. 6, no. 7 and no. 5 from the list of standard integrals:
∫ ( )
3sin x − 5cos x + 2 x dx =
−3cos x − 5sin x +
2x
n 2
+c
4. Use no. 6, no. 7 and no. 12 from the list of standard integrals:
∫ (sin x + sin 2 x − 3cos x + sec 2 x ) dx =

2 1 1
− cos x − cos 2 x − 3sin x + tan 2 x + c
2 2
5. Use no. 4 and no. 8 from the list of standard integrals:
∫ (e x
) 1 7
− e 4 x + 7 tan 5 x dx =e x − e 4 x + n sec 5 x + c
4 5
8 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 1
3
1 (1 + 2 x ) 2 1 7 (1 + 5 x )
6
⌠  1
3  1
  (1 + 2 x ) 2 − )5  dx . 3
+ 7 (1 + 5 x= − 3. n (1 + 3 x ) + . +c
⌡  1 + 3 x  2 2 3 5 6
3
=
(1 + 2 x ) 2 − n (1 + 3 x ) +
7 (1 + 5 x )
6
+c
3 30
7. Use no. 14 from the list of standard integrals:
∫ ( ) (
x sec x 2 − 1 tan x 2 − 1=
dx )
1
2 ∫ (
2 x sec x 2 − 1 tan x 2 − 1 dx ) ( )
=
1
2
sec x 2 − 1 + c ( )

1
∫ x 2 sin x3dx =
3 ∫ 3 x 2 sin x3dx
1
=
− cos x3 + c
3
⌠ cosec ( n x ) cot ( n x ) ⌠ 1

 dx =    cosec ( n x ) cot ( n x ) dx
⌡ x ⌡ x
−cosec ( n x ) + c
=
∫ ( sin x − cos x ) dx= ∫

2
(sin 2
x + cos 2 x − 2sin x cos x dx )
= ∫ (1 − sin 2 x ) dx
1
=
x + cos 2 x + c
2
1 and sin 2 x = 2sin x cos x

Note the use of the identities sin 2 x + cos2 x =
⌠ ( x − 1)3 dx = ⌠ x 3 − 3x 2 + 3x − 1
 1  1
dx
⌡ x 2 ⌡ x 2
MAT2691 9
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 1
⌠ ( x − 1)3 dx= ⌠  5 3 1
− 
1
   x − 3x + 3x − x 2  dx
2 2 2
⌡ x
1
2   
⌡  
7 5 3 1
x2 x 2 x 2 x2
= −3 +3 − +c
7 5 3 1
2 2 2 2
7 5 3
2 6
= x 2 − x 2 + 2x 2 − 2 x + c
7 5
⌠ ex ⌠ ex
 x +1 dx =  x
dx
⌡ a ⌡ a.a
1⌠ e
x
=    dx
a⌡ a
x
e
1  a 
= . +c
a e
n  
a
x
e
1  a 
= . +c
a n e − n a
x
e
 
= a +c
a (1 − n a )
3.2. Response Post-Test 1
⌠ x4 + 5x2 − 3

⌡ x2
=dx ∫ (x 2
+ 5 − 3 x −2 dx )
x3 3
= + 5x + + c
3 x
( )
2
⌠ a− x ⌠ a + x − 2 ax
 dx =  dx
 x ⌡ x
⌡
10 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 1
( )=
2
⌠ a− x ⌠  −1 1 
 dx   ax + x 2 − 2 a  dx
2
 x   
⌡ ⌡  
1 3
x2 x 2
= a. + −2 a x+c
1 3
2 2
3
2
= 2a x + x 2 − 2 a x + c
3
1
∫ e 3x
e=
− 1 dx
3x 1 ⌠ 3x 3x
3⌡
 3e e − 1 ( ) 2 dx
=
1 e ( 3x
−1 ) 2
+c
3 3
2
3
=
2 3x
9
(
e −1 ) 2 +c
⌠  sec x 2 ⌠ sec2 x
  1 + tan x  dx =  dx
 1 + tan x 2
⌡   ⌡ ( )
−2
= ∫ sec2 x (1 + tan x ) dx
1
=
− +c
(1 + tan x )
⌠ x + sec2 x 1 ⌠ 2 x + 2sec2 x
 2 =
2
dx dx
⌡ x + 2 tan x ⌡ x + 2 tan x
2
1
= n x 2 + 2 tan x + c
2
⌠ cos 2 x dx = 2⌠ cos 2 x
  dx
⌡ sin x cos x ⌡ 2sin x cos x
= 2⌠
cos 2 x
 dx
⌡ sin 2 x
= 2 n sin 2 x + c
MAT2691 11
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 1

n x
⌠ a
dx = ⌠
1 n x
  a dx
⌡ x ⌡ x
a n x
= +c
n a

x x
⌠ tan 2 x ⌠ 1 2 x
 e .sec2 dx = 2 e tan .sec2 dx
⌡ 2 ⌡ 2 2
x
tan 2
= 2e +c
⌠ dx
 = ∫ cosec (1 − 2 x ) dx
⌡ sin (1 − 2 x )
1
− ∫ ( −2 ) cosec (1 − 2 x ) dx
=
2
1
− n cosec (1 − 2 x ) − cot (1 − 2 x ) + c
=
2
⌠  2
  sec 2ax −
⌡ 
a 
 dx =
cos 2 bx 
∫ (sec 2
)
2ax − a sec2 bx dx
1 a
=
2a ∫ 2a sec2 2ax dx − ∫ b sec2 bx dx
b
1 a
= tan 2ax − tan bx + c
2a b
You have now completed Learning Unit 1: Standard Integrals.

You should be able to:
• Solve integrals using a list of standard integrals
We now move on to Learning Unit 2: Trigonometric Integrals.
12 MAT2691
UNISA
LEARNING UNIT 2 Trigonometric Integrals
OUTCOMES

• Solve integrals of powers of trigonometric functions using trigonometric identities
• Solve integrals of products of trigonometric functions using trigonometric
identities
CONTENTS
1. TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS 14
Integration of sin f ( x )
n
1.1 14
n
1.2 Integration of cos f ( x ) 16
m
1.3 Integration of sin f ( x ) . cosn f ( x ) 17
1.4 Integration of sin ax cos bx, sin ax sin bx, cos ax cos bx 19
2. POST-TEST 2 21
3. RESPONSES 22
3.1. Response 1 22
3.2. Response 2 22
3.3. Response 3 23
3.4. Response 4 23
3.5. Response Post-Test 2 24
1. TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS
MAT2691 13
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 2
INTEGRATION: Trigonometric Integrals
The following list of trigonometric identities will be used to solve integrals of powers
of trigonometric functions:
sin 2 x + cos 2 x =
1
1 + tan 2 x =
sec2 x
cot 2 x + 1 = cosec 2 x
=
sin x cos y
1
2
{sin ( x + y ) + sin ( x − y )}
=
cos x sin y
1
2
{sin ( x + y ) − sin ( x − y )}
=
cos x cos y
1
2
{cos ( x + y ) + cos ( x − y )}
=
sin x sin y
1
2
{cos ( x − y ) − cos ( x + y )}
sin x cos x = {sin ( 2 x )}
1
2
1
sin 2=x (1 − cos 2 x )
2
1
cos 2=x (1 + cos 2 x )
2
All the above identities are given in your formula sheets.
Integration of sin f ( x )
n
1.1.
When n is an even number, we make use of the identity:

1
sin=
2
x (1 − cos 2 x )
2
EXAMPLE 1
Solve the integral ∫ sin 2 x dx
Solution:
x dx ⌠
1
∫ sin=  (1 − cos 2 x ) dx
2
⌡ 2
1 1
=
2 ∫ 1 dx − ∫ cos 2 x dx
2
MAT2691
14 UNISA
Module 2 Unit 2
1 1 1
= x − . ∫ 2 cos 2 x dx
2 2 2
1 1
=−x sin 2 x + c
2 4
EXAMPLE 2
Solution:
( )
2
∫ sin 4 x dx = ∫ sin 2 x dx
⌠ 1 
2
=   (1 − cos 2 x )  dx
⌡ 2 
1
(
= ∫ 1 − 2 cos 2 x + cos 2 2 x dx
4
)
1⌠  1 
= 1 − 2 cos 2 x +  (1 + cos 4 x )   dx
4
⌡  2 
1⌠  1 1 
=  1 − 2 cos 2 x + + cos 4 x  dx
4⌡  2 2 
1⌠ 3 1 1
=  dx − ∫ cos 2 x dx + ∫ cos 4 x dx
4⌡ 2 2 8
3 1 1
=−x sin 2 x + sin 4 x + c
8 4 32
When n is an odd number we make use of the identities:

sin 3 x= sin 2 x sin x= (1 − cos x ) sin x
2
(1 − cos x ) sin x
2
sin 5 x= sin 4 x sin x= 2
EXAMPLE 3
Solution:
∫ sin 3 x=
dx ∫ (1 − cos2 x ) sin x dx
= ∫ sin x dx − ∫ cos2 x sin x dx
MAT2691 15
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 2
=∫ sin x dx + ∫ ( cos x ) ( − sin x ) dx

2
cos3 x
=
− cos x + +c
3
ACTIVITY 1:
Solve the following integral:
1. ∫ sin 5 x dx
n
1.2. Integration of cos f ( x )
When n is an even number, we make use of the identity:

1
cos=
2
x (1 + cos 2 x )
2
EXAMPLE 4
Solve the integral ∫ cos 2 x dx
Solution:
x dx ⌠
1
∫ cos 2=  (1 + cos 2 x ) dx
⌡ 2
1 1
=
2 ∫ 1 dx + ∫ cos 2 x dx
2
1 1 1
= x + . ∫ 2 cos 2 x dx
2 2 2
1 1
=+ x sin 2 x + c
2 4
When n is an odd number, we make use of the identities:

cos3 x= cos2 x cos x= (1 − sin x ) cos x
2
(1 − sin x ) cos x
2
cos5 x= cos4 x cos x= 2
EXAMPLE 5
Solve the integral ∫ cos3 x dx
MAT2691
16 UNISA
Module 2 Unit 2
Solution:
∫ cos3 x=
dx ∫ (1 − sin x ) cos x dx
2
= ∫ cos x dx − ∫ sin 2 x cos x dx
sin 3 x
=sin x − +c
3
ACTIVITY 2:
1. ∫ cos 4 x dx
2. ∫ cos5 x dx
m
1.3. Integration of sin f ( x ) . cosn f ( x )
When either m or n is an odd number, we split the odd power and use the
identity sin x + cos x =
2 2
1.
EXAMPLE 6
Solve the integral ∫ sin 3 x cos 2 x dx
Solution:
∫ sin 3 x cos 2 x dx = ∫ sin 2 x sin x cos 2 x dx
= ∫ (1 − cos x ) sin x cos

2 2
x dx
= ∫ cos 2 x sin x dx − ∫ cos 4 x sin x dx
cos3 x cos5 x
=
− + +c
3 5
When m and n are even numbers, it does not matter which function is
replaced by an identity.
EXAMPLE 7
Solve the integral ∫ sin 2 x cos 2 x dx
MAT2691 17
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 2
Solution:
∫ sin 2 x cos 2 x=
dx ∫ (1 − cos x ) cos
2 2
x dx
= ∫ cos 2 x dx − ∫ cos 4 x dx
(Refer to Example 4 and Activity 2: Number 1)
2
⌠ 1 
=⌠
1
 (1 + cos 2 x ) dx −  (1 + cos 2 x ) dx
⌡ 2 ⌡ 2 
1 1 1 1 1 
= ∫ 1 dx + ∫ cos 2 x dx −  ∫ 1 dx + ∫ 2 cos 2 x dx + ∫ cos2 2 x dx 
2 2 4 4 4 
1 1 1
= x + . ∫ 2 cos 2 x dx
2 2 2
1 1
=+ x sin 2 x + c
2 4
∫ sin 2 x cos2 x=
dx ∫ (1 − cos2 x ) cos2 x dx
= ∫ cos2 x dx − ∫ cos4 x dx
2
⌠ 1 
∫ x dx   (1 + cos 2 x ) dx
cos=
4
⌡ 2 
1 1 1
=
4 ∫ 1 dx + ∫ 2 cos 2 x dx + ∫ cos2 2 x dx
4 4
1 1 1 1
=+ x sin 2 x + ∫ (1 + cos 4 x ) dx
4 4 4 2
1 1 1 1 1
=+ x sin 2 x + ∫ 1 dx + . ∫ 4 cos 4 x dx
4 4 8 8 4
1 1 1 1
= x + sin 2 x + x + sin 4 x + c
4 4 8 32
3 1 1
=+ x sin 2 x + sin 4 x + c
8 4 32
ACTIVITY 3:
1. ∫ sin 2 x cos3 x dx
2. ∫ sin 2 x cos 2 x dx
MAT2691
18 UNISA
Module 2 Unit 2
1.4. Integration of sin ax cos bx, sin ax sin bx, cos ax cos bx
The following identities will be used:

=
sin x cos y
1
2
{sin ( x + y ) + sin ( x − y )}
=
cos x sin y
1
2
{sin ( x + y ) − sin ( x − y )}
=
cos x cos y
1
2
{cos ( x + y ) + cos ( x − y )}
=
sin x sin y
1
2
{cos ( x − y ) − cos ( x + y )}
EXAMPLE 8
Solve the integral ∫ sin 3x cos5 x dx
Solution:
1
∫ sin ( 3 x + 5 x ) + sin ( 3x − 5 x )  dx
2∫
sin 3 x cos=
5 x dx
1
sin 8 x + sin ( −2 x )  dx
2∫
=
1  cos8 x  1  cos ( −2 x ) 
= − + − +c
2 8  2  ( −2 ) 
cos8 x cos ( −2 x )
=
− + +c
16 4
EXAMPLE 9
Solve the integral ∫ cos 6 x cos 4 x dx
Solution:
1
∫ cos ( 6 x + 4 x ) + cos ( 6 x − 4 x )  dx
2∫ 
cos 6 x cos=
4 x dx
1
[cos10 x + cos 2 x ] dx
2∫
=
1  sin10 x  1  sin 2 x 
=  +  +c
2  10  2  2 
sin10 x sin 2 x
= + +c
20 4
MAT2691 19
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 2
ACTIVITY 4:
1. ∫ sin 3 x sin x dx
∫0
2
2. cos 3 x cos 2 x dx
MAT2691
20 UNISA
Module 2 Unit 2
2. POST-TEST 2
⌠ 4 x
1.  sin   dx
⌡ 2
2. ∫ cos5 2x dx
2
3. ⌠ 5
 cos 3 x .sin x dx
⌡
⌠ x x
4.  sin   sin   dx
⌡ 3 4
MAT2691 21
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 2
3. RESPONSES
3.1. Response 1
1.
( )
2
⌠ 1 − cos2 x sin x dx
∫ dx 
sin5 x=
⌡
∫ (1 − 2 cos x + cos x ) sin x dx

= 2 4
= ∫ sin x dx + 2 ∫ cos2 x ( − sin x ) dx − ∫ cos4 x ( − sin x ) dx
2 cos3 x cos5 x
=
− cos x + − +c
3 5
3.2. Response 2
1.
⌠ 1 
2
∫ x dx   (1 + cos 2 x )  dx
cos=
4
⌡ 2 
1 1 1
=
4 ∫ 1 dx + ∫ 2 cos 2 x dx + ∫ cos 2 2 x dx
4 4
1 1 1 1
=+ x sin 2 x + ∫ (1 + cos 4 x ) dx
4 4 4 2
1 1 1 1 1
=+ x sin 2 x + ∫ 1 dx + . ∫ 4 cos 4 x dx
4 4 8 8 4
1 1 1 1
= x + sin 2 x + x + sin 4 x + c
4 4 8 32
3 1 1
= x + sin 2 x + sin 4 x + c
8 4 32
2.
dx ⌠ ( ) cos x dx
2
∫ cos5 x=  1 − sin 2 x
⌡
∫ (1 − 2sin x + sin x ) cos x dx

= 2 4
∫ cos x dx − 2∫ sin x cos x dx + ∫ sin x cos x dx

= 2 4
2sin 3 x sin 5 x
=sin x − + +c
3 5
MAT2691
22 UNISA
Module 2 Unit 2
3.3. Response 3
1.
∫ sin 2 x cos3 x dx = ∫ sin 2 x cos 2 x cos x dx
= ∫ ( )
sin 2 x 1 − sin 2 x cos x dx
= ∫ sin 2 x cos x dx − ∫ sin 4 x cos x dx
sin 3 x sin 5 x
= − +c
3 5
2.
∫ sin 2 x cos 2 x=
dx ∫ (1 − cos x ) cos
2 2
x dx
= ∫ cos 2 x dx − ∫ cos 4 x dx
2
1 1 
=∫ (1 + cos 2 x ) dx − ∫  (1 + cos 2 x )  dx
2 2 
1 1 1 1 1
= ∫ 1 dx + ∫ cos 2 x dx − ∫ 1 dx − ∫ 2 cos 2 x dx − ∫ cos 2 2 x dx
2 2 4 4 4
x sin 2 x x sin 2 x 1  1 
= + − − − ∫  (1 + cos 4 x )  dx
2 4 4 4 4 2 
x 1 1
= − ∫ 1 dx − ∫ cos 4 x dx
4 8 8
x x sin 4 x
= − − +c
4 8 32
x sin 4 x
= − +c
8 32
3.4. Response 4
1.
1
∫ cos ( 3 x − x ) − cos ( 3 x + x )  dx
2∫ 
sin 3 x=
sin x dx
1
[cos 2 x − cos 4 x ] dx
2∫
=
1  sin 2 x  1  sin 4 x 
=  −  +c
2 2  2 4 
sin 2 x sin 4 x
= − +c
4 8
MAT2691 23
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 2
π 1 π2
∫0 cos ( 3x + 2 x ) + cos ( 3x − 2 x ) dx
2∫0 
2. 2
=
cos 3x cos 2 x dx
1 π2
[cos5x + cos x ] dx
2∫0
=
π
 1  sin 5 x  1  2
=    + ( sin x ) 
2  5  2 0
π
 sin 5 x sin x  2
=  +
 10 2  0
 π  π 
 sin 5  2  sin  2    sin 0 sin 0 
=   +   − +
 10 2   10 2 
 
1 1
= + −0
10 2
= 0.6

2
x 4
⌠ 1   x  
1. ∫ sin =
  dx
2

  2 

1 − cos 2     dx
 2  
⌡
2
⌠ 1 
=   (1 − cos x ) dx
⌡ 2 
1 1 1
=
4 ∫ 1 dx − ∫ 2 cos x dx + ∫ cos2 x dx
4 4
1 1 1 1
=x − sin x + ∫ (1 + cos 2 x ) dx
4 2 4 2
1 1 1 1 1
=x − sin x + ∫ 1 dx + . ∫ 2 cos 2 x dx
4 2 8 8 2
1 1 1 1
= x − sin x + x + sin 2 x + c
4 2 8 16
3 1 1
=x − sin x + sin 2 x + c
8 2 16
( ) cos 2 x dx
2
2. ∫ dx ⌠
cos5 2 x=  1 − sin 2 2 x
⌡
∫ (1 − 2sin 2 x + sin 2 x ) cos 2 x dx

= 2 4
∫ cos 2 x dx − ∫ 2sin 2 x cos 2 x dx + ∫ sin 2 x cos 2 x dx

= 2 4
sin 2 x sin 3 2 x sin5 2 x

= − + +c
2 3 10
MAT2691
24 UNISA
Module 2 Unit 2
2 2
3. ∫ cos 3 x sin x dx = ⌠
5 4
 cos 3 x sin x sin x dx
⌡
2
⌠
( )
2
=  cos 3 x 1 − cos2 x sin x dx
⌡
2
⌠
(
=  cos 3 x 1 − 2 cos2 x + cos4 x sin x dx
⌡
)
2 8 14
=∫ cos 3 x sin x dx − 2 ∫ cos 3 x sin x dx + ∫ cos 3 x sin x dx
5 11 17
cos 3 x 2 cos 3 x cos 3 x
=
− + − +c
5 11 17
3 3 3
5 11 17
3cos 3 x 6cos 3 x 3cos 3 x
=
− + − +c
5 11 17
x x 1⌠   x x  x x 
4. ∫ sin   sin=
  dx
 3 4
  cos  −  − cos  +   dx
2⌡  3 4  3 4 
1⌠  x 7x 
=  cos − cos  dx
2 ⌡  12 12 
1 x  1  12 7x 
=  12sin  −  sin  + c
2 12  2  7 12 
x 6 7x
=6sin − sin +c
12 7 12
You have now completed Learning Unit 2: Trigonometric Integrals.

identities
We now move on to Learning Unit 3: Trigonometric Integrals II.
MAT2691 25
UNISA
LEARNING UNIT 3 Trigonometric Integrals II
OUTCOMES

identities
CONTENTS
1. TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS II 27
1.1 Integration of tan n x 27
1.2 Integration of cot n x 28
1.3 Integration of tan m x sec n x 29
1.4 Integration of cot m x cosec n x 30
1.5 Integration of cot m x sec n x 31
2. POST-TEST 3 32
3. RESPONSES 33
3.1. Response 1 33
3.2. Response 2 34
3.3. Response 3 34
3.4. Response 4 34
26 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 3
INTEGRATION: Trigonometric Integrals II
1. TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS II
The following trigonometric identities will be used:
sin 2 x + cos 2 x =
1
1 + tan 2 x =
sec2 x
cot 2 x + 1 =cosec 2 x
1.1. Integration of tan n x
Whether n is an odd or an even number we make use of the identity

sec2 x = 1 + tan 2 x
∴ tan 2 x = sec2 x − 1
and the derivative
d
( tan x ) = sec2 x
dx
EXAMPLE 1
Solve the integral ∫ tan 3 x dx
Solution:
∫ ( )
tan 3 x dx = ∫ tan x tan 2 x dx
= ∫ tan x ( sec x − 1) dx
2
= ∫ tan x sec2 x dx − ∫ tan x dx
tan 2 x
= − n sec x + c
2
EXAMPLE 2
Solve the integral ∫ tan 4 x dx
Solution:
∫ ( )
tan 4 x dx = ∫ tan 2 x tan 2 x dx
= ∫ tan x (sec x − 1) dx
2 2
= ∫ tan 2 x sec2 x dx − ∫ tan 2 x dx
MAT2691 27
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 3
∫ tan 4 x =
dx
tan 3 x
3
− ∫ (sec2 x − 1) dx
tan 3 x
= − tan x + x + c
3
ACTIVITY 1:
1. ∫ tan 5 x dx
2. ∫ tan 6 x dx
1.2. Integration of cot n x
When n is an even or an odd number we make use of the identity

cot 2 x + 1 =cosec2 x
∴ cot 2 x= cosec2 x − 1
and the derivative
d
( cot x ) = −cosec2 x
dx
EXAMPLE 3
Solve the integral ∫ cot 4 x dx
Solution:
∫ cot x dx
= 4
∫ (
cot 2 x cosec 2 x − 1 dx )
= ∫ cot 2 x cosec 2 x dx − ∫ cot 2 x dx
=
−
cot 3 x
3
(
− ∫ cosec 2 x − 1 dx )
cot 3 x
=− + cot x + x + c
3
EXAMPLE 4
Solve the integral ∫ cot 3 x dx
Solution:
28 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 3
∫ cot x dx
= 3
∫ (
cot x cosec2 x − 1 dx )
= ∫ cot x cosec 2 x dx − ∫ cot x dx
cot 2 x
=
− − n sin x + c
2
ACTIVITY 2:
1. ∫ cot 5 x dx
2. ∫ cot 6 x dx
1.3. Integration of tan m x secn x
When both m and n are even numbers we split one of the powers and make
use of the identity 1 + tan 2 x =
sec2 x
EXAMPLE 5
Solve the integral ∫ tan 6 x sec 4 x dx
Solution:
∫ =
tan 6
x sec4 x dx ∫ ( )
tan 6 x tan 2 x + 1 sec2 x dx
= ∫ tan 8 x sec2 x dx + ∫ tan 6 x sec2 x dx
tan 9 x tan 7 x
= + +c
9 7
When m and n are not both even numbers, we proceed as follows, making
use of the derivative
d
( sec x ) = sec x tan x
dx
EXAMPLE 6
Solve the integral ∫ tan x sec3 x dx
MAT2691 29
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 3
Solution:
∫ tan x sec3 x dx = ∫ ( tan x sec x ) sec2 x dx
sec3 x
= +c
3
ACTIVITY 3:
1. ∫ tan 4 x sec 2 x dx
1.4. Integration of cot m x cosecn x
We make use of the identity

cosec2 x = 1 + cot 2 x
and the derivative
d
( cot x ) = −cosec2 x
dx
EXAMPLE 7
Solve the integral ∫ cot 4 x cosec6 x dx
Solution:
x dx ⌠ ( ) cosec x dx
2
∫ =
cot 4 x cosec  cot 4 x 1 + cot 2 x
6 2
⌡
= ∫ cot 4 x (1 + 2 cot x + cot x ) cosec x dx
2 4 2
=∫ cot 4 x cosec 2 x dx + 2 ∫ cot 6 x cosec 2 x dx + ∫ cot 8 x cosec 2 x dx
cot 5 x 2 cot 7 x cot 9 x

=
− − − +c
5 7 9
ACTIVITY 4:
1. ∫ cot 4 x cosec8 x dx
30 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 3
1.5. Integration of cot m x secn x
We make use of the identity

sec 2 x = 1 + tan 2 x
and the fact that
cot x × tan x = 1
EXAMPLE 8
Solve the integral ∫ cot 4 x sec 4 x dx
Solution:
sec4 x dx ⌠ ( ) dx
2
∫ cot 4 x=  cot 4 x 1 + tan 2 x
⌡
= ∫ cot 4 x (1 + 2 tan x + tan x ) dx
2 4
=∫ cot 4 x dx + 2 ∫ cot 2 x dx + ∫ 1 dx
We proceed as in Example 3:
∫ cot 4 x=
sec4 x dx ∫ cot 4 x dx +2 ∫ cot 2 x dx + ∫ 1 dx
= ∫ ( )
cot 2 x cosec2 x − 1 dx + 2 ∫ cot 2 x dx + ∫ 1 dx
= ∫ cot 2 x cosec2 x dx + ∫ cot 2 x dx + ∫ 1 dx
=
−
cot 3 x
3
(
+ ∫ cosec2 x − 1 dx ) +x
cot 3 x
=− + cot x − x + x + c
3
cot 3 x
=
− + cot x + c
3
MAT2691 31
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 3
2. POST-TEST 3
1. ∫ tan 3 3 x sec 4 3 x dx
2. ∫ cot 3 x cosec 4 3 x dx
3. ∫ sec 4 2x dx
32 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 3
3. RESPONSES
3.1. Response 1
1.
∫ ( )
tan5 x dx = ∫ tan 3 x tan 2 x dx
3 2
=
tan 4 x
4
(
− ∫ tan x tan 2 x dx )
=
tan 4 x
4
(
− ∫ tan x sec2 x − 1 dx )
tan 4 x
= − ∫ tan x sec2 x dx + ∫ tan x dx
4
tan 4 x tan 2 x
= − + n sec x + c
4 2
2.
∫ ( )
tan 6 x dx = ∫ tan 4 x tan 2 x dx
4 2
=
tan5 x
5
(
− ∫ tan 2 x tan 2 x dx )
=
tan5 x
5
(
− ∫ tan 2 x sec2 x − 1 dx )
tan5 x
= −  ∫ tan 2 x sec2 x dx − ∫ tan 2 x dx 
5  
 tan 3 x 
=
tan5 x
5
−
 3 ( )
− ∫ sec2 x − 1 dx 

 
tan5 x  tan 3 x 
= − − tan x + x + c 
5  
 3 
tan5 x tan 3 x
= − + tan x − x + c
5 3
MAT2691 33
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 3
3.2. Response 2
∫ cot x dx
1. = 5
∫ ( )
cot 3 x cosec2 x − 1 dx
= ∫ cot 3 x cosec2 x dx − ∫ cot 3 x dx
=
−
cot 4 x
4
( )
− ∫ cot x cosec2 x − 1 dx
cot 4 x
=
− −  ∫ cot x cosec2 x dx − ∫ cot x dx 
4  
cot 4 x  cot 2 x 
=− −− − n sin x + c 
4  2 
 
cot 4 x cot 2 x
=
− + + n sin x + c
4 2
∫ cot x dx
2. = 6
∫ ( )
cot 4 x cosec2 x − 1 dx
= ∫ cot 4 x cosec2 x dx − ∫ cot 4 x dx
=
−
cot 5 x
5
(
− ∫ cot 2 x cosec2 x − 1 dx)
cot 5 x
=
− − ∫ cot 2 x cosec2 x dx − ∫ cot 2 x dx
5
 cot 3 x 
=−
cot 5 x
5
−−
 3
( )
− ∫ cosec2 x − 1 dx 

 
cot 5 x  cot 3 x 
=− −− + cot x + x + c 
5  3 
 
cot 5 x cot 3 x
=− + − cot x − x + c
5 3
3.3. Response 3
tan 5 x
1. ∫ tan 4 x sec 2=
x dx
5
+c
3.4. Response 4
( )
3
1. ∫ =
cot 4 x cosec8
x dx ⌠
 cot 4 x 1 + cot 2 x cosec2 x dx
⌡
= ∫ cot x (1 + 3cot x + 3cot x + cot x ) cosec x dx
4 2 4 6 2
34 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 3
= ∫ (cot 4 x + 3cot6 x + 3cot8 x + cot10 x ) cosec2 x dx

cot 5 x cot 7 x cot 9 x cot11 x
=
− −3 − − +c
5 7 3 11
1. ∫ tan 3 3x sec4 3x dx = ∫ tan 2 3x ( tan 3x sec 3x ) sec3 3x dx
= ∫ (sec2 3x − 1) ( tan 3x sec 3x ) sec3 3x dx

1 1
= ∫ ( 3tan 3x sec 3x ) sec5 3x dx − ∫ ( 3tan 3x sec 3x ) sec3 3x dx
3 3
sec6 3x sec4 3x
= − +c
18 12
2. ∫ =
cot 3x cosec 4
3x dx ∫ ( )
cot 3x 1 + cot 2 3x cosec2 3x dx
= ∫ cot 3x cosec2 3x dx + ∫ cot 3 3x cosec2 3x dx

1 1
=
3 ∫ 3cot 3x cosec2 3x dx + ∫ 3cot 3 3x cosec2 3x dx
3
cot 2 3x cot 4 3x
=
− − +c
6 12
3. ∫ sec4 2 x dx = ∫ sec2 2 x.sec2 2 x dx
= ∫ (
sec2 2 x. 1 + tan 2 2 x dx )
= ∫ sec2 2 x. dx + ∫ tan 2 2 x.sec2 2 x dx
1 1 tan 3 2 x
= tan 2 x + . +c
2 2 3
1 tan 3 2 x
= tan 2 x + +c
2 6
You have now completed Learning Unit 2: Trigonometric Integrals II.

identities
We now move on to Learning Unit 4: Hyperbolic Functions.
MAT2691 35
UNISA
LEARNING UNIT 4 Hyperbolic Functions
OUTCOMES

• Solve integrals of hyperbolic functions using a list of standard integrals
CONTENTS
1. HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS 37
2. POST TEST 4 39
3. RESPONSES 40
3.1. Response 1 40
36 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 4
INTEGRATION: Hyperbolic Functions
1. HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
The following is the list of standard integrals for the hyperbolic functions:
16. ∫ f ′(x).sinh f(x) dx = cosh f(x) + c
17. ∫ f ′(x). cosh f(x) dx = sinh f(x) + c
18. ∫ f ′(x). tanh f(x) dx = n cosh f(x) + c
19. ∫ f ′(x). coth f(x) dx = n sinh f(x) + c
20. ∫ f ′(x).sech 2 f(x) dx = tanh f ( x ) + c
21. ∫ f ′(x). cosech 2 f(x) dx − coth f ( x ) + c

=
22. ∫ f ′(x).sechf(x). tanh f ( x ) dx =

−sech f(x) + c
23. ∫ f ′(x).cosech f(x). coth f(x) dx =

−cosech f(x) + c
These standard forms can be applied directly from the list but can be verified by
differentiating the right-hand side of each equation.
EXAMPLE 1
⌠ x
Solve the integral  sinh   dx
⌡  3
Solution:
⌠ x ⌠1 x
 sinh   dx = 3 sinh   dx
⌡  3 ⌡3  3
x
= 3cosh + c
3
EXAMPLE 2
Solve the integral ∫ sech 2 ( 3 x + 5 ) dx
Solution:
MAT2691 37
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 4
1
∫ sech 2 ( 3 x=
+ 5 ) dx
∫ 3sech 2 ( 3 x + 5 ) dx
3
1
= tanh ( 3 x + 5 ) + c
3
EXAMPLE 3
⌠ 1 1 1
Solve the integral  2 cosech   coth   dx
⌡ x x x
Solution:
⌠ 1 1
 
x
1
 
x
( ) ( )
− ∫ − x −2 cosech x −1 coth x −1 dx
 2 cosech   coth   dx =
⌡ x
( )
=−  − cosech x −1  + c
  ( )
1
= cosech   + c
x
ACTIVITY 1:
Solve the following using the list of standard integrals:
1. ∫ ( )
x cosh 1 − x 2 dx
2. ∫ ( )
e 2 x cosech 2 e 2 x dx
3. ∫ tanh 2 2x dx
⌠ sech ( sin x ) tanh ( sin x )

4.  dx
⌡ sec x
5. ∫ e x cosh x dx
38 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 4
2. POST-TEST 4
1. ∫ sech 2 ( b + ax ) dx
2. ⌠
3
 coth x dx
⌡ 4
x
( )
⌠ coth e cosech e
3. 
x
dx
( )
 −x
⌡ e
⌠ sinh x
4.  dx
⌡ x
5. ∫ e 2 x sinh x dx
MAT2691 39
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 4
3. RESPONSES
3.1. Response 1
1. Use no. 17 from the list of standard integrals
∫ ( ) 1
− ∫ −2 x cosh 1 − x 2 dx
x cosh 1 − x 2 dx =
2
( )
=
1
(
− sinh 1 − x 2 + c
2
)
∫ ( )
e2 x cosech 2 e2 x dx =
1
2 ∫ ( )
2e2 x cosech 2 e2 x dx
=
1
( )
− coth e2 x + c
2
∫ tanh 2 2 x=
dx ∫ (1 − sech 2 x ) dx
2
∫ 1 dx − 2 ∫ 2 ( sech 2 x ) dx
1
= 2
1
=
x − tanh 2 x + c
2
⌠ sech ( sin x ) tanh ( sin x )

 dx = ∫ cos x .sech ( sin x ) tanh ( sin x ) dx
⌡ sec x
−sech ( sin x ) + c
=
5. None of the standard integrals apply to this example. In such cases, the
e x + e− x
definition of the hyperbolic function must be used, that is cosh x =
2
40 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 4
⌠  e x + e− x 
∫ e x cosh x dx =  e x 
 2
 dx
⌡  
⌠  e2 x + 1 
=   dx

⌡  2 
1 1
=
2 ∫ e2 x dx + ∫ 1 dx
2
1 1⌠ 1
= .  2e2 x dx + ( x ) + c
2 2⌡ 2
1 2x x
= e + +c
4 2

1
∫ ax ) dx
sech 2 ( b += ∫ a sech 2 ( b + ax ) dx
a
1
= tanh ( b + ax ) + c
a
⌠ coth 3 x dx = 4 ⌠ 3 coth 3 x dx
 
⌡ 4 3⌡ 4 4
4 3 
= n sinh  x  + c
3 4 

x
( )
⌠ coth e cosech e
x
( )

 −x ( ) ( )
dx = ∫ e x .coth e x cosech e x dx
⌡ e
= ( )
−cosech e x + c
MAT2691 41
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 4
⌠ sinh x ⌠ −1  1
 dx =  x sinh  x 2  dx
2
⌡ x   
⌡  
⌠ 1 −1  1
= 2 x sinh  x 2  dx
2
 2  
⌡  
= 2 cosh x + c
5. Use definition of hyperbolic function
⌠  e x − e− x 
∫ e2 x sinh x dx =  e2 x 
 2
 dx
⌡  
⌠  e3 x − e x 
=   dx
 2 
⌡ 
1 1 1
= . ∫ 3e3 x dx − ∫ e x dx
2 3 2
1 1
= e3 x − e x + c
6 2
You have now completed Learning Unit 4: Hyperbolic Functions.

• Solve integrals of hyperbolic functions using a list of standard integrals
We now move on to Learning Unit 5: Inverse Functions.
42 MAT2691
UNISA
LEARNING UNIT 5 Inverse Functions
OUTCOMES

• Solve integrals of the type ⌠ f ′( x) using the list of standard integrals
 dx

a 2 −  f ( x ) 
2
⌡



dx
⌡  f ( x )  + a
2 2

 dx

 f ( x )  + a
2 2
⌡

 dx

 f ( x )  − a
2 2
⌡


 2
dx
⌡ a −  f ( x ) 
2



dx
⌡  f ( x )  − a
2 2
CONTENTS
1. INVERSE FUNCTIONS 44
2. POST-TEST 5 51
3. RESPONSES 52
3.1. Response 1 52
3.2. Response 2 54
MAT2691 43
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 5
INTEGRATION: Inverse Functions
1. INVERSE FUNCTIONS
The following is a list of standard integrals obtained from the differentiation of inverse
trigonometric and inverse hyperbolic functions.
⌠
 f ′( x)  f ( x) 
24.  = arc sin 
dx +c


⌡ a −  f ( x ) 
2 2  a 
f ′( x)  f ( x) 
⌠
 1
25.  =
dx arc tan  +c


 f ( x )  + a 2 a  a 
2
⌡
⌠
 f ′( x)  f ( x) 
26.  =
dx arc sinh  +c


⌡  f ( x )  + a
2 2  a 
⌠
 f ′( x)  f ( x) 
27.  =dx arc cosh  +c


⌡  f ( x )  − a
2 2  a 
f ′( x)  f ( x) 
⌠
 1
28.  dx = arc tanh  +c
a 2 −  f ( x ) 


⌡
2 a  a 
f ′( x)  f ( x) 
⌠
 1
29.  dx =
− arc coth  +c


 f ( x )  − a 2 a  a 
2
⌡
These standard forms can be applied directly from the list but can be verified by
differentiating the right-hand side of each equation.
EXAMPLE 1
⌠ 1
⌡ 1 − x2
Solution:
Using no. 24 from the list of standard integrals with a = 1 , f ( x ) = x and f ′ ( x ) = 1 :
44 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 5
⌠ 1 x
 = dx arc sin   + c
⌡ 1 − x2 1
= arc sin x + c
EXAMPLE 2
Solve the integral ⌠

1
 dx
⌡ 4 + x2
Solution:
Using no. 25 from the list of standard integrals with a = 2 , f ( x ) = x and f ′ ( x ) = 1 :
⌠ 1 ⌠ 1
 dx =  dx
⌡ 4+ x 2
⌡ ( x) 2
+ ( 2)
2
1 x
= arc tan   + c
2 2
EXAMPLE 3
⌠ 1
⌡ 9 x + 16
2
Solution:
Using no. 26 from the list of standard integrals with a = 4 , f ( x ) = 3 x and f ′ ( x ) = 3 :
⌠ 1 ⌠ 1
 dx =  dx
⌡ 
9 x 2 + 16 ⌡ ( 3x ) 2
+ ( 4)
2
1⌠ 3
=  dx
3
⌡ ( 3x ) + ( 4 )
2 2
1  3x 
= arc sinh   + c
3  4 
EXAMPLE 4
⌠ 1
⌡ 7 x2 − 3
Solution:
Using no. 27 from the list of standard integrals with
a = 3 , f ( x ) = 7 x and f ′ ( x ) = 7 :
MAT2691 45
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 5
⌠ 1 ⌠ 1
 dx =  dx

⌡ 7 x2 − 3
( ) − ( 3)
2 2
⌡ 7x
⌠
1  7
= dx
7
( ) − ( 3)
2 2
⌡ 7x
1  7x 
= arc cosh   + c
7  3 
EXAMPLE 5
⌠ ex
⌡ 1− e
2x
Solution:
Using no. 28 from the list of standard integrals with a = 1 , f ( x ) = e x and f ′ ( x ) = e x :
⌠ ex ⌠ ex
 dx =  dx
⌡ 1− e  1− ex
( )
2x 2
⌡
1  ex 
= arc tanh   + c
1  1
 
= arc tanh e x + c ( )
EXAMPLE 6

sinh x
 dx
⌡ cosh 2 x − 1
Solution:
Using no. 29 from the list of standard integrals with a = 1 , f ( x ) = cosh x and
f ′ ( x ) = sinh x :
⌠ sinh x ⌠ sinh x
 dx =  dx
⌡ cosh x − 1
2
⌡ ( cosh x )2 − 1
1  cosh x 
=
1  1 
−arc coth ( cosh x ) + c
=
46 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 5
ACTIVITY 1:
⌠ 1
1.  dx
⌡ 3 x + 16
2
⌠ 1
2.  dx
⌡ 5 − 4x 2
⌠ sec2 x
3.  dx
⌡ 1 − 9 tan 2 x
⌠ 1
4.  dx
⌡ 6 x − 10
2
⌠ 1
5.  dx
⌡ 9 − 4 x2
Sometimes we have to rewrite the denominator of an integral to bring it to a standard

form. For example:
⌠ 1
 2 dx
⌡ x + 4x + 2
To rewrite, we have to complete the square for the first two terms. Rewrite the
denominator as:
x2 + 4 x + 2 = x2 + 4 x +2
Now complete the square for the first two terms by adding on the square of half of
the coefficient of x :
x 2 + 4 x + 2 = x 2 + 4 x + 22 + 2 − 22
Note that an equal amount must be subtracted to keep the identity true.
x 2 + 4 x + 2 = ))(
x 2 + 4 x + 22 + 2 − 4
( x + 2 )2
=( x + 2 ) − 2
2
⌠
So ⌠
1 1
 2 dx can be rewritten as  dx and solved as
⌡ x + 4x + 2 ⌡ ( x + 2 )2 − 2
MAT2691 47
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Module 2 Unit 5
⌠ 1 ⌠ 1
 2 dx =  dx
⌡ x + 4x + 2 ⌡ ( x + 2 )2 − 2
⌠ 1
= dx

( 2)
2
⌡ ( x + 2) 2
−
1  x+2
=
2  2 
using no. 29 from the list of integrals.
EXAMPLE 7
⌠ 1
⌡ 3 − 2 x − x2
Solution:
First complete the square in the denominator:
(
3 − 2 x − x 2 =3 − x 2 + 2 x )
=3 − ( x 2
+ 2x +1 ) +1 2 2
=4 − ( x + 1)
2
= 22 − ( x + 1)
2
Using no. 24 from the list of standard integrals with a = 2 , f ( x )= x + 1 and f ′ ( x ) = 1 :
⌠ 1 ⌠ 1
 dx =  dx
⌡ 
3 − 2x − x 2 − ( x + 1)
2 2
⌡ 2
 x +1 
= arc sin  +c
 2 
NOTE: In order to complete the square, the coefficient of x 2 must always be 1.
EXAMPLE 8
Complete the square for 4 + 2 x − 5 x 2
Solution:
4 2 
4 + 2 x − 5x 2 = 5  + x − x 2 
 5 5 
4 2 
= 5  − ( x 2 − x )
5 5 
48 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 5
4  1  1 
2 2
2 2
4 + 2 x − 5x = 5  −  x − x +    +   
2
 5  5  5    5  
4  1
2
1
= 5 −  x +  + 
 5  5  25 
 21  1 
2
= 5 −  x +  
 25  5  
 21 2 1  
2
 
= 5   −x+ 
 5   5 
 
ACTIVITY 2:
Complete the square for the following:
1. x2 + 6 x + 4
2. x 2 − 10 x + 18
3. 3 + 6x − x 2
4. 5 + 4 x − 2 x2
5. 6 − 6x − x 2
Carefully work through the following example. We will separate the integral into two
integrals –. one integral in standard form and another where we will complete the
square.
EXAMPLE 9
2x + 5
 2 dx
⌡ x + 2x + 5
Solution:
This can be rewritten as two separate integrals
⌠= 2x + 5 2x + 2
dx ⌠ dx + ⌠
3
 2  2  2 dx
⌡ x + 2x + 5 ⌡ x + 2x + 5 ⌡ x + 2x + 5
by rewriting and separating the numerator 2 x + 5= ( 2x + 2) + 3

We choose ( 2 x + 2 ) because
dx
(
d 2
)
x + 2x + 5 = 2x + 2
MAT2691 49
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 5
Integrating each integral separately gives
⌠
 2
2x + 2
⌡ x + 2x + 5
(
= n x 2 + 2 x + 5 + c
dx )
and
⌠ 3
 2 dx
⌡ x + 2x + 5
Complete the square on the first two terms of the denominator:
x 2 + 2 x + 5= (x 2
+ 2x )+5
= (x 2
)
+ 2 x + 12 + 5 − 12
=( x + 1) + 4
2
=( x + 1) + 22
2
⌠ 3 ⌠ 1
 2 dx = 3 dx
⌡ x + 2x + 5 ⌡ ( x + 1)2 + 22
1  x +1  
= 3  arc tan   + c
2  2  
3  x +1 
= arc tan  +c
2  2 
Finally:
⌠= 2x + 5 2x + 2
dx ⌠ dx + ⌠
3
 2  2  2 dx
⌡ x + 2x + 5 ⌡ x + 2x + 5 ⌡ x + 2x + 5
(
3
= n x 2 + 2 x + 5 + arc tan 
2  2 
)
 x +1 
+c
50 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 5
2. POST-TEST 5
⌠ 1
1.  dz
⌡ 4z2 + 9
2. ⌠
1
 dx
⌡ 9 x − 25
2
⌠ 1
3.  dx
⌡ x2 + 2 x + 5
4. ⌠
8
 dx
⌡ 5 − 4 x − x2
−2 x − 12
5. ⌠
 dx
⌡ 5 − 4 x − x2
Remember to check response Post Test 5 on page 55.
MAT2691 51
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 5
3. RESPONSES
3.1. Response 1
1. Using no. 26 from the list of standard integrals with a = 4 , f ( x ) = 3 x and
f ′( x) = 3 :
⌠ 1 ⌠ 1
 dx =  dx

⌡ 3 x 2 + 16
( 3x )
2
+ ( 4)
2
⌡
⌠
1  3
= dx
3
( 3x )
2
+ ( 4)
2
⌡
1  3x 
= arc sinh   + c
3  4 
f ′( x) = 2 :
⌠ 1 ⌠ 1
 dx =  dx

⌡ 5 − 4x
( 5)
2 2
− ( 2x)
2
⌡
1⌠ 2
=  dx
2
( 5)
2
− ( 2x)
2
⌡
1  2x 
= arc sin  +c
2  5
3. Using no. 24 from the list of standard integrals with a = 1 , f ( x ) = 3 tan x and
f ′ ( x ) = sec 2 x :
52 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 5
⌠ sec 2 x ⌠ sec 2 x
 dx =  dx

⌡ 1 − 9 tan 2 x ⌡ (1) − ( 3 tan x )
2 2
1⌠ 3sec 2 x
=  dx
3 1 − ( 3 tan x )
2
⌡
1
= arc sin ( 3 tan x ) + c
3
f ′( x) = 6 :
⌠ 1 ⌠ 1
 dx =  dx

⌡ 6 x 2 − 10
( ) − ( 10 )
2 2
⌡ 6x
⌠
1  6
= dx
6
( ) − ( 10 )
2 2
⌡ 6x
1  6x 
= arc cosh   + c
6  10 
f ′( x) = 2 :
⌠ 1 ⌠ 1
 dx =  dx
⌡ 
9 − 4 x2 ⌡ ( 3) 2
− ( 2x)
2
1⌠ 2
=  dx
2
⌡ ( 3)2 − ( 2 x )2
1  2x 
= arc sin   + c
2  3 
MAT2691 53
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 5
3.2. Response 2
1. x2 + 6x + 4 = x2 + 6x +4
= x 2 + 6 x + ( 3) + 4 − ( 3)
2 2
= x 2 + 6 x + ( 3) + 4 − 9
2
=( x + 3) − 5
2
2. x 2 − 10 x + 18 = x 2 − 10 x + 18
= x 2 − 10 x + ( 5) + 18 − ( 5)
2 2
= x 2 − 10 x + ( 5) + 18 − 25
2
=( x − 5) − 7
2
3. (
3 + 6 x − x 2 =3 − x 2 − 6 x )
=3 − ( x 2 − 6 x + 32 ) + 32
=3 − ( x − 3) + 9
2
= 12 − ( x − 3)
2
5 4 
4. 5 + 4 x − 2 x2 = 2  + x − x2 
2 2 
5
(
= 2  − x2 − 2 x
2
)
5
2
( 
= 2  − x 2 − 2 x + 12 + 12 

)
5 
= 2  − ( x − 1) + 1
2
2 
7 2
= 2  − ( x − 1) 
2 
5. (
6 − 6 x − x 2 =6 − x 2 + 6 x )
=6 − ( x 2 + 6 x + 32 ) + 32
=6 − ( x + 3) + 9
2
= 15 − ( x + 3)
2
54 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 5

1. Using no. 26 from the list of standard integrals with a = 3 , f ( z ) = 2 z and
f ′( z) = 2 :
⌠ 1 ⌠ 1
 dz =  dz
⌡ 
4z2 + 9 ⌡ ( 2z ) 2
+ ( 3)
2
1⌠ 2
=  dz
2
⌡ ( 2 z ) + ( 3) 2 2
1  2z 
= arc sinh   + c
2  3 
f ′( x) = 3 :
⌠ 1 ⌠ 1
 dx =  dx
⌡ 9 x 2 − 25 ⌡ ( 3x ) 2
− ( 5)
2
1⌠ 3
=  dx
3⌡ ( 3x ) 2
− ( 5)
2
1 1  3x  
= − arc coth   + c 
3 5  5  
1  3x 
=
− arc coth   + c
15  5 
3. Completing the square: x 2 + 2 x + 5 = x 2 + 2 x +5

= x 2 + 2 x + (1) + 5 − (1)
2 2
=( x + 1) + 4
2
=( x + 1) + ( 2 )
2 2
⌠ 1 ⌠ 1  x +1
 = dx  = dx arc sinh  +c
⌡   
x2 + 2 x + 5 ⌡ ( x + 1) + ( 2 )
2 2 2
MAT2691 55
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 5
4. Completing the square: 5 − 4 x − x 2 =−

5 x2 + 4 x ( ) =−
5 ( x 2 + 4 x + 22 ) + 22
=5 − ( x + 2 ) + 4
2
=9 − ( x + 2 )
2
= 32 − ( x + 2 )
2
⌠ 8 ⌠ 1
 dx = 8 dx
⌡ 5 − 4x − x ⌡ 3 − ( x + 2)
2 2 2
1  x+2
= 8. arc tanh  +c
3  3 
8  x+2
= arc tanh  +c
3  3 
5. Using the result from Post-Test 5, no. 4:
⌠= −2 x − 12 −2 x − 4 −8
 dx ⌠ dx + ⌠
 dx
⌡ 5 − 4x − x 2
⌡ 5 − 4x − x 2
⌡ 5 − 4 x − x2
( )
8
= n 5 − 4 x − x 2 − arc tanh 
3
 x+2
 3 
+c
You have now completed Learning Unit 5. Inverse Functions

 dx

a 2 −  f ( x ) 
2
⌡



dx
⌡  f ( x ) + a
2
  2

 dx

 f ( x )  + a 2
2
⌡

 dx

 f ( x )  − a
2 2
⌡


 2
dx
 ( )
2
⌡ a −  f x 



dx
( )
2

⌡  f x 
 − a 2
56 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 5
We now move on to Learning Unit 6: Integration using “t-formulae”.
MAT2691 57
UNISA
LEARNING UNIT 6 Integration using “t-formulae”
OUTCOMES
Solve integrals of the form ⌠

1
•  dx using “t-formulae”
⌡ a + b sin x + c cos 2 x
2

1
⌡ a + b sin x + c cos x
CONTENTS
1. INTEGRATION USING “t-FORMULAE” 58
1.1 ⌠
Integrals of the form 
1
dx 58
⌡ a + b sin 2 x + c cos 2 x
Integrals of the form ⌠

1
1.2  dx 60
2. POST-TEST 6 63
3. RESPONSES 64
3.1. Response 1 64
MAT2691 57
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 6
INTEGRATION: Integration using “t-formulae”
1. INTEGRATION USING “T- FORMULAE”

1
1.1.  dx
⌡ a + b sin x + c cos 2 x
2
The key to solving integrals of this form is to substitute t = tan x in the integral.
Corresponding expressions for sin x and cos x can then be obtained from a diagram:
opposite
Remember: sin x =
hypotenuse
adjacent
cos x =
hypotenuse
opposite
tan x =
adjacent
Thus: tan x = t
t
sin x =
1 + t2
1
cos x =
1 + t2
dt d
Also: = ( tan x )
dx dx
= sec2 x
= 1 + tan 2 x
= 1 + t2
dx 1
=
dt 1 + t 2
58 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 6
It is worth remembering these results for future use:
tan x = t
t
sin x =
1+ t2
1
cos x =
1+ t2
1
dx ≡ dt
1+ t2
EXAMPLE 1

1
 dx
⌡ 2sin x + 4 cos 2 x
2
Solution:
⌠
⌠ 1  1 dt
 dx =  .
⌡ 2sin x + 4 cos x
2 2
  t 
2
 1  1+ t
2 2
⌡ 2  + 4 
   
 1+ t  1+ t
2 2
 
⌠
1 dt
= .
 2t + 4 1 + t 2
2
⌡
1+ t2
⌠
=
1
dt
⌡ 2t 2 + 4
1⌠ 1
=  2 dt
2⌡ t +2
1⌠ 1
=  dt
2
( )
2
⌡ t2 + 2
1 1  t 
= . arc tan  +c
2 2  2
1  tan x 
= arc tan  +c
2 2  2 
MAT2691 59
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 6

1
1.2.  dx
The key this time is to substitute t = tan ( 2x ) in the integral. Corresponding
expressions for sin ( 2x ) and cos ( 2x ) can again be obtained from a diagram:
x
2
Thus tan ( 2x ) = t
sin ( 2x ) =
t
1 + t2
cos ( 2x ) = 1
1 + t2
Also:
dt
=
dx dx
d
( ( ))
tan 2x
1
= sec2 2x
2
( )
=
1 1
+ tan 2
2 2
( 2x )
1 + t2
=
2
dx 2
=
dt 1 + t 2
2
dx ≡ dt
1 + t2
So that: sin x = 2sin ( 2x ) cos ( 2x ) =

and cos x cos2 ( 2x ) − sin2 ( 2x )
 t  1  1 t2
= 2    = −
 1 + t2 1 + t2
 1+ t  1+ t
2 2

2t 1 − t2
= =
1 + t2 1 + t2
60 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 6
It is worth remembering these results for future use:
tan ( 2x ) = t
2t
sin x =
1 + t2
1 − t2
cos x =
1 + t2
2
dx ≡ dt
1 + t2
EXAMPLE 2

1
 dx
⌡ 3sin x + 4 cos x
Solution:
⌠
⌠ dx = 
1 1 2dt
   2t   1 − t  1 + t 2
.
⌡ 3sin x + 4 cos x  3
2
⌡   + 4 
 1 + t 2   1 + t 2 
⌠
1 2dt
= .
 6t + 4 − 4t 1 + t 2
2
⌡
1+ t2
=⌠
1
 dt
⌡ 2 + 3t − 2t 2
1⌠ 1
=  dt
2  1+ 3 t − t2
⌡
2
3  3 
Completing the square: 1 + t − t 2 =1 −  t 2 − t 
2  2 
 2 3  3    3 2
2
=−
1 t − t +    +  
 2  4    4 

2
25  3 
= − t − 
16  4 
2 2
 5  3
=   − t − 
4  4
MAT2691 61
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 6
⌠
⌠
Thus: 
1
dx =
1 1
dt
⌡ 3sin x + 4 cos x 2   5   3 2
2
⌡   − t − 
4  4
 
⌠ 
1  1
= dt 
2    5  2  4t − 3  2 
⌡   −   
 4  4  
 4t − 3 
1 1  
= . arc tanh  4  + c
2 54 5
 4 
 
2  4t − 3 
5  5 
  x 
 4 tan   − 3 
=
2
arc tanh   2 +c
5  5 
 
 
ACTIVITY 1:
⌠ 1
1.  dx
⌡ 3 + cos 2 x
⌠ 1
2.  dx
⌡ 2 cos 2 x + 1
⌠ 1
3.  dx
⌡ 5 + 4 cos x
⌠ 1
4.  dx
⌡ 1 + sin x − cos x
62 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 6
2. POST-TEST 6
Solve the following integrals using “t-formulae”:
⌠ 1
1.  dx
⌡ 1 + 2sin 2 x
⌠ 1
2.  dx
⌡ 5 + 4 cos 2 x
⌠ 1
3.  dx
⌡ 2 cos x + 3sin x
⌠ 1
4.  dx
⌡ 2 + cos x
MAT2691 63
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 6
3. RESPONSES
3.1. Response 1
⌠
⌠ 1  1 dt
1.  dx =  .
⌡ 3 + cos x
2
  1  1+ t
2 2
⌡ 3+  

 1+ t
2

⌠
=
1 dt
( )
.

 3 1+ t +1 1+ t
2 2
⌡
1 + t2
=⌠
1
 2 dt
⌡ 3t + 4
1 ⌠ 3
=  dt
3
( 3t )
2
+ (2)
2
⌡
1 1  3t 
3 2  2 
1  3 tan x 
= arc tan  +c
2 3  2 
⌠
⌠ 1
dx = 
1 dt
2.  .
⌡ 2 cos2 x + 1    +1
2
1 + t2
⌡ 2 1

 1+ t 2 
⌠
=
1 dt
( )
.

 2 + 1+ t 1+ t
2 2
⌡
1 + t2
=⌠
1
 2 dt
⌡ t +3
⌠ 1
= dt

( )
2
⌡ t2 + 3
=
1
3
arc tan t + c
3 ( )
1  tan x 
= arc tan  +c
3  3 
64 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 6
⌠
⌠ 1
dx = 
1 2dt
3.  .
⌡ 5 + 4 cos x 
 5 + 41− t  1+ t
2 2
⌡  2
1+ t 
⌠
=
1 2dt
( ) ( )
.

 5 1+ t + 4 1− t 1+ t
2 2 2
⌡
1 + t2
=⌠
2
 dt
⌡ 9 + t2
⌠ 1
= 2 dt
⌡ ( 3) 2
+ t2
1 t
= 2. arc tan   + c
3  3
  x
 tan   
=
2
arc tan  2+c
3  3 
 
 
⌠
⌠ 1
dx = 
1 2dt
4.  .
⌡ 1 + sin x − cos x 
 1 +  2t  −  1 − t  1 + t
2 2
⌡    
 1 + t 2   1 + t 2 
⌠
1 2dt
= .
 1 + t + 2t − 1 + t 1 + t 2
2 2
⌡
1 + t2
=⌠
2
 dt
⌡ 2t + 2t
2
=⌠
1
 2 dt
⌡ t +t
2 2
1 1
Completing the square: t + t = t + t +   −  
2 2
2 2
2
 1 1
=t +  −
 2 4
Thus: ⌠ dx = ⌠
1 1
  2 dt
⌡ 1 + sin x − cos x ⌡ t +t
MAT2691 65
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 6
⌠
⌠ 1
dx = 
1
 dt
⌡ 1 + sin x − cos x   1 2 1
⌡ t +  −
 2 4
⌠
1
= dt
  1   1 2
2
⌡ t +  −  
 2 2
 1
1 t+ 2 
=− arc coth  +c
1 1 
2  2 
 
  1 
=−2arc coth  2  t +   + c
  2 
=−2arc coth ( 2t + 1) + c
 x 
=−2arc coth  2 tan + 1 + c
 2 
⌠
⌠ 1  1 dt
1.  dx =  .
⌡ 1 + 2sin x
2
  t  1+ t
2 2
⌡ 1+ 2 
 2 
 1+ t 
⌠
1 dt
= .
 1 + t + 2t 1 + t 2
2 2
⌡
1 + t2
=⌠
1
 2 dt
⌡ 3t + 1
⌠
Thus: ⌠
1 1
 dx =  dt

⌡ 1 + 2sin 2 x
( )
2
+ (1)
2
⌡ 3t
1 ⌠ 3
=  dt
3
( 3t )
2
+ (1)
2
⌡
1 1  3t 
3 1  1 
66 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 6
⌠=

1
⌡ 1 + 2sin 2 x
dx
1
3
arc tan ( 3t ) + c
=
1
3
arc tan ( 3 tan x + c )
⌠
⌠ 1  1 dt
2.  dx =  .
⌡ 5 + 4 cos x
2
  1  1+ t
2 2
⌡ 5 + 4 

 1+ t
2

⌠
=
1 dt
( )
.

 5 1+ t + 4 1+ t
2 2
⌡
1 + t2
=⌠
1
 2 dt
⌡ 5t + 9
⌠ 1
= dt

( 5t )
2
+ ( 3)
2
⌡
1 ⌠ 5
=  dt
5
( )
2
+ ( 3)
2
⌡ 5t
1 1  5t 
5 3  3 
1  5 tan x 
= arc tan  +c
3 5  3 
⌠
⌠ 1
dx = 
1 2dt
3.  .
⌡ 2 cos x + 3sin x 
 2  1 − t  + 3  2t  1 + t
2 2
⌡  2  2
1+ t  1+ t 
⌠
1 2dt
= .
 2 − 2t + 6t 1 + t 2
2
⌡
1 + t2
=⌠
1
 dt
⌡ 1 + 3t − t 2
MAT2691 67
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 6
(
Completing the square: 1 + 3t − t 2 =1 − t 2 − 3t )
  3   3
2 2
=1 −  t 2 − 3t +    +  
  2    2 

2
13  3 
= − t − 
4  2
2
 13   3 2
=   − t − 
 2   2
2
 13   2t − 3 2
=   − 
 2   2 
⌠ dx = ⌠
1 1
Thus:   dt
⌡ 2 cos x + 3sin x ⌡ 1 + 3t − t 2
⌠
=
1
dt
 2
  13   2t − 3 
2
⌡   − 
 2   2 
 2t − 3 
1  
= arc tanh  2  + c
13 13
2  2 
 
2  2t − 3 
13  13 
 x 
2  2 tan 2 − 3 
13  13 
 
⌠
⌠ 1
dx = 
1 2dt
4.  .
⌡ 2 + cos x 
 2 + 1− t  1+ t
2 2
⌡  2
1+ t 
⌠
1 2dt
= .
 2 + 2t + 1 − t 1 + t 2
2 2
⌡
1 + t2
=⌠
2
 2 dt
⌡ t +3
68 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 6
⌠ 1 ⌠ 1
 dx = 2 dt

⌡ 2 + cos x
( )
2
⌡ t2 + 3
1  t 
= 2. arc tan  +c
3  3
 x
2  tan 2 
= arc tan  +c
3  3 
 
You have now completed Learning Unit 6. Integration using “t-formulae”


1
⌡ a + b sin 2 x + c cos 2 x

1
We now move on to Learning Unit 7: Trigonometric Substitutions.
MAT2691 69
UNISA
LEARNING UNIT 7 Trigonometric Substitutions
OUTCOMES
• Solve integrals of the form ⌠

 f ′ ( x ) a 2 −  f ( x )  dx
2
⌡

 f ′ ( x )  f ( x )  + a 2 dx
2
⌡

 f ′ ( x )  f ( x )  − a 2 dx
2
⌡
CONTENTS
1. INTEGRALS OF THE FORM ⌠

 f ′ ( x ) a 2 −  f ( x )  dx ,
2
⌡
⌠
 f ′ ( x )  f ( x )  + a 2 dx and ⌠
2
 f ′ ( x )  f ( x )  − a 2 dx
2
71
⌡ ⌡
2. POST-TEST 7 75
3. RESPONSES 76
3.1. Response 1 76
70 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 7
INTEGRATION: Trigonometric Substitutions
INTEGRALS OF THE FORM ⌠

 f ′ ( x ) a 2 −  f ( x )  dx ,
2
1.
⌡
⌠
 f ′ ( x )  f ( x )  + a 2 dx AND ⌠
2
 f ′ ( x )  f ( x )  − a 2 dx
2
⌡ ⌡
The key to solving the integral ⌠ ( x ) a sin θ

 f ′ ( x ) a 2 −  f ( x ) dx is to substitute f =
2
⌡
.
Then f ′ ( =
x ) a cos θ d θ
Thus ⌠
 f ′ ( x ) a 2 −  f ( x ) = a 2 − ( a sin θ ) ( a cos θ ) d θ
2
∫
2
dx
⌡
= a∫ 1 − sin 2 θ ( a cos θ ) d θ
= a∫ cos2 θ ( a cos θ ) d θ
= a 2 ∫ cos2 θ d θ
a2
=
2 ∫ (1 + cos 2θ) d θ
a2  1 
=  θ + sin 2θ  + c
2  2 
a2
= ( θ + sin θ cos θ ) + c
2
 2 
 f ( x )  f ( x ) a −  f ( x ) 
2
a2 
=  arc sin  + +c
2   a  a a 
 
⌠ f ′( x) a 2  f ( x)  f ( x) 2
a 2 −  f ( x=
) dx a −  f ( x )  + c
2 2
Thus  arc sin  +
⌡ 2  a  2
This result can be used directly from the list of standard integrals without the above
proof. The other two integrals are proved in a similar manner. The list of standard
integrals is completed as follows:
MAT2691 71
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 7
⌠ a2  f ( x)  f ( x) 2
) dx
f ′ ( x ) a 2 −  f ( x= a −  f ( x )  + c
2 2
30. 
 arc sin  +
⌡ 2  a  2
⌠ a2  f ( x)  f ( x)
( x ) + a 2 dx
f ′ ( x )  f=  f ( x )  + a 2 + c
2 2
31. 
 arc sinh  +
⌡ 2  a  2
⌠ a2  f ( x)  f ( x)
f ′ ( x )  f ( x )  − a 2 dx =  f ( x )  − a 2 + c
2 2
32. 
 − arc cosh  +
⌡ 2  a  2
EXAMPLE 1
Solve the integral ∫ 4 − 9x 2 dx
Solution:
Using no. 30 from the list of standard integrals with f ( x ) = 3 x , a = 2 and f ′ ( x ) = 3 :
∫ ∫ ( 2 ) − ( 3x ) dx
2 2
4 − 9 x 2 dx=
1
∫ 3 ( 2 ) − ( 3 x ) dx
2 2
=
3
1  22  3x  3x 2 
2 − [3 x ] + c 
2
=  arc sin   +
3  2  2  2 

2  3x  x
= arc sin   + 4 − 9 x2 + c
3  2  2
EXAMPLE 2
Solve the integral ∫ 2 x 2 + 3 dx
Solution:
Using no. 31 from the list of standard integrals with f ( x ) = 2 x , a = 3 and
f ′( x) = 2 :
72 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 7
3 dx ⌠ ( ) + ( 3)
2 2
∫ 2 x 2 += 
⌡
2x dx
1 ⌠
( ) + ( 3)
2 2
=  2 2x dx
2⌡

( 3) 
2
 2x 
1  2x
( ) + ( 3) 
2 2
= arc sinh   + 2x + c
2  2  3  2 
 
3  2x  x
= arc sinh   + 2 x2 + 3 + c
2 2  3  2
EXAMPLE 3
Solve the integral ∫ x 2 − 8 x + 7 dx
Solution:
First complete the square:
x 2 − 8 x + 7= (x 2
− 8x )+7
= (x 2
− 8x + 4 ) + 7 − 4
2 2
=( x − 4 ) − 9
2
=( x − 4 ) − 32
2
Using no. 32 from the list of standard integrals with f ( x )= x − 4 , a = 3 and f ′ ( x ) = 1 :
∫ ∫ ( x − 4 ) − ( 3)
2 2
x 2 − 8 x + 7 dx
= dx
32  x−4 x−4
=
− arc cosh  + [ x − 4]2 − 32 + c
2  3  2
9  x−4 x−4 2
=− arc cosh  + x − 8x + 7 + c
2  3  2
ACTIVITY 1:
1. ∫ 16 − x 2 dx
2. ∫ 10 − 4x 2 dx
3. ∫ 4 x 2 + 9 dx
MAT2691 73
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 7
4. ∫ 5 − 2x + x 2 dx
5. ∫ 9 x 2 − 1 dx
6. ∫ x 2 − 4 x − 1 dx
74 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 7
2. POST-TEST 7
1. ∫ x 2 − 8 x − 9 dx
2. ∫ 6 + x − x 2 dx
3. ∫ x 2 + x + 1 dx
4. ∫ 5 − x 2 dx
5. ∫ 4 + x 2 dx
6. ∫ 3 x 2 − 2 dx
MAT2691 75
UNISA
Module 2 Unit 7
3. RESPONSES
3.1. Response 1
1. Using no. 30 from the list of standard integrals with f ( x ) = x , a = 4 and f ′ ( x ) = 1 :
∫ ∫ ( 4 ) − ( x ) dx
2 2
16 − x 2 dx
=
42 x x
= arc sin   + 16 − x 2 + c
2 4 2
x x
= 8 arc sin   + 16 − x 2 + c
4 2
2. Using no. 30 from the list of standard integrals with f ( x ) = 2 x , a = 10 and
f ′( x) = 2 :
dx ⌠ ( 10 )
2
∫ − ( 2 x ) dx
2
10 − 4 x=
2

⌡
1⌠
( 10 )
2
− ( 2 x ) dx
2
=  2
2⌡

( ) 
2
1 10  2x  2x 
=  arc sin   + 10 − 4 x + c 
2
2 2  10  2 
 
5  2x  x
= arc sin   + 10 − 4 x 2 + c
2  10  2
f ′( x) = 2 :
∫ ∫ ( 2 x ) + ( 3)
2 2
4 x 2 + 9=
dx dx
1
∫ 2 ( 2 x ) + ( 3) dx
2 2
=
2
1  ( 3) 
2
  2x  2x
= arc sinh   + 4 x2 + 9 + c 
2 2  3  2 
 
9  2x  x
= arc sinh   + 4 x2 + 9 + c
4  3  2
4. First complete the square:
76 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 7
x 2 − 2 x + 5= (x 2
− 2x )+5
= (x 2
− 2x +1 ) + 5 −1
2 2
=( x − 1) + 4
2
=( x − 1) + 22
2
∫ ∫ ( x − 1) + ( 2 )
2 2
5 − 2 x + x 2 dx
= dx
=
( 2 )2 arc sinh  x − 1  + x − 1 5 − 2x + x2 + c
 
2  2  2
 x −1  x −1
= 2 arc sinh  + 5 − 2 x + x2 + c
 2  2
f ′( x) = 3 :
∫ ∫ ( 3x ) − (1)
2 2
9 x 2 − 1=
dx dx
1
∫ 3 ( 3 x ) − (1) dx
2 2
=
3
1  12  3x  3x 
=  − arc cosh   + 9 x2 − 1 + c 
3 2  1  2 
 
1 x
=− arc cosh ( 3 x ) + 9 x2 − 1 + c
6 2
x 2 − 4 x − 1= (x 2
− 4x ) −1
= (x 2
− 4x + 2 ) −1− 2
2 2
=( x − 2 ) − 5
2
( 5)
2
=( x − 2 ) −
2
Using no. 32 from the list of standard integrals with f ( x )= x − 2 , a = 5 and
f ′ ( x ) = 1:
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Module 2 Unit 7
dx ⌠ ( x − 2 )2 − ( )
2
∫ x2 − 4 x − 1 = 
⌡
5 dx
( 5)
2
 x−2 x−2 2
=− arc cosh  + 2 x − 4x −1 + c
2  5 
5  x−2 x−2 2
=− arc cosh  + 2 x − 4x −1 + c
2  5 

x 2 − 8 x − 9= (x 2
− 8x )−9
= (x 2
− 8x + 4 ) − 9 − 4 2 2
=( x − 4 ) − 25
2
=( x − 4 ) − ( 5 )
2 2
∫ ∫ ( x − 4 ) − ( 5)
2 2
x 2 − 8 x − 9 dx
= dx
=−
( 5)
2
 x−4 x−4
+
x2 − 8x − 9 + c

arc cosh
2  5  2
25  x−4 x−4 2
=− arc cosh  + x − 8x − 9 + c
2  5  2
6 + x − x2 = 6 − x2 − x ( )
= 6 −  x 2 − x + ( 12 ) ( 12 )
2 2
+
 
1
( )
2
= 6 − x − 12
4
25
( )
2
= − x − 12
4
2
5
( )
2
=   − x − 12
2
1 5
Using no. 30 from the list of standard integrals with f ( x )= x − , a = and f ′ ( x ) = 1
2 2
:
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Module 2 Unit 7
⌠ ⌠ 2
5 
2
1
 6 + x − x=   −  x −  dx
2
dx 

⌡ ⌡ 2  2
5
2
 1 1
   x−  x−
=   arc sin 
2 2 + 2 6 + x − x2 + c
5 
2  2  2
 
25  2x −1  2x −1
= arc sin  + 6 + x − x2 + c
8  5  4
⌠
3.  x 2 + x + 1 dx
⌡
First complete the square: x 2 + x + 1= ( x2 + x ) +1

 1 
2
1
2
=  x2 + x +    + 1 −  
  2   2

2
 1 3
= x +  +
 2 4
2
1  3
2

= x +  +  
 2  2 
1 3
Using no. 31 from the list of standard integrals with f ( x )= x + ,a = and
2 2
f ′ ( x ) = 1:
⌠ ⌠ 1  3
2 2


2
dx 
x + x +1= x+  +  dx
⌡   2  2 
⌡
 3
2
   1 1
2  x+  x+
=   arc sinh 2
 3 +
2 x2 + x + 1 + c
2  2  2
 
3  2x + 1  2x + 1 2
= arc sinh  + 4 x + x +1 + c
8  3 
4. Using no. 30 from the list of standard integrals with f ( x ) = x , a = 5 and

f ′ ( x ) = 1:
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Module 2 Unit 7
dx ⌠ ( 5)
2
∫ 5 − x2 = 
⌡
− x 2 dx
( 5)
( ) + 2x 5 − x + c
2
= 2
arc sin x 2
5
arc sin ( ) +
5 x
= 5− x +c
x 2
2 2 5
5. Using no. 31 from the list of standard integrals with f ( x ) = x , a = 2 and f ′ ( x ) = 1 :
∫ ∫ ( 2) + ( x )
2 2
4 + x 2 dx= dx
=
( 2 )2 arc sinh  x  + x
4 + x2 + c
 
2 2 2
x x
= 2arc sinh   + 4 + x2 + c
2 2
f ′( x) = 3 :
2 dx ⌠ ( 3x ) − ( 2 )
2 2
∫ 3 x 2 −= 
⌡
dx
1 ⌠
( 3x ) − ( 2 )
2 2
=  3 dx
3⌡
1  ( )
( )
2
2

= − arc cosh
3x
+
3x
3x 2 − 2 + c 
3  2 2 2 

=−
1
3
arc cosh ( ) + 2x
3x
2
3x 2 − 2 + c
You have now completed Learning Unit 7. Trigonometric Substitutions


 f ′ ( x ) a 2 −  f ( x )  dx
2
⌡

 f ′ ( x )  f ( x )  + a 2 dx
2
⌡

 f ′ ( x )  f ( x )  − a 2 dx
2
⌡
We now move on to Learning Unit 8: Integration by Parts.
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LEARNING UNIT 8 Integration by Parts
OUTCOMES
At the end of this Learning Unit you should be able to:

• Solve integrals using integration by parts
CONTENTS
1. INTEGRATION BY PARTS 82
2. POST-TEST 8 88
3. RESPONSES 89
3.1. Response 1 89
3.2. Response 2 89
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Module 2 Unit 8
INTEGRATION: Integration by Parts
1. INTEGRATION BY PARTS
The method of integration by parts is derived from the product rule in differentiation.
We use integration by parts when we want to integrate a product where either
function is not the derivative of the other.
If u and v are functions of x with y = u.v
dy dv du
we know that = u +v
dx dx dx
Now integrate both sides of this with respect to x:
=⌠ dy dx ⌠ u dv dx + ⌠ v du dx
  
⌡ dx ⌡ dx ⌡ dx
Rearrange the equation and simplify:
⌠= dv
dx ⌠
dy
dx − ⌠
du
 u   v dx
⌡ dx ⌡ dx ⌡ dx
∫ u dv
= ∫ dy − ∫ v du
∫ =
u dv y − ∫ v du
Substitute y = u.v : ∫ = u.v − ∫ v du

u dv
The last equation gives us the method of integration by parts.
The following examples will show how this method can be applied to the integration
of products.
EXAMPLE 1
Solve the integral ∫ x sin x dx
Solution:
Neither of the two functions in question, that is x or sin x , is the derivative of the
other. Thus, integration by parts is applicable.
Let u=x and dv = sin x dx
du
Then
dx
= 1 and ∫ dv = ∫ sin x dx
du = dx v = − cos x
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Module 2 Unit 8
Now substitute this into the integration by parts equation:
∫ = uv − ∫ v du
u dv
∫ x sin x dx = x. ( − cos x ) − ∫ ( − cos x ) dx
∫ u dv uv
= − ∫ v du
∫ x sin x dx = x. ( − cos x ) − ∫ ( − cos x ) dx
=
− x cos x + ∫ cos x dx
=
− x cos x + sin x + c
EXAMPLE 2
Solve the integral ∫ x 2e x dx
Solution:
Neither of the two functions in question, that is x 2 or e x , is the derivative of the

other. Thus, integration by parts is applicable.
Let u = x 2 and dv = e x dx
Then du = ( 2 x ) dx and ∫ dv = ∫ e x dx
v = ex
∫ = uv − ∫ v du
u dv
∫ dx x 2e x − ∫ e x .2 xdx
x 2e x=
= x 2e x − 2 ∫ xe x dx 2 ( A)
The integral ∫ xe x dx is again a product of two functions, and integration by parts

must be applied for a second time.
Let u = x and dv = e x dx
Then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ e x dx
v = ex
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Module 2 Unit 8
∫ = uv − ∫ v du
u dv
∫ dx x.e x − ∫ e x dx
x.e x =
= xe x − e x + c
Substituting this result into the original integral at ( A) gives
∫ x 2e = dx x 2 .e x − 2 ∫ xe x dx
x
2 ( A)
= x 2e x − 2  xe x − e x + c 
 
= x 2e x − 2 xe x + 2e x + c
NOTE: Integration by parts can be applied repeatedly as shown in this example
EXAMPLE 3
Solve the integral ∫ x 2 n x dx
Solution:
Let u = n x and dv = x 2 dx
(NOTE: The log function was taken as u and not the power of x as in the previous
two examples)
1
Then du =   dx and
x
∫ dv = ∫ x 2 dx
x3
v=
3
∫ = uv − ∫ v du
u dv
 x3  ⌠  x3   1 
∫ x=
n x dx n x.   − 
2
 3      dx
  ⌡  3  x 
x 3 n x 1
= − ∫ x 2 dx
3 3
x 3 n x 1 x 3
= − . +c
3 3 3
x 3 n x x 3
= − +c
3 9
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Module 2 Unit 8
NOTE: It was not possible to take dv = n x dx as ∫ n x dx is not in the list of

standard integrals. To solve this integral, we will also use integration by parts, see
activity 2, no. 3
EXAMPLE 4
Solve the integral ∫ e x sin x dx
Solution:
Let u = ex and dv = sin x dx
(NOTE: The exponential function was taken as u )
( )
Then du = e x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ sin x dx
v = − cos x
∫ = uv − ∫ v du
u dv
∫ e x sin x dx = e x ( − cos x ) − ∫ ( − cos x ) e x dx
−e x cos x + ∫ e x cos x dx
=  ( A)
Apply integration by parts again.
Let u = ex and dv = cos x dx
(NOTE: The exponential function was taken as u )
( )
Then du = e x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ cos x dx
v = sin x
∫ = uv − ∫ v du
u dv
∫ cos x dx e x ( sin x ) − ∫ ( sin x ) e x dx

ex =
= e x sin x − ∫ e x sin x dx
Substitute into ( A ) :
∫ −e x cos x + e x sin x − ∫ e x sin x dx 

e x sin x dx =
 
−e x cos x + e x sin x − ∫ e x sin x dx

=
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Module 2 Unit 8
This can be solved using simple algebra. Take the integral on the right, to the left-
hand side:
2 ∫ e x sin x dx = e x sin x − e x cos x + c
ex
∫ e x sin x dx= ( sin x − cos x ) + C
2
EXAMPLE 5
Solve the integral ∫ arc tan x dx
Solution:
Let u = arc tan x and dv = 1 dx
(NOTE: The inverse trigonometric function was taken as u and dv was taken as
1 dx )
 1 
Then du =   dx and ∫ dv = ∫ 1 dx
 1 + x2 
v=x
∫ = uv − ∫ v du
u dv
⌠
( x )  1
∫ =
arc tan x dx arc tan x ( x ) −   dx
⌡  1+ x  2
1⌠  2x 
= x arc tan x −    dx
2⌡  1 + x2 
1
= x arc tan x − n
2
(1 + x ) + c2
The examples we have considered enable us to form a priority order for u :
• If one function in the product is a log function, that must be taken as u

• If there is no log function but a power of x , that must be taken as u
• If there is an exponential function and no power of x or log function, then the
exponential function is taken as u
• If there is only a log function (no product), or only an inverse trigonometric or
inverse hyperbolic function, then u is taken as that function with dv = 1 dx
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Module 2 Unit 8
ACTIVITY 1:
Which factor should be chosen as u in the following cases?
1. ∫ x 2n x dx
2. ∫ x3 sinh x dx
3. ∫ n x dx
4. ∫ e 2 x cos 4 x dx
5. ∫ arc cosh x dx
2
6. ∫ x3e x dx
7. ∫ ( x + 1) e
2 2x
dx
8. ∫ ( x − π ) sin 3x dx
9. ∫ x n x dx
10. ∫ x 1 + x dx
ACTIVITY 2:
Integrate the following using integration by parts:
1. ∫ x 2n x dx
2. ∫ x3 sinh x dx
3. ∫ n x dx
4. ∫ e 2 x cos 4 x dx
2
5. ∫ x3e x dx
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Module 2 Unit 8
2. POST-TEST 8
Solve the following using integration by parts:
1. ∫ arc cosh x dx
2. ∫ ( x + 1) e
2 2x
dx
3. ∫ ( x − π ) sin 3x dx
4. ∫ x n x dx
5. ∫ x 1 + x dx
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Module 2 Unit 8
3. RESPONSES
3.1. Response 1
1. u = n x
2. u = x3
3. u = n x
4. u = e2x
5. u = arc cosh x
6. u = x3
7. =
u x2 + 1
8. u= x − π
9. u = n x
10. u=x
3.2. Response 2
1. ∫ x 2n x dx
=
Let u =
nx and dv x 2dx
du 1 x3
=
Then = v
dx x 3
Substitute into the formula for integration by parts:
∫ u dv uv
= − ∫ v du
 x3  ⌠  x3   1 
∫
= −
2
x  n x dx  n x       dx
 3 ⌡  3  x 
 x3  ⌠  x2 
= n x   −   dx
 3
  ⌡  3 
 x3  x3
= n x   − +c
 3 9
 
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Module 2 Unit 8
2. ∫ x 3 sinh x dx
Let u = x 3 and dv = sinh x dx
( )
Then du = 3x 2 dx and v = cosh x
∫ = uv − ∫ v du
u dv
∫ x=
3
sinh x dx x 3 ( cosh x ) − ∫ ( cosh x ) 3x 2 dx( ) 2 ( A)
We must use integration by parts again:
Let u = 3x 2 and dv = cosh x dx

du
Then = 6 x and v = sinh x
dx
∫ = uv − ∫ v du
u dv
x ) ( 3x 2 ) dx
∫ ( cosh = 3x 2 ( sinh x ) − ∫ ( sinh x )( 6 x ) dx
Substitute into (A) to find
∫ x 3 sinh x dx =x 3 ( cosh x ) − 3x 2 ( sinh x ) − ∫ ( sinh x )( 6 x ) dx  2 ( A)

 
=x 3 ( cosh x ) − 3x 2 ( sinh x ) + ∫ ( sinh x )( 6 x ) dx 2( B )
We must use integration by parts a third time:

Let u = 6 x and dv = sinh x dx
du
Then =6 and v = cosh x
dx
∫ = uv − ∫ v du
u dv
∫ (sinh=
x )( 6 x ) dx 6 x ( cosh x ) − ∫ ( cosh x )( 6 ) dx
Substitute into (B):
∫ x 3 sinh x dx =x 3 ( cosh x ) − 3x 2 ( sinh x ) + ∫ ( sinh x )( 6 x ) dx 2( B )
=x 3 ( cosh x ) − 3x 2 ( sinh x ) + 6 x ( cosh x ) − ∫ ( cosh x )( 6 ) dx 

 
= x 3 cosh x − 3x 2 sinh x + 6 x cosh x − 6sinh x + c
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Module 2 Unit 8
3. ∫ n x dx
Let u = n x and dv = 1 dx
du 1
Then = and v = x
dx x
∫ = uv − ∫ v du
u dv
⌠ 1
∫ n x dx n x ( x ) −  x   dx
=
⌡ x
= x n x − ∫ 1 dx
= x n x − x + c
4. ∫ e2 x cos 4 x dx
Let u = e2 x and dv = cos 4 x dx

du 1
Then = 2e2 x and v = sin 4 x
dx 4
∫ = uv − ∫ v du
u dv
∫ e=
2x 1  ⌠ 1 
(
cos 4 x dx e2 x  sin 4 x  −   sin 4 x  2e2 x dx
4  ⌡ 4 
)
1 2x 1
= e sin 4 x − ∫ e2 x sin 4 x dx 2 ( A)
4 2
Let u = e2 x and dv = sin 4 x dx

du 1
Then = 2e2 x and v = − cos 4 x
dx 4
∫ = uv − ∫ v du
u dv
∫
 1  ⌠  1
(

)
e2 x sin 4 x dx = e2 x  − cos 4 x  −   − cos 4 x  2e2 x dx
 4  ⌡  4 
1 1
= − e2 x cos 4 x + ∫ e2 x cos 4 x dx
4 2
Substitute into (A):
MAT2691 91
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Module 2 Unit 8
1 2x 1 1 1 
∫ =
e2 x cos 4 x dx
4
e sin 4 x −  − e2 x cos 4 x + ∫ e2 x cos 4 x dx 
2 4 2 
1 1 1
= e2 x sin 4 x + e2 x cos 4 x − ∫ e2 x cos 4 x dx
4 8 4
5 1 2x 1
4∫
e2=x
cos 4 x dx e sin 4 x + e2 x cos 4 x
4 8
1 1
∫ e2 x cos 4 x dx = e2 x sin 4 x + e2 x cos 4 x + c
5 10
2 1 x2
∫ x 3e x dx =
2∫
2
5. x .2 xe dx
2
Let u = x 2 and dv = 2 xe x dx
du 2
Then = 2 x and v = e x
dx
∫ = uv − ∫ v du
u dv
1
2 ∫ x 2=
2
.2 xe x dx
2
x e −  ( ) ( )
1  2 x2 ⌠ x2
⌡

e ( 2 x ) dx 

1 2 x
x e − ∫ 2 xe x dx 
2 2
=
2 
3 x2 1 2 x2 1 x2
∫ x e dx=
2
x e − e +c
2
1. ∫ (1) arc cosh x dx
=Let =
u arc cosh x and dv 1 dx
du 1
=Then = v x
dx x −1
2
∫=
u dv uv − ∫ v du
⌠  1 
∫ =
arc cosh x dx arc cosh x ( x ) −  ( x )   dx

 x −1 
2
⌡
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Module 2 Unit 8
1
( )
1⌠ −
∫ arc cosh x dx = x arc cosh x −  2 x x 2 − 1
2⌡
2 dx
1  x2 − 1 
=x arc cosh x −  +c
2  12 
 
= x arc cosh x − x 2 − 1 + c
2. ∫ ( x2 + 1) e2 x dx
Let =
u x 2 + 1 and dv = e2 x dx
du 1
Then = 2 x and v = e2 x
dx 2
∫ = uv − ∫ v du
u dv
∫ ( x2 + 1)  12 e2 x  − ⌠⌡

( x2 + 1) e2 x dx =  1 2x 
 e  ( 2 x ) dx
2 
=
2
(
1 2
)
x + 1 e2 x − ∫ ( xe2 x ) dx 2 ( A)
Use integration by parts again:
Let u = x and dv = e2 x dx
1 2x
Then du = 1 dx and v = e
2
Substitute into the formula for integration by parts
( xe2 x ) dx ( x )  12 e2 x  − ⌠⌡

∫=
 1 2x 
 e  (1) dx
2 
xe2 x 1  1 2 x 
= −  e 
2 22 
xe2 x e2 x
= −
2 4
Substitute into (A):
 xe2 x e2 x 
∫ ( )
x 2 + 1 e2 x dx =
2
(
1 2
)
x + 1 e2 x − 
2
−
4
+c
 
=
2
(
1 2
)
x + 1 e2 x −
xe2 x e2 x
2
+
4
+c
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Module 2 Unit 8
3. ∫ ( x − π ) sin 3x dx
Let u = x − π and dv = sin 3x dx
1
Then du = 1 dx and v = − cos 3x
3
∫ = uv − ∫ v du
u dv
 1  ⌠  1 
∫ ( x − π ) sin 3x dx= ( x − π )  − 3 cos 3x  − ⌡  − cos 3x  (1) dx
 3 
( x − π ) cos 3x +  sin 3x  + c
1 1 1
=−
3 3 3 
1 1
= − ( x − π ) cos 3x + sin 3x + c
3 9
4. ∫ x n x dx
Let u = n x and dv = x dx
3
3
du 1 x 2 2 2
Then = and=
v = x
dx x 3 3
2
∫ = uv − ∫ v du
u dv
2 3 ⌠  2 3  1 
∫ x n x dx n x  x 2  − 
=
3  
 x 2    dx
 3  x 
  ⌡  
2  3  2⌠  1
= n x  x 2  −   x 2  dx
3   3  
  ⌡  
3
2  3  2 x2
= n x  x 2  − +c
3   3 32
 
2  3 4 3
= n x  x 2  − x 2 + c
3   9
 
94 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 8
5. ∫ x 1 + x dx
Let u = x =
and dv 1 + x dx
3
2
Then du = 1 dx and=
v (1 + x ) 2
3
∫ = uv − ∫ v du
u dv
2 3 ⌠  3
2
∫ x 1 + x dx = x  (1 + x ) 2  −   (1 + x ) 2  (1) dx
3  ⌡ 3 
3
2 2⌠
= x (1 + x )3 −  (1 + x ) 2 dx
3 3⌡
5
2 2 (1 + x ) 2
= x (1 + x )3 − +c
3 3 52
2 4
= x (1 + x )3 − (1 + x )5 + c
3 15
You have now completed Learning Unit 8. Integration by Parts

• Solve integrals using integration by parts
We now move on to Learning Unit 9: Areas.
MAT2691 95
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LEARNING UNIT 9 Areas
OUTCOMES

• Calculate areas between curves
CONTENTS
1. AREAS 97
2. POST-TEST 9 104
3. RESPONSES 105
3.1. Response 1 105
96 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 9
INTEGRATION: Areas
1. AREAS
If a function f ( x ) is continuous and positive over the interval a ≤ x ≤ b , the definite

integral
∫ a f ( x ) dx
b
gives the area bounded by the curve y = f ( x ) , the x -axis and the lines x = a and
x=b.
You should revise the work done in Mathematics 1 before working through the next
examples.
EXAMPLE 1
Find the area bounded by the curve y = x 2 − 6 x + 5 , the x -axis and the lines x = 1
and x = 3 .
Solution:
Make a sketch:
10
7.5
2.5
0
0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5
-2.5
-5
∫1 ( x )
3
=
Area 2
− 6 x + 5 dx
3
 x3 
=  − 3x 2 + 5 x 
3 1
 ( 3)3   (1)3 
− 3 ( 3) + 5 ( 3)  −  − 3 (1) + 5 (1)
2 2
= 
   
3 3
1 
= [9 − 27 + 15] −  − 3 + 5
3 
 1 − 9 + 15 
=−3 −  
 3
MAT2691 97
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Module 2 Unit 9
INTEGRATION: Areas
7
Area =−3 −
3
−9 − 7
=
3
16
= −
3
1
= −5 units 2
3
Note the negative sign. The sketch gives the explanation. The area is below the x -
axis, which means that f ( x ) is negative for that interval. The real area is thus the
1 1 1
absolute value of −5 units 2 , that is −5 units 2 =
5 units 2 .
3 3 3
EXAMPLE 2
Find the area bounded by the curve y = x 2 − 2 x − 3 , the x -axis and the lines x = −2
and x = 4 .
Solution:
First draw a sketch of the graph.
Note: Although it is essential to draw sketches of the curves when finding enclosed
areas, it is not necessary to draw accurate up-to-scale sketches. Rough sketches
will do.
We need the intercepts with the axes:
y-intercept = −3
=
x-intercept: Let y 0 : x 2=
− 2x − 3 0
( x − 3)( x + 1) =
0
x = 3 or x = −1
y
0
-2 0 2 4
-2
-4
98 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 9
INTEGRATION: Areas
This area is divided into 3 parts as shown on the sketch. The area must thus be
calculated accordingly with 3 separate integrals:
=
Area
−1
∫ −2 ( x 2
− 2 x − 3 ) dx +
3
∫ −1 ( x 2
− 2 x − 3 ) dx + ∫ 3 ( x − 2 x − 3) dx
4 2
−1 3 4
 x3   x3   x3 
=  − x 2 − 3x  +  − x 2 − 3x  +  − x 2 − 3x 
3  −2  3  −1  3 3
  ( −1)3   ( −2 ) 3  

− ( −1) − 3 ( −1) −  − ( − 2 ) − 3 ( −2 )   +
2 2
= 
    3  
3
 ( 3 )3   ( −1)3 
− ( 3) − 3 ( 3)  −  − ( −1) − 3 ( −1) +
2 2

 3   3 
  ( 4 )3   ( 3 )3  

  − ( 4 ) 2
− 3 ( 4 )  −  − ( 3 ) 2
− 3 ( 3 ) 

 
3 
   3  
 1   −8   −1 
=   − − 1 + 3 −  − 4 + 6  + [9 − 9 − 9] −  − 1 + 3 +
 3   3  3 
  64  
  − 16 − 12  − [9 − 9 − 9]
 3  
1 2 1
= 2 + −10 + 2
3 3 3
1 2 1
=2 + 10 + 2
3 3 3
1
= 15 units 2
3
EXAMPLE 3
Find the shaded area below.
y 3
y = x4
2.5
x
2
dy
1.5
0.5
0
-4 -2 0 2 4
Solution:
=
From the given sketch, we will integrate over dy from y 1=
to y 2.
MAT2691 99
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Module 2 Unit 9
INTEGRATION: Areas
2
Area = ∫ x dy
1
2 1
= ∫ y 4 dy
1
2
 y 54 
= 
 54 
 1
 4 2 54   4 1 54 
= 
( ) − ( ) 
 5   5 
   
= [1.9027314] − [ 0.8]
= 1.103 units 2
EXAMPLE 4
1
Find the area enclosed by the curves y = 1 + x 2 and y = x 2 .
5
Solution:
First, draw a sketch of the two curves and the enclosed area:
y 2 y = x2
1.5
1
y = 1 + x2
5
1
0.5
0
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
The enclosed area is found by subtracting the area underneath y = x 2 and above
1
the x -axis, from the area underneath y = 1 + x 2 and above the x -axis.
5
The limits of the definite integral are the points of intersection of the two curves.
At the intersection, the function values are equal:
100 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 9
INTEGRATION: Areas
1
1 + x2 = x2
5
4 2
x =1
5
5
x2 =
4
5
x= ±
2
Now determine the enclosed area by using these points of intersection as the limits
of the definite integral:
5
⌠ 2  1  
Area=  1 + x 2  − x 2  dx
⌡− 5  5  
( )
2
5
⌠  4  2
=  1 − x 2  dx
⌡− 5  5 
2
5
 4 x3  2
= x − . 
 5 3 
− 5
2
 5  
( ) ( ) 
3 3
4 − 25

( )
 5 4 2  
=  2 − − −
15   2
5
−
15
( ) 
   
= [ 0.7453559] − [ −0.7453559]
= 1.491 units 2
EXAMPLE 5
y 2 x 2 ( x + 1) between x = −1 and x = 1 .
Find the area of the loop of the curve=
Solution:
0.5 y
First draw a sketch of the curve:
0.25
0
-1 -0.75 -0.5 -0.25 0 0.25 0.5
-0.25
-0.5
MAT2691 101
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Module 2 Unit 9
INTEGRATION: Areas
The loop is divided into 2 equal symmetrical parts by the x -axis. To find the area of
the loop, it is sufficient to find the area of the shaded part times 2.
0
=
⌠
Area 2 x x + 1
⌡−1
( ) dx
Using integration by parts:

Let u = x and dv
= x + 1 dx
du
Then = 1 and ∫=
dv ∫ x + 1 dx
dx
3
v=
( x + 1) 2
3
2
3
2
= ( x + 1) 2
3
∫ = uv − ∫ v du
u dv
3 3
2 2
∫ x x + 1 dx= x. ( x + 1) 2 − ∫ ( x + 1) 2 dx
3 3
5
2 3
2 ( x + 1) 2
= x ( x + 1) 2 −
3 3 52
3 5
2 4
= x ( x + 1) 2 − ( x + 1) 2
3 15
The area is thus:
0
2 3
4 5
dx 2  x ( x + 1) 2 − ( x + 1) 2 
0
2 ∫  x x + 1 =
−1
3 15  −1
2 3
4 5 2 3
4 5
= 2  ( 0 )( 0 + 1) 2 − ( 0 + 1) 2  − 2  ( −1)( −1 + 1) 2 − ( −1 + 1) 2 
3 15  3 15 
 4
=2  −  − 0
 15 
8
= −
15
8
Area = − units 2
15
8
= units 2
15
102 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 9
INTEGRATION: Areas
ACTIVITY 1:
1. Find the area included between the curve y = sin 2 x , the x -axis and the
π
lines x = 0 and x = .
2
y 3 x + 4 and the curve y = x 2 .

2. Find the area included between the line =
3. Find the area included between the two curves y 2 = 4 x and x 2 = 4 y .

Remember to check response 1 on page105.
MAT2691 103
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Module 2 Unit 9
INTEGRATION: Areas
2. POST-TEST 9
1. Find the area enclosed in the first quadrant by the straight line y = x , the curve
2
y= , the straight line x = 3 and the x -axis.
x +1
2. Find the area included between the two curves =

y x 2 + 2 and =
y 10 − x 2 .
3. Find the area bounded by the curve y = n x , the x -axis, and the lines x = 2
and x = 3 .
4. Prove that the area enclosed by the straight line y = 3 and the curve
4
y= x + is 7,5 − 4n 4 .
x+2
5. Find the area bounded by the two curves y 2 = 8 x and 2 x − y =0.

104 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 9
INTEGRATION: Areas
3. RESPONSES
3.1. Response 1
1.
y 1
0.75
0.5
0.25
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
π x
x=
π 2
Area = ∫ 2 sin 2 x dx
0
π
1 2
(1 − cos 2 x ) dx
2 ∫0
=
π
1 1 2
=  x − sin 2 x 
2 2 0
1 π 1  π  1  1 
=  − sin 2    − 0 − sin 2 ( 0 )
2 2 2  2  2  2 
1 π
=
2  2 
π
= units 2
4
2. Points of intersection:
x=
2
3x + 4
x 2 − 3x − 4 =0
( x − 4 )( x + 1) =
0
x= 4 or x = −1
MAT2691 105
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Module 2 Unit 9
INTEGRATION: Areas
15
=
y 3x + 4
12.5
10
7.5
5 y = x2
2.5
0
-1.25 0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5
x
∫ −1 ( 3x + 4 − x ) dx
4
=
Area 2
4
 3x 2 x3 
=  + 4x − 
 2 3
−1
 3 ( 4 )2 ( 4 )   3 ( −1)
3 2
( −1) 
3
=  + 4 (4) − − + 4 ( −1) − 
 2 3   2
 
3 

 64   3 1
=  24 + 16 −  −  − 4 + 
 3  2 3
56 13
= +
3 6
112 + 13
=
6
5
= 20 units 2
6
3.
y 5
3.75
y2 = 4x
2.5
1 2
y=
1.25
x
4
0
0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5
106 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 9
INTEGRATION: Areas
Points of intersection:
1 2
x =2 x
4
1 4
x = 4x
16
x 4 = 64 x
x 4 − 64 x =
0
(
x x 3 − 64 =
0 )
= =
x 3 64 or x 0
x=4
4
⌠  1 
=
Area   2 x − x 2  dx
⌡0  4 
4
 3 
 2 x 2 1 x3 
=  − . 
3 4 3
 2
 0
 3
3 
3
3
=   4 ( 4 ) 2
−
( 4 )  −  4 ( 0 ) 2
−
( 0) 
3 12   3 12 
   
 32 64 
=  − 
 3 12 
1
= 5 units 2
3

1.
y 2
y=x
1.5
1
2
y=
x +1
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4
MAT2691 107
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Module 2 Unit 9
INTEGRATION: Areas
Point of intersection:
2
x=
x +1
x2 + x − 2 =0
( x + 2 )( x − 1) =
0
x=−2 x=
1
NA
3
⌠  2 
∫ 0 ( x ) dx + ⌡1  x + 1  dx
1
=
Area
1
 x2 
=  +  2n ( x + 1)
3
1
 2 0
1 
=  − 0 +  2n ( 4 ) − 2n ( 2 )
2 
= 1,886 units 2
2.
y
10 =
y 10 − x 2
7.5
2.5
=
y x2 + 2
0
-2.5 -1.25 0 1.25 2.5
x 2 + 2 = 10 − x 2
2 x2 = 8
x = ±2
108 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 9
INTEGRATION: Areas
∫ −2 (10 − x ) − ( x2 + 2 ) dx
2
=
Area 2
2
∫ −2 8 − 2 x
2
= dx

2
 2 x3 
= 8 x − 
 3 
−2
 2 (2)  
3
2 ( −2 ) 
3
= 8 ( 2 ) −  −  8 ( −2 ) − 
 3  
 
3 

 16   16 
= 16 −  −  −16 + 
 3  3
32
= 32 −
3
1
= 21 units 2
3
3.
y 2
0
0 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
[n x ] dx
3
Area = ∫
2
 1 
3
= [n x. x ]32 − ⌠
 x. dx  (Using integration by parts)
 ⌡2 x 
= [ x n x − x ] 32
= ( 3) n ( 3) − ( 3) − ( 2 ) n ( 2 ) − ( 2 )
= 0,9095 units 2
MAT2691 109
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Module 2 Unit 9
INTEGRATION: Areas
4.
y 4
3.5
3 y=3
2.5
4
y= x +
x+2 2
1.5
1
-1 0 1 2 3
4
x+ =
3
x+2
x 2 + 2 x + 4 = 3x + 6
x2 − x − 2 =0
( x − 2 )( x + 1) =
0
x= 2 x = −1
2
⌠   4 
=  3 −  x +
Area  dx
⌡−1   x + 2  
2
⌠  4 
=  3 − x − dx
⌡−1  x + 2 
2
 x2 
= 3x − − 4 n ( x + 2 ) 
 2  −1
 ( 2)
2   ( −1)
2 
= 3 ( 2 ) − − 4 n ( 2 + 2 ) − 3 ( −1) − − 4  n ( −1 + 2 ) 
 2   2 
 7 
= [4 − 4 n 4] −  − − 4 n 1
 2 
7
= 4 − 4 n 4 + − 0
2
15
= − 4 n 4
2
= ( 7,5 − 4 n 4 ) units 2
110 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 9
INTEGRATION: Areas
5.
y 5
3.75
y = 8x
2.5 y = 2x
1.25
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
2 x = 8x
4 x2 − 8x =
0
x ( x − 2) =
0
=x 2=x 0
2
=
Area ∫ 0  8 x − 2 x  dx
2
 3 
 x 2
2
=  8 −x 
3
 2 
 0
2 8 3
2 2 8
3 
=  ( ) ( ) 
2 2 − 2 − ( ) − ( 0 )2 
0 2
 3   3 
 16 
=  − 4
3 
1
= 1 units 2
3
You have now completed Learning Unit 9. Hyperbolic Functions

• Calculate areas between curves
We now move on to Learning Unit 10: Volumes.
MAT2691 111
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LEARNING UNIT 10 Volumes
OUTCOMES

• Calculate volumes of solids of revolution
CONTENTS
1. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION 113

2. POST-TEST 10 121
3. RESPONSES 122
3.1. Response 1 122
112 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 10
INTEGRATION: Volumes
1. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION
A solid of revolution is generated by rotating the area of a plane about an axis in

three dimensional space. Common examples of solids of revolution include a cone, a
cylinder and a soft drink bottle. All these can be generated by revolving a shape
around an axis.
The general formula for calculating a volume is base area times height. We will use
this principle to calculate the volume of a solid of revolution.
Consider a plane figure ABba bounded by the curve y = f ( x ) , the x -axis and the
lines x = a and x = b , shown on the left-hand side below.
If the plane figure ABba is rotated through a complete revolution about the x -axis, a
solid is generated as shown below on the right-hand side.
y = f ( x) y y = f ( x)
y
B
A
b
dx
x
a b
If we cut this generated solid with parallel planes all perpendicular to the x -axis, we
obtain disks, with thickness (height) dx and radius y = f ( x ) . The disks can be seen
as small cylinders. The base of the disk is a circle with area πr 2 =πy 2 because the
radius is equal to y . Remember, the volume of a cylinder is πr 2 h . The volume of a
disk is πy 2 dx . Summing the volume of all these disks over the interval [ a, b ] gives the
total volume of the solid of revolution:
b
V = π ∫ y 2 dx
a
We will use this formula to find volumes of revolution around the x -axis.
( radius )2 ( thickness )
b
In words, this integral is: V = π ∫
a
MAT2691 113
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Module 2 Unit 10
EXAMPLE 1
Find the volume generated if the area in the first quadrant bounded by the parabola
y 2 = 8 x and the line x = 2 is revolved about the x -axis.
Solution:
Make a sketch:
y
2.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
-2.5
-5
2
= ∫ 0 πy
2
Volume dx
2
= π ∫ 8 x dx
0
2
= π 4 x 2 
 0
π 4 ( 2 ) − 4 ( 0 ) 
2 2
=
 
= 16π units 3
We can also rotate a function around the y -axis. If we cut this generated solid with
parallel planes all perpendicular to the y -axis, we obtain disks, with thickness
(height) dy and radius x . The base of the disk is a circle with area πr 2 =πx 2 because
the radius is equal to x . The volume of a disk is πx 2dy . Summing the volume of all
these disks over the interval [c, d ] gives the total volume of the solid of revolution:
d
V = π ∫ x 2 dy
c
( radius )2 ( thickness )
b
Again, in words, this integral is: V = π ∫
a
114 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 10
EXAMPLE 2
The part of the curve y = x 2 between y = 2 and y = 3 , is rotated about the y -axis.
Find the volume generated.
Solution:
Make a sketch:
y 4
0
-2 -1 0 1 2
3
= ∫ 2 πx
2
Volume dy
3
= π ∫ y dy
2
3
 y2 
= π 
 2 2
 ( 3) 2 ( 2 ) 2 
= π − 
 2 2 

5π
= units 3
2
Volumes can also be generated by revolving the area between two functions around
an axis. If we cut slices perpendicular to the axis of revolution, each slice will look
like a washer. In this case, we work out the volume generated by each function and
subtract to find the volume of the washer. The volume of a solid generated by
revolving the area between the graph of f ( x ) and the graph of g ( x ) from x = a to
x = b around the x -axis is given by:
V = π ∫  f ( x ) dx − π ∫  g ( x ) dx
b 2 b 2
a a
=
a {
π ∫  f ( x ) −  g ( x )
b 2 2
} dx
MAT2691 115
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Module 2 Unit 10
In words, this integral is, V =

a {
π ∫ [outer radius ] − [inner radius ]
b 2 2
} (thickness )
where f ( x ) = outer radius and g ( x ) = inner radius .
EXAMPLE 3
Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated by revolving the area enclosed
by y = x 2 and y = 4 x around the x -axis.
Solution:
Sketch:
y 20
15
10
0
-2 0 2 4 6
-5
x2 = 4 x
x ( x − 4) =
0
=x 0=
or x 4
116 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 10
{ }
b
π⌠
  f ( x )  −  g ( x )  dx
2 2
V=
⌡a
4
⌠ 
( )  dx
2
π ( 4 x ) − x 2
2
=
⌡0 
4
{
π∫ 16 x 2 − x 4 dx
=
0
}
4
16 x3 x5 
=
π − 
 3 5 
0
16 ( 4 )3 ( 4 )5  16 ( 0 )3 ( 0 )5 
= π −  −π − 
 3 5 
 

3 5 

 5120 − 3072 
= π 
 15
= 136.53π units 3
EXAMPLE 4
Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated by revolving the area enclosed
by y = x 2 and y = 4 x around the y -axis.

Solution:
Use the same sketch as above.
Find the y values at the points of intersection:
x2 = 4 x
x ( x − 4) =
0
=x 0=
or x 4
=y 0= y 16
Make x the subject of the given equations so that the functions are written in terms
y
of y . We have x = y and x =
4
MAT2691 117
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Module 2 Unit 10
16
⌠  2  y 
2
π   y  −    dy
V=
   4  
⌡0 
16
⌠  y 2
=
π  y −  dy
  16
⌡0  
16
 y2 y3 
=
π − 
 2 48 0
 (16 )2 (16 )3  
= π  −  − ( 0 )
 2 48 
 
 
 128 
= π  units
3
 3 
2
= 42 π units 3
3
Instead of finding the difference between the two volumes using the disk method in
example 4 above, we can construct shells around the y -axis. A shell is a hollow
cylinder. We then sum over the volume of each shell. The volume of a solid
generated by revolving the area between the graph of f ( x ) and the graph of g ( x )
from x = a to x = b , where a and b are both on the same side of the y -axis, around
the y -axis, is given by:
2π∫ x  f ( x ) − g ( x )  dx
b
V=
a
( radius )( height ) ( thickness ) .

b
In words, the integral is, V = 2π ∫
a
Let us redo example 4 using this formula. The answers should be the same as the
volume generated stays the same. The straight line forms the outer radius and the
parabola the inner radius of each shell.
118 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 10
V=
0 
( )
2π ∫ x ( 4 x ) − x 2  dx
4

2π ∫ ( 4 x 2 − x 3 ) dx
4
=
0
4
 4 x3 x4 
=
2π  − 
 3 4
0
 4 ( 4 )3 ( 4 ) 4 
=2π  − 
 3 4 

 64 
= 2π  
3
128
= π
3
2
= 42 π units 3
3
EXAMPLE 5
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving around the y -axis the region
between=
y 5 x3 − x 4 and the x -axis.
Solution:
5x3 − x 4 =0
x3 (5 − x ) =
0
=x 0=
or x 5
To make the sketch of=
y 5 x3 − x 4 , find the turning points of the function:
dy
= 15 x 2 − 4 x 3
dx
dy
Put = 0 : 15 x 2 − 4 x 3 = 0
dx
( x2 ) (15 − 4 x ) =
0
15
=
x 0 or=
= 3.75
x
4
=y 0=y 65.9
MAT2691 119
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Module 2 Unit 10
y
62.5
50
37.5
25
12.5
0
0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5
2π∫ x  f ( x ) − g ( x )  dx
b
Volume =
a
5
=2π∫ x 5 x3 − x 4 − 0  dx
0  
5
2π∫ 5 x 4 − x5  dx
=
0 
5
 x6 
=2π  x5 − 
 6 
0
 5 ( 5 )6   5 ( 0 )6 
= 2π ( 5 ) −
  − 2 π ( 0 ) − 
 6 
 

6 

= 1041.67 π units3
ACTIVITY 1:
1. Find the volume generated when the plane figure bounded by
π
y = 5cos 2 x , the x -axis and the ordinates at x = 0 and x = is rotated
4
about the x -axis.
2. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the area enclosed by
1
y = x 2 , y = 0 and y = 8 around the y -axis.
2
y= 4 − x 2 and y= 8 − 2 x 2 around the x -axis.
4. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving around the y -axis the
region in the first quadrant that is between y = x 2 and y = x3 .
Remember to check response 1 on page 122
120 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 10
2. POST-TEST 10
x2 y2
1. The ellipse + = 1, is rotated about the x -axis. Find the volume enclosed
4 1
by the surface generated.
y = x 2 , y = 4 and y = 0 around the y -axis.
y = x3 and y = x 2 around the x -axis.
4. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving around the y -axis the
area included by the curve y =( x − 1)( 2 − x ) and the x -axis.
MAT2691 121
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Module 2 Unit 10
3. RESPONSES
3.1. Response 1
1.
y 5
3.75
2.5
1.25
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
π
=
V ∫ 0
4 πy 2 dx
π
= 25π∫ 4 cos 2 2 x dx
0
π
25π 4
(1 + cos 4 x ) dx
2 ∫0
=
π
25π  1 4
=  x + sin 4 x 
2  4 0
25π  π  1  π   25π 
( 0 ) + sin 4 ( 0 )
1
=    + sin 4    − 
2  4  4  4  2  4 
25π2
= units 3
8
2.
y 12.5
10
7.5
2.5
0
-5 -2.5 0 2.5 5
122 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 10
∫0 π ( )
8 2
V= 2y dy
8
= π ∫ 2 y dy
0
8
= π  y2 
 0
π [ 64 − 0]
=
= 64π units 3
3.
y 8
0
-2.5 -1.25 0 1.25 2.5
x
4 − x 2 =8 − 2 x 2
x2 = 4
x = ±2
2
⌠ 
( ) − ( 4 − x )  dx
2 2
V=π  8 − 2 x 2 2
⌡−2 
{ ( )} dx
2
π⌠ 64 − 32 x 2 + 4 x 4 − 16 − 8 x 2 + x 4
=
⌡ −2
2
{
π∫ 48 − 24 x 2 + 3 x 4 dx
=
−2
}
2
 3 3x 
5
=
π  48 x − 8 x + 
 5 
−2
 3 3( 2)
5  3 3 ( −2 )
5
= π  48 ( 2 ) − 8 ( 2 ) +  − π  48 ( −2 ) − 8 ( −2 ) + 
 5 
 

5 

= π [51, 2 + 51, 2]
= 102, 4π units 3
MAT2691 123
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Module 2 Unit 10
4.
y 1.25
0.75
0.5
0.25
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25
x
x3 = x 2
x 2 ( x − 1) =
0
=x 0=x 1
1
2π∫ x  x 2 − x3  dx
V=
0  
1
2π∫  x3 − x 4  dx
=
0 
1
 x 4 x5 
=
2π  − 
 4 5 
0
 (1)4 (1)5   ( 0 )4 ( 0 )5 
= 2π  −  − 2π  − 
 4 5 
 

4 5 

= 0,1π units 3

1.
y 1
0.5
0
-2 -1 0 1 2
-0.5
-1
124 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 10
2
= ∫ − 2 πy
2
Volume dx
2  x2 
π ∫  1 −  dy
=
−2  4 

2
 1 x3 
=π x − . 
 3 4
−2
 ( 2 )3  − π  −2 − ( −2 )3 
= π ( 2 ) − ( )
 12 
  12 

 8 8
=π  2 − + 2 − 
 12 12 
8π
= units 3
3
2.
y 5
3.75
2.5
1.25
0
-2.5 -1.25 0 1.25 2.5
4
= ∫ 0 πx
2
Volume dy
4
= π ∫ y dy
0
4
 y2 
= π 
 2 0
 ( 4 )2 ( 0 )2 
π
= − 
 2 2 

= 8π units 3
MAT2691 125
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Module 2 Unit 10
3.
y 1
0.75
0.5
0.25
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25
x3 = x 2
x 2 ( x − 1) =
0
=x 0=x 1
1
⌠  2 2
π   x 2  −  x3   dx
V=
⌡0      
1
{ }
π ∫ x 4 − x 6 dx
=
0
1
 x5 x 7 
=
π − 
 5 7 
0
 (1)5 (1)7   ( 0 )5 ( 0 )7 
=π  −  −π − 
 5 7 
 

5 7 

= 0, 057π units 3
4.
y 0.25
0.125
0
0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25
-0.125
-0.25
126 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 10
( x − 1)( 2 − x ) =
0
=x 1=x 2
V =2π∫ x ( x − 1)( 2 − x ) − 0  dx

2
1
2
=2π∫  − x3 + 3 x 2 − 2 x  dx
1  
2
 x4 
= 2π  − + x 3 − x 2 
 4 1
 ( 2 )4   (1)4 
+ ( 2 ) − ( 2 )  − 2π  − + (1) − (1) 
3 2 3 2
= 2π  −
 4   4 
π
= units 3
2
You have now completed Learning Unit 10: Volumes.
• Calculate volumes of solids of revolution
We now move on to Learning Unit 11: Applications.
MAT2691 127
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LEARNING UNIT 11 Applications
OUTCOMES

• Calculate the mean value of a function
• Calculate the root mean square value of a function
• Calculate the length of an arc of a curve
CONTENTS
1. APPLICATIONS 129
1.1 Mean (Average) Values 129
1.2 Root Mean Square Values 129
1.3 The length of an arc of a curve 130
2. POST-TEST 11 132
3. RESPONSES 133
3.1. Response 1 133
128 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 11
INTEGRATION: Applications
1. APPLICATIONS
1.1. Mean (Average) Values
To find the mean (average) value of a continuous function y = f ( x ) between x = a

and x = b , find the area under the curve between the two limits and divide by the
length of the base line:
1 b
M= ∫
b−a a
y dx
EXAMPLE 1
Find the mean value of y = sin x between x = 0 and x = π .
Solution:
1 b
M=
b−a a ∫ y dx
1 π
=
π−0 0 ∫ sin x dx
[ − cos x ] 0π
1
=
π
1
= [ − cos π + cos 0]
π
2
=
π
1.2. Root Mean Square Values
The root mean square (RMS) value of a function y = f ( x ) between x = a and x = b

is defined to be the square root of the mean (average) value of y 2 on the interval:
1 b 2
RMS = ∫
b−a a
y dx
EXAMPLE 2
Find the RMS value of y = sin x between x = 0 and x = π .
MAT2691 129
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Module 2 Unit 11
Solution:
1 b 2
RMS = ∫
b−a a
y dx
1 π
=
π−0 ∫ 0
sin 2 x dx
1 1 π
(1 − cos 2 x ) dx
π 2 ∫0
= .
π
1  1 
=  x − sin 2 x 
2π  2 0
1  1  1 
=  π − sin 2 ( π ) −  0 − sin 2 ( 0 )  
2π  2  2 
1
=
2
1.3. The length of an arc of a curve
The length of the arc of the curve y = f ( x ) between x = a and x = b is given by:
b
⌠  dy 
2
=s  1 +   dx
  dx 
⌡a
One useful application for the length of a curve is in determining the lengths of the
cables that are used to support a suspension bridge.
EXAMPLE 3
Find the length of the curve y 2 = x3 between x = 0 and x = 4 .
Solution:
dy
We must find first:
dx
y 2 = x3
3
=y =
x 3
x 2
1
dy 3 2
= x
dx 2
130 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 11
b
⌠  dy 
2
(s) 
Arc length =

1 +   dx
⌡a  dx 
4
⌠ 3 1
2
=  1 +  x 2  dx

 2 
⌡0  
4
⌠ 9x
=  1+ dx
⌡0 4
4
 3
  
1+  
9 x 2
4 
4  
=  . 
3
9 2 
 
  0
4
 3
 
=  1 +  
8 9 x 2
 27  4  
  0
 3  3
8  9 ( 4)   8
 2  9 (0) 2 

=  1 +   −  1 + 
27  4  27  4  
   
   
= 9, 073 units
ACTIVITY 1:
of y 3sin 5t + 2 cos 3t between t = 0 and t = π .
1. Find the mean value=
2. Find the mean value of y = 3 x 2 + 4 x + 1 between x = −1 and x = 2 .
y x 2 + 3 between x = 1 and x = 3 .
3. Find the RMS value of =
1
=
4. Find the RMS value of y 400sin 200πt between t = 0 and t = .
100
x
5. Find the length of the curve y = 10 cosh between x = −1 and x = 2 .
10
x2
6. Find the length of the curve =
y− n x between x = 1 and x = 2 .
8
MAT2691 131
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Module 2 Unit 11
2. POST-TEST 11
π
1. Find the mean value of y = sin 2 3 x between x = 0 and x = .
2
2. Find the mean value=of y 3sin 2 x − cos 3 x between x = 0 and x = π .
3. Find the RMS value of=y sin x + 2 cos x between x = 0 and x = π .
1
4. Find the RMS value of y = between x = 0 and x = 3 .
1 + x2
3
4
5. Find the length of the curve y = x 2 between x = 0 and x = .
3
y 2 x ( x − 1) .
2
6. Find the perimeter of the loop of the curve 3=
132 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 11
3. RESPONSES
3.1. Response 1
1 π
=
1. Mean ∫ ( 3sin 5t + 2 cos 3t ) dt
π−0 0
π
1  3cos5t 2sin 3t 
=− +
π  5 3  0
1  3cos5 ( π ) 2sin 3 ( π )  1  3cos5 ( 0 ) 2sin 3 ( 0 ) 
= − +  − − + 
π 5 3  π  5 3 
1 3  1  3 
= +0 − − +0
π  5  π  5 
6
=
5π
2.=
Mean
1
∫
2
2 − ( −1) −1
( )
3x 2 + 4 x + 1 dx
1 3 2
x + 2 x2 + x
=
3  −1
1 3 1
( 2 ) + 2 ( 2 ) + ( 2 ) − ( −1) + 2 ( −1) + ( −1)
2 3 2
=
3   3  
=6
( )
1 3 2 2
3.=RMS ∫
3 −1 1
x + 3 dx
=
1 3 4
∫
2 1
(
x + 6 x 2 + 9 dx )
3
1  x5 
=  + 2x + 9x
3
2 5  1
1  ( 3)  1  (1)5 
5
+ 2 ( 3) + 9 ( 3)  −  + 2 (1) + 9 (1)
3 3
= 
2 5  2  5 

1 1
= (129,6 ) − (11, 2 )
2 2
= 7,69
MAT2691 133
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Module 2 Unit 11
1
1
1 − 0 ∫0 (
400sin 200πt ) dt
2
=
4. RMS 100
100
( )
1
100 100
=
1 ∫ 0
160000sin 2 200πt dt
(100 ) (16 × 104 ) . ∫ 0100 (1 − cos 400πt ) dt

1
1
=
2
1
( 
= 8 × 106 t −
1
 400π
)  100
sin 400πt 
0
  1  
= (
8 × 106   −) 1
  100  400π
 1  
sin 400π    − ( 0 ) −
 100   
1
400π
sin 400π ( 0 ) 

=
(8 × 106 )
100
= 282,8
5. First find
dy
dx
: y = 10cosh ( 10x )
 1
dy
dx
= 10   sinh
 10 
( 10x )
= sinh ( 10x )
( ( 10x ))
2
s ⌠
2
=  1 + sinh dx
⌡−1
( 10x ) dx
2
=⌠ cosh 2
⌡−1
( 10x ) dx
2
= ∫ cosh
−1
= 10sinh ( 10 )
2
x 
  −1
= 10 sinh
 ( ( ) ) − 10 sinh ( ( ) )
2
10
−1
10
 e0.2 − e −0.2 e −0.1 − e0.1 

= 10  − 
 2 2
 
= 10 ( 0.201336 − ( −0.1001667 ) )
= 3.015 units
134 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 11
dy x2
6. First find : =y − n x
dx 8
dy 2 x 1
= −
dx 8 x
x2 − 4
=
4x
2
⌠  x2 − 4 
2
=s  1+ 
 4 x 
dx
  
⌡1
2
⌠ x 4 − 8 x 2 + 16
=  1+ dx
⌡1 16 x 2
2
⌠ x 4 − 8 x 2 + 16 x 2 + 16
= dx
⌡1 16 x 2
2
⌠ x 4 + 8 x 2 + 16
= dx
⌡1 16 x 2
(x )
2 2
⌠ 2
+4
= dx
 16 x 2
⌡1
2
⌠ x +4
2
= dx
⌡1 4 x
2
⌠ x 1
=   +  dx
⌡1  4 x 
2
 x2 
=  + n x 
 8 1
 ( 2 )2   (1)2 
=  + n ( 2 )  −  + n (1) 
 8   8 
= 1,193 − 0,125
= 1, 068 units
MAT2691 135
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Module 2 Unit 11

π
1
1. M=
π ∫ 0
2 sin 2 3 x dx
−0
2
π
2 1 2
(1 − cos 6 x ) dx
π 2 ∫0
= .
π
1 1 2
=  x − sin 6 x 
π 6 0
1  π  1  π  1  1 
=    − sin 6    − ( 0 ) − sin 6 ( 0 )
π  2  6  2  π  6 
1
=
2
1 π
=
2. M ∫ ( 3sin 2 x − cos 3x ) dx
π−0 0
π
1 3 1 
= − cos 2 x − sin 3x 
π 2 3 0
1 3 1  1 3 1 
=  − cos 2 ( π ) − sin 3 ( π ) −  − cos 2 ( 0 ) − sin 3 ( 0 )
π 2 3  π 2 3 
1  3 1  3
= − − −
π  2  π  2 
=0
1 π
=
3. RMS ∫ ( sin x + 2 cos x )2 dx
π−0 0
=
1 π
π ∫0
(
sin 2 x + 4sin x cos x + 4 cos2 x dx)
=
1 π
π ∫ 0
( )
sin 2 x + 4sin x cos x + 4 − 4sin 2 x dx
1 π
∫
π 0
(
4sin x cos x + 4 − 3sin 2 x dx )
1 π 3 
= ∫  4 + 2 ( 2sin x cos x ) − (1 − cos 2 x )  dx
π 0 2 
1 π 5 
= ∫
π 2
0  + 2sin 2 x + cos 2 x  dx

136 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 11
π
1 5 sin 2 x 
RMS=  x − cos 2 x +
π 2 2  0
1  5  
=   π − cos 2π + 0  − ( 0 − cos 2 ( 0 ) + 0 )
π  2  
5
=
2
3 2
1 ⌠  1 
4. RMS =    dx
3−0
⌡  1+ x
2

0
3
1 ⌠  1 
=    dx
3 ⌡0  1 + x 2 
1
= [arc tan x ] 0 3
3
=
1 
3
( )
arc tan 3 − ( arc tan 0 )

1
= (1,047 ) − ( 0 )
3
= 0,777
3
dy
5. First find : y = x2
dx
1
dy 3 2
= x
dx 2
4
⌠3  1
2
=s  1 +  23 x 2  dx
  
⌡0  
4
⌠3 9x
=  1+ dx
⌡0 4
4
 3 3
 1 + 9x 2

 4  
4  
= . 
3
9 2 
 
 0
MAT2691 137
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Module 2 Unit 11
4
 3 3
  
s  1 +
8 9 x 2
= 
 27  4  
  0
 3
 3
 8  9 43
=  1 +
( )  
2
8  9 (0)  
  −   1 +
2

 27  4   27  4  
  
   
8
= (8 − 1)
27
= 2,0741 units
dy
6. First find :
dx
y 0.5
0.25
y 2 x ( x − 1)
2
3=
0
x
=y ( x − 1) 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
3 x
1
1 1 −2
-0.25
dy x
= . x ( x − 1) + (1)
dx 3 2 3
-0.5
x −1 x
= +
2 3x 3
x −1 + 2x
=
2 3x
3x − 1
=
2 3x
1
⌠  3x − 1 
2
=s  1+   dx
  2 3x 
⌡0
1
⌠ 9 x2 − 6x + 1
=  1+ dx
⌡0 12 x
1
⌠ 9 x 2 − 6 x + 12 x + 1
= dx
⌡0 12 x
1
⌠ 9 x2 + 6x + 1
= dx
⌡0 12 x
138 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 11
( 3x + 1)2
1
1 ⌠
s=  dx
12 ⌡0 x
1 ⌠ 1 3x + 1
=  dx
2 3 ⌡0 x
1
1 ⌠  1 
=  3 x +  dx
2 3 ⌡0  x
1
 3 1
1  3x 2 x2 
=  +
1 
s
2 3  32 2
 0
1
 3 1
1  6x 2 
=  3 + 2x 
2
2 3 
 0
 3   3 
=
1  6 (1) 2 1

+ 2 (1) 2  −
1  6 ( 0 ) 2 1

+ 2 (0) 2 
2 3 3 2 3 3
   
= 1,155 units
As can be seen from the graph, the perimeter of the loop is twice the arc length and
thus equal to 2.31 units.
You have now completed Learning Unit 11: Applications

• Calculate the mean value of a function
• Calculate the root mean square value of a function
• Calculate the length of an arc of a curve
We now move on to Learning Unit 12: Numerical Integration.
MAT2691 139
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MODULE 2 NUMERICAL METHODS
LEARNING UNIT 12 Numerical Integration
OUTCOMES
• Apply the Trapezoidal rule
• Apply Simpson’s rule
• Apply the Mid-ordinate rule
to approximate the value of a definite integral and to calculate an area.
CONTENTS
1. NUMERICAL INTEGRATION 141

1.1 The Trapezoidal Rule 141
1.2 Simpson’s Rule 144
1.3 The Mid-ordinate Rule 145
2. POST-TEST 4 147
3. RESPONSES 148
3.1. Response 1 148
3.2. Response 2 149
3.3. Response 3 149
140 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 12
NUMERICAL METHODS: Numerical Integration
1. NUMERICAL INTEGRATION
1.1. The Trapezoidal Rule
Suppose we want to find the area under some curve, described by y = f ( x ) .

Assume we want to find the area under the curve, above the x -axis, and between
the lines x = a and x = b , with a < b .
y = f ( x)
x=a x=b
b−a
Divide the interval [ a, b ] into n equal parts of length and determine the value of
n
the function at each of these points. The total area is thus divided into n different
areas, each with the same base length. The area of each of the smaller parts is
approximated by that of a trapezium.
f (x )
(x )
1
f 0
f (x )
n
x x x x xn − 2 xn −1 xn
0 1 2 3
MAT2691 141
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Module 2 Unit 12
Consider the following:
xi −1 xi
Replace arc PQ with the straight line PQ to obtain a trapezium. The area of this
trapezium is the sum of the area of a rectangle and the area of a triangle:
1
= f ( xi −1 ) [ xi − xi −1 ] +  f ( xi ) − f ( xi −1 )  [ xi − xi −1 ]
Area
2
1
= f ( xi ) + f ( xi −1 )  [ xi − xi −1 ]
2
1 b − a 
=  f ( xi ) + f ( xi −1 )   
2  n 
If we now sum the areas of all the trapeziums we find the approximation of the total
area.
The trapezoidal rule states that:
1 b − a 
=
Total area  f ( x0 ) + 2 f ( x1 ) + 2 + 2 f ( xn−1 ) + f ( xn ) 
2  n  
where x0 correspond with the lower limit and xn with the upper limit of the interval.
Note: The lower limit can be any number, it is not always zero. Read the questions
carefully.
EXAMPLE 1
Use the Trapezoidal rule with n = 6 to approximate the area under the curve y = x3
between x = 0 and x = 2 .
Solution:
=
Given n 6,=a 0 and=b 2:
b−a 2−0 1
thus = =
n 6 3
142 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 12
Now calculate the values:=

x0 0 f (=
x0 ) 0=
3
0
3
( x1 ) =
1 1 1
=
x1 f= 
3  3 27
3
( x2 ) =
2 2 8
=
x2 f= 
3  3 27
=
x3 1 ( x3 )
f= (1=
)3 1
3
( x4 ) =
4 4 64
=
x4 f= 
3  3 27
3
( x5 ) =
5 5  125
=
x5 f= 
3  3 27
=
x6 2 ( x6 )
f= (=
2)
3
8
Instead of writing all the values out as above, compile a table:

x0 x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6
xi 0 1 2 1 4 5 2
3 3 3 3
f ( xi ) = ( xi ) 0 1 8
3 1 8 64 125
27 27 27 27
1 b − a 
=
2  n  
1 1    1   8   64   125  
=    0 + 2   + 2   + 2 (1) + 2   + 2   + 8
2 3   27   27   27   27  
1 2 16 128 250 
=  0+ + +2+ + + 8
6 27 27 27 27 
2 3
∫ 0 x dx ≈ 4.111
Note: ≈ means approximately
We can check how good this approximation is by calculating the exact value of the
integral directly:
2 3  x4 
2
 ( 2 )4 
∫ =
x dx  =  − 0= 4
 
0
 4 0 4
MAT2691 143
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Module 2 Unit 12
ACTIVITY 1:
1. Use the Trapezoidal rule with n = 6 to approximate the area under the
π
curve y = sin x between x = 0 and x = .
2
2. Use the Trapezoidal rule with n = 4 to approximate the area under the
curve =
y 4 + x3 between x = 0 and x = 2 .
1.2. Simpson’s Rule
For this second approximation rule, we again divide the interval [ a, b ] into n equal
parts, but this time, n must be an even number. Instead of drawing a straight line, a
parabola is drawn through three consecutive points:
Parabola
x0 x1 x2
A lengthy algebraic manipulation will show that
1 b − a 
f ( x ) dx  f ( x0 ) + 4 f ( x1 ) + f ( x2 ) 
x2
∫x =
0 3  n  
Doing this for each subinterval leads to Simpson’s rule:
1 b − a 
Total=
area [ f ( x0 ) + 4 f ( x1 ) + 2 f ( x2 ) + 4 f ( x3 ) + 2 f ( x4 ) +
3  n 
2 + 2 f ( xn−2 ) + 4 f ( xn−1 ) + f ( xn )]
EXAMPLE 2
Use Simpson’s rule with n = 6 to approximate the area under the curve y = x3
144 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 12
Solution:
We have the same values as in Example 1:
x0 x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6
xi 0 1 2 1 4 5 2
3 3 3 3
f ( xi ) = ( xi ) 0 1 8
3 1 8 64 125
27 27 27 27
1 b − a 
=
Total area [ f ( x0 ) + 4 f ( x1 ) + 2 f ( x2 ) + 2 + 2 f ( xn−2 ) + 4 f ( xn−1 ) + f ( xn )]
3  n 
1 1    1   8   64   125  
=    0 + 4   + 2   + 4 (1) + 2   + 4   + 8
3 3   27   27   27   27  
1 4 16 128 500 
=  0+ + +4+ + + 8
9 27 27 27 27 
2 3
∫ 0 x dx = 4
This is exactly the same value as the exact value and thus a better approximation.
ACTIVITY 2:
1. Use Simpson’s rule with n = 6 to approximate the area under the curve
π
y = sin x between x = 0 and x = .
2
2. Use Simpson’s rule with n = 4 to approximate the area under the curve
=
1.3. The Mid-ordinate Rule
For this third approximation rule, we again divide the interval [ a, b ] into n equal parts,
but this time we make use of the value of the function at the midpoint mi of each
strip.
The Mid-ordinate rule states:
b − a 
=
Total area   f ( m1 ) + f ( m2 ) + 2 + f ( mn−1 ) + f ( mn ) 
 n 
MAT2691 145
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Module 2 Unit 12
EXAMPLE 3
Use the Mid-ordinate rule with n = 6 to approximate the area under the curve y = x3
Solution:
Start by calculating the midpoint and the values at the midpoints:
x0 = 0
3+0
3
1 1 1 1 1 1
=x1 =m1 = =
f   =
3 2 6 6 6 216
3+ 3
3
2 2 1
3 3 3 27
=x2 =
m2 = =
f   =
3 2 6 6 6 216
1+ 23 5 5 5 125
3
=x3 1 =
m3 = =
f   =
2 6 6 6 216
3 +1
3
4 4 7 7 7 343
=x4 =
m4 = =
f   =
3 2 6 6 6 216
3+ 3
3
5 4 9 5
9 9 729
=x5 =m5 = =
f    =
3 2 6 6 6 216
2 + 53 11
3
 11   11  1331
=x6 2 =
m6 = f=
  = 
2 6 6 6 216
b − a 
=
Total area    f ( m1 ) + f ( m2 ) + 2 + f ( mn−1 ) + f ( mn ) 
 n 
1 1 27 125 343 729 1331 
=  + + + + + 
3  216 216 216 216 216 216 
≈ 3.944
ACTIVITY 3:
1. Use the Mid-ordinate rule with n = 6 to approximate the area under the
π
curve y = sin x between x = 0 and x = .
2
2. Use the Mid-ordinate rule with n = 4 to approximate the area under the
curve =
146 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 12
2. POST-TEST 4
1. Use the Trapezoidal rule with n = 5 to approximate the area under the curve
1
y = between x = 1 and x = 2 .
x
1
2. Use Simpson’s rule with n = 6 to approximate the area under the curve y =
x
3. Use the Mid-ordinate rule with n = 5 to approximate the area under the curve
1
y = between x = 1 and x = 2 .
x
4
4. a) Evaluate ∫1 n x dx , correct to 4 significant figures, using:
i) the trapezoidal rule,
ii) the mid-ordinate rule,
iii) Simpson’s rule,
each using 6 intervals.
b) Determine the percentage error in the three approximate answers above

compared with that obtained by integration.
  approximate value - exact value  
Percentage error =   × 100% 
  exact value  
5. A tunnel 100 m long has a square cross-section. The height of the tunnel at
distance x from one end is shown in the table. Use the trapezoidal rule to
estimate the volume of earth removed during the construction of the tunnel.
x (m) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Height (m) 4 3.83 3.71 3.80 3.92 3.97 4.04 4.21 4.31 4.23 4.17
MAT2691 147
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Module 2 Unit 12
3. RESPONSES
3.1. Response 1
1. Given=
n 6,=
a 0 and=
b π
2
π
b−a
Thus = = 2−0 π
n 6 12
=x0 0 f ( x0 ) sin
= = 0 0
π π
=x1 =f ( x1 ) sin
=   0.258819
12  12 
2π  2π 
=x2 f ( x2 ) sin
= =   0.5
12  12 
3π  3π 
=x3 f ( x3 ) sin
= =   0.7071067
12  12 
4π  4π 
=x4 f ( x4 ) sin
= =   0.8660254
12  12 
5π  5π 
=x5 f ( x5 ) sin
= =   0.9659258
12  12 
6π  6π 
=x6 f ( x6 ) sin
= =   1
12  12 
1 b − a 
=
2  n  
1π
= 0 + 2 ( 0.258819 ) + 2 ( 0.5 ) + 2 ( 0.7071067 ) + 2 ( 0.8660254 ) + 2 ( 0.9659258 ) + 1
2 12  
π
= [ 7.5957538]
24
≈ 0.9943
2. =
Given n 4,=a 0,=b 2
b−a 2−0 1
Thus = =
n 4 2
f ( x0 ) = 4 + ( 0 ) =2
3
x0 =0
3
1 1
x1 = f ( x1 ) =4 +   =2.0310096
2 2
f ( x2 ) = 4 + (1) =2.236068
3
x2 =1
148 MAT2691
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Module 2 Unit 12
3
3  3
x3 = f ( x3 ) =4 +   =2.7156951
2 2
f ( x4 ) = 4 + ( 2 ) =3.4641016
3
x4 =2
1 b − a 
=
2  n  
1 1
=  2 + 2 ( 2.0310096 ) + 2 ( 2.236068 ) + 2 ( 2.7156951) + 3.4641016 
2  2  
1
= [19.429647 ]
4
≈ 4.857
3.2. Response 2
1. Using the values from response 1, no. 1:

1 b − a 
=
3  n 
1 π 
= 0 + 4 ( 0.258819 ) + 2 ( 0.5 ) + 4 ( 0.7071067 ) + 2 ( 0.8660254 ) + 4 ( 0.9659258 ) + 1
3 12  
π
= [11.459457 ]
36
≈1
2. Using the values from response 1, no. 2:

1 b − a 
=
3  n 
1 1
=  2 + 4 ( 2.0310096 ) + 2 ( 2.236068 ) + 4 ( 2.7156951) + 3.4641016 
3  2  
1
= [ 28.923056]
6
≈ 4.82
3.3. Response 3
1. x0 = 0
π
=
π
= 12 + 0
=
π
=
 π 
f   sin=
 π 
x1 m1   0.1305261
12 2 24  24   24 
2π π
=
2π
= 12 + 12
=
3π
=
 3π 
f   sin=
 3π 
x2 m2   0.3826834
12 2 24  24   24 
MAT2691 149
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Module 2 Unit 12
3π 2π
=
3π
= 12 + 12
=
5π
=
 5π 
f   sin=
 5π 
x3 m3   0.6087614
12 2 24  24   24 
4π 3π
=
4π
= 12 + 12
=
7π
=
 7π 
f   sin=
 7π 
x4 m4   0.7933533
12 2 24  24   24 
5π 4π
=
5π
= 12 + 12
=
9π
=
 9π 
f   sin=
 9π 
x5 m5   0.9238795
12 2 24  24   24 
6π 6π + 5
= = m6 = 12 12 11π =f
 11π 
=
 11π 
x6  sin   0.9914448
12 2 24  24   24 
b − a 
=
 n 
π
= ( 0.1305261 + 0.3826834 + 0.6087614 + 0.7933533 + 0.9238795 + 0.9914448)
12
≈ 1.003
2. x0 = 0
3
1 1 +0 1 1 1
x1 = m1 =2 = f   =4 +   =2.0039024
2 2 4 4 4
3
1+ 1 3  3  3
x2 =
1 m2 = 2 = f   =4 +   =2.1028255
2 4 4 4
3
3 3 +1 5 5 5
x3 = m3 =2 = f   =4 +   =2.4399027
2 2 4 4 4
3
2+ 3 7 7 7
x4 =2 m4 = 2 = f   =4 +   =
3.0593096
2 4 4 4
b − a 
=
 n 
1
= ( 2.0039024 + 2.1028255 + 2.4399027 + 3.0593096 )
2
≈ 4.803
1. Given=
n 5,= a 1,=
b 2
b − a 2 −1 1
Thus = =
n 5 5
1
=
x0 1 f (=
x0 ) = 1
(1)
6 1 5
=
x1 f (=
x1 ) =
5 ( 5) 6
6
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Module 2 Unit 12
7 1 5
=
x2 f (=
x2 ) =
5 ( 75 ) 7
8 1 5
=
x3 x3 )
f (= =
5 ( 5) 8
8
9 1 5
=
x4 x4 )
f (= =
5 ( 5) 9
9
1 1
=
x5 2 x5 )
f (= =
(2) 2
1 b − a 
=
Total area  f ( x0 ) + 2 f ( x1 ) + 2 + 2 f ( xn−1 ) + f ( xn ) 
2  n  
1 1   5   5   5  5 1
=   1+ 2  + 2  + 2  + 2  + 
2 5   6   7   8   9  2
1
= [6.9563492]
10
≈ 0.6956
2. Given=
n 6,= a 1,=
b 2
b − a 2 −1 1
Thus = =
n 6 6
1
=
x0 1 ( x0 )
f= = 1
(1)
7 1 6
=x1 ( x1 )
f= =
6 (76) 7
8 1 6
=
x2 ( x2 )
f= =
6 ( 86 ) 8
9 1 6
=
x3 ( x3 )
f= =
6 ( 6) 9
9
10 1 6
=
x4 ( x4 )
f= =
6 (10 6 ) 10
11 1 6
=
x5 ( x5 )
f= =
6 (116 ) 11
1 1
=
x6 2 ( x6 )
f= =
( 2) 2
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1 b − a 
=
3  n 
1 1   6   6   6   6   6  1
=   1+ 4  + 2  + 4  + 2  + 4  + 
3 6   7   8   9   10   11  2 
1
= [12.477056]
18
≈ 0.693
6 6 +1 11  11  1 10
3. =
x1 =
m1 5 = f =  =
5 2 10  10  11
10 11
7 7 + 6 5 13  13  1 10
=
x2 =
m2 5 = f=  =
5 2 10  10  13 13
10
8 8 + 7 5 15  15  1 10
=
x3 =
m3 5 = f=  =
5 2 10  10  15 15
10
9 9 + 8 5 17  17  1 10
=
x4 =
m4 5 = f=  =
5 2 10  10  17
10 17
2 + 95 19  19  1 10
=
x5 2 =
m5 = f=  =
2 10  10  19
10 19
b − a 
=
Total area    f ( m1 ) + f ( m2 ) + 2 + f ( mn−1 ) + f ( mn ) 
 n 
1  10 10 10 10 10 
=  + + + + 
5  11 13 15 17 19 
≈ 0.692
4. a)
i) The Trapezoidal rule, with 6 intervals, each will have a width of
6 = 0.5
4−1
Compile a table of values:

x 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
n x 0 0.4055 0.6931 0.9163 1.0986 1.2528 1.3863
∫1 n x dx ≈ ( 0.5)  12 ( 0 + 1.3863) + 0.4055 + 0.6931 + 0.9163 + 1.0986 + 1.2528

4
= 2.530 correct to 4 significant figures.
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(ii) Mid-ordinate rule

Each mid-ordinate will occur at 1.25 1.75 2.25 2.75 3.25 and 3.75.
x 1.25 1.75 2.25 2.75 3.25 3.75
n x 0.2231 0.5596 0.8109 1.0116 1.1787 1.3218
Thus
∫1 n x dx ≈ ( 0.5)( 0.2231 + 0.5596 + 0.8109 + 1.0116 + 1.1787 + 1.3218)

4
(iii) Simpson’s rule

Using the table for part (i) above
∫1 n x dx ≈ 13 ( 0.5) ( 0 + 1.3863) + 4 ( 0.4055 + 0.9163 + 1.2528) + 2 ( 0.6931 + 1.0986)
4
b) Using integration by parts

 x ( n x − 1) 1
4
∫1 =
4
n x dx
=  4 ( n 4 − 1)  − 1 ( n1 − 1) 
 2.530 - 2.545 
For trapezoidal rule: Percentage error =   × 100%
 2.545 
= -0.589%
 2.553 - 2.545 
For mid-ordinate rule: Percentage error =   × 100%
 2.545 
= 0.314%
Using Simpson’s Rule, the exact value is obtained to 4 significant figures.
5. Ask yourself what the Trapezoidal rule is used for? We use it mainly to
calculate areas. Calculation of irregular areas is an application of integration.
Therefore, this rule is used to find a numerical answer to a definite integral.
Here we want to find a volume. In general, a volume is equal to the basis area
times distance.
For this tunnel, if the cross-section area at distance x is A ( x ) , then the volume
of a “slice” of thickness dx is A ( x ) dx .
A ( x ) dx . We need to find the value of A ( x ) for every x .

100
The total volume is ∫0
We have a square cross-section so Area = ( height )
2
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Module 2 Unit 12
x0 )
x0 ) f (=
A (= 4)
(= 2
=
x0 0 16
=x1 10 A= ( x1 )
( x1 ) f= ( 3.83
= )2 14.6689
=x2 20 A= ( x2 )
( x2 ) f= ( 3.71
= )2 13.7641
=x3 30 A= ( x3 )
( x3 ) f= ( 3.80
= )2 14.4400
=x4 40 A= ( x4 ) 15.3664
( x4 ) f=
=x5 50 A= ( x5 ) 15.7609
( x5 ) f=
=x6 60 A= ( x6 ) 16.3216
( x6 ) f=
=x7 70 A= ( x7 ) 17.7241
( x7 ) f=
=x8 80 A= ( x8 ) 18.5762
( x8 ) f=
x9 = 90 A= ( x9 ) 17.8929
( x9 ) f=
=
x10 100 A= ( x10 ) 17.3889
( x10 ) f=
1 b − a 
=
Volume  f ( x0 ) + 2 f ( x1 ) + 2 + 2 f ( xn −1 ) + f ( xn ) 
2  n  
1  100 − 0 
= 16 + 2 (144.5051) + 17.3889 
2  10  
= 1612 m3
You have now completed Learning Unit 12. Numerical Integration

• Apply the Trapezoidal rule
• Apply Simpson’s rule
• Apply the Mid-ordinate rule
to approximate the value of a definite integral and to calculate an area.
You have now completed Module 2: Integration. Please ensure you have actively
engaged with all the Learning Units and have achieved the outcomes stated in each
Learning Unit.
We will now move on to Module 3: Linear Algebra.
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MODULE 3 LINEAR ALGEBRA
LEARNING UNIT 1 Matrices: Definition and
Classification
OUTCOMES

• Determine the order of matrices
• Classify matrices
• Give the transpose of matrices
CONTENTS
1. MATRICES 156
1.1 Definition of a matrix 156
1.2 Classification of matrices 158
2. POST-TEST 1 162
3. RESPONSES 163
3.1. Response 1 163
3.2. Response 2 163
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LINEAR ALGEBRA: Matrices: Definition and Classification
1. MATRICES
1.1. Definition of a matrix
A matrix can be regarded as a rectangular arrangement of a number of elements.
For example
2 3 6 1
 
1 1
1
0
2 4 
3 2 8 5
 
is a matrix with 3 rows and 4 columns.
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4

 2 3 6 1 
Row 1  
1 1
Row 2  1 0 
 2 4 
Row 3  
3 2 8 5
 
The horizontal lines are called rows and the vertical lines columns. The number of
rows is always given first and then the number of columns.
Since this matrix has 3 rows and 4 columns, we say the order of this matrix is 3 × 4 .
The elements of a matrix can assume any form. It can be real or complex numbers,
or algebraic expressions.
A matrix can be used to summarise information as can be seen in the following

example.
Example 1:
The following information about four persons was obtained in a survey.

Person X: 33 years; 52 kilogram; eyes blue; trained
Person Y: 23 years; 58 kilogram; eyes blue; untrained
Person Z: 28 years; 60 kilogram; eyes green; trained
Person T: 30 years; 59 kilogram; eyes brown; trained
Suppose eye colour is coded as follows:
Blue = 1; Green = 2; Brown = 3
Suppose training is coded as follows:
Trained = 1; Untrained = 0
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The information can be reproduced in matrix form as a 4 × 4 matrix:

 33 52 1 1 
 23 58 1 0
 
 28 60 2 1 
 
30 59 3 1 
Each row in the matrix represents one of the persons in the data set.
For example: the information of person Z who is mentioned third is in the third row.
Each column contains one of the variables which were determined for each person.
For example: the second variable (mass) is in the second column.
Matrices are very useful because they enable us to consider an arrangement of a

large number of elements as a single symbol and then to perform calculations with
these symbols in a very compact form. This mathematical "shorthand" is very
powerful and effective for solving various practical problems. If the number of
observations and number of variables increase, the matrices become more and
more tedious to manipulate manually. In practice, computer packages are generally
used. However, it is necessary for the intelligent user to understand the method and
theory behind the computer solutions.
Formally, a matrix can be defined as follows:
A matrix with m rows and n columns (order m × n ) is an arrangement

of mn elements in a rectangular array, which is usually enclosed with
rectangular brackets and denoted by a single letter. For example:
 a11 a12 2 a1n 
a a22 2 a2 n 
 21 
A=  . . . 
 . . . 

 am1 am 2 2 amn 
where aij is any real or complex number.
The element aij is a typical element of the matrix A . The first subscript i refers to
the row in which the element occurs and the second subscript j to the column.
Two matrices are equal if they equal one another element for element, that is
A = B if aij = bij for each i and j that occur.
Example 2:
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Module 3 Unit 1
 1 0 3
If B =   find b13 and b22
 4 2 1 
Solution:
 1 0 3  b11 b12 b13 

=B =   thus b13 = 3 and b22 = 2
 4 2 1 b21 b22 b23 
ACTIVITY 1:
Give the order of each of the following matrices:
0 5
 1
1. A =  −1  and write down a12
 2
 4 0 
 1 0.3 2 
2. B=  and write down b22
 0.9 2 3.2 
1 1
3. C= 0 and write down c13
2 4 
2
4. D =  1  and write down d 31
 
 3
2 i 4
5. E=  and write down e12
 3 e 5 
1.2. Classification of matrices
Matrices can be classified according to the specific format in which they are
expressed. In order to classify a matrix, we must take note of the following types of
matrices that can occur.
 Row matrix
A set of n elements arranged in a row is a matrix of order 1 × n and is called a
row matrix or a row vector.
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Example: A = [1 3 4]
 Column matrix
A set of m elements arranged in a column is a matrix of order m × 1 and is called
a column matrix or a column vector.
3
Example: D = 1 
 
5
 1×1 matrix
A matrix with only one row and one column is called a scalar and is nothing more
than an ordinary number.
Example: [3]
 Square matrix
A matrix is called square if the number of rows equals the number of columns.
 2 3 1
Example: B = 3 4 6

 
 2 8 1
 Diagonal matrix
A square matrix in which all the elements are zeros, expect those on the
diagonal, is called a diagonal matrix.
1 0 0 
Example: C = 0 3 0
 
0 0 2 
 Null matrix
A matrix in which all the elements are zero is called a null matrix.
0 0 0
Example: G = 0 0 0
 
0 0 0
 Identity matrix
A square matrix with ones on the diagonal and zeros everywhere else is called
an identity matrix. For the n × n identity matrix, the notation is I n .
1 0 0
Example: I 3 = 0 1 0
 
0 0 1
 Symmetric matrix
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Module 3 Unit 1
th th
A square matrix is called symmetric if the i row equals the i column for all
the rows and columns.
1 0 5 
Example: S = 0 6 9 
 
 5 9 4 
 Transpose of a matrix
The transpose of a matrix is obtained by switching the rows and the columns of
the matrix around.
2 7
4
6 2 6 1 9
9
8
Example: If X =   then the transpose X T =  4 8 0 7 
1 3
0  
 
 
8 
7 9 3 8
9 7
where the transpose of matrix X is denoted by XT.
 Lower triangular matrix

A square matrix of which all the elements above the diagonal equal zero is called
a lower triangular matrix.
2 0 0 0
9 5 0 0
Example: R= 
8 7 5 0
6 7 
 4 3
 Upper triangular matrix

A square matrix of which all the elements below the diagonal equal zero is called
an upper triangular matrix.
 2 4 3
Example: T =  0 9 5
 
 0 0 5
ACTIVITY 2:
Classify each of the following matrices and also give the transpose of each:
 23 45 76 70 52 
 21 4 3 2
87 90 45 56
1. A=   2. B =  3 2 5
56 45 67 55 31  
 45  2 5 6 
 31 43 64 81
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Module 3 Unit 1
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0
3. C = 0 0 0 4. D= 
  0 0 1 0
  0 1
0 0 0
 0 0
1 0 0
 3 0
5. E=  6. F =  2 3 0
0 2   
 4 6 7 
7. G = [2 3 5]
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2. POST-TEST 1
1. Given:
 −2 0 1 
 0 2  0 −2 2 
=A =  B =  C 0 3 0
 −4 2   −1 1 0   
 1 3 −1
 2 −4 
= 1 −1 0
D 0 0 G  
  1 0 3
 1 1 
Determine the order of each matrix, classify each and write down the transpose
of each.
2. For 5 days, the following weather conditions were measured and recorded.
Irrespective of whether the sun shone or not, whether there were clouds or not,
whether the wind blew or not, the maximum temperatures and the amount of
rainfall was:
Day 1: sunshine; no clouds; wind blows; 22° C; 0 mm.
Day 2: sunshine; clouds; wind blows; 21° C; 0 mm.
Day 3: no sunshine; clouds; wind blows; 20° C; 0 mm.
Day 4: no sunshine; clouds; wind does not blow; 18° C; 2 mm.
Day 5: sunshine; no clouds; no wind; 21° C; 0 mm.
Codify the information where necessary and compile a matrix to represent the
information. Let the rows represent the days.
 a b − c + t  1 2 
Find the values a , b, c and t from the equation  =
c − 1  0 1 
3.
t − c
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3. RESPONSES
3.1. Response 1
1. Order 3 × 2 a12 =5
2. Order 2 × 3 b22 =2
1
3. Order 1 × 3 c13 =
4
4. Order 3 × 1 d 31 =
3
5. Order 2 × 3 e12 =i
3.2. Response 2
1. Matrix of order 4 × 5 ,
 23 21 56 45
 45 87 45 31
 
AT = 76 90 67 43
70 45 55 64 

52 56 31 81
2. Square and symmetric
4 3 2
BT =  3 2 5
 
 2 5 6 
3. Square, symmetric and null matrix
0 0 0
C = 0 0 0
T
 
0 0 0
4. Square, symmetric, diagonal, identity matrix
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
D =
T 
0 0 1 0
0 1
 0 0
5. Square, symmetric and diagonal
 3 0
ET =  
0 2 
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6. Square and lower triangular
1 2 4 
F T = 0 3 6
 
0 0 7 
7. Row matrix
2
G T =  3
 
 5
1. A is a square matrix of order 2 × 2 .
0 − 4
AT =  
2 2 
B is a matrix of order 2 × 3 .
 0 −1
B T =  −2 1 
 
 2 0 
C is a square matrix of order 3 × 3 .
 −2 0 1 
C = 0 3 3 
T
 
 1 3 − 1
D is a matrix of order 3 × 2 .
 2 0 1
DT =  
 − 4 0 1
G is a matrix of order 2 × 3 .
 1 1
G T =  −1 0
 
 0 3
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Module 3 Unit 1
2. Suppose sunshine is coded as follows: no sunshine = 0, sunshine = 1

Suppose clouds are coded as follows: no clouds = 0, clouds = 1
Suppose wind is coded as follows: wind does not blow = 0, wind blows = 1
It can be helpful to first compile a table.
Sunshine Cloud Wind Temperature Rainfall

°C mm
Day 1 1 0 1 22 0
Day 2 1 1 1 21 0
Day 3 0 1 1 20 0
Day 4 0 1 0 18 2
Day 5 1 0 0 21 0
We can now write down a 5 × 5 matrix to represent the data:

1 0 1 22 0
1 1 1 21 0
 
0 1 1 20 0
0 1 0 18 2 

1 0 0 21 0 
 a b − c + t  1 2 
Given  =
c − 1  0 1 
3.
t − c
Thus, comparing entries, we have:

a =1
b − c + t =2 (1)
t−c =0 (2)
c −1 = 1 ( 3)
From (3) c = 2
Into (2) gives t = 2
Into (1) gives b = 2
You have now completed Learning Unit 1: Matrices: Definition and Classification.
• Determine the order of matrices
• Classify matrices
• Give the transpose of matrices
We now move on to Learning Unit 2: Matrix Operations.
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LEARNING UNIT 2 Matrix Operations
OUTCOMES

• Add and subtract matrices
• Multiply scalars with matrices
• Multiply matrices with matrices
CONTENTS
1. MATRICES 166
1.1 Addition and subtraction of matrices 166
1.2 Scalar multiplication 167
1.3 Matrix multiplication 167
2. POST-TEST 2 173
3. RESPONSES 174
3.1. Response 1 174
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Module 3 Unit 2
LINEAR ALGEBRA: Matrix Operations
1. MATRICES
1.1. Addition and subtraction of matrices
In order to add or subtract matrices, the matrices under consideration must be of the
same order.
The sum of two matrices A and B , both of order n × p , with typical elements aij
and bij respectively, is a matrix of order n × p and is written as A + B with typical
element aij + bij .
EXAMPLE 1
 3 5 7 4 2 0 7 2
Find the sum of  4 6 1 3 and  1 0 8 3
   
 2 0 4 8   7 1 1 6 
Solution:
 3 5 7 4   2 0 7 2   5 5 14 6 
 4 6 1 3 +  1 0 8 3 = 5 6 9 6 
     
 2 0 4 8   7 1 1 6  9 1 5 14 
The difference between two matrices A and B , both of order n × p , with typical
elements aij and bij respectively, is a matrix of order n × p and is written as A − B
with typical element aij − bij .
EXAMPLE 2
 2 3 5
Find the difference between  4 6 8 and I
 
 4 8 1
Solution:
 2 3 5  2 3 5 1 0 0  1 3 5
4 6 = 8 − I  4 6 8 −  0 =
1 0 4 5 8
       
 4 8 1  4 8 1 0 0 1   4 8 0
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The same properties which apply to the addition of real numbers, also apply to the
addition of matrices. We will state the properties here without proof, namely:
1. A + B = B + A (commutative law)
2. A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C (associative law)
3. A + 0 = 0 + A, where 0 denotes the null matrix of the same order as A.
4. A + (-A) = 0, where 0 denotes the null matrix of the same order as A.
1.2. Scalar multiplication
A scalar is a quantity with no direction associated with it. Examples of scalars are
temperature and volume. The same definition as used in physics for a scalar holds.
They obey the usual rules of real numbers. The product of a scalar p with a m × n
matrix A is obtained by multiplying each element of A with the scalar p .
EXAMPLE 3
 2 3 5
Find 4 ×  4 6 8
 
 4 8 1
Solution:
 2 3 5  8 12 20
4 ×  4 6 8 = 16 24 32 
   
 4 8 1 16 32 4 
In general the following holds for scalar multiplication:

1. p(A + B) = pA + pB
2. (p + q)A = pA + q A
3. p (q A) = p q (A)
where A and B are matrices and p and q are scalars.
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1.3. Matrix multiplication
The product of matrices is only possible if the number of columns of the first matrix is
equal to the number of rows of the second matrix.
If a matrix A of order m × k is multiplied with a matrix B of order k × n , a new

matrix C of order m × n is obtained.
The elements of C are obtained by multiplying each element of the i th row of matrix
A with each corresponding element of the j th column of matrix B , and then adding
all these products. Algebraically, this is expressed as follows:
cij = ai1b1 j + ai 2b2 j + ai 3b3 j + ai 4b4 j + ... + aik b1k
EXAMPLE 4
 −1 0 − 2 1 
 2 3 −1 
Find   × 0 1 6 2
 0 5 −3  
 2 5 4 3
Solution:
Write down the order of each matrix to make sure multiplication is defined.
 −1 0 −2 1 
 2 3 −1  
 0 5 −3 ×  0 1 6 2 
 
 2 5 4 3
2×3 3× 4
The number of columns ( 3 ) of the first matrix is equal to the number of rows ( 3 ) of
the second matrix and therefore, the product is possible.
The answer would be a 2 × 4 matrix, we can name C:
 −1 0 − 2 1 
 2 3 −1  =  c11 c12 c13 c14 
× 0 1 6 2
 
 0 5 −3    c21 c22 c23 c24 
 2 5 4 3
2×3 3× 4 2×4
We then work out each element of the answer separately. With practice, and as you
gain more experience, it becomes unnecessary to write out the calculations. The
following calculations can be done in your head.
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 −1
c11 =[2 3 −1] ×  0  =2 ( −1) + 3 ( 0 ) + ( −1)( 2 ) =−4
 
 2 
0
c12 =[2 3 −1] × 1 =2 ( 0 ) + 3 (1) + ( −1)( 5) =−2
 
 5
 −2 
c13 = [2 3 −1] ×  6  = 2 ( −2 ) + 3 ( 6 ) + ( −1)( 4 ) = 10
 
 4 
1
c= [2 3 −1] ×  2=  2 (1) + 3 ( 2 ) + ( −1)( 3=) 5
14  
 3
 −1
c21 =[0 5 −3] ×  0  =0 ( −1) + 5 ( 0 ) + ( −3)( 2 ) =−6
 
 2 
0
c22 =[0 5 −3] × 1 =0 ( 0 ) + 5 (1) + ( −3)( 5) =−10
 
 5
1
=
c24 [0 5 −3] ×  2=  0 (1) + 5 ( 2 ) + ( −3)( 3=
) 1
 
 3
 −2 
c23 = [0 5 −3] ×  6  = 0 ( −2 ) + 5 ( 6 ) + ( −3)( 4 ) = 18
 
 4 
 c11 c12 c13 c14 

Thus C = 
 c21 c22 c23 c24 
 ( −2 + 0 − 2 ) ( 0 + 3 − 5) ( −4 + 18 − 4 ) ( 2 + 6 − 3) 
=
 (0 + 0 − 6) ( 0 + 5 − 15) ( 0 + 30 − 12 ) ( 0 + 10 − 9 )
 −4 −2 10 5
= 
 −6 −10 18 1
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ACTIVITY 1:
Determine the following:
 1 0 0 1 4 2 
1. 4  2 1 0 − 2  3 4 8 
   
 0 0 0 0 4 2 
2. A × E and E × A
1 0
 2 1 −3
if A =   and E =  −1 2 
1 2 4   
 3 −1
3. A × ( B + D ) and AB + AD
 −1 2
 2 1 −3
=if A =  , B  0  and D =  −1
1 2 4     
 2   1 
4. Comment on your answers in no. 2 and no. 3.
The following properties generally apply to the multiplication of matrices:

1. AI= IA= A
2. A=( BC ) (=AB ) C ABC
3. A ( B + C ) = AB + AC
4. ( A + B ) C =AC + BC
2
If A is a square matrix, it is possible to multiply the matrix with itself and A is defined
as: A = A. A
2
and similarly A = A. A. A
3
and so on.
EXAMPLE 5
2 4 2 4 2 4  4 20
If A =  =  then A2 =   
 0 3  0 3  0 3  0 9 
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Unlike scalar multiplication, in matrix multiplication, the product of two matrices can
equal the null matrix without either of the two matrices being a null matrix
themselves.
EXAMPLE 6
1 2 1 
[2 2 −2] 0 −2 1  =
[ 0 0 0]
1 0 2 
Note:
Some operations do not apply to matrices. Division of matrices is not defined.
This means that for matrices A, X and Y in the equation:
AX = AY
It does not imply that X = Y by dividing both sides by A .
We can, however, find that X = Y by multiplying with the inverse of A on both sides,
if we are dealing with square matrices. We will define the inverses of matrices in the
next Learning Unit.
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2. POST-TEST 2
1. Given:
 −2 0 1 
 0 2  0 −2 2 
=A =  B =  C 0 3 0
 −4 2   −1 1 0   
 1 3 −1
 2 −4 
= 1 −1 0
D 0 0 G  
  1 0 3
 1 1 
Determine which of the following are defined, and if so, find the answer:
1.1 2B − G
1.2 AB
1.3 BA
1.4 BD
1.5 2 AB − 2G
1.6 CDC
1.7 A2
1.8 2C + I
1.9 CBT
1.10 2 DT + B
2. Suppose A, B, C and D are the same matrices as in no. 1, determine the
orders of X and Y so that the following equations will be possible:
2.1 AX= B + Y
2.2 AX = YD
2.3 AX = CY
2.4 CX + DY =
0
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3. RESPONSES
3.1. Response 1
1 0 0 1 4 2
1. 4 2 1 0 − 2  3 4 8
   
 0 0 0 0 4 2 
4 0 0  2 8 4
= 8 4 0 −  6 8 16
   
 0 0 0  0 8 4 
 2 −8 −4 
=  2 −4 −16
 
 0 −8 −4 
1 0
 2 1 −3   = _ _ 
2. A× E =  × − 1 2
1 2 4     _ _ 
 3 −1
2×3 3× 2 2×2
 (2 − 1 − 9) ( 0 + 2 + 3) 
=
(1 − 2 + 12 ) ( 0 + 4 − 4 )
 −8 5 
= 
 11 0
1 0 _ _ _
 1 2 ×  − 
= _ _
2 1 3
E × A =−   _
  1 2 4   
 3 −1  _ _ _ 
3× 2 2×3 3× 3
 ( 2 + 0) (1 + 0 ) ( −3 + 0 ) 
= ( −2 + 2 ) ( −1 + 4 ) ( 3 + 8) 
 ( 6 − 1) (3 − 2) ( −9 − 4 )
 2 1 −3 
=  0 3 11 
 
 5 1 −13
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 −1  2   1 
3. B + D =  0  +  −1 =  −1
     
 2   1   3 
1
 2 1 −3    _ 
(B + D) 
A ×= =  × −1  
1 2 4     _ 
 3 
2×3 3 ×1 2 ×1
 (2 − 1 − 9) 
= 
(1 − 2 + 12 )
 −8 
= 
 11 
 −1 2
 2 1 −3    2 1 −3  
=
AB + AD   ×  0  +  1 2 4  ×  −1
 1 2 4   
 2   1 
2×3 3 ×1 2×3 3 ×1
 −8   0 
=  + 
 7  4
 −8 
= 
 11 
4. A × E ≠ E × A Matrix multiplication is not commutative.
A × ( B + D ) = AB + AD Matrix multiplication is associative over addition.
 0 −2 2  1 −1 0
1.1=
2B − G 2   − 1 0 3
 − 1 1 0   
 0 −4 4  1 −1 0
=   − 1 0 3
 − 2 2 0   
 −1 −3 4 
= 
 −3 2 −3
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 0 2   0 −2 2 
1.2=AB  × 
 −4 2   − 1 1 0 
2×2 2×3
 −2 2 0 
= 
 −2 10 −8
 0 −2 2   0 2 
=
1.3 BA  × 
 −1 1 0   −4 2 
2×3 2×3
The product is not defined, as the number of columns of B is not equal to the
number of rows of A.
 2 −4 
 0 −2 2  
=
1.4 BD   × 0 0
 −1 1 0   
 1 1 
2×3 3× 2
 2 2
= 
 −2 4 
 −2 2 0  1 −1 0
=
2 AB − 2G 2 
1.5  − 2 1 0 3
 −2 10 −8  
 −4 4 0   2 −2 0
=   −  2 0 6
 −4 20 −16   
 −6 6 0 
= 
 −6 20 −22 
1.6 C × D × C
3× 3 3× 2 3× 3
The product is not defined, as the number of columns of D is not equal to the
number of rows of C.
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 0 2  0 2
1.7=A2  × 
 −4 2   − 4 2 
2×2 2×2
 −8 4 
= 
 −8 −4 
 −2 0 1   1 0 0 
=
1.8 2C + I 2  0 3 0  + 0 1 0
   
 1 3 −1 0 0 1
3× 3 3× 3
 −3 0 2 
=0 7 0
 
 2 6 −1
 −2 0 1   0 −1
=
1.9 CBT  0 3 0  ×  −2 1 
   
 1 3 − 1  2 0 
3× 3 3× 2
 2 2
=  −6 3 
 
 −8 2 
 2 0 1  0 −2 2 
1.10 =
2 DT + B 2  + 
 −4 0 1  −1 1 0 
2×3 2×3
 4 −2 4 
= 
 −9 1 2 
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2.1 Y must be 2 × 3 because B is 2 × 3 .

X must be 2 × 3 because A is 2 × 2 and AX must be equal to a 2 × 3
matrix.
2.2 A X = Y D
( 2 × 2 ).( 2 × ? ) = ( ? × 3)( 3 × 2 )
Thus X must be 2 × 2 and Y must be 2 × 3
2.3 A X = C Y
( ) ( ) ( )( × ? )
2 × 2 . 2 × ? = 3 × 3 3
There is no answer to this question and therefore this equation is
never possible.
2.4 A X = Y D
( ) ( ) ( )( 2 )
2 × 3 . 2 × ? = ? × 3 3 ×
The unknown in this case can have any value as long as it is the
same in both cases. For example, X of the order 3 × 4 and Y of the
order 2 × 4 and then the null matrix will be of the order 3 × 4
You have now completed Learning Unit 2: Matrix Operations

• Add and subtract matrices
• Multiply scalars with matrices
• Multiply matrices with matrices
We now move on to Learning Unit 3: Inverses of Matrices.
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LEARNING UNIT 3 Inverses of Matrices
OUTCOMES

• Calculate the inverse of a matrix
CONTENTS
1. INVERSE OF A MATRIX 180

1.1 Determinants 180
1.2 Minors and co-factors 181
1.3 Adjoint of a matrix 182
2. POST-TEST 3 1886
3. RESPONSES 187
3.1. Response 1 187
3.2 Response 2 188
1. INVERSE OF A MATRIX
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LINEAR ALGEBRA: Inverses of Matrices
A matrix is called non-singular if another matrix exists such that the product of the
two matrices results in the identity matrix. This means that matrix A is non-singular
if a matrix B exists such that:
AB = I
The matrix B is called the inverse of the matrix A .
The inverse of a matrix is only defined for square matrices and is usually denoted by:
A−1
Thus: AA−1 = I
or also A−1 A = I
−1
Therefore, if A is of order n × n , then A is also of order n × n .
All square matrices do not necessarily have an inverse, but if an inverse does exist,
it is unique (a matrix therefore only has one inverse). The null matrix, for example,
does not have an inverse.
We need the concepts of minors and co-factors of a matrix, and the determinant
of a matrix to determine whether or not an inverse exists and to calculate the inverse
of a matrix if it does exist. (You would be wise to revise your Mathematics 1 notes.)
1.1 Determinants
The first step in the calculation of an inverse of a matrix is to find the determinant of
the matrix. If the determinant of a matrix is calculated as zero, such a matrix is
called singular and the inverse does not exist.
Determinants are only applicable to square matrices. The determinant of a matrix

X is denoted by X .
ACTIVITY 1:
Evaluate the following determinants:
3 1 1 −1
1. 2.
2 0.4 −1 1
−5 −6 7
1 2
3. 4. 8 −9 0
3 4
−3 4 2
1 −3 −1
5. 3 4 1
1 6 2
Remember to check response 1 on page 187
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1.2 Minors and Co-factors

To determine the inverse of a matrix A , the co-factor matrix C must first be
determined. The co-factor matrix C of a matrix A is the square matrix of the same
order as A , where each element aij is substituted by its co-factor cij .
The co-factor cij is defined as:

i+ j
cij = ( −1) M ij
where M ij is known as the minor of element aij , obtained by deleting row i and
column j of A and determining the determinant of the matrix that remains.
i+ j
The factor ( −1) is connected to the position of the element in the determinant. If
the sum of the row and the column is even, we multiply by +1, and if the sum is odd,
we multiply by -1. To make our calculations easier, we can make a grid of signs
connected to different size determinants:
+ − +
+ − − + −
− +  
 
 + − + 
2×2 3× 3
Using this, we then fill in the corresponding minors of each element to find the co-
factor matrix.
EXAMPLE 1
2 4 −4
Consider the determinant A = 5 6 7
1 2 4
The minor of the first element 2, that is, a11 , is found by crossing our the first row
2 4 −4
6 7
and the first column: 5 6 7 , so M 11 = = 24 − 14 = 10
2 4
1 2 4
The minor of element 7, that is, a23 , is found by crossing our the second row and the
2 4 −4
2 4
third column: 5 6 7 , so M 23 = =4−4=0
1 2
1 2 4
EXAMPLE 2
4 5
Determine the co-factor matrix of 
 −2 3
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Solution:
M 11 =
3 M 12 =
−2 M 21 =
5 M 22 =
4
+ −
Using the sign grid 
+ 
we find the co-factor matrix
−
 3 2
C= 
 −5 4 
1.3 Adjoint of a matrix
The adjoint matrix of A is the transpose of the co-factor matrix:
Adjoint A = C
T
EXAMPLE 3
 4 5
Determine the adjoint matrix of A =  
 −2 3
Solution:
 3 2
The co-factor matrix as determined in example 2 is C =  
 −5 4 
 3 −5
The adjoint is thus 2 4 
 
The inverse A−1 of a square matrix A is given by:
adjoint of A
A−1 =
A
Note: The inverse is defined only if A ≠ 0
EXAMPLE 4
 4 5
Determine the inverse of A =  
 −2 3
Solution:
4 5
=
A = 4 ( 3) − ( −2 )(=
5) 22
−2 3
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Use the adjoint of A as determined in Example 3.

adjoint of A
A−1 =
A
1  3 −5
=
22  2 4 
−1 4 5 1  3 −5
Check: A × A=  ×
 −2 3 22  2 4 
1  4 5  3 −5
=
22  −2 3  2 4 
1 0
= 
0 1
EXAMPLE 5
2 3 4
Determine the inverse of A =  5 6 7 
 
 8 9 0 
Solution:
First find the determinant:
2 3 4
A=5 6 7
8 9 0
6 7 3 5 7 4 5 6
= 2 ( −1) + 3 ( −1) + 4 ( −1)
2
9 0 8 0 8 9
= 2 6 ( 0 ) − 7 ( 9 ) − 3 5 ( 0 ) − 7 (8 ) + 4 5 ( 9 ) − 6 (8 )
= 2 ( −63) − 3 ( −56 ) + 4 ( −3)
= 30
A ≠ 0 thus, an inverse exists.
Co-factor matrix:
First find the minor of each element:
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Module 3 Unit 3
6 7 5 7 5 6
M 11 == −63 M 12 == −56 M 13 == −3
9 0 8 0 8 9
3 4 2 4 2 3
M 21 == −36 M 22 == −32 M 23 == −6
9 0 8 0 8 9
3 4 2 4 2 3
M 31 == −3 M 32 == −6 M 33 == −3
6 7 5 7 5 6
Using the grid of signs, we find the co-factor matrix
 −63 56 −3
=C  36 −32 6 
 
 −3 6 −3
Adjoint matrix:
 −63 36 −3
 56 −32 6 
 
 −3 6 −3
Inverse matrix:
 −63 36 −3
1 
=A−1 56 −32 6 
30  
 −3 6 −3
Check:
2 3 4  −63 36 −3
A−1  5 6 7  ×  56 −32 6 
1
A ×=
  30  
 8 9 0   −3 6 −3
=I
ACTIVITY 2:
Calculate the inverse of each of the following:
3 4 
1. A=  
1 2 
1 0 0 
2. D = 0 3 0
 
0 0 4 
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Module 3 Unit 3
 4 −6
3. B= 
 −2 4 
 0 1 2
4. E =  −1 2 4 
 
 3 0 2 
 1 0 2 0 3
5. F = 2 0 0 1 4
 
 0 1 1 1 0 
Two useful properties of inverses are now given without proof. You may use these
to facilitate your calculations:
The inverse of a diagonal matrix is the diagonal matrix, which is obtained by
substituting each diagonal element with its inverse.
EXAMPLE 5
1 0 0  1 0 0
  −1 
If D = 0 3 0 then D = 0 13 0

   
0 0 4  0 0 14 
The inverse of a symmetric matrix is also symmetric.
EXAMPLE 6
4 0 2  12 1
2
− 12 
If B =  0 1 1  =then B
−1  1 2 −1 
   2
 2 1 3  − 2 −1 1 
1
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Module 3 Unit 3
2. POST-TEST 3
Calculate the inverse of each of the following:
 1 3
1. A=  
2 7
1 3 2 
2. D = 0 4 1 
 
 3 7 6 
1 2
3. B= 
2 4
4 0 2
4. E = 0 1 1
 
 2 1 3 
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Module 3 Unit 3
3. RESPONSES
3.1. Response 1
3 1
1. =( 3)( 0.4 ) − ( 2 )(1) =1.2 − 2 =−0.8
2 0.4
1 −1
2. = (1)(1) − ( −1)( −1) = 1 − 1 = 0
−1 1
1 2
3. =(1)( 4 ) − ( 3)( 2 ) =4 − 6 =−2
3 4
− 5 − 6 7 −5 −6
4. 8 −9 0 8 −9
− 3 4 2 −3 4
using the method of rewriting the first two columns
= ( −5)( −9 )( 2 ) + ( −6 )( 0 )( 3) + ( 7 )(8 )( 4 )
− ( 7 )( −9 )( −3) + ( −5)( 0 )( 4 ) + ( −6 )(8 )( 2 )
= [90 + 0 + 224] − [189 + 0 − 96]

= [314] − [93]
= 221
1 −3 −1 1 −3
5. 3 4 1 3 4
1 6 2 1 6
= [(1)(4)(2) + ( −3)(1)(1) + ( −1)(3)(6)] − [( −1)(4)(1) + (1)(1)(6) + ( −3)(3)(2)]
= [8 − 3 − 18] − [ −4 + 6 − 18]
= [ −13] − [ −16]
=−13 + 16
=3
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Module 3 Unit 3
3.2. Response 2
3 4
1. A=
1 2
= 3 ( 2 ) − ( 4 )(1)
=2
A ≠ 0 thus, the inverse exists.
adjoint of A
A−1 =
A
1  2 −4 
=
2  −1 3 
 1 −2 
= 1 3
− 
 2 2
1 0 0
2. D=0 3 0
0 0 4
3 0
= 1( −1)
2
+0+0
0 4
= 3 ( 4 ) − 0 ( 0 )
= 12
D ≠ 0 thus, the inverse exits.
Co-factor matrix:
Find the minor of each element:
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3 0 0 0 0 3
=
M 11 = 12 =
M 12 = 0 =
M 13 = 0
0 4 0 4 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0
=
M 21 = 0 =
M 22 = 4 =
M 23 = 0
0 4 0 4 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0
=
M 31 = 0 =
M 32 = 0 =
M 33 = 3
3 0 0 0 0 3
12 0 0
C =  0 4 0
 
 0 0 3
12 0 0
Adjoint matrix =  0 4 0
 
 0 0 3 
Inverse matrix:
12 0 0 1 0 0
=D −1 =
1  0 4 0 0 1 0
12    3 
 0 0 3  0 0 14 
4 −6
3. B=
−2 4
= 4 ( 4 ) − ( −6 )( −2 )
=4
B ≠ 0 thus, the inverse exits.
adjoint of B
B −1 =
B
1 4 6
=
4  2 4 
1 23 
= 1 
 2 1
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Module 3 Unit 3
0 1 2
4. E = −1 2 4
3 0 2
2 4 3 −1 4 4 −1 2
= 0 ( −1) + 1( −1) + 2 ( −1)
2
0 2 3 2 3 0
= 0 −  −1( 2 ) − 4 ( 3) + 2  −1( 0 ) − 2 ( 3)
= 14 + 2 ( −6 )
=2
Co-factor matrix:
2 4 −1 4 −1 2
M 11 = =
4 M 12 = =
−14 M 13 = =
−6
0 2 3 2 3 0
1 2 0 2 0 1
M 21 == 2 M 22 == −6 M 23 == −3
0 2 3 2 3 0
1 2 0 2 0 1
=
M 31 = 0 =
M 32 = 2 =M 33 = 1
2 4 −1 4 −1 2
 4 14 −6
 2 −6 3 
C =−
 
 0 −2 1 
Adjoint matrix:
 4 −2 0 
14 −6 −2 
 
 −6 3 1 
Inverse matrix:
 4 −2 0 
−1
E=
1 14 −6 −2 
2 
 −6 3 1 
 
 2 −1 0 
 
=  7 −3 −1
 3 1
 −3 
 2 2
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Module 3 Unit 3

1 3
1. A=
2 7
= 1( 7 ) − ( 3)( 2 )
=1
adjoint of A
A−1 =
A
 7 −3
 −2 1 
= 
1
 7 −3
= 
 −2 1 
1 3 2
2. D=0 4 1
3 7 6
4 1 3 0 1 4 0 4
= 1( −1) + 3 ( −1) + 2 ( −1)
2
7 6 3 6 3 7
=  4 ( 6 ) − 1( 7 ) − 3 0 ( 6 ) − 1( 3) + 2 0 ( 7 ) − 4 ( 3)
= (17 ) − 3 ( −3) + 2 ( −12 )
=2
17 3 −12 
Co-factor matrix: C =  −4 0 2 
 −5 −1 4 
 17 −4 −5
Adjoint matrix =  3 0 −1
 −12 2 4 
 17 −4 −5
1
=
Inverse matrix: D
−1
3 0 −1
2 
 −12 2 4 
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Module 3 Unit 3
1 2
3. B=
2 4
= 1( 4 ) − ( 2 )( 2 )
=0
The inverse of this matrix B is not defined since B = 0
4 0 2
4. E =0 1 1
2 1 3
1 1 4 0 1
= 4 ( −1) + 0 + 2 ( −1)
2
1 3 2 1
= 4 ( 2 ) + 2 ( −2 )
=4
Co-factor matrix:
2 2 −2 
=C  2 8 − 4
 
 −2 − 4 4 
Adjoint matrix:
2 2 −2 
2 8 − 4
 
 −2 − 4 4 
Inverse matrix:
2 2 −2 
=E −1
1 2 8 − 4
4  
 −2 − 4 4 
You have now completed Learning Unit 3: Inverses of Matrices.

• Calculate the inverse of a matrix
We now move on to Learning Unit 4: Systems of Linear Equations
192 MAT2691
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LEARNING UNIT 4 Systems of Linear Equations
OUTCOMES

• Solve systems of linear equations using the inverse of the coefficient matrix
CONTENTS
1. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 194

2. POST-TEST 4 198
3. RESPONSES 199
3.1. Response 1 199
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Module 3 Unit 4
LINEAR ALGEBRA: Systems of Linear Equations
1. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
In Mathematics 1, you obtained the solution of a system of linear equations with the
aid of Cramer’s rule. In this Learning Unit, the solution of a system of linear
equations is discussed by writing the system in matrix form and using the inverse of
the coefficient matrix to find a solution.
A system of m linear equations with n unknowns is set out as follows:
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + 2 + a1n xn =

b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + 2 + a2 n xn =
b2
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
am1 x1 + am 2 x2 + 2 + amn xn =
bm
and can be written as a single matrix equation, by using matrix multiplication

as follows:
 a11 a12 . . . a1n   x1   b1 

a a22 . . . a2 n   x2   b2 
 21    
 . . .  .   . 
 . =
 . .   .   . 
 . . .  .   . 
    
 am1 am 2 . . . amn   xm  bm 
Thus, AX = B
 a11 a12 . . . a1n   x1   b1 

a a22 . . . a2 n  x  b 
 21   2  2
 . . .   .   . 
=
where A  = =
.   and B  . 
, X
 . .  .  
 . . .   .   . 
     
 am1 am 2 . . . amn   xm  bm 
Here A is known as the coefficient matrix of the system of linear equations.
If the determinant of A is not equal to zero, the inverse of A exists and it follows
from AX = B .
194 MAT2691
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Module 3 Unit 4
that A−1 ( AX ) = A−1B

( A A) X = A
−1 −1
B
X = A−1B
EXAMPLE 1
Solve the following system of linear equations:
x1 + x2 =
1
x1 + 2 x2 =
3
Solution:
Write the equations in matrix form:
AX = B
1 1   x1  1
1 2   x  = 3
  2  
1 1   x1  1 
=
Let A =  , X x  and B = 3
1 2   2  
Find the determinant of A :
1 1
A= = 1( 2 ) − 1(1) = 1
1 2
Since the determinant ≠ 0 , the inverse exists and the system of equations can be
solved by using the inverse of the coefficient matrix.
Find the inverse of A :
2 −1
Co-factor of A = 
 −1 1 
2 −1
Adjoint of A = 
 −1 1 
 2 −1
 
adjoint of A  −1 1 
−1
=A =
A 1
 2 −1
= 
 −1 1 
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Module 3 Unit 4
X = A−1B
 x1  2 −1 1
Thus=
 x   −1 ×
 2  1  3
2×2 2 ×1 ( the order of the matrices )
 x1   −1
x  =  2 
 2  
Therefore, x1 =
−1 and x2 =
2
EXAMPLE 2
Solve the following system of linear equations:

3x1 − x2 + x3 =
2
2 x1 + x2 =
1
x1 + 2 x2 − x3 =
3
Solution:
Write the equations in matrix form:
 3 −1 1   x1   2 
2 1 0   x  = 1
  2  
 1 2 −1  x3   3
 3 −1 1 
Put A = 2 1 0 
 
 1 2 −1
3 −1 1
A=2 1 0
1 2 −1
1 0 2 0 2 1
= 3 − ( −1) +1
2 −1 1 −1 1 2
=−3 − 2 + 3
= −2
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Module 3 Unit 4
 −1 2 3
The co−factor matrix C=
 1 −4 −7 
 
 −1 2 5 
 −1 1 −1
The adjoint = C ′  2 −4 2 
 
 3 −7 5 
 −1 1 −1
1
−1
A = − 2 −4 2 
2 
 3 −7 5 
 x1   −1 1 −1  2 
X=x  = −  2 −4 2  × 1 
1
 2 2   
 x3   3 −7 5   3 
3× 3 3 ×1
 x1   −4 
x  = − 1  6 
 2 2 
 x3  14 
2
=  −3
 
 −7 
Therefore, x1 ==
2, x2 −3 and x3 =
−7
ACTIVITY 1:
Solve the following systems of linear equations using the inverse of a matrix:
1. 2x + 3y =
13
x − 2y =
3
2. x + 3y + 2z =
2
4y + z =3
3x + 7 y + 6 z =
1
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Module 3 Unit 4
2. POST-TEST 4
Solve the following system of linear equations using the inverse of a matrix:
1. x1 + 2 x2 − 3x3 =
11
2 x1 − x2 + x3 =
3
3x1 + 2 x3 =
5
2. The relationship between the displacement, s, velocity, v, and acceleration, a,
of a piston is given by the equations:
s + 2v + 2a =4
3s − v + 4a =25
3s + 2v − a =−4
Use the inverse of a matrix to determine the values of s, v, and a.
3. ABC Quarry sells various aggregates to building and civil contractors. Silos A
and B at the quarry contain premixed aggregate as follows:
Silo A: 60% of 6.7 mm and 40% of 9.5mm
Silo B: 30% of 6.7 mm and 70% of 9.5mm
A client wants 80 000 tons of aggregate mix that should be made up as follows:
40% of 6.7 mm aggregate
60% of 9.5 mm aggregate
How many tons of Silo A and Silo B should be mixed to produce an aggregate
with these specifications?
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Module 3 Unit 4
3. RESPONSES
3.1. Response 1
 2 3   x1  13
1.  1 −2   x  =  3 
   2  
2 3 
Put A=  
 1 −2 
2 3
A=
1 −2
= 2 ( −2 ) − 1 ( 3 )
= −7
−1  −2 −3
A−1 =
7  −1 2 
1 2 3 
= 
7  1 −2 
 x1  1  2 3  13
Thus=
 x  7  1 −2  ×  3 
 2    
2×2 2 ×1
1 35
=
7  7 
5
= 
1 
1 3 2   x1   2 
2.  0 4 1   x  =  3
  2  
 3 7 6   x3   1 
1 3 2 
Put A = 0 4 1 
 
 3 7 6 
1 3 2
A=0 4 1
3 7 6
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Module 3 Unit 4
4 1 0 1 0 4
A=1 − ( 3) +2
7 6 3 6 3 7
= 17 + 9 − 24
=2
17 3 −12 
The co−factor matrix C =  −4 0 2 
 −5 −1 4 
 17 −4 −5
The adjoint= C ′  3 0 −1
 −12 2 4 
 17 −4 −5
−1 1 
= A  3 0 −1
2
 −12 2 4 
 x1   17 −4 −5  2 
=   1  0 −1 ×  3 
 x2  2  3
 x3   −12 2 4  1 
3× 3 3 ×1
 19 
=  5 
1
2
 −14 
8.5 
=  2.5
 −7 
 1 2 −3  x1  11
1.  2 −1 1   x  = 3
  2  
 3 0 2   x3   5 
 1 2 −3
A  2 −1 1 
Put =
 
 3 0 2 
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Module 3 Unit 4
1 2 −3
=
A 2 −1 1
3 0 2
−1 1 2 1 2 −1
= 1 − ( 2) + ( −3)
0 2 3 2 3 0
=−2 − 2 − 9
= −13
 −2 −1 3 
The co−factor matrix C =  −4 11 6 
 
 −1 −7 −5
 −2 −4 −1
The adjoint  −1 11 −7 
C′ =
 
 3 6 −5 
 −2 −4 −1
1
−1
A = − −1 11 −7 
13  
 3 6 −5 
2 4 1
1
= 1 −11 7 
13  
 −3 −6 5 
 x1  2 4 1  11
 x = 1  1 −11 7  ×  3 
 2  13    
 x3   −3 −6 5  5 
3× 3 3 ×1
 39 
1 
= 13 
13  
 −26
3
=1
 
 −2 
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Module 3 Unit 4
2.
Matrix equation:
1 2 2   s   4 
 3 -1 4   v  =  25 
    
3 2 -- 1  a   4 
To calculate the inverse:
1 2 2
Determinant of coefficient matrix: 3 -1 4 = 41
3 2 -1
 -7 15 9 
Co-factor matrix:  6 -7 4 
 
 10 2 -7 
 -7 6 10 
Adjoint:  15 -7 2 
 
 9 4 -7 
 -7 6 10 
1 
=
Inverse 15 -7 2 
41  
 9 4 -7 
s  -7 6 10   4 
v 
=
1  15 -7 2   25 
  41   
 a   9 4 -- 7   4 
( -28 + 150 - 40 )
1  
= ( 60 -- 175 8 )
41  
 ( 36 + 100 + 28 ) 
 82 
1 
= -123
41  
 164 
s 2
 v  =  -3 units
   
 a   4 
202 MAT2691
UNISA
Module 3 Unit 4
3. Begin with the question and define the variables. Let a be the number of tons
from Silo A and b the number of tons from Silo B.
Of the 80 000 tons, the client wants 40%, that is, 32 000 tons must be of 6.7
mm aggregate.
Of the 80 000 tons, the client wants 60%, that is 48 000 tons must be of 9.5 mm
aggregate.
We can now set up a set of simultaneous equations:

For the 6.7 mm aggregate: 0.6 a + 0.3 b = 32 000 tons
For the 9.5 mm aggregate: 0.4 a + 0.7 b = 48 000 tons
We can now solve these equations using matrix methods:

 0.6 0.3  a   32000
The matrix equation is: 0.4 0.7   b  =  48000
    
−1
 a   0.6 0.3  32000
The solution would be   =    
 b  0.4 0.7   48000
 0.6 0.3
Find the inverse: Let A=  
0.4 0.7 
A = ( 0.6 )( 0.7 ) − ( 0.3)( 0.4 ) = 0.3
 0.7 −0.4 
The co-factor matrix =  
 −0.3 0.6 
 0.7 −0.3
The adjoint =  
 −0.4 0.6 
−1 1  0.7 −0.3  2.3333 −1

=
Thus, A =
0.3  −0.4 0.6   −1.3333 2 
and the solution:
 a   2,3333 −1  32000

 b  =  −1,3333 2   48000
    
 a   26667 
 b  =  53333
   
Thus, 26 667 tons must be obtained from Silo A and 53 333 tons from Silo B.
MAT2691 203
UNISA
Module 3 Unit 4
You have now completed Learning Unit 4: Systems of Linear Equations

• Solve systems of linear equations using the inverse of the coefficient matrix
You have now completed Module 3: Linear Algebra. Please ensure you have actively
engaged with all the Learning Units and have achieved the outcomes stated in each
Learning Unit.
204 MAT2691
UNISA

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At the end of this Learning Unit, you should be able to:

1.3 Logarithmic Forms 4

You should have completed Module 1: Differentiation, by actively engaging

8. ∫ f (′ x). tan f(x) dx = n sec f(x) + c

10. ∫ ′ sec f(x) dx

11. ∫ ′ cosec f(x) dx

12. ∫ ′ sec 2 f(x) dx

13. ∫ ′ cosec 2 f(x) dx

14. ∫ f ′(x).sec f(x). tan f(x) dx= sec f(x) + c

15. ∫ f ′(x).cosec f(x). cot f(x) dx =

Carefully work through the following revision examples of integration.

Solve the integral ∫ sin 3 x.cos x dx

∫ sin ∫ (sin x ) ( cos x ) dx ; f ( x ) sin x ;=

1.3. Logarithmic Forms

4. ∫ (sin x + sin 2 x − 3cos x + sec 2 x ) dx 2

Solve the following integrals using the list of standard integrals:

2. Use no. 1 (and no. 3) from the list of standard integrals:

∫ (sin x + sin 2 x − 3cos x + sec 2 x ) dx =

5. Use no. 4 and no. 8 from the list of standard integrals:

6. Use no. 2 and no. 3 from the list of standard integrals:

7. Use no. 14 from the list of standard integrals:

8. Use no. 6 from the list of standard integrals:

9. Use no. 15 from the list of standard integrals:

⌠ cosec ( n x ) cot ( n x ) ⌠ 1

∫ ( sin x − cos x ) dx= ∫

1 and sin 2 x = 2sin x cos x

11. Use no. 1 from the list of standard integrals:

12. Use no. 5 from the list of standard integrals:

3.2. Response Post-Test 1

1. Use no. 1 from the list of standard integrals:

4. Use no. 2 from the list of standard integrals:

7. Use no. 5 from the list of standard integrals:

8. Use no. 4 from the list of standard integrals:

9. Use no. 11 from the list of standard integrals:

You have now completed Learning Unit 1: Standard Integrals.

We now move on to Learning Unit 2: Trigonometric Integrals.

At the end of this Learning Unit, you should be able to:

All the above identities are given in your formula sheets.

When n is an even number, we make use of the identity:

When n is an odd number we make use of the identities:

=∫ sin x dx + ∫ ( cos x ) ( − sin x ) dx

Remember to check response 1 on page 22.

When n is an even number, we make use of the identity:

When n is an odd number, we make use of the identities:

= ∫ cos x dx − ∫ sin 2 x cos x dx

∫ sin 3 x cos 2 x dx = ∫ sin 2 x sin x cos 2 x dx

= ∫ (1 − cos x ) sin x cos

= ∫ cos 2 x sin x dx − ∫ cos 4 x sin x dx

The following identities will be used:

Solve the integral ∫ sin 3x cos5 x dx

Solve the integral ∫ cos 6 x cos 4 x dx

Remember to check response 4 on page 23.

Solve the following integrals:

∫ (1 − 2 cos x + cos x ) sin x dx

= ∫ sin x dx + 2 ∫ cos2 x ( − sin x ) dx − ∫ cos4 x ( − sin x ) dx

∫ (1 − 2sin x + sin x ) cos x dx

∫ cos x dx − 2∫ sin x cos x dx + ∫ sin x cos x dx

∫ sin 2 x cos3 x dx = ∫ sin 2 x cos 2 x cos x dx

= ∫ sin 2 x cos x dx − ∫ sin 4 x cos x dx

3.5. Response Post-Test 2