NSW Education Standards Authority

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 11

Functions Topic Guide

The Mathematics syllabuses are the documents used to inform the scope of content that will
be assessed in the HSC examinations.

Topic Guides provide support for the Mathematics Stage 6 courses. They contain information
organised under the following headings: Prior learning; Terminology; Use of technology;
Background information; General comments; Future study; Considerations and teaching
strategies; Suggested applications and exemplar questions.

Topic Guides illustrate ways to explore syllabus-related content and consequently do not
define the scope of problems or learning experiences that students may encounter through
their study of a topic. The terminology list contains terms that may be used in the teaching and
learning of the topic. The list is not exhaustive and is provided simply to aid discussion.

Please provide any feedback to the Mathematics and Numeracy Curriculum Inspector.

Effective from 2019 Year 11, and Term 4, 2019 Year 12

Date published December 2018
Revision date NA
Contents
Contents ................................................................................................................................ 2

Topic focus ........................................................................................................................... 4

Prior learning ........................................................................................................................ 4

Terminology .......................................................................................................................... 4

Use of technology ................................................................................................................ 4

Background information ...................................................................................................... 5

General comments ............................................................................................................... 5

Future study.......................................................................................................................... 5

Subtopics .............................................................................................................................. 6
ME-F1: Further Work with Functions .................................................................................................. 7

Subtopic focus ................................................................................................................................ 7

F1.1: Graphical relationships ......................................................................................................... 7

Considerations and teaching strategies ........................................................................................ 7

Suggested applications and exemplar questions .......................................................................... 8

F1.2: Inequalities ............................................................................................................................ 9

Considerations and teaching strategies ........................................................................................ 9

Suggested applications and exemplar questions ........................................................................ 10

F1.3: Inverse functions ................................................................................................................. 10

Considerations and teaching strategies ...................................................................................... 10

Suggested applications and exemplar questions ........................................................................ 11

F1.4: Parametric form of a function or relation ............................................................................ 11

Considerations and teaching strategies ...................................................................................... 11

Suggested applications and exemplar questions ........................................................................ 12

ME-F2: Polynomials ........................................................................................................................... 12

Subtopic focus .............................................................................................................................. 12

F2.1: Remainder and factor theorems ......................................................................................... 12

Considerations and teaching strategies ...................................................................................... 12

Suggested applications and exemplar questions ........................................................................ 13

F2.2: Sums and products of roots of polynomials ....................................................................... 14

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 11 Topic guide: Functions, updated December 2018 Page 2 of 14
 Considerations and teaching strategies ...................................................................................... 14

Suggested applications and exemplar questions ........................................................................ 14

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 11 Topic guide: Functions, updated December 2018 Page 3 of 14
Topic focus
The topic Functions involves the use of both algebraic and graphical conventions and
terminology to describe, interpret and model relationships of and between changing quantities.
This topic provides the means to more fully understand the behaviour of functions, extending
to include inequalities, absolute values and inverse functions.

A knowledge of functions enables students to discover connections between algebraic and

graphical representations, to determine solutions of equations and to model theoretical or real-
life situations involving algebra.

The study of functions is important in developing students’ ability to find, recognise and use
connections, to communicate concisely and precisely, to use algebraic techniques and
manipulations to describe and solve problems, and to predict future outcomes in areas such
as finance, economics and weather.

Prior learning
The material in this topic builds on content from the Number and Algebra strands of the
Mathematics K–10 syllabus, including the Stage 5.3 substrands of Ratios and Rates, Algebraic
Techniques, Surds and Indices, Equations, Linear Relationships and Non-Linear
Relationships. Additionally, content in this topic links to and builds upon material from the
Mathematics Advanced syllabus, including the Year 11 Functions topic.

Terminology
absolute value factor theorem product of roots
algorithm inverse quadratic divisor
asymptote inverse function quadratic inequality
coefficient leading coefficient quadratic polynomial
composite function leading term quartic
constant term linear divisor quotient
continuous many-to-many rectangular hyperbola
critical point many-to-one remainder
cubic monic polynomial remainder theorem
degree multiplicity of a root  repeated root
differentiable one-to-many root of a polynomial
dividend one-to-one sum of roots
divisor ordinate synthetic division
double root polynomial trial and error
explicit form polynomial equation zero of a polynomial

Use of technology
Graphing calculators or graphing technologies are a suitable means of exploring many of the
concepts studied in this topic and their use is encouraged in teaching and learning.

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 11 Topic guide: Functions, updated December 2018 Page 4 of 14
In particular, graphing software is useful for sketching and exploring functions; computer
algebra software is useful for investigating properties of polynomials and performing
associated algebraic manipulation.

Interactive and dynamic demonstrations of graphical and geometrical representations of

functions are readily available online and provide stimulus material for introducing the
concepts in this topic. Spreadsheets can also be used to investigate these ideas.

Background information
The area of mathematics that we call Algebra underwent many advances during the 17th and
18th centuries. These included the development of analytic geometry and symbolic algebra.
Rene Descartes (1596–1650) and Pierre de Fermat (1607–1665) were key in establishing the
foundations of analytic geometry, in particular showing how algebra could be used to analyse
geometrical representations.

Many great mathematicians attempted to establish methods to find the roots of polynomial
equations of degree 𝑛 and express these as algebraic functions. Born out of this exploration
was the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra. Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) is often
credited with its first proof.

The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra may sound like it is integral to algebra; however, it is
not fundamental to modern algebra as we know it. This theorem is stated in a variety of forms
such as: every polynomial with degree 𝑛 ≥ 1, with real or complex coefficients, has 𝑛 real or
complex roots; or every polynomial can be factorised into the product of linear or irreducible
quadratic factors.

While the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra does not form part of the Mathematics Extension 1
course, students may find it interesting to investigate it further given its connection to areas of
study they may encounter in the future. Students who elect to study Mathematics Extension 2
will encounter the theorem in complex numbers and partial fractions.

General comments
This topic extends students’ understanding of functions, graphs and polynomials, which are
used in many areas of mathematics and its application to solving real-world problems. The
topic is also essential for many more advanced aspects of study in Mathematics.

Students are required to develop a strong conceptual understanding of and ability to use a
range of functions including polynomials.

The use of functions and polynomials is wide and varied across many areas of study including
the sciences, engineering, finance, economics and mechanics.

Future study
Students need to ensure that they can efficiently manipulate and analyse functions and solve
polynomial equations both graphically and algebraically to facilitate work in later topics.

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 11 Topic guide: Functions, updated December 2018 Page 5 of 14
For students studying the Mathematics Extension 2 course, this topic provides foundational
knowledge which will be built upon in topics including Calculus, Mechanic and Complex
numbers.

Subtopics
 ME-F1: Further Work with Functions
 ME-F2: Polynomials

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 11 Topic guide: Functions, updated December 2018 Page 6 of 14
ME-F1: Further Work with Functions

Subtopic focus
The principal focus of this subtopic is to further explore functions in a variety of contexts
including: reciprocal and inverse functions, manipulating graphs of functions, and parametric
representation of functions. The study of inequalities is an application of functions and enables
students to express domains and ranges as inequalities.

Students develop proficiency in methods to identify solutions to equations both algebraically

and graphically. The study of inverse functions is important in higher Mathematics and the
calculus of these is studied later in the course. The study of parameters sets foundations for
later work on projectiles.

F1.1: Graphical relationships

Considerations and teaching strategies

 Review of the following may be needed to meet the needs of students:
˗ Functions and graphing – in particular the material in the Mathematics Advanced topic
MA–F1 (F1.2, F1.3 and F1.4):
˗ using appropriate terminology related to functions and graphs
˗ using algebraic and graphical methods to determine and/or identify the shape and
features such as intercepts for given functions including but not limited to:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏)(𝑥 − 𝑐),
𝑘
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥, 𝑦 = |𝑥|, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2
 Depending on the placement of this section of work with respect to the Mathematics
Advanced course, in particular the topic Calculus (C1.1), coverage of the behaviour of
functions and its tangent at a point, using language including ‘increasing’, ‘decreasing’,
‘constant’, ‘stationary’ etc. may need to be explored.
1
 The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) can be sketched by first sketching 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥):
1
˗ where 𝑓(𝑥) = 0, 𝑓(𝑥)
is undefined
1
˗ where 𝑓(𝑥) > 0, >0
𝑓(𝑥)
1
˗ where 𝑓(𝑥) < 0, 𝑓(𝑥) < 0
1
˗ when 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing, 𝑓(𝑥) is decreasing, and vice versa.
1 1
Note that if |𝑓(𝑥)| ≥ 1 then 0 < |𝑓(𝑥)| ≤ 1 and if |𝑓(𝑥)| < 1 then |𝑓(𝑥)| > 1.

 The graph of 𝑦 = √𝑓(𝑥) can be obtained from the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) by noting that:
˗ 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is defined only if 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0
˗ √𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 for all 𝑥 in the domain of √𝑓(𝑥)
˗ √𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑓(𝑥) if 𝑓(𝑥) > 1

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 11 Topic guide: Functions, updated December 2018 Page 7 of 14
 ˗ √𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) if 𝑓(𝑥) = 1
˗ √𝑓(𝑥) > 𝑓(𝑥) if 0 < 𝑓(𝑥) < 1
𝑓′ (𝑥)
˗ if 𝑦 = √𝑓(𝑥) then 𝑦 ′ = .
2√𝑓(𝑥)

Note that this last result can be explored after students have covered the relevant
calculus.
 The graph of 𝑦 = |𝑓(𝑥)| can be sketched by first sketching 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). Where 𝑓(𝑥) < 0,
reflect that portion of the graph in the 𝑥-axis, and the rest of the graph remains the same.
 The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(|𝑥|) can be sketched by sketching 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) for 𝑥 ≥ 0, and then
reflecting that graph in the 𝑦-axis to obtain the rest of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(|𝑥|) for 𝑥 < 0.
 Typical functions involving addition of ordinates could include:
˗ 𝑦 = 1 + 3 sin 2𝑥 for −2𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋. Students should realise that the graph of
𝑦 = 3 sin 2𝑥 can be transformed to the graph of 𝑦 = 1 + 3 sin 2𝑥 by either translating
the graph one unit upwards or translating the 𝑥-axis one unit in the opposite direction.
˗ 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 for 0 < 𝑥 < 4. This may be developed from the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑥 and
𝑦 = 3 sin 𝑥. The points where 𝑦 = 3 sin 𝑥 cuts the 𝑥-axis correspond to the points
where 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 cuts 𝑦 = 𝑥. Once the shape of the curve has been roughed
out using addition of ordinates, the position of stationary points and points of inflexion
may be obtained when appropriate.
 An initial idea of the behaviour of functions of the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) may be obtained by
examining the graphs of 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) independently. For example, to graph 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 ,
the functions 𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 could be graphed on the same set of axes (Figure 1
below).
From Figure 1, important features of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 can be obtained. These
properties include:
˗ for 𝑥 < 0, 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 < 0; for 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 = 0; for 𝑥 > 0, 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 > 0
˗ as 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 → −∞; as 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 → 0.

This enables a rough shape to be quickly sketched (Figure 2 above). The exact
positions of the stationary point and point of inflexion may be determined by calculus.

Suggested applications and exemplar questions

 Given graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) with various critical points identified, draw
separate sketches of:
1
(a) 𝑦 = |𝑓(𝑥)| (b) 𝑦 = (c) 𝑦 = √𝑓(𝑥) (d) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥)

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 11 Topic guide: Functions, updated December 2018 Page 8 of 14
 The diagram shows the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). Draw separate sketches of the graphs of the
1
following: (a) 𝑦 = |𝑓(𝑥)| (b) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) (c) 𝑦 = √𝑓(𝑥).

 Draw the graph of 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 for −2𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋

Note that this should be covered only after students have studied the relevant topic on
trigonometry in the Mathematics Advanced course.

F1.2: Inequalities

Considerations and teaching strategies

 Review of the following may be needed to meet the needs of students:
˗ Functions – in particular the material in Mathematics Advanced topic MA–F1
(F1.2 and F1.3):
˗ domain, range and interval notation
˗ solving linear and quadratic equations and verifying the solutions
˗ identifying whether a given quadratic equation has no real solution, one real
solution or two real solutions
 Exploration of the connection between algebra and geometry can be further established
through the use of a coordinate system. Sets of points could be described both
geometrically and algebraically, and students sketch regions on the number plane whose
points satisfy given inequalities.
 Inequalities of the form 𝑦 < 𝑎, 𝑦 > 𝑎, 𝑦 ≤ 𝑎, 𝑦 ≥ 𝑎 and 𝑥 < 𝑎, 𝑥 > 𝑎, 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎, 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎, could be
graphed on the number plane using the convention that an included boundary is an
unbroken line and an excluded boundary is a broken line, eg the boundary of the region
y  4 is a broken line.
 Explore and describe each of the four quadrants of the number plane with inequalities, eg
the first quadrant contains points which satisfy both of the inequalities 𝑥 > 0 and 𝑦 > 0.
 Inequalities such as 𝑦 ≤ 𝑥 could be graphed on a number plane.
 Verify whether a particular point lies in a given region specified by a linear inequality.
 Graph regions where two inequalities hold simultaneously, using the convention that
regions whose algebraic description involves two inequalities are understood to
correspond to the common part (intersection) of the regions determined by each separate
inequality. The use of terminology such as ‘interior’, ‘exterior’, ‘bounded by’, ‘boundary’,
‘common to’, ‘intersection’ could be discussed with students.
 Quadratic inequalities may be solved using a geometrical or algebraic approach.

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 11 Topic guide: Functions, updated December 2018 Page 9 of 14
 Simple geometrical designs could be provided and students could describe them with
equations and inequalities, following the selection of a location for the origin.

Suggested applications and exemplar questions

 Find the domain of a function of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑎 − 𝑥 2 .
 Solve:
(a) 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 ≥ 0
(b) (𝑥 − 4)2 > 0
(c) 𝑚2 − 2𝑚 − 3 < 0
(d) 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 3 ≤ 0
2𝑡+1
(e) >1
𝑡−2
2
(f) |𝑥+3|
< 1.

 Describe, with inequalities, the region that consists of points in the interior of the circle
centre (4,3) and radius 2, and more than 4 units above the 𝑥-axis.
 Find the range of values of 𝑘 for which the expression 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + (3 − 2𝑘) is always
positive.
 Explain why 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 > 0 for all 𝑥.

F1.3: Inverse functions

Considerations and teaching strategies

 An introduction in terms of simple functions that ‘undo’ each other may be given. For
1
example, consider the functions 𝑝(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 5 and 𝑞(𝑥) = 2 (𝑥 − 5).
By generating and plotting points, it can be seen that the point (𝑎, 𝑏) on the graph of the
first function is related to the point (𝑏, 𝑎) on the graph of the second function by reflection
in the line 𝑦 = 𝑥, leading to the relationship that the graphs are reflections of each other in
the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
 By considering graphs of some common functions, and the reflections of these graphs in
the line 𝑦 = 𝑥, conditions on 𝑓(𝑥) in order for it to have an inverse can be established.
If 𝑓(𝑥) is an increasing function (or a decreasing function) for a certain domain, it will have
an inverse function on that domain. Such functions satisfy a horizontal line test and are
called ‘one-to-one’ functions, since for each 𝑦-value there is only one 𝑥-value.
 The notation 𝑓 −1 is commonly used for the inverse function of 𝑓. If the function 𝑓 −1 is
expressed in the conventional form 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1, its graph is obtained from that of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) by
reflection in the line 𝑦 = 𝑥. The domain of 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) is the range of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and vice
versa.
 Given a one-to-one function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), to find a formula for the inverse function, make 𝑥
the subject, so 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦) and 𝑔 is the inverse function (in terms of 𝑦).
Alternatively, beginning with 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), interchange the variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 and make 𝑦 the
subject of the new equation.
For example, to find the inverse of 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 5, write 𝑥 = 2𝑦 + 5, and then make 𝑦 the

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 11 Topic guide: Functions, updated December 2018 Page 10 of 14
 1
subject (𝑦 = 2 (𝑥 − 5)).
1 −1
 Care must be taken to distinguish 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) from 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑓(𝑥)) .

 The problem of defining an inverse function when the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) has more than
one solution for a given 𝑦-value should be discussed. The case 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 is a useful
illustration. An inverse function can be found by restricting the domain.
For example, for the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ≥ 0, the inverse function is 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = √𝑥, 𝑥 ≥ 0.
 This topic can be extended further at an appropriate time once students have studied
trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions, if the topic is originally taught prior to
those topics.
 Simple examples of mutually inverse functions could be explored such as:
1
(a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 (b) 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑦 = ln 𝑥

Suggested applications and exemplar questions

 For each function, state the domain and range of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) and sketch the graphs of
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) on the same axes:
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 (b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 − 3𝑥(c)
(c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 5 (d) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 3, 𝑥 > 0
(e) 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)2 − 6, 𝑥 ≥ 1
 Functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 + 5 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3 − 2𝑥. Find the inverse of
the composite function 𝑓 ⃘𝑔.
 The function 𝑓 is defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 7 with domain 𝑥 ≤ 𝑘. Given that 𝑓 is a
one-to-one function, find the greatest possible value of 𝑘 and find the inverse function 𝑓 −1 .
 Graph the inverse of 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 1.

F1.4: Parametric form of a function or relation

Considerations and teaching strategies

 This part of the subtopic could be taught when students have covered other functions such
as trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions.
 The concept of parametric equations could be introduced using the following illustration:
Consider a person, 𝑃 who is going to travel on a roundabout, centre the origin 𝑂 and
radius 1 unit, at a constant speed. Suppose that 𝑃 starts on the positive 𝑥-axis, one unit
from 𝑂 and moves in an anticlockwise direction so that the angle at the centre 𝑡 seconds
after starting is 𝑡 radians.
y
P(x, y)
1
t
O 1 x

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 11 Topic guide: Functions, updated December 2018 Page 11 of 14
 By considering where 𝑃 is after 𝑡 seconds, using right-angled triangle trigonometry from
Stage 5 we find that 𝑥 = cos 𝑡 and 𝑦 = sin 𝑡. These two equations are an example of
parametric equations, and the variable 𝑡 is an example of a parameter.
In this case the variable 𝑡 represents time, but in other cases it may not.
 Graphing technology can be used to draw curves from parametric equations and to
investigate relationships between variables.
 Students should practise eliminating the parameter from a pair of parametric equations in
order to obtain a Cartesian equation. For example, in the case of 𝑥 = cos 𝑡 and 𝑦 = sin 𝑡,
the Pythagorean trigonometric identity may be used to obtain 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1.
 In this context, if 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡), where 𝑓 and 𝑔 are functions of a variable 𝑡
defined for some domain of values of 𝑡, then the variable 𝑡 is called a parameter and the
equations 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡) are called parametric equations.

Suggested applications and exemplar questions

 The parametric equations of a curve are 𝑥 = 2 cos 𝑡, 𝑦 = 2 sin 𝑡 for 0 ≤ 𝑡 < 2𝜋. What is the
value of 𝑡 at the point (0,2)?
1
 Sketch the curve given by 𝑥 = 𝑡 2 , 𝑦 = 𝑡 for 𝑡 > 0.
 Find Cartesian equations for curves with these parametric equations:
(a) 𝑥 = 3𝑡 2 , 𝑦 = 6𝑡
(b) 𝑥 = 2 cos 𝑡, 𝑦 = 2 sin 𝑡
1 1
(c) 𝑥 = 1 − , 𝑦 = 1 +
𝑡 𝑡

 Show that parametric equations for a circle with centre (𝑝, 𝑞) and radius 𝑟 are
𝑥 = 𝑝 + 𝑟 cos 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑞 + 𝑟 sin 𝑡. Eliminate the parameter 𝑡 to obtain the Cartesian equation
of the circle in the form (𝑥 − 𝑝)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑞)2 = 𝑟 2 .

ME-F2: Polynomials

Subtopic focus
The principal focus of this subtopic is to explore the behaviour of polynomials algebraically,
including the remainder and factor theorems, and sums and products of roots.

Students develop knowledge, skills and understanding to manipulate, analyse and solve
polynomial equations. Polynomials are of fundamental importance in algebra and have many
applications in higher mathematics. They are also significant in many other fields of study,
including the sciences, engineering, finance and economics.

F2.1: Remainder and factor theorems

Considerations and teaching strategies

 Review of the following may be needed to meet the needs of students:
˗ polynomial expressions – in particular the material in the Mathematics Advanced
Functions topic F1.4

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 11 Topic guide: Functions, updated December 2018 Page 12 of 14
 ˗ using appropriate terminology to describe and classify polynomials
˗ the shape and features of polynomial graphs.
 𝑃(𝑥) is defined for all real 𝑥 and is a continuous and differentiable function of 𝑥. The
equation 𝑃(𝑥) = 0 is called a polynomial equation of degree n, and those real numbers 𝑥
which satisfy the equation are called real roots of the equation or real zeros of the
corresponding polynomial.
 Students may need to revise the division algorithm of arithmetic to write the result of
dividing 𝑝 by 𝑎 in the form 𝑝 = 𝑎𝑞 + 𝑟, where 𝑎, 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟 are integers and 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑎. The
number 𝑝 is called the ‘dividend’, 𝑎 the ‘divisor’, 𝑞 the ‘quotient’, and 𝑟 the ‘remainder’. It
will also be valuable to describe and give examples of this with polynomials.
 If 𝑃(𝑥) is a monic polynomial, and if 𝑥 − 𝑎 is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥), then 𝑎 must be a factor of the
constant term of 𝑃(𝑥).
 The long division of one polynomial by another should be discussed and illustrated by
examples using linear or quadratic divisors.
 The division process should be expressed as an identity: 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝐴(𝑥)𝑄(𝑥) + 𝑅(𝑥), where
𝐴(𝑥) is the divisor, 𝑄(𝑥) is the quotient, 𝑅(𝑥) is the remainder, and 𝑃(𝑥) is the dividend.
The degree of 𝑅(𝑥) must be less than that of 𝐴(𝑥). With this condition satisfied, it may be
stated that 𝑄(𝑥) and 𝑅(𝑥) are then unique.
 Synthetic division is a shorthand way of recording the results of long division, provided
there is a linear divisor. Students may use either method where appropriate.
 The remainder theorem, which states that when 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 𝑎 the remainder is
P(a), and the factor theorem, which states that if P(a) = 0 then x − a is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥)
follow from the identity and the condition on 𝑅(𝑥). Students should develop an
understanding of this and be able to answer questions about it, rather than be able to
reproduce a complete proof.
 Students could explore and use the following results from the remainder theorem and the
factor theorem in order to factorise polynomials:
˗ If 𝑃(𝑥) has degree at least 𝑘 and has 𝑘 distinct real zeros, 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , … , 𝛼𝑘 , then
(𝑥 − 𝛼1 )(𝑥 − 𝛼2 ) … (𝑥 − 𝛼𝑘 ) is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥).
˗ If 𝑃(𝑥) has degree 𝑛 and 𝑛 distinct real zeros 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , … , 𝛼𝑛 , then
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝛼1 ) … (𝑥 − 𝛼𝑛 ).
˗ A polynomial of degree 𝑛 cannot have more than 𝑛 distinct real zeros.
˗ A polynomial equation of degree 𝑛 has at most 𝑛 real roots and may have no real
roots.
˗ A polynomial of degree at most 𝑛, which has more than 𝑛 distinct real zeros, is the
zero polynomial. The zero polynomial is the polynomial in which
𝑎0 = 𝑎1 = ⋯ = 𝑎𝑛 = 0.
˗ If two polynomials of degree 𝑛 are equal for more than 𝑛 distinct values of 𝑥, then the
coefficients of like powers of 𝑥 are equal. Note that the polynomials are equal for all
values of 𝑥.

Suggested applications and exemplar questions

 Factorise the polynomial 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 6.
 Perform the division (𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 + 2) ÷ (𝑥 2 + 1) and express the result in the form:

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 11 Topic guide: Functions, updated December 2018 Page 13 of 14
 (a) 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝐴(𝑥)𝑄(𝑥) + 𝑅(𝑥)
𝑃(𝑥) 𝑅(𝑥)
(b) 𝐴(𝑥)
= 𝑄(𝑥) + 𝐴(𝑥)

 Let 𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3)𝑄(𝑥) + 𝑎(𝑥 + 1) + 𝑏, where 𝑄(𝑥) is a polynomial and 𝑎 and 𝑏
are real numbers. When 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by (𝑥 + 1), the remainder is –11. When 𝑃(𝑥) is
divided by (𝑥 − 3), the remainder is 1.
(a) What is the value of 𝑏?
(b) What is the remainder when 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3)?

F2.2: Sums and products of roots of polynomials

Considerations and teaching strategies

 𝑃(𝑥) is defined for all real 𝑥 and is a continuous and differentiable function of 𝑥. The
equation 𝑃(𝑥) = 0 is called a polynomial equation of degree 𝑛, and those real numbers 𝑥
which satisfy the equation are called real roots of the equation or real zeros of the
corresponding polynomial.
 Examples should be given illustrating cases where one or more real roots occur and
where no real roots occur.
 Graphs of simple polynomials of degree up to and including 6 should be drawn. The
following useful facts should be noted. Proofs are not required, although teachers may
choose to present proofs.
(a) For very large |𝑥|, 𝑃(𝑥) may be approximated by 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
(b) A polynomial of odd degree always has at least one real zero
 It may be the situation that 𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑄(𝑥) and that (𝑥 − 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑄(𝑥). The
number 𝑎 is then called a ‘repeated root’, or ‘multiple root’ of 𝑃(𝑥).
 If 𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑟 𝑆(𝑥), where 𝑟 is a positive integer and 𝑆(𝑎) ≠ 0, then 𝑎 is a root of 𝑃(𝑥)
of multiplicity (or order) 𝑟.
The factor (𝑥 − 𝑎) is called a factor of 𝑃(𝑥) of multiplicity 𝑟 (or order 𝑟).
A single root corresponds to a factor of multiplicity or order 1.
 The conventions of double and multiple roots should be explained. For example, the
polynomial function 𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)3 is said to have one root of multiplicity 3.
 Students should be able to explain why a graph may ‘touch’ or ‘cut’ the 𝑥-axis at a double
root, but cuts the 𝑥-axis at a single root.
For example, students could consider the sign of (𝑥 − 3)2 in the function 𝑓(𝑥) =
(𝑥 − 3)2 (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 − 6)3 , and how this affects the sign of 𝑓(𝑥) near 𝑥 = 3. They could
repeat this for values of 𝑥 near 𝑥 = 5 and 𝑥 = 6.

Suggested applications and exemplar questions

 Sketch the graph of the polynomial function 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)3 (𝑥 + 2).
 Sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥.
 For the polynomial (𝑎 − 1)𝑥 5 + (𝑏 − 5)𝑥 2 + 2𝑥, discuss the possible values of 𝑎 and 𝑏 if
the polynomial is of degree
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 5.

Mathematics Extension 1 Year 11 Topic guide: Functions, updated December 2018 Page 14 of 14