Advanced Manufacturing Techniques PDF

Advanced Manufacturing
Techniques Using Laser

Material Processing
Esther Titilayo Akinlabi
Univeristy of Johannesburg, South Africa
Rasheedat Modupe Mahamood

University of Johannesburg, South Africa & University of Ilorin,
Nigeria
Stephen Akinwale Akinlabi

University of Johannesburg, South Africa
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Names: Akinlabi, Esther Titilayo, 1976- editor. | Mahamood, Rasheedat Modupe,

1973- editor. | Akinlabi, Stephen Akinwale, 1973- editor.
Title: Advanced manufacturing techniques using laser material processing /
Esther Titilayo Akinlabi, Rasheedat Modupe Mahamood, and Stephen Akinwale
Akinlabi, editors.
Description: Hershey, PA : Engineering Science Reference, 2016. | Includes
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Identifiers: LCCN 2016006924| ISBN 9781522503293 (h/c) | ISBN 9781522503309
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Table of Contents
Preface. ................................................................................................................xii
; ;
Chapter 1 ;
Laser Additive Manufacturing................................................................................ 1

; ;
Rasheedat Modupe Mahamood, University of Johannesburg, South ;
Africa & University of Ilorin, Nigeria ;
Esther Titilayo Akinlabi, University of Johannesburg, South Africa

; ;
Chapter 2 ;
Laser-based Manufacturing Processes for Aerospace Applications..................... 24 ; ;
Panos Stavropoulos, Hellenic Air Force Academy, Greece

; ;
Angelos Koutsomichalis, Hellenic Air Force Academy, Greece

; ;
Nikos Vaxevanidis, School of Pedagogical and Technological Education,

;
Greece ;
Chapter 3 ;
Laser Metal Deposition Process........................................................................... 46

; ;
Rasheedat M. Mahamood, University of Johannesburg, South Africa &

;
University of Ilorin, Nigeria ;
Chapter 4 ;
Enhancement of Surface Integrity of Titanium Alloy with Copper by Means

of Laser Metal Deposition Process....................................................................... 60
; ;
Mutiu F. Erinosho, University of Johannesburg, South Africa

; ;
Esther T. Akinlabi, University of Johannesburg, South Africa

; ;
Sisa Pityana, National Laser Centre, South Africa

; ;
Chapter 5 ;
Trend and Development in Laser Surface Modification for Enhanced

Materials Properties.............................................................................................. 92
; ;
Muhammed Olawale Hakeem Amuda, University of Lagos, Nigeria & ;
University of Johannesburg, South Africa ;

; ;
Chapter 6 ;
Laser Surface Processing for Tailoring of Properties by Optimization of

Microstructure. ................................................................................................... 121
; ;
Jyotsna Dutta Majumdar, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, ;
India ;
Andreas Weisheit, Fraunhofer-Institut für Lasertechnik ILT, Germany

; ;
I. Manna, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India & Indian

;
Institute of Technology Kanpur, India ;
Chapter 7 ;
Mitigation of Wear Damage by Laser Surface Alloying Technique. ................. 172 ; ;
Isaac Damilola Adebiyi, Vaal University of Technology, South Africa

; ;
Patricia A. P. Popoola, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa

; ;
Sisa Pityana, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, South

;
Africa ;
Chapter 8 ;
Computational Dynamics of Laser Alloyed Metallic Materials for Improved

Corrosion Performance: Computational Dynamics of Laser Alloyed Metallic
Materials............................................................................................................. 197
; ;
Olawale Samuel Fatoba, Tshwane University of Technology, South ;
Africa ;
Abimbola Patricia Idowu Popoola, Tshwane University of Technology, ;
South Africa ;
Gabriel Ayokunle Farotade, Tshwane University of Technology, South ;
Africa ;
Sisa Lesley Pityana, National Laser Centre, South Africa

; ;
Chapter 9 ;
Laser Additive Manufacturing of Titanium-Based Implants: A Review............ 236 ; ;
Martin Ruthandi Maina, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and ;
Technology, Kenya ;
Compilation of References............................................................................... 248

; ;
About the Contributors.................................................................................... 282

; ;
Index. ................................................................................................................. 286

; ;
Detailed Table of Contents
Preface. ................................................................................................................xii
; ;
Chapter 1 ;
Laser Additive Manufacturing................................................................................ 1

; ;
Rasheedat Modupe Mahamood, University of Johannesburg, South

;
Africa & University of Ilorin, Nigeria ;

; ;
Laser additive manufacturing is an advanced manufacturing process for making

prototypes as well as functional parts directly from the three dimensional (3D)
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) model of the part and the parts are built up adding
materials layer after layer, until the part is competed. Of all the additive manufacturing
process, laser additive manufacturing is more favoured because of the advantages that
laser offers. Laser is characterized by collimated linear beam that can be accurately
controlled. This chapter brings to light, the various laser additive manufacturing
technologies such as: - selective laser sintering and melting, stereolithography and
laser metal deposition. Each of these laser additive manufacturing technologies
are described with their merits and demerits as well as their areas of applications.
Properties of some of the parts produced through these processes are also reviewed
in this chapter. ;
Chapter 2 ;
Laser-based Manufacturing Processes for Aerospace Applications..................... 24 ; ;
Panos Stavropoulos, Hellenic Air Force Academy, Greece

; ;
Angelos Koutsomichalis, Hellenic Air Force Academy, Greece

; ;
Nikos Vaxevanidis, School of Pedagogical and Technological Education,

;
Greece ;
In this chapter the latest developments in Laser manufacturing technologies and

processes, used in the aerospace industry, are discussed. Current developments
in the aerospace industry are characterised by the reduction of manufacturing and
exploitation costs. Thus, the need for implementation of advanced manufacturing
technologies and processes in the aeronautic industry, offering cost effective products
with improved life cycle, is becoming more and more imperative. Lasers can be
used in many industrial machining processes for a variety of materials including
metals, ceramics, glass, plastics, and composites. Laser beams, used as machining
tools, are not accompanied by problems such as tool wear, tool breakage, chatter,
machine deflection and mechanically induced material damage, phenomena that are
usually associated with traditional machining processes. The effectiveness of Lasers
depends on the thermal nature of the machining process. Nevertheless, difficulties
arise due to the difference in the thermal properties of the various components. ;
Chapter 3 ;
Laser Metal Deposition Process........................................................................... 46

; ;
Rasheedat M. Mahamood, University of Johannesburg, South Africa &

;
University of Ilorin, Nigeria ;
Laser metal deposition process belongs to the directed energy deposition class
of additive manufacturing process that is capable of producing highly complex
part directly from the three dimensional (3D) computer aided design file of the
component by adding materials layer after layers. Laser metal deposition process is
a very important additive manufacturing process and it is the only class of additive
manufacturing process that can be used to repair valued component parts which
were not repairable in the past. Also because this additive manufacturing process can
handle multiple materials simultaneously, it is used to produce part with functionally
graded material. Some of the features of the laser metal deposition process are
described in this chapter. Some experimental studies on the laser metal deposition
of Titanium alloy- composite are also presented. ;
Chapter 4 ;
Enhancement of Surface Integrity of Titanium Alloy with Copper by Means

of Laser Metal Deposition Process....................................................................... 60
; ;
Mutiu F. Erinosho, University of Johannesburg, South Africa

; ;
Esther T. Akinlabi, University of Johannesburg, South Africa

; ;
Sisa Pityana, National Laser Centre, South Africa

; ;
The laser metal deposition process possesses the combination of metallic powder and
laser beam respectively. However, these combinations create an adhesive bonding
that permanently solidifies the laser-enhanced-deposited powders. Titanium alloys
(Ti6Al4V) Grade 5 have been regarded as the most used alloys for the aerospace
applications, due to their lightweight properties and marine application due to their
excellent corrosion resistance. The improvements in the surface integrity of the
alloy have been achieved successively with the addition of Cu through the use of
Ytterbium laser system powered at maximum of 2000 Watts. The motivation for
this research work can be attributed to the dilapidation of the surface of titanium
alloy, when exposed to marine or sea water for a longer period of time. This chapter
provides the surface modification of titanium alloy with the addition of percentage
range of Cu within its lattices; and the results obtained from the characterizations
conducted on the laser deposited Ti6Al4V/Cu alloys have been improved. ;
Chapter 5 ;
Trend and Development in Laser Surface Modification for Enhanced

Materials Properties.............................................................................................. 92
; ;
Muhammed Olawale Hakeem Amuda, University of Lagos, Nigeria &

;
University of Johannesburg, South Africa ;

; ;
This article presents a process review of the commonly available laser surface
modification techniques for surface property enhancement. This is reinforced with the
specific case treatment of research trends in relation to commonly treated materials.
The progression from simple surface modification to the production of components
with multifunctional characteristics known as functionally graded material is discussed
in combination with emerging research focus on the computational simulation of
laser surface modification for optimization of process dynamics. ;
Chapter 6 ;
Laser Surface Processing for Tailoring of Properties by Optimization of

Microstructure. ................................................................................................... 121
; ;
Jyotsna Dutta Majumdar, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur,

;
India ;
Andreas Weisheit, Fraunhofer-Institut für Lasertechnik ILT, Germany

; ;
I. Manna, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India & Indian

;
Institute of Technology Kanpur, India ;
Laser surface processing involves modification of surface microstructure and/or

composition of the near surface region of a component using a high power laser
beam. The advantages of laser surface processing over conventional equilibrium
surface processing include rapid processing rate, retention of non-equilibrium
microstructure, alloying in liquid state and development of processed zone with
superior properties as compared to the same developed by equilibrium processing
route. Microstructure plays an important role to control the final properties of the
tailored component. In the present contribution, with a brief introduction to laser, and
its application, the microstructures developed under optimum conditions by different
laser surface processing will be discussed with the corresponding improvement in
properties. Finally, a brief review of the future scope of research in laser surface
processing will be presented. ;
Chapter 7 ;
Mitigation of Wear Damage by Laser Surface Alloying Technique. ................. 172 ; ;
Isaac Damilola Adebiyi, Vaal University of Technology, South Africa

; ;
Patricia A. P. Popoola, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa

; ;
Sisa Pityana, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, South

;
Africa ;
Today’s increasingly extreme and aggressive production environments require that

machine components be made with materials having specific surface properties
such as good wear resistance. Unfortunately, nature does not provide such materials,
and alloys having these specific properties are usually very expensive and their use
drastically increases components and production costs. Moreover, the economic
implications of wear, in form of detrimental effects – and waste, are severe. This
includes replacement costs, and all downtime costs related to such replacement.
Consequently, companies will increasingly need to look to wear reduction as a
direct, immediate avenue for maintaining output quotas and for cutting production
costs. Laser coating of engineering alloys with wear resistant materials is one
efficient and economical means of increasing the wear resistance of these alloys.
This work discusses laser coatings for wear prevention. Different wear mechanisms
are discussed and the coatings for specific environment are identified. This will
provide information for combating wear. ;
Chapter 8 ;
Computational Dynamics of Laser Alloyed Metallic Materials for Improved

Corrosion Performance: Computational Dynamics of Laser Alloyed Metallic
Materials............................................................................................................. 197
; ;
Olawale Samuel Fatoba, Tshwane University of Technology, South

;
Africa ;
Abimbola Patricia Idowu Popoola, Tshwane University of Technology,

;
South Africa ;
Gabriel Ayokunle Farotade, Tshwane University of Technology, South

;
Africa ;
Sisa Lesley Pityana, National Laser Centre, South Africa

; ;
Laser alloying is a material processing method which utilizes the high power density
available from defocused laser beam to melt both metal coatings and a part of the
underlying substrate. Since melting occur solitary at the surface, large temperature
gradients exist across the boundary between the melted surface region and underlying
solid substrate, which results in rapid self-quenching and re-solidifications. Alloyed
powders are deposited in a molten pool of the substrate material to improve the
corrosion resistance of the substrate by producing corrosion resistant coatings. A
3D mathematical model is developed to obtain insights on the behaviour of laser
melted pools subjected to various process parameters. Simulation with 3D model
with different values of various significant processing parameters such as laser
power, scanning speed and powder feed rate influences the geometry and dynamics
of the melt pool, and cooling rates. It is expected that the melt pool flow, thermal
and solidification characteristics will have a profound effect on the microstructure
of the solidified region. ;
Chapter 9 ;
Laser Additive Manufacturing of Titanium-Based Implants: A Review............ 236 ; ;
Martin Ruthandi Maina, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and

;
Technology, Kenya ;
Titanium and its alloys exhibit a unique combination of mechanical, physical

properties and corrosion resistance behaviour which makes them desirable for
aerospace, industrial, chemical, medical and energy industries. The selective addition
of alloying elements to titanium enables a wide range of physical and mechanical
properties to be obtained. Ti-based alloys are finding ever-increasing applications in
biomaterials due to their excellent mechanical, physical and biological performance.
Intense researches are being pursued in the development of new Ti-based alloys with
bio-functionalization closer to human bone, owing to their excellent mechanical
strength and resilience when compared to alternative biomaterials, such as polymers
and ceramics. Several manufacturing techniques are capable of producing porous
materials. There is a need to control pore size, shape, orientation and distribution.
This work reviews the application of Ti-based alloys in the biomedical industry and
also proposes laser additive manufacture process for the manufacture of medical
implants. ;
Compilation of References............................................................................... 248

; ;
About the Contributors.................................................................................... 282

; ;
Index. ................................................................................................................. 286

; ;
xii
Preface
Advanced manufacturing process using laser material processing has helped to solve
a number manufacturing problems that are faced with the traditional manufacturing
processes. This book presents different laser material processing technologies that
have helped to provide solution to lots of challenges in the manufacturing industries.
The help of laser additive manufacturing technology has been sought in many in-
dustries including medicine to produce customized implant which are patient spe-
cific in nature at a more cost effective manner. Laser additive manufacturing is the
subject of the first chapter. The authors in the Chapter 1 present various laser addi-
tive manufacturing processes with their advantages and disadvantages as well as
their areas of applications. The laser manufacturing processes for the aerospace
parts is presented in the second chapter. The third chapter described a specific laser
additive manufacturing technology, the laser metal deposition process. The fourth
chapter is focused on the Enhancement of surface properties of titanium alloy with
copper using the laser metal deposition process. An overview of the developmental
trend in the use of laser for surface modification is presented in Chapter 5. The
authors of the sixth chapter present the tailoring of material properties through
Microstructural Optimization using laser. The process of reducing the Wear Dam-
age through Laser Surface Alloying Technique is the subject discussed in the seventh
chapter. The authors of the eighth chapter present the computational dynamics of
anti-corrosion property of metallic materials that are laser alloyed. The book con-
cludes with a review of titanium based implants using the Laser additive manufac-
turing technology.
ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK
The book is organized into nine (9) chapters. A brief description of each of the
chapters is as follows:
Chapter 1: Laser additive manufacturing is an advanced manufacturing process
that can be used for making prototypes and functional parts directly from the three
Preface
dimensional (3D) Computer-Aided Design (CAD) model of the part. The fabrica-
tion is achieved by adding materials layer after layer to build up the required part
following the path dictated by the 3D CAD model, until the part is competed. Laser
additive manufacturing technology is more favoured in the manufacturing industry
because of the advantages offer by the energy source used, laser. Laser is characterized
by collimated linear beam that can be accurately controlled. This chapter explains
the various laser additive manufacturing technologies including the selective laser
sintering and melting, the stereolithography and the laser metal deposition process.
Each of these laser additive manufacturing technologies are described with their
merits and demerits as well as their areas of applications.
Chapter 2: The authors described the laser manufacturing processes for aerospace
applications. The latest developments in Laser manufacturing technologies and
processes that are used in the aerospace industry are discussed in this chapter. The
current developments in the aerospace industry was found require a reduction in the
manufacturing that has necessitated the need for advanced manufacturing technologies
and processes in the industry that will offer cost effective products with improved
life cycle. Lasers can be used in many industrial machining processes for a variety of
materials including metals, ceramics, glass, plastics, and composites. Laser beams,
used as machining tools, are not accompanied by problems such as tool wear, tool
breakage, chatter, machine deflection and mechanically induced material damage,
phenomena which are usually associated with the traditional machining processes.
The effectiveness of Lasers depends on the thermal nature of the machining process.
However, difficulties also arise in these processes as a result of the differences in
the thermal properties of the various components.
Chapter 3: Laser metal deposition process is an advanced manufacturing pro-
cess that belongs to the directed energy deposition class of additive manufacturing
process which is capable of producing highly complex part directly from the 3D
CAD model of the component by adding materials layer after layers. Laser metal
deposition process is a very important additive manufacturing process and it is the
only class of additive manufacturing process that can be used to repair high valued
component parts which were prohibitive to repair not repairable in the past. Laser
metal deposition process can handle multiple materials simultaneously and it is used
to produce part with functionally graded material. Some of the features of the laser
metal deposition process are described in this chapter. Some research studies on the
laser metal deposition of Titanium alloy- composite are also presented.
Chapter 4: Enhancement of the surface integrity of titanium alloy with copper
by means of laser metal deposition process is the focus of this chapter. The laser
metal deposition process uses a combination of metallic powder and laser beam
respectively to form part. However, these combinations create an adhesive bonding
that permanently solidifies the laser deposited powders. Titanium alloys (Ti6Al4V)
xiii
Preface
have been regarded as the most used alloys for the aerospace applications, due to
their light weight properties and in marine application due to their excellent corro-
sion resistance. The improvements in the surface integrity of this alloy have been
achieved successively with the addition of Cu through the use of Ytterbium laser
system. The motivation in this research work can be attributed to the dilapidation
of the surface of titanium alloy, when exposed to the sea water for a long period of
time. This chapter describes how the surface modification of titanium alloy with the
addition of Cu within its lattices is produced. The results obtained from this study
showed improved surface properties.
Chapter 5: Trend and development in laser surface modification for enhanced
materials properties has been presented in this chapter. The chapter presents a
process review of some commonly available laser surface modification techniques
for surface property enhancement. The progression from simple surface modifica-
tion to the production of components with multifunctional characteristics known
as functionally graded material is also discussed in combination with emerging
research focus on the computational simulation of laser surface modification for
the optimization of process dynamics.
Chapter 6: The laser surface processing for tailoring the properties by microstruc-
tural optimization was discussed in this chapter. The laser surface processing involves
the heating and melting which assisted in the modification of surface microstructure
and/or composition of the near surface region of a component using a high power
laser beam for improving the surface properties. The advantages of laser surface
processing over the conventional equilibrium surface processing includes rapid
processing rate, retention of non-equilibrium microstructure, alloying in liquid state
and development of processed zone with superior properties when compared to the
ones developed by equilibrium processing route are presented. The microstructure
plays an important role in controlling the final properties of the tailored component
and hence, it is important to optimize the process parameters to attain the desired
microstructure after the processing. The microstructures developed under optimum
conditions by different laser surface processing are discussed with the corresponding
improvement in properties achieved.
Chapter 7: The mitigation of wear damage by laser surface alloying technique
is the focus of this chapter. Today’s increasingly extreme and aggressive industrial
production environments require that machine components be made with materi-
als having specific surface properties such as high wear resistance. Unfortunately,
nature does not provide such materials, and alloys having these specific properties
are usually very expensive and their utilization drastically increases the components
and the production costs. The economic implications of wear, is loss of material
and revenue which are very severe. These include the replacement costs, and all
downtime costs related to such replacement. Companies are increasingly interested
xiv
Preface
in wear reduction as a direct and an immediate avenue for maintaining output quo-
tas and for cutting production costs. By enhancing the wear resistance of alloys by
using laser to coat their surfaces with wear resistance materials is one efficient and
economical means of achieving this objective. This chapter discusses the application
of laser coatings for wear prevention. The types of coatings for different materials
within specific environment are also discussed.
Chapter 8: The computational dynamics of laser alloyed anti-corrosion proper-
ties of metallic materials is the subject of this chapter. Laser alloying is a material
processing method that utilizes the high power density available from defocused
laser beam to melt both metal coatings and a part of the underlying substrate. Since
melting occur solitary at the surface, large temperature gradients exist across the
boundary between the melted surface region and underlying solid substrate, that
results in rapid self-quenching and re-solidifications process. How alloyed powders
are deposited in a molten pool of the substrate material to improve the corrosion
resistance of the substrate by producing corrosion resistant coatings are discussed
in this chapter. A 3D mathematical model is developed to obtain insights on the
behaviour of the laser melted pools subjected to various processing parameters.
Simulation using 3D model of how different values of various processing parameters
such as laser power, scanning speed and powder feed rate influence the geometry
and dynamics of the melt pool and the cooling rates is presented. The melt pool
flow, thermal and solidification characteristics were found to have a significant
influence on the microstructure of the solidified regions.
Chapter 9: The laser additive manufacturing of titanium based implants was
reviewed in this chapter. Titanium and its alloys exhibit a unique combination of
mechanical, physical properties and corrosion resistance behaviour which makes
them desirable in the aerospace, industrial, chemical, medical and energy indus-
tries. The selective addition of alloying elements to titanium enables a wide range
of physical and mechanical properties to be obtained. Ti-based alloys are finding
ever-increasing applications as biomaterials due to their excellent mechanical,
physical and biological performance. Intense researches are being pursued in the
development of new Ti-based alloys with bio-functionalization closer to human
bone because of their excellent mechanical strength and resilience when compared
to alternative biomaterials, such as polymers and ceramics. Several manufacturing
techniques are capable of producing porous materials. There is a need to control
pore size, shape, orientation and distribution. This This chapter reviews the applica-
tion of Ti-based alloys in the biomedical industry and also proposes laser additive
manufacture process for the manufacture of medical implants.
xv
1
Chapter 1
Laser Additive
Manufacturing
Rasheedat Modupe Mahamood
University of Johannesburg, South Africa & University of Ilorin, Nigeria

ABSTRACT
Laser additive manufacturing is an advanced manufacturing process for making
prototypes as well as functional parts directly from the three dimensional (3D)
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) model of the part and the parts are built up adding
materials layer after layer, until the part is competed. Of all the additive manu-
facturing process, laser additive manufacturing is more favoured because of the
advantages that laser offers. Laser is characterized by collimated linear beam that
can be accurately controlled. This chapter brings to light, the various laser additive
manufacturing technologies such as: - selective laser sintering and melting, stereo-
lithography and laser metal deposition. Each of these laser additive manufacturing
technologies are described with their merits and demerits as well as their areas of
applications. Properties of some of the parts produced through these processes are
also reviewed in this chapter.
1. INTRODUCTION
Laser is an important technology with exciting properties that makes it highly

valued in most human endeavor. The importance of laser in engineering in general
cannot be over emphasized and in material processing in particular is phenomenal.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-0329-3.ch001
Copyright ©2016, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Laser Additive Manufacturing
Some important characteristics and types of lasers used in material processing are
discussed in this chapter. The use of laser in material processing and in additive
manufacturing is revolutionary. Additive manufacturing is an advance manufacturing
process that is used to fabricate three dimensional (3D) parts directly from the 3D
computer aided design (CAD) model of the part to be produced simply by adding
materials layer after layer until the building of the part is completed (Scott et al.,
2012; Mahamood et al., 2014a). A number of additive manufacturing technologies
use laser as their energy source and they are called laser additive manufacturing
(LAM) processes. The laser additive manufacturing uses the energy from the laser
to process materials due to the exciting properties of the laser that enables the laser
beam to be effectively controlled for the intended manufacturing operation. Some
of the laser additive manufacturing technologies are discussed in this chapter.
There merits and demerits are also highlighted, and their area of applications are
mentioned. The chapter ends with summary and the future research directions of
the laser additive manufacturing processes.
1.1. Lasers in Material Processing
Laser is an acronym that is used to describe the technology of Laser. LASER stands
for Light Amplification by Simulated Emission of Radiation (Haken, 1983). The
laser is generated from the light source which is then amplified in such a way that
is similar to the way microphone amplifies sound. The amplification of the light
is achieved by a process that is known as simulated emission; it is also referred to
as optical amplification (Yamashita et al., 2007). The rays of light that are emit-
ted from a single light source are used to create an excitation in the atoms that are
present in the lasing medium or the gain amplification medium which could be in
form of solid, liquid or gas (e.g. Co2). The atoms in these lasing media get excited
and they emit a coherent type of light rays. The amplification is achieved through
the arrangement of mirrors in the gain chamber. The excited atoms bounce back and
forth between these mirrors thereby resulting in a powerful amplified coherent beam
of light rays that is called ‘Laser’ (Haken, 1983; Silfvast, 1996). Imagine placing an
object in between two parallel mirrors, the image of the object will bounce back and
forth and the numbers of images that is produced as seen in the mirrors becomes
uncountable (see Figure 1a.). This is what is referred to as an optical amplification
that has generated countless images of a single object placed between two mirrors.
This same principle happens when a single light source is placed in between two
parallel mirrors. The Laser light is characterized by a single wavelength that is known
as monochromaticity; the light from laser usually comes from one atomic transition
with a single precise wavelength which gives the laser light a single spectral color
and it is almost the purest monochromatic light available (Ambroseo, 2001). Coher-
2
ency, also known as same phase position and low divergence (they spread out in
parallel lines) are other important characteristics of laser (Haken, 1983). All these
characteristics contribute to the higher intensity of the laser beam as compared to
other light sources and thereby allowing the concentration of all the intensity at a
particular point of interest.
1.2. Classification of Lasers
Laser can be classified based on the mode of operation. It can either be operated in
a continuous wave (CW) mode or in a pulsed mode (Paschotta, 2008). Continuous
Figure 1. (a) Demonstration of image amplification by two parallel mirrors (b)

Absorption rate of laser radiations in cold metal (Berkmanns and Faerber, 2010)
3
wave mode operated laser are operated at a constant power output over a length
period of time. The Laser can also be operated in a pulsed mode such that the output
power appears in pulses for a certain length of time and also repeatedly over a period
of time. The pulsed laser may be used where a large power is required for a very
short length of time. An example of an application where the pulse laser is desirable
is in the laser ablation process (Powell, 1993). In laser ablation process, the high
power is required to melt and evaporate a small portion of material in a very short
length of time without transferring the heat generated during the process from the
point of ablation to the bulk material. On the other hand, the continuous wave laser
is used in applications that required a constant power over a period of time. There
are different types of lasers and they are discussed in the next sub section.
1.3. Types of Laser
There are different types of lasers depending on the lazing medium used. They include
the gas laser (such as Helium-neon, argon, Nitrogen, Co2 and excimer laser), the
chemical laser (such as hydrogen fluoride, and Deuterium fluoride), the solid-state
lasers (Ruby, Nd: YAG, Nd: Glass), the Dye laser, the metal-vapour lasers, and the
semiconductor lasers (Csele, 2004). Out of all the numerous lasers available, only
a few of them are used for processing metallic materials. This is because of the
low power delivered by most of them (Wikipedia, 2013). Some of these lasers are
presented in Table 1 with their wavelength and areas of application.
From Table 1, the different lasers presented have different wavelength. The laser
absorption into the material that is being processed is a function of the wavelength
Table 1. Types of laser, their wavelength and areas of application
Type of Laser Wavelength Areas of Application

Carbon monoxide (Co) 2.4-4 µm Material processing (engraving, welding etc.)
Hydrogen fluoride 2.7-2.9 µm Laser weapon
Carbon dioxide (Co2) 10.6 µm Material processing, surgery etc.
Nd: YAG 1.064 µm Material processing
Nd: Glass 1.062 µm Velocity and length measurement
Dye laser 390-640 nm Medicine, Birth mark removal
Excimer 193 nm Laser surgery
Ruby 694.3 nm Tattoo removal, Holography
Helium-neon 632.8 nm Holography, spectroscopy
Argon 454.6 nm Lithography, spectroscopy
4
of the laser used (Berkmanns and Faerber, 2010). Only a few lasers are used in
material processing for this reason and also for low powers. The most commonly
used lasers in material processing are the Co2 and the Nd-YAG lasers. The difference
between Nd-YAG and Co2 laser are presented in the next sub section where the ef-
fect of the wavelength is seen on the absorption of different materials.
1.4. Difference between Co2 Laser and Nd: YAG Laser
There is a relationship between the rate of absorption of laser in materials and the
laser wavelength as reported by Berkmanns and Faerber, (2010). The difference
between the Co2 laser and the Nd: YAG laser is that, the wavelength of Co2 is ten
times the wavelength of the Nd: YAG laser. The influence of these wavelengths is
seen in their behaviour when used to process materials. For example, cold metallic
materials will reflect most part of the Co2 radiations. As the material temperature
is increased, the absorption rate will also increase. Whereas, the Nd: YAG laser is
better absorbed by cold metallic materials. Also, the laser absorption differs from
one material to the other based on the wavelength of the laser. For example, Co2
laser is very well absorbed in plastics and plywood whereas, the Nd: YAG is poorly
absorbed in these same materials. The Nd: YAG has good absorption in steel and
non-ferrous metals but the Co2 laser is poorly absorbed in some non-ferrous metals
(Berkmanns and Faerber, 2010). Some metals and their absorptivity in different
lasers are shown in Figure 1b
It can be seen from Figure 1b that the CO2 laser with the wavelength of 10.6
µm is poorly absorbed in Aluminium, Silver and Copper and well absorbed in Iron
and Steel. Most of the Co2 laser beam is reflected in these materials and the physi-
cal appearance of these materials could be responsible for this behaviour. Brightly
coloured metals tend to reflect most of the long wavelength of the CO2 laser rather
than the short wavelength laser-Nd: YAG. The shining Silver also poorly absorbs the
Nd: YAG laser and it is seen to absorb the Diode laser with the shorter wavelength
of less than 1.0 µm. The physical appearance of the material has a higher influence
on the laser’s wavelength it is going to absorb. The next sub section focuses on the
laser-material interaction.
1.5. Laser Material Interactions
The coherent and highly focused energy density provided by the laser has made it
possible to process material through localized heating of the materials. The Laser is
a tool-less machine and it does not pollute the workpiece through wear or tear which
is common in the traditional material processing techniques. The laser processes
the materials by interacting with the surface of the material depending on the laser
5
beam parameters and the properties of the material that is being processed (Bauer-
ele, 2011). When the laser beam hits the surface of the material being processed,
it excites the free electrons within a metal for example; this excitation causes the
atoms to release energy by colliding with other atoms as they are being excited
(Siegman, 1986; Haken, 1983). The energy that is released by the colliding atoms
is then dissipated as heat to the surrounding lattice (Paschotta, 2008). The heat that
is dissipated causes a rise in the temperature of the material. The temperature dis-
tribution in the material will depend largely on the properties (such as reflectivity
and thermal conductivity) of that material (Bauerele, 2011). Also, the temperature
distribution in the material under laser processing will depend on whether the mate-
rial is close to a phase change, for example solid to liquid, that is, near the melting
point (Bauerele, 2011). The functionality that is required from laser may be to
melt and vaporize, or it may be needed to just heat the material but not to melt the
material or just to melt and not to vaporize the material. Depending on the required
application of laser in material processing, drilling and cutting, may requires to
remove material inform of liquid, vapour, or plasma. Plasma is formed as a cloud
of vapour from the material at certain laser intensity (Liseykina and Bauer, 2012).
It is important to control the laser beam intensity or the laser material interaction
time during the material processing depending on the desired objective. The Co2
laser and the Nd: YAG lasers are the most commonly used lasers for processing
metallic materials. The next sub section is focused on the laser energy absorption
during the laser-material interaction process.
1.6. Laser Energy Absorption during Laser Material Interaction
There are two stages involved when the laser comes into contact with a material
being processed with laser. The first thing that happens is the coupling of the laser
and the material particles (Hügel and Dausinger, 1996). When a laser beam falls on
the substrate material during the laser metal deposition process for example, part
of this laser beam is absorbed while some are reflected. The material property and
the surface condition of the material being processed are responsible for the degree
of absorption and reflection that is taking place during this interaction phase. The
ratio of laser absorptivity and reflectivity is called the laser coupling or the energy
coupling as described by Hügel and Dausinger 1996. The laser coupling is the mea-
sure of the quantity of the laser energy that can be transferred from the laser beam
into the material under processing; and these variables are related mathematically,
according to Hügel and Dausinger (1996); and this ratio is given in equation 1.
P = PR + PA = αP + βP ; α + β =1 (1)
6
where P is the laser power, PA is the partially absorbed laser power; PR is the par-
tially reflected laser power. The α and β are the absorptivity and reflectivity ratios,
respectively.
The powder material’s absorptivity is greater than that of a single solid mass of
material (Hügel et al., 1994). This is because when the laser beam falls on the sur-
face of the substrate material, the beam is partially absorbed and partially reflected.
The partially reflected beams are lost, as they are reflected back to space: whereas,
when the laser beam falls on the powders, a higher proportion of the energy from
the laser beam is absorbed. This is because, the reflected beams would penetrate
the surrounding powder; and this absorption, reflection, and further absorption of
the powder particles would help to increase the overall laser absorptivity (Hügel
et al., 1994). Gas atomized powders are of great importance in the laser material
interaction because they help to increase the laser power absorptivity (Niu & Chang,
2000). On the other hand, the surface oxidation is detrimental to the laser energy
absorptivity, because the oxidized surfaces will reduce the energy coupling process
(Hügel et al., 1994). This is why it is important to perform the laser processing of
most materials in an inert atmosphere. The second stage after the coupling process
is the penetration of the absorbed energy. The depth of the laser energy absorption
will depend on the quantity of energy absorbed by the material being processed, and
the wavelength of the laser that is being used (Wang & Kruth, 2000). The Solidifica-
tion Mechanisms and Microstructural Formation in the Laser Material Processing
are discussed in the next sub section.
1.7. Solidification Mechanisms and Microstructural

Formation in the Laser Material Processing
The importance of microstructure in the laser material processing cannot be over-

emphasized, because the microstructure has a direct relationship with the properties
of the processed materials. Also, the process of solidification has direct influence
on the microstructural formation. The melt pool that is created on the surface of the
substrate by the laser beam during the laser material interaction begins to solidify the
moment the laser leaves the melt pool site. The solidification rate of this melt pool
would depend on a number of factors. The factors include: the laser power that was
applied, the scanning velocity, and the initial temperature of the substrate before the
laser energy was applied. A high laser power combined with a low scanning speed
would result in a large volume of melt pool and hence a low solidification rate (Wu
et al., 2004). A lower solidification rate would also result in some melting of the
substrate or the preceding layer (Brody, 1986). This is because a low solidification
rate causes the melt pool to stay longer on the surface of the substrate. When the
melt pool stays longer on the substrate or the preceding layer, it softens and further
7
melts the substrate or the preceding layer. If the substrate is cold, on the other hand,
the solidification would be quite rapid because the substrate would act as a heat
sink. That is, the heat in the melt pool is absorbed by the cold substrate, thereby
causing the solidification to be very fast. Furthermore, if the scanning speed is high,
the laser material interaction time will be low; and this also causes the melt pool to
solidify rapidly. In laser deposition process, solidification process begins from the
solid-liquid interface region, (that is, the interface between the melt pool and the
substrate or the preceding layer) (Brody, 1986). This interface is the nucleation site
for the crystal growth. The crystal that is nucleated on the substrate or the preceding
layer will act as a seed crystal, upon which the other crystals grow (Brody, 1986).
This type of crystal growth that follows a crystallographic orientation with respect
to the substrate crystal is known as “epitaxial grains” (Brody, 1986; Kurz, 1992).
Epitaxial grains are shown in Figure 2. As the solidification process progresses, the
grains will continue to grow in the perpendicular direction towards the substrate –
and in the opposite direction to the direction of the heat flow (Kobryn et al, 2000).
The heat flow direction is towards the substrate; and the grain growth is towards
the surface where the melt pool is located. This grain growth shows a characteristic
grain structure that is referred to as columnar grain (Kobryn et al, 2000; Brandl et
al., 2011). The columnar grain structures are also indicated in the Figure 2. The
heat affected zone in laser metal deposited Titanium is characterized by the globular
grain structures. The globular grains are formed as a result of heat transferred from
the melt pool to the substrate material. The grains very close to the melt pool region
gain enough heat, which results in the growth of the surrounding grains. This grain
growth in the heat-affected zone results in a globular grain structure. The size of
the globular grain depends on the relative position of the grains to the melt pool
region. The closer the grain to the melt pool, the bigger the size of the globular grain
produced. The solidification rate is related to the scanning velocity, as described by
Steen (1998), and it is given in equation 2.
R= v sin θ (2)
where R is the solidification rate, v is the scanning velocity, and θ is the angle be-
tween the tangent of the growth vector and the scanning direction.
The solidification rate is directly proportional to the scanning velocity. Such that
the higher the scanning velocity, the higher the cooling rate. At a very high solidi-
fication rate, the microstructure formed in titanium-metal- composite, for example,
tends to become more dendritic (Chen & Wang, 2003). This in turn results in the
higher hardness property of the material. The coarser or the finer the evolving mi-
crostructure is directly caused by the cooling rate. The higher the cooling rate, the
finer the microstructure and the lower the cooling rate the coarser microstructure.
8
Figure 2. Epitaxial and columnar grain structure in laser deposited Ti6Al4V
At a very high cooling rate, the microstructure becomes equiaxed (Steen, 1998).
This shows that the processing parameters play an important role in achieving the
desired cooling rate in order to obtain the desired microstructure and as well the
desired properties.
The various laser additive manufacturing processes are discussed in the next
sub- section.
2. LASER ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING (LAM) PROCESSES
The laser additive manufacturing processes use laser energy to melt or fuse ma-
terials layer after layer in order to produce a 3D component directly from the 3D
CAD model of the component being produced. The laser additive manufacturing
technologies that are discussed in this section are: stereolithography apparatus
(SLA), selective laser sintering (SLS), selective laser melting (SLM), laser metal
deposition (LMD) and laminated object manufacturing (LAM). The laser provides
a high intensity and a highly collimated beam of energy that can be quickly moved
in a controlled manner with the help of the directional mirrors or lenses in the laser
system. This is what makes the laser to be useful as an energy source in the laser
additive manufacturing. The use of the laser energy in the additive manufacturing
technologies is basically for curing, cutting, fusing or melting. In the photopolymer
9
resins application, for example, what is required from the laser energy is to cause
the liquid resin to solidify or “cure” (as is the case in stereolithography (SLA)).
Heating is required for cutting through a solid material as used in laminated object
manufacturing or for melting powdered material as it is in selective laser melting or
fusing powder as in selective laser sintering and sheet materials. Laser is expected
to carry sufficient thermal energy to be able to achieve the above mentioned appli-
cations. In laser metal deposition process for example, the basic requirement from
laser is to melt the powder in a controlled manner without creating heat build-up.
When the laser energy is removed, the molten material will rapidly solidify. Some
of the commercially available LAM technologies are discussed in the following
sub-sections.
2.1. Selective Laser Melting
The Selective laser melting started in 1995 at the Fraunhofer Institute ILT in Aachen,
Germany. The selective laser melting (SLM) is an additive manufacturing process
that can produce complex components directly from CAD model of the components
using powdered materials. Selective laser melting belongs to the ‘laser sintering’
according to the ASTM International F42 standards committee (Scott et al., 2012).
The processing speed is about 5-20 cm3/h depending on the surface area of the
component being made. Three steps are involved in the SLM process: during the
first step the substrate is lowered by one layer thickness level. The second step
involves applying of the new layer of the powder material on the substrate that was
initially lowered one layer thickness. The layer is applied using the coater or roller.
The third step involves scanning of the path dictated by the CAD file with the laser.
As the laser moves on the surface of the powder, it melts the powder along its path
as a result of the energy absorbed by the powder. These steps are repeated until the
building of the component is completed. The building of part takes place inside
a build chamber containing an inert gas, in order to keep the nitrogen and oxygen
levels below 500 ppm. The laser energy is high enough to cause the full melting of
the metal powder particles to form the 3D solid metallic component. The schematic
diagram of the SLM process is shown in Figure 3.
2.1.1. Advantages of SLM
Components with hollows and undercuts are easily built using the selective laser
melting process; this is because components are made by building of components
layer by layer. Components can be built in any orientation that is so convenient with-
out any restrictions like it is the case with the traditional manufacturing processes.
10
Figure 3. Schematic of the selective laser melting (adapted from Sidambe 2014)
2.1.2. Disadvantages of SLM
Though nearly 100% fully dense part can be produced using the SLM process, but
the low degree of porosity is still an issue as this impact the mechanical property of
the component produce. Dimensional stability is also of great concern in the SLM,
and warping of the part as a result of residual stress. The traditional manufacturing
techniques have a relatively high set-up cost (for example high cost for creating a
mould) but the SLM has a high cost per part (mostly because it is time-intensive
process), it is economical only if few parts are to be produced.
2.1.3. Areas of Applications
SLM are used to produce parts with a high degree of complexity and structures
with thin walls and hidden voids and for low volume of work. Example includes
lightweight parts for the aerospace industry. This laser additive manufacturing
process can be used to manufacture tools for the plastic injection molding and the
die casting. It can also be used to produce structures for medical implants. SLM is
mostly used in the area of rapid prototyping, rapid tooling and rapid manufacturing.
11
2.2. Laser Metal Deposition (LMD)
The laser metal deposition (LMD) process is also known as the direct metal laser
deposition (DMLD), direct laser deposition (DLD), direct metal deposition (DMD)
or laser powder deposition (LPD). LMD belongs to the ‘Directed Energy Deposi-
tion’ (DED) class of additive manufacturing process that is based on the laser clad-
ding process. The major difference between the laser cladding and the laser metal
deposition process is that, the laser cladding process involved the pacing of powder
on the substrate after which the laser beam is scanned on the powder bed while in
the LMD process, the laser beam is used to create a melt pool on the surface of the
substrate, then the powder or wire is fed into the melt pool which upon solidification
leaves the tracks of solid material on its path. The schematic of the LMD process
is shown in Figure 4.
The LMD process is unique because it can be used to repair high valued com-
ponent parts that were not possible or difficult to repair in the past (Bergan, 2011).
More than one material can be used simultaneously in the LMD process that makes
it possible for the production of functionally graded materials. LMD can be used
to produce better coating to improve the surface property of material with minimum
distortion, better surface quality, near net shape and fully dense. The components
Figure 4. The schematic diagram of the laser metal deposition process (Mahamood
et al., 2014b)
12
that are produced using LMD have good grain structure which in turns determines
the mechanical properties of the component. The parts that were usually discarded
in the past as a result of being not weldable can now readily be repaired using the
LMD technology (Gasser et al., 2010). It enhances the thermal control in the com-
ponent being built with its well-controlled heat affected zone (HAZ). For the repair
of parts, LMD is a safe repair technology especially on critical contacting surfaces
when compared to the traditional repair methods, such as welding, which are de-
structive in nature. An example of LMD process is Laser engineered net shaping
(LENS). LENS was developed by the Sandia National Laboratory in the mid-1990s
(Kumar and Stucker, 2005) and it uses high power laser to melt the metal powder
particles by focusing the laser beam on a small spot at a time through one or more
lenses (Hedges and Keicher, 2002). The molten material solidifies very quickly and
thus results in fully dense component thereby eliminating the need for any heat-
treatment after the processing (Mazumder at al., 1999). The LENS is a very impor-
tant technology that is used to produce parts with better property control with the
help of an inert gas to shield the melt pool which protects it from atmospheric oxy-
gen. Hence, better surface wetting is achieved and with better layer adhesion. It is
also possible to dynamically change material composition leading to production of
functionally graded parts (Liu and DuPont, 2003; Mahamood and Akinlabi, 2015a).
Laser metal deposition process has also been used to deposit difficult to machine
materials such as titanium and its alloy and was reported in the literature (Maham-
ood et al 2015b- Mahamood et al 2015f.)
2.2.1. The Advantages of Laser Metal Deposition
The laser metal deposition process offers many advantages; and some of them are
summarized as follows:
Laser metal deposition process allows a new part to be built on old or an existing
parts (Song et al., 2006), that are metallurgically bonded together. This provides a lot
of flexibility for part designers; and modification can also be done on any existing
design – without having to start from the scratch, thereby saving time, materials, and
the overall cost of production. LMD can handle more than one material simultane-
ously; hence it can be used to produce parts with functionally graded composition
(Qin et al., 2010). Also LMD can be used to repair worn-out parts, which were
prohibitive in the past (Graf et al., 2012).
2.2.2. Limitations of the Laser Metal Deposition
Laser metal deposition is a relatively new technology like other additive manu-
facturing processes and the underlying physics is yet to be fully understood. For
13
the process to be fully acceptable especially for manufacturing critical parts, the
characteristics of the produced part must be predictable and as well controllable.
More research is needed to fully establish this promising technology in order to be
able to predict the properties of the part produced and also to be able to control the
evolving properties.
2.2.3. Areas of Application of LMD Process
LMD is used for producing 3D complex part. It is also used for cladding and repair
applications. Part made of functionally graded material can readily be made with
LMD because of its flexibility in handling multiple materials
2.3. Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
The SLS process was first developed and patented in 1989 by Dr. Carl Deckaid at
the University of Texas (Deckard, 1989). The SLS process was commercialized
by DTM Corporation. The Selective Laser Sintering process is a laser additive
manufacturing technique that uses a laser as the power source to fuse powdered
material, and binding the material together to develop a 3D solid component directly
from the 3D CAD model of the component. It is similar to selective laser melting
process. The two are technology selectively fuse or melt powder in order to create
the solid component. The selective laser melting fully melts the powder material
instead of just sintering the powder material in the selective laser sintering process.
The SLS uses the energy from laser to fuse or sinter the powdered material that has
been spread on the substrate by following the laser path that is dictated by the 3D
model of the component being produced to create a 3D solid component (Kruth
et al., 2003). The laser selectively fuses the powdered material (polymer, metal or
ceramic powder) by scanning the two dimensional (2D) cross-sections of the part
that has been generated by the 3D geometrical description of the part on the surface
of a powder bed, spread on the surface of the substrate. After each cross-section
is scanned, the powder bed is lowered by one layer thickness, and a new layer of
powder material is applied on top of the previously scanned layer, and the process is
repeated until the building of the part is completed. The schematic of the selective
laser sintering is shown in Figure 5.
2.3.1. Advantages of SLS
One of the major advantages of SLS process is that it does not require any support
structures. This is because the surrounding powder materials that are not scanned
and fused provide the needed support for the part being built. This important char-
14
Figure 5. Schematics of selective laser sintering (Baourell 2011)
acteristic makes it possible to make parts no matter the complexity of these parts.
The selective laser sintering process does not require support structures because
part being built is surrounded by unsintered powder particles at all times and this
allows for the construction of previously impossible geometries.
2.3.2 Disadvantages of SLS
The component made with selective laser sintering is porous and the part must be
infiltrated to improve the property of the part through a secondary operation.
2.3.2.1. Areas of applications of SLS
SLS are used in the production of prototypes and functional end use parts. SLS can
be used to produce functionally graded material because two materials can be used
simultaneously on some SLS machines. The SLS can produce parts from a relatively
wide range of commercially available powder materials. More than one part can be
built simultaneously within the powder bed, resulting in a very high productivity.
The application of SLS process is rapidly growing in art.
2.4. Stereolithography (SLA)
SLA was the first commercially available rapid prototyping machine that was de-
veloped and patented by Charles Hull of 3D Systems, Inc. in the USA (Hull, 1986).
Initially this process was inaccurate and the choice of material was limited, so only
prototypes are made with the process (Boboulos, 2011). The SLA uses laser energy
to selectively scan and cure the liquid photo-sensitive polymer. The laser follows the
geometry generated by the CAD model of the component being made. The process
15
is similar to SLS and SLM in that the building platform is lowered by one layer
thickness inside the photo-sensitive polymer thank each time the laser scans the
platform. The platform is lowered again and the laser scans and cures the polymer
to trace the 2D cross-section of the part being built based on the CAD model. The
step is repeated each time until the building of the part is completed. The schematic
diagram of the SLA is shown in Figure 6. The only difference between the SLA
and the SLS is that the material used in SLA is liquid while powder is used in the
SLS process. After the building of the part is complete, the parts are immersed in
a chemical bath in order to remove all the excess resins, and then the parts are then
subsequently cured in an ultraviolet oven. The SLA process requires the use of
support structures that serve to prevent deflection of the part being built as a result
of gravity. The support structure also helps to hold the cross sections of the part in
place so that they are balanced and are not disturbed by the pressure of the re-coater
blade. The supports structures are normally generated automatically during the 3D
CAD models preparation. The supports are removed from the finished part manually.
Figure 6. The schematic diagram of stereolithography (Lee 2001)
16
2.4.1 Advantages of SLA Process
One of the major advantages of the SLA is that it is relatively faster than other laser
additive manufacturing processes, so high productivity can be achieved with this
process.
2.4.1.1. Disadvantages of SLA Process
The major disadvantage of SLA is the high cost of the stereolithography machines.
The price is now coming down as a result of many manufacturers now producing
several consumer model machines.
2.4.2 Areas of Application of SLA
Prototypes that are produced by SLA can be used as patterns for injection molding
and molds for other metal casting processes.
2.5. Laminated Object Manufacturing
The LOM process was developed by Helisys, Inc. in the USA in 1986 (Boboulos,
2011). The objects are formed by bonding adhesive coated sheet material together,
the shape are then traced by a laser optics system to cut out the traced shape. At the
invention of the technology, the material used was paper, but now different materi-
als are now being used and more are being developed also by the Helisys, Inc. the
building of part is achieved by feeding the materials into the machine from a feed
roller. The materials are fed on to the stacks that were previously produced during
the process and the new fed materials are bonded to the previous layer with the aid
of a heated roller which melts the plastic coating on the material. The laser beam is
then used to trace out the desired part as dictated by the 3D CAD model profile of
the part being built. The take-up roll removes the excess material from the building
platform. The steps are repeated until the building of the part is completed. There is
no need of any support structure for overhang and under cut. The schematic diagram
of the LOM is shown in Figure 7.
2.5.1. Advantages of LOM Process
The main advantages of the LOM process are as follows: - The raw materials are
cheap and are readily available. The models produced from paper material are very
strong and looks like wood. It can be worked and finished as desired.
17
Figure 7. Schematics of Laminated object manufacturing
2.5.2. Disadvantages of LOM Process
The dimensional accuracy of part produce using LOM is poor when compared to
other LAM processes.
2.5.3. Areas of Application of LOM
LOM is to make pattern for sand casting, architectural Modelling, etc.
3. CONCLUSION
One of the driving forces in laser additive manufacturing process is the aerospace
industry. Producing highly complex part using the traditional manufacturing route is
material wasting. The ratio of the percentage of raw material to the percentage of the
finish product is very high when complex parts are produced through the traditional
manufacturing processes. This is often referred to as buy-to-fly ratio in the aerospace
industry. Laser additive manufacturing is a promising technology for the production
of aerospace parts that will help to reduce the buy to fly ratio because, as against
material removal for shaping objects in the traditional manufacturing processes, laser
additive manufacturing produce material simply by adding materials layer after layer.
Some of the commercialized laser additive manufacturing processes are presented
in this chapter. Their processes are described their advantages, disadvantages, and
areas of applications are also presented.
18
4. FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
Laser additive manufacturing is an evolutionary manufacturing technology that

allows product to be design for functionality as against design for manufacturing
which is the case with the traditional manufacturing processes. This technology
is still fairly new and some of the underlying principles of these technologies are
yet to be fully understood. The technology is a highly promising technology and it
is capable of reducing the carbon foot print in all our transportation industries by
reducing the net weight of all the moving parts. There is need for more research
in this area to better understand the physics of this technology so as to be able to
effectively control the achievable properties of the parts that are produced. There
is need to further develop the raw materials used by this process so as to reduce the
overall cost of production of the processes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work is supported by the Rental Pool Programme of National Laser Centre,
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research Pretoria, South Africa and L’Oreal-
UNESCO for Women in Science.
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24
Chapter 2
Laser-Based
Manufacturing
Processes for Aerospace
Applications
Panos Stavropoulos
Hellenic Air Force Academy, Greece
Angelos Koutsomichalis
Hellenic Air Force Academy, Greece
Nikos Vaxevanidis
School of Pedagogical and Technological Education, Greece
ABSTRACT
In this chapter the latest developments in Laser manufacturing technologies and
processes, used in the aerospace industry, are discussed. Current developments in
the aerospace industry are characterised by the reduction of manufacturing and
exploitation costs. Thus, the need for implementation of advanced manufacturing
technologies and processes in the aeronautic industry, offering cost effective prod-
ucts with improved life cycle, is becoming more and more imperative. Lasers can
be used in many industrial machining processes for a variety of materials including
metals, ceramics, glass, plastics, and composites. Laser beams, used as machining
tools, are not accompanied by problems such as tool wear, tool breakage, chatter,
machine deflection and mechanically induced material damage, phenomena that are
usually associated with traditional machining processes. The effectiveness of Lasers
depends on the thermal nature of the machining process. Nevertheless, difficulties
arise due to the difference in the thermal properties of the various components.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-0329-3.ch002
Laser-Based Manufacturing Processes for Aerospace Applications
INTRODUCTION
The advantages of laser processing in many production applications in terms of

cost, time, quality and flexibility, have led a substantial number of aerospace related
companies the latest years to adopt laser processing systems, despite their high
investment costs. Lasers present high flexibility as manufacturing “tools”, since a
number of different in nature processes can be realized with the same laser source,
including machining, welding, surface and heat treatments, in a variety of materials
such as metals, plastics, composites, ceramics wood and glass. Moreover the devel-
opment of high power lasers (> 2-3 kW) in combination with high speed moving
(flying) optics or work piece positioning devices met in today’s laser systems, have
increased dramatically the production rates of laser processing.
However it is common practice in many industrial environments such technolo-
gies not to be fully exploited due to lack of adequate technical know-how. Usually
laser equipment is utilized mostly for laser cutting and rarely laser welding of a very
specific family of materials, including in most cases mild steels, stainless steels and
sometimes Aluminum Alloys. Laser drilling has been used for producing cooling air
holes, whereas laser cutting has been used fabricate a large variety of sheet-metal
parts such as compressor vane segments. Laser welding, although very popular in
other industrial sectors, such as the automotive, is considered as a niche application
in the aerospace related industries finding however few applications in aero engine
manufacturing such as the production of compressor stator cascades and join cover
plates to the cast cores of high-pressure and low-pressure blades.
The laser was invented in 1960 and has offered to industry a new form of en-
ergy. The energy generated from lasers can be employed to heat, melt and vaporize
most materials; therefore a laser beam can be the energy source in laser material
processing; a number of excellent books presents various aspects on the topic, see
(Chryssolouris, 1991, Kannatey-Asibu Jr, 2009 & Steen et al., 2010).
There are various types of lasers with different characteristics depending, to a large
extent, on the active medium used for the laser action. The principal laser categories
include solid state lasers, gas lasers, liquid dye lasers, semiconductor (diode) lasers
and free electron lasers. Ruby and Nd:YAG are examples of solid state lasers. Both
are extensively employed in manufacturing applications (Akinlabi et al., 2012).
Laser material processing represents a great number of methods, which are
increasingly applied in different industrial sectors as promising alternatives to
conventional manufacturing processes. Nowadays, the use of lasers in industrial
engineering is an emerging field with a wide variety of applications, for example,
in electronics, aerospace, molds and dies and biomedical applications.
25
A detailed bibliometric research concerning the topic “Laser manufacturing”

AND “Aerospace” is beyond the scope of this chapter. However, by using the
Scopus® scientific database important information can be retrieved. A search with
TITLE (laser surface treatment) and SUBJAREA (physical sciences) return 848
documents, with first paper relative to engineering published in 1974. Only from
1984 and then, more than 10 papers per year are published. China (81), France (71)
and Japan (63) are the countries with the highest numbers of authors. Another search
with TITLE (laser) AND TITLE (aerospace) and SUBJAREA (physical sciences)
return 154 documents, with first paper actually relative to aerospace applications
published in 1982.
LASER MATERIAL REMOVAL
Mechanical material removal processes are the backbone of industrial manufacturing

practice. These processes provide a great deal of flexibility, since the shape of the
tool and the kinematics of the tool and workpiece define the geometry of the part.
The material removal mechanism is a very important aspect of removing processes.
As per Chryssolouris, 2005 the basic material removal processes, rely in one or
more of the below mentioned mechanisms:
• Mechanical: The mechanical stresses induced by a tool surpass the strength

of the material
• Thermal: Thermal energy provided by a heat source melts and/or vaporizes
the volume of the material to be removed
• Electrochemical: Electrochemical reactions induced by an electrical field
destroy the atomic bonds of the material to be removed.
Advanced material removal processes utilised in aeronautic industry include

laser beam drilling and cutting as also and high speed machining.
Laser Beam Drilling
Drills in aerospace applications are of extend in areas or components such as gas

turbines; nozzle guide vanes and combustion rings primarily for cooling purposes.
High gas temperatures, higher than nickel alloys melting points, primary material
of a combustion chamber and blades, require a great number and shape reputability
of drills for cooling purposes. Table 1 indicates number of holes per compliment
that may vary from may vary from 25 to 40,000.
26
Table 1. Typical hole dimensions in Aerospace components (Van Dijk et al. 1989)
Component Dia (mm) Wall Thickness (mm) Angle (deg.) No of Holes

Blade 0.3-0.5 1.0-3.0 15 25-200
Vane 0.3-1.0 1.0-3.0 15 25-200
Afterburner 0.4 2.0-2.5 90 40k
Baseplate 0.5-0.7 1.0 30-90 10k
Seal ring 0.95-1.05 1.5 50 180
Cooling ring 0.78-0.84 4.0 79 4200
Laser beam drilling involves a stationary laser beam which uses its high power
density to melt or vaporize material from the workpiece. This method is sometimes
called percussion or on center drilling (Chryssolouris, 1991). Another laser drilling
method is trepanning drilling, which is in principle a cutting technique (Figure 1)
(Corcoran, et al 2002).
Laser beam drilling, one of the first industrial laser applications, is able to create
hole patterns that were impossible ten years ago. Higher average powers allow laser
to drill faster, and higher peak powers allow them to go deeper (Heston et al, 2002).
Drills with diameter to depth ratio of up to 1:20 can be achieved (Salonitis et al,
2007). Due to its high potential for industrial applications, a lot of attempts for
modelling laser drilling have been reported (Chryssolouris 1991, Salonitis et al,
2007, Yilbas et al, 1995, Ganesh et al, 1997). Utilising laser technology, holes are
drilled into gas turbines, turbine blades, nozzle guide vanes and combustion rings
primarily for cooling (Figure 2).
However, holes drilled with a laser beam present a number of defects. Spatter
formation is one of the most important. Spatter is the result of the ejected material
Figure 1. Laser drilling methods (Left - Percussion drilling, Right – Trepanning

drilling)
27
Figure 2. Laser drilled component (French, 2003, pp. 1-9)
that is not completely expulsed but re-solidifies and adheres around the hole pe-
riphery (Table 2).
Research on the development of anti-spatter composite coatings (ASCC) and its
effectiveness for spatter-free drilling of closed spaced array holes in aerospace
materials, have been reported (Low et al, 2001, Low et al, 2003).
Laser Beam Cutting
Laser beam cutting is a thermal cutting process that severs material by locally melt-
ing it, using a repeatedly pulsing or continues focused laser beam. In laser cutting,
a kerf is created through relative motion between the laser beam and the workpiece
surface. During the process, an assist gas is used to aid the removal of molten ma-
terial. Laser cutting is used to cut an extremely wide range of materials (metals,
ceramics, inorganics, organics, and composites) without regard to their hardness or
electrical conductivity (figure 3).
28
Table 2. Overview of LBD in aerospace applications
Laser beam drilling (LBD)

A high intensity-beam is focused to a spot of sufficiently high energy so as to vaporize the material.
Advantages • Holes of large depth\diameter ratio
• Drilling time is extremely rapid
• Holes can be drilled at shallow angles to the surface
Disadvantages • Spatter formation
• Difficult to monitor\control the process
• Conical holes
Applications • Aircraft wings
• Cooling channels in engine components
• etc…
Figure 3. Laser beam cutting schematic (Chryssolouris, 1991)
Due to the great application of laser cutting in automotive and aerospace indus-
tries, a lot of research effort has been applied in the investigation of cutting advanced
materials, like stainless steel, aluminium and titanium alloys. Cutting is supported
by an assist gas, which can be oxygen or an inert gas, like nitrogen. When cutting
with oxygen an exothermic reaction takes place. While oxygen cutting is ideal for
mild steel, it has drawbacks for stainless steel, aluminium and titanium (Williams
et al, 1997). Especially for aerospace industry, high cutting quality is an indispens-
able characteristic. Investigations on thermal damage, kerf width and cutting edge
surface roughness have been recorded (Prasad et al, 1998, Lamikiz, et al, 2005,
Kristensen et al, 1994, Carpio et al, 2003). Apart from the major benefits offering
29
laser beams in cutting, like high processing speed, cleanness in terms of acoustic
and dust considerations and versatility, the HAZ is expected to change the me-
chanical behaviour of laser processed structural elements. Especially for aeronautic
applications, this feature is of first importance, because those elements suffer cyclic
stress under service conditions (Carpio et al, 2003, Shanjin et al, 2006).
Typical applications of laser cutting in aeronautic industry are cutting of combus-
tion cases, impellers, blade and vanes, engine rings, fuel system components and
turbine exhaust cases (Table 3).
LASER FORMING
Laser forming, introduced in the mid-80s, is a non-contact method of producing

bending, spatial forming and alignment of metallic and non-metallic materials.
The forming of these materials is achieved by introducing thermal stresses into the
workpiece by focused laser beam irradiation, causing localized heating followed by
cooling as the laser source is switched off or moved on to an adjacent area. During
the heating phase, thermal strains in the irradiated zone exceed the elastic ones and
are converted into plastic compressive strains (Dearden et al, 2003). During cooling
the irradiated materials shrinks, leading to the development of bending or change
of shape of the workpiece at the irradiated area (Figure 4).
The process is of great importance for industries that formerly used expensive
stamping and presses for prototype evaluations. Furthermore, the flexibility of
process is increased as there is no mechanical contact among tool and workpiece.
Another advantage of the non-mechanical nature of the laser forming process is that
there is minimal distortion of the produced metallic shapes. The accuracy of the
Table 3. Overview of LBC in aerospace applications
Laser beam cutting (LBC)

A thermal cutting process that severs material by locally melting it, using a repeatedly pulsing or continues
focused laser beam.
Advantages • Higher material removal rate
• Narrower kerfs in comparison with mechanical cutting
• Elimination of the residue & debris
Materials • Aluminium-synthetic laminates
• Aluminium & Titanium alloys
• Composite materials
Applications • Combustion cases
• Fuel system components
• Turbine exhaust cases
30
Figure 4. Laser forming of a 2mm titanium sheet (Left – Process in action, Right –
Process result Dearden et al, 2003)
process is significantly high and stems from its nature (small bending angle- around
1% of sheet thickness per pass) (Magee et al, 2000).
However the process presents a decreasing bend rate with increasing passes of
the laser beam, especially for titanium alloys. Furthermore, annealing is required to
retain the initial material properties, especially in the case where high laser energies
are needed to achieve desirable forming. Additionally, in some cases the process
should be carried out in an inert gas (such as argon) environment to avoid extensive
material properties altering (table 4) (Magee et al, 2000).
Laser forming can be implemented in a variety of materials such as steel (Dearden
et al, 2003), high strength aluminum and titanium alloys (Walczyk & Vittal, 2000,
Watkins et al, 2001) and metal laminate composite materials (Edwardson et al,
2003), materials extensively used by the aerospace industry. Especially the latter
are used extensively in aerospace manufacture because of their increased high
strength to low weight ratio. Applications can be found in aircrafts such as the
Airbus A380 (Edwardson, et al, 2003). The current knowledge in the field of laser
beam forming, together with a number of recent research advances and applications
is presented in a recent monograph; see (Akinlabi et al., 2012).
Table 4. Overview of LF in aerospace applications
Laser forming (LF)

Non-contact metal sheet forming by introducing thermal stresses into the workpiece surface using a de-
focused laser beam. These stresses induce plastic strains, bending or shortening the material.
Advantages • Produces metallic predetermined shapes with minimal distortion
• Application on composite laminates or layered structures
• Eliminates expensive dies, promoting the ”Virtual Tooling” concept
• Can be used for alignment and correction of pre-formed 3D surfaces
Applications Outer skin fuselage panels from metallic composites
31
LASER BEAM WELDING
Welding in the aeronautic industry is of crucial importance. Nowadays, rivets are

replaced by welds in a variety of components in order to improve both cost and
structural integrity. Due to the increasing demand for fuel economy, lightweight al-
loys have been adopted in aerospace industry and are expected to be extensively used
in the future. Aluminium, magnesium and titanium alloys are the most promising
metallic materials offering weight saving and good performance (good mechanical
properties, corrosion resistant, etc.). In order to realise the usefulness of these mate-
rials, successful joining methods are required. Welding processes can be classified
by the intensity of the heat source (Mendez et al, 2002)
Welding in aeronautical industry is characterised by low production, high cost,
extreme reliability and severe service conditions. Advanced joining techniques
such as laser beam welding (LBM), friction stir welding (FSW) and electron beam
welding (EBW) are preferable processes for joining of critical aircraft components
(Mendez et al, 2001).
Aluminium, magnesium and titanium alloys are potential materials for lightweight
constructions in aeronautic industry due to their advanced mechanical properties
and low density. Titanium, aluminium, and nickel alloys are used for various ap-
plications in the aerospace industry. Titanium alloys, such as Ti6Al4V (6% Al, 4%
V), Ti6242 (6% Al, 2% Sn, 4% Zr, 2% Mo) and TiCu2 (2%Cu) are widely used in
aeronautic and aerospace structures e.g. blades and casings of compressor stages
in turbojets while Nickel based super alloys (Inconel 718, Incoloy 909 and Single
crystal 2000) are used in the jet engines. Aluminium and its alloys (2000 series,
6000 series etc.) are most suited for structural members, especially fuselage and
wing structures in airplanes (Table 5).
An appropriate joining technology for these materials is laser beam welding due
to the high processing speeds, high accuracy, low distortion and high strength of
Table 5. Typical properties of aluminium, magnesium and carbon steel
Property Aluminium Magnesium Titanium Carbon steel Units

Density: 2600-2800 1770-1830 4510 7850 Kgr/m3
Melting Point: 660 650 1668 1371-1454 °C
Elastic Modulus: 70-79 44.8 100-120 190-210 Gpa
Poisson’s Ratio: 0.33 0.35 0.33 0.27-0.3 -
Tensile Strength: 230-570 152-379 234 276-1882 Mpa
Yield Strength: 215-505 80-280 138 186-758 Mpa
Percent Elongation: 10.0-25.0 5.0-15.0 54 10.0-32.0 %
32
joining. Laser beam welding is basically a simple process, requiring no filler wires,
fluxes, electrodes or ancillary equipment. A laser beam is used as heating source
to melt the welded materials.
A lot of studies have been carried out in order to investigate the joining of these
materials using a laser beam (Schubert et al, 2001, Zhu et al, 2005, Cao et al, 2006,
Li et al, 1997). In addition, joining of dissimilar materials can be realised with laser
beam welding (Schubert et al, 2001). Due to the high importance of the process for
applications, not only in aeronautic but in a wide range of industrial sectors, a lot of
research has been carried out in modelling, both analytical and numerical, of laser
beam welding process (Mackwood et al, 2005).
Apart from the major advantages and its high potential for extended applica-
tions in aeronautic industry, laser beam welding suffers from seam imperfections
like notches and holes in the seam, which reduce the mechanical properties of the
seam. Especially for magnesium alloys, substantial spatter, sag of the weld pool,
undercut, porous oxide inclusions, loss of alloying elements, excessive pore forma-
tion, liquation and solidification cracking are some major weld defects that can be
obtained during laser beam welding (Cao et al, 2006).
Laser beam welding in airplanes is now a reality. The lower panels of the fuse-
lage of the A318 are the first application of laser welding in airplane. Compared to
automating riveting, using laser welding led in reducing joining time by half, taking
only one minute to weld 8 m of stringers (Table 6) (Mendez et al, 2002).
Furthermore, components as underwing reservoirs, aero-engines’ exhaust frames
and combustion liners are some of the airplane components that can be manufactured
by laser welding (Li et al, 1997). A new concept of laser beam welding process
(Figure 5 (b)), named remote laser welding, has been utilised the last years in au-
tomotive industries but it has great potential for aeronautic applications (Tsoukan-
tas et al, 2007).
Table 6. Overview of LBW in aerospace applications
Laser beam welding (LBW)

Non-convectional welding process, utilizing a laser beam as the necessary heat source for melting the
material.
Advantages • High accuracy
• High weld quality
• Low HAZ - Low distortions
Materials • Aluminium alloys
• Magnesium alloys
• Dissimilar materials
Applications • Jet engine components
• Stringers to the skin plate of aircrafts
• etc…
33
Figure 5. Laser beam welding schematics (Left – Laser beam welding schematic,
Right Principles of scanning system for remote welding)
LASER SURFACE TREATMENT
Apart from their significant offers for shaping various components, manufacturing
processes such as turning, milling, drilling, grinding and welding sometimes damage
surface characteristics and fatigue properties of parts due to alteration of surface
integrity state by introducing tensile residual stresses and/or detrimental metallurgi-
cal transformations. Thus, the need for post-processing of machined parts is very
significant. Furthermore, the lifecycle of a product can be improved by enhancing
its surface properties or repairing it through fusing on its surface an alloy layer or
coating of advanced mechanical and chemical properties.
For satisfying such requirements various techniques for the modification of
an engineering surface were applied and the new term “surface engineering” was
coined in the 70s (Burakowski & Wierzchon,1998).
Surface engineering is a multidisciplinary activity intended to tailor the proper-
ties of the surfaces of engineering components so that their function and service-
ability can be improved. Laser surface treatment/engineering is one of the many
techniques employed for improving the surface of materials, is achieved by applying
laser energy on the surface of the material or melting similar or dissimilar materials
(such as metals, ceramic or composites) on the surface of the material in order to
improve the properties of the surface of the bulk material (Mahamood et al 2014 a).
Among the surface engineering techniques, a relatively new and attractive family of
methods is laser surface treatment. The various laser surface treatment techniques
offer excellent tools for tailoring the surface microstructure and/or composition
of a component and are, typically superior to conventionally surface engineering.
(Razavi & Gordani, 2011). The laser surface treatment techniques that are currently
available are shown in Table 7.
34
Table 7. Overview of LST
Laser Surface Treatments

VAPORISING Shock
MELTING Glazing
Liquid State Processing
Hardfacing
Alloying
Remelting
HEATING Transformation Hardening
Solid State Processing
Ageing
Surface treatment processes has played crucial role in aeronautic industry because
of their ability to improve the service properties of components working under heavy
and critical conditions. Laser cladding, laser shock peening, ultrasonic impact treat-
ment and low plasticity burnishing are the major surface enhancement techniques.
An overview of the various laser surface treatment processes in relation to other
laser techniques used in production engineering is presented in Figure 6. It is evident
that laser surface treatment requires a relatively high energy laser beam. The inter-
action time is determined by the required heating and quenching rates, which is
higher than that used for processes such as welding or cutting (Zhang et al., 2013).
Laser Cladding
The objective of laser cladding is the formation of a coating by melting a thin layer
of the coating material on the workpiece surface with the help of a laser beam.
Laser cladding processes are classified in single and two step processes. In single
step processes, a thin layer of the substrate is molten by the laser beam and a clad
track is obtained by feeding the coating material into the molten pool. During the
two stage processes the coating material must be processed and pre-deposited onto
the substrate (figure 7) (Chryssolouris 2001).
Laser cladding is used extensively in aerospace industry not only for enhancing
surface properties but also and as repairing technique. Repair of turbine blades and
blades of blisks for aero-engines are typical examples. Laser cladding has gain great
response in aeronautic industry due to the excellent fusion bonding can be achieved,
low heat input with comparison to the conventional Tungsten Inert Gas or Plasma
Arc processes and minimum required surface preparation.
Several industries have been exploiting this technology for various applications,
as it offers the possibility of fine and controlled overlay cladding of an alloy powder
35
Figure 6. Overview of laser surface treatment processes (Zhang et al., 2013)
Figure 7. Laser cladding processes (Left – Blown powder cladding, Right – Pre
placed cladding)
such as Co or Ni-based alloys onto various substrates, e.g. 12Cr/Ni steam turbine
blade and Inconel 738, etc. (table 8) (Kathuria et al, 2000).
However, certain problems, like appearance of thermal and residual stresses,
pores’ formation and dilution between the cladding material and the substrate can
occur during the process (Chryssolouris 2001, Richter et al, 2004, Sexton et al,
2002, Sun et al., 2011). The main characteristics of laser cladding as it is applied
to gas turbine blades are summarized in Table 9.
36
Table 8. Overview of LC in aerospace applications
Laser cladding (LC)

Laser cladding involves the formation of a coating by melting a thin layer of the coating material on the
workpiece surface with the help of a laser beam
Advantages • Almost any metallic powder can be used
• Excellent fusion bonding
• Greater hardness vs convectional processes
• Minimal distortion and HAZ
• Minimum surface preparation
Disadvantages • Existence of residual stresses
• Post processing is needed
• Existence of dirt on the substrate lead to formation of pores
Table 9. Main characteristics of laser cladding of gas turbine blades (adapted from
Kathuria et al, 2000)
Gas Turbines
Application Jet Engines,
Power Generation
Operating Temperature 1300 0 C
Main Cause of Corrosion Erosion Due to high gas temperature
Base Material Cast Ni-based super alloy, e.g. Inconel 738
Typical cladding material Ni-based alloy, Trib alloy
Typical cladding part Shroud interlock
Z-notch hard-facing
Past technique applied TIG micro-plasma
Presently used technique Mainly laser
Laser Shock Peening
Laser shock peening is a relatively new surface treatment process intended to

increase materials’ resistance to surface-related failures, such as fatigue, fretting
fatigue and stress corrosion cracking. In addition, laser shock peening is often used
for strengthening thin section, break up hard materials, shape or straighten parts
and to consolidate or compact powder metals (figure 8) (LSP Technologies, 2001).
The ability of a laser beam to generate shock waves was first recognized and
explored in the early 1960s (Montross et al, 2002). In the laser shock peening pro-
cess the sample is completely immersed in a confining medium, usually water or
air. The laser pulse is then focused on the sample and, passing through the transpar-
ent medium, it strikes the sample. A thin surface layer of the overlay is immedi-
37
Figure 8. Schematic representation of the LSP (Montross et al, 2002)
ately vaporized resulting in the presence of high pressure against the sample surface.
This pressure causes a shock wave to propagate in the material subsequently caus-
ing plastic deformation and, as a result, the production of compressive residual
stresses at the surface of the sample (Rubio-Gonzalez et al, 2005).
The process has the ability to improve fatigue strength, fatigue life, corrosion
and wear resistance. Due to this fact, laser shock peening is extensively used in
aerospace industry to improve the service properties of components working under
heavy and critical conditions (See et al., 2002). Moreover, the process can be applied
to external surfaces, hard to reach points like weld seams (Montross et al, 2002)
and out-of-sight internal points (LSP Technologies, 2001). It can offer a higher
degree of result control since, contrary to shot peening where it is hard to ensure a
uniform result, the parameters of the process can be monitored and tailored at will.
Additionally, residual stresses are much deeper in laser shock peening process than
in conventional shot peening (Liu & Hill, 2009).
However, the process suffers from low efficiency, thus having high production
cost. Metal reflectivity can also affect the process result. These problems can be
alleviated in case of using a laser pulse delivery rate of 10Hz and increasing the
range of available laser wavelengths (Montross et al, 2002). Among the materials
being capable of surface treating with laser shock peening we find, aluminium al-
loys (Gomez-Rosas et al, 2005, Rubio-Gonzalez et al, 2004), steel, nickel alloys
(Montross et al, 2002) and titanium alloys (Liu & Hill, 2009). The process is used
for surface hardening of gas turbine engine parts in aircrafts, as well as gears.
In general, in the aerospace industry, laser shock processing has been proven a
quite effective methods to improve the mechanical properties and fatigue lives of
aerospace key products, such as turbine blades, rotor components, discs, gear shafts,
and bearing components. Laser shock processing can also be applied to strengthen
fastener holes in cover parts (Zhang et al., 2013). Moreover, employment of laser
38
shock processing on aircrafts is expected to reduce maintenance costs and add to

aircraft availability.
Note, that laser shock processing without protective coating (LSPwC) was also
developed and the practical effects as far as stress corrosion cracking and fatigue
prevention are concerned were reported (table 10) (Sakino et al., 2011).
Before summarizing aerospace applications of lasers two related topics should
be mentioned briefly: cost and safety. Lasers are quite expensive and cost may
prohibit purchase. However, there are numerous job shops equipped with lasers in
industrial countries around the world. Cost analysis can determine the return-on-
investment regarding purchase versus subletting. Thus, despite the high overhead
cost, even small batches can be processed at relatively low cost by using job shops.
Last but not least, lasers do have safety issues, such as, the laser beam interaction
with human tissue. Eye protection is paramount if the beam is reflected directly into
the cornea. Standards and guidelines concerning occupational health and safety
should be strictly followed.
OUTCOME
The aeronautic industry is constantly looking for new techniques to save fuel con-
sumption and reduce cost. Advanced manufacturing processes that reduce the total
manufacturing cost is another strategy to reduce the cost of aircraft ownership.
Techniques that decrease processing time and reduce the use of labour are particu-
larly attractive. Driven by the aforementioned factors and the increasing request
of aerospace industry for aircraft components presenting advanced mechanical
Table 10. Overview of LSP in aerospace applications
Laser shock peening (LSP)

Surface treatment technique utilizing short-pulse high-intensity laser beam through a transparent medium
(water or air) to induce shock waves that increase residual compressive stresses, thus improving fatigue
properties on several metals and alloys.
Advantages • Low crack-propagation rates
• Longer lifetimes
• Deeper treatment and smoother surface than shot peening
• Processing of various geometries
Materials • Aluminium alloys
• Titanium alloys
• Nickel-base Super-alloys
• Steels
Applications • Gas Turbine Engine Parts
• Gears
39
performance, technological progress is moving in the direction of Laser machining

as one of the most widely used thermal energy based non-contact type advanced
machining process which can be applied for almost whole range of materials. The
major research areas in Laser machining related to the aerospace applications are
discussed in previous sections. Laser machining presents a number of advantages,
compared with other competing technologies such as conventional machining. How-
ever, there is a lot of space for further improving the process. The main concern of
Laser material processing is the burrs formed by the residue molten material usually
leaving a poor edge finish and a large heat affected zone, affecting the fatigue life of
mechanical parts which is critical for aerospace applications. Secondary operations
must be employed to improve the edge condition. In recent years ultra-fast lasers
have gained a lot of research interest. Ultra-Fast Laser machining is a technology
capable of producing parts in the micro and sub micro scale or macro scale but with
high quality characteristics. For such applications, lasers with pulse duration in the
femtosecond range (Femto lasers) are widely used. Laser ablation occurs due to the
irradiation of the laser beam onto the material causing a combination of sublima-
tion, vaporization and melting. It is characterized by small temporal and spatial
scales and an extremely high material temperature and pressure. As a result of its
extremely short pulse duration, the heat diffusion is confined, and the heat affected
zone (HAZ) is rather limited. This high localized heating, in each laser pulse, results
in smaller material volume removal and therefore, more precise machining results
compared with the ones obtained from longer laser pulses allowing a great expand
of the operational envelope of lasers in the Aerospace Industry. Besides removal,
surface treatment of welding areas of applications the growth in laser power and
efficiency is important for additive manufacturing (Mahamood et al 2014 b), which
constructs parts by adding material instead of removing it. Examples of this tech-
nique can be found in advanced aerospace engines, where studies have shown that
material and weight savings of up to 80 percent are possible. The technique also
allows the manufacture of complex shapes that can improve overall fuel efficiency.
Market predictions indicate that additive manufacturing lies ahead, due to an expected
decrease in laser costs, a consequence of increasing volumes and innovations such
as modularization and miniaturization of components.
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45
46
Chapter 3
Laser Metal
Deposition Process
Rasheedat M. Mahamood
University of Johannesburg, South Africa & University of Ilorin, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
Laser metal deposition process belongs to the directed energy deposition class of
additive manufacturing process that is capable of producing highly complex part
directly from the three dimensional (3D) computer aided design file of the compo-
nent by adding materials layer after layers. Laser metal deposition process is a
very important additive manufacturing process and it is the only class of additive
manufacturing process that can be used to repair valued component parts which
were not repairable in the past. Also because this additive manufacturing process can
handle multiple materials simultaneously, it is used to produce part with function-
ally graded material. Some of the features of the laser metal deposition process are
described in this chapter. Some experimental studies on the laser metal deposition
of Titanium alloy- composite are also presented.
1. INTRODUCTION
Laser Metal Deposition (LMD) is an additive manufacturing process that uses laser
beam to create a melt pool on the surface of a metallic substrate and powder particle
or wire is fed into the melt pool created. The powder or wire melts in the process to
form a deposit that is metallurgically bonded to the substrate. The required shape
is built up layer after layer according to the geometry of the two dimensional (2D)
cross section of the part from the three dimensional computer aided design (CAD)
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-0329-3.ch003
Laser Metal Deposition Process
model of the part (Scott et al., 2012). Laser metal deposition process is an important
additive manufacturing process that was grouped into the class of Directed Energy
Deposition by the F42 committee on additive manufacturing standards (Scott et al.,
2012). Laser metal deposition process has a unique characteristics such as reduc-
tion in material wastage during the manufacturing process, repair of high valued
parts which were in the past costly to replace or difficult to repair, and deposition
of functionally graded material (Zang et al., 2008). Difficult to machine engineer-
ing materials such as titanium and its alloys are easily formed using the laser metal
deposition process.
Titanium alloy Ti6Al4V is an important aerospace alloy and it is the most widely
used titanium alloy that is referred to as the workhorse of the industry (Ramesh et
al., 2008; Cui et al., 2012). Ti6Al4V possess some exciting properties such as high
strength to weight ratio, good corrosion resistance, retaining of properties even at
elevated temperature and bio-compatibility which makes them to be more favoured
in most field of human endeavor (Ribeiro et al., 2003; Lütjering and Williams, 2003).
Despite all these exciting properties, titanium and its alloys are difficult to machine
because they chemically react with the cutting tool material thereby causing high
temperature and galling of the cutting tool (Arrazola et al., 2009). In the aerospace
industry, manufacturing of complex part is material wasting when produce through
the traditional manufacturing process which results in the typical high buy-to-fly
ratio of the aerospace parts (Brandl et al. 2011). All of these challenges can be
overcome if the complex aerospace parts are manufactured through the laser metal
deposition process. The development of the part using the laser metal deposition
process is achieved by adding materials layer by layer directly from the CAD model
of the part no matter the complexity resulting in improvement of the buy-to-fly ratio.
Also producing part made of titanium and its alloy through laser metal deposition
process will overcome the problem of tool reacting with the workpiece since the
LMD process is a tool-less process. The features of the laser metal deposition pro-
cess are described in this chapter and how the processing parameters influence the
properties of the deposited part. Also some experimental studies on the laser metal
deposition of titanium alloy composite are presented in this chapter. The laser metal
deposition process is described in the following sub-section.
2. THE LASER METAL DEPOSITION PROCESS
Typical laser metal deposition process equipment consists of a laser system with
optical laser beam for focusing, a powder feeding system (nozzles) and a control
system. The Laser engineering net shaping (LENS) is an example of machine that is
based on the laser metal deposition process. There are five (5) basic steps involved
47
in the laser metal deposition process like any additive manufacturing process; the
steps are explained as follows:
Firstly, the component to be made must be drawn using 3D software such as
AutoCAD, solid work, Uni-graphics and Pro Engineer. This CAD model is sent into
the LENS. The CAD model file received is converted into a standard triangulation
language (STL) which has now been termed as an Additive Manufacturing File
(AMF) according to the F42 committee on additive manufacturing standards (Scott
et al., 2012). The old file format –STL is not capable of defining some character-
istics that are now present in the new AMF format. The AMF is based on an open
standard Extension Mark-up Language (XML) (Scott et al., 2012). The AMF format
is capable of describing in detail, the texture, the colour, the curve triangles, and
the lattice structure, as well as the functionally graded materials. The AMF format
represents the 3-D surface assembly of planar and curved triangles containing the
co-ordinates of the vertices of these triangles. The third step after the conversion
process is the slicing of the AMF into two dimensional (2-D) profile sections that
is defined by the geometry of the CAD model and the chosen build orientation.
The building orientation will affect the way the AMF file is sliced. The building
orientation is the direction with which the building process will follow, for example,
from the bottom to the top, from one side to another side etc. The software may
choose the building orientation, or the operator may choose the building orientation.
Support structures may are also generated automatically if necessary (Boboulus,
2010). The slicing process is a very critical part of the whole process because it
determines the dimensional accuracy of the product. After the slicing is completed,
the fourth step is the building of the part. The building process in LMD is achieved
by creating a melt pool on the surface of the substrate by the focusing laser beam
and the materials are delivered into the melt pool. The laser beam follows the direc-
tion that was generated by the sliced layers to create a solid mass representing the
2-D section of the 3-D model. The step is repeated layer by layer until the building
of the part is completed. The schematic diagram of the laser-material deposition
process is shown in Figure 1.
The last step after the building process is completed is the removal of the part
from the machine and the cleaning up of the part produced. The support structures
are removed and any required finishing operations are performed. Heat treatment
can also be performed, depending on the service requirement of the part. The flow
chart of the steps in the laser metal deposition process is shown in Figure 2.
The whole process takes place inside an enclosed chamber that is filled with
inert gas so as to minimize oxidation of both the powdered material as well as the
deposited part. A number of research activities has taken place on the laser metal
deposition process in the literature and it has been established that the processing
parameters are of great influence on properties of deposited parts materials (Kobryn
48
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of LMD process (Mahamood et al., 2013a)
et al, 2000; Bontha, 2006; Brandl et al., 2011; Brandl et al. 2012; Wu et al., 2004).
These processing parameters are discussed in the next sub-section.
3. EFFECT OF PROCESSING PARAMETERS IN

THE LASER METAL DEPOSITED MATERIALS
Researches have shown that the processing parameters have a very strong influence
on the resulting properties of the laser metal deposited material or part and there
are strong interactions among these processing parameters according to Choi and
Chang, (2005). Some of the key processing parameters in the laser material deposi-
tion process are explained in this section. They are: the laser power, the scanning
speed, the powder or wire flow rate, the gas flow rate, the laser beam diameter, and
the overlap percentage.
3.1. Laser Power
Laser power is one of the important processing parameters in the laser metal deposi-
tion process. The amount of laser energy that is available on the surface of material
being processed depends on the maximum laser power of the machine. The Laser
power has been found to influence the material properties ranging from the physical
properties to the microstructural characteristics (Brandl et al., 2011; Kobryn et al.,
2000; Mahamood et al., 2013b). If the laser power is high, it can result in a high dilu-
tion rate between the deposited materials and the substrate materials or the preceding
49
Figure 2. Flow chart of steps in AM (based on Mahamood et al., 2014)
layer. Too high a laser power can even cause the material to evaporate. These are
not desirable in the LMD process. It will affect the dimensional accuracy of the part
being built amongst other things. Low laser power could result in improper melting
of the materials thereby resulting in porosity, lack of fusion of the deposited mate-
rial with the substrate, or it can even result in no melting of the material at all. It is
important to establish the optimum laser power for the intended application amidst
other processing parameters because these processing parameters interact greatly.
3.2. Scanning Velocity
The scanning velocity is the speed at which the laser beam is made to interact with
the materials being processed. The scanning velocity is achieved by either moving
50
the laser head against the fixed substrate, or by moving the substrate against the
fixed laser head. Whichever way this movement is achieved, it determines the length
of time that the materials interact with the laser energy. The scanning velocity has
also been reported to affect the microstructural properties of the laser deposited
materials (Akinlabi et al., 2012; Kobryn et al, 2000b; Mahamood et al., 2013a). If
the scanning velocity is low, the materials interact longer with the laser beam. Too
low a scanning velocity, depending on the available laser power, could result in high
dilution rate or even evaporation of the materials being processed. Also if the scan-
ning velocity is too high, the laser material interaction time will be too small and
this could lead to incomplete melting of the materials or no melting of the material.
It can be seen that there is a strong relationship between the laser power and the
scanning velocity, although the relationship has an inverse effect on the property of
the deposited part. This interaction leads to the laser energy density, which is given
in equation 1, according to Sentikumara, (2009) as:
E (J/mm2) = p/dv (1)
where: E is the laser energy density; p is the laser power (W); v is the scanning
velocity (mm/s); and d is the laser-beam diameter (mm).
It may be seen from Equation 1 that, the energy density is directly proportional
to the laser power and it is inversely proportional to the scanning velocity and the
beam diameter. The energy density can be increased either by increasing the laser
power, or by reducing the scanning velocity, or by reducing the laser beam diameter.
3.3. Laser Beam Diameter
The laser beam diameter is also referred to as the laser spot size. It is the width of
the laser beam measured at a given focal distance. It is measured at a plane that is
perpendicular to the laser beam axis and it is measured in millimeters. The laser
beam diameter is inversely proportional to the laser energy density. Meaning that
the smaller the laser beam diameter, the larger the laser energy density (Sentiku-
mara, 2009).
3.4. Powder or Wire Flow Rate
The powder or the wire flow rate is the amount of material in grams that is leaving
the nozzle or the wire feeder in a unit time. The material flow rate also has a large
effect on the physical, the metallurgical, the chemical and the mechanical proper-
ties of the final deposited sample or part, and it has a great influence on the overall
economy of the LMD process (Brandl et al., 2011; Wu et al., 2004; Shukla et al.,
51
2012). If the material flow rate is too high, depending on the quantity of the available
energy density, then most of the material may not be melted because the available
energy density may not be sufficient to be able to fully melt the material. This may
in turn result in material wastage. It is important to establish the optimal material
flow rate in LMD, in order to achieve a deposit with the required properties, and
with high material efficiency utilization.
3.5. Gas Flow Rate
The gas flow rate is the powder carrier gas flow rate. The powder is delivered
through the carrier gas and it is also responsible for protecting the powder from
environmental degradation. The gas flow rate has also been found to affect the
properties of the deposited part from some studies conducted in the literature (Bi
et al., 2006; Pityana et al., 2013). The gas flow rate should not be too low, in order
to provide better protection for the powder; and neither should it be too high, so as
not to blow the powder away from the melt pool.
3.6. Overlap Percentage
The overlap percentage is the percentage of the preceding track that is covered by
the succeeding track. There is need for the tracks to overlap because the shape of a
single track is dome-shaped and a certain overlap percentage is necessary to prevent
porosity in the part being built, (Schneider, 1998). It is important to have the right
combination of parameters in order to achieve the desired part properties. The next
section presents characterization of laser metal deposition of Titanium alloy com-
posite for improving the wear resistance properties of titanium alloy.
4. LASER METAL DEPOSITION OF TITANIUM

ALLOY AND TITANIUM ALLOY COMPOSITE
Titanium and its alloys are of great importance in engineering applications because
of their exciting properties that include: high corrosion resistance, high strength-
to-weight ratio, and their ability to retain these properties at elevated temperature
(Ramesh et al., 2008). Of all the titanium and titanium alloys, Ti6Al4V is the most
widely produced and the most widely used Titanium alloy because of its unique
light weight with the high strength and they are structurally efficient and useful in
critical and high performance applications such as jet engine parts and air frame
components (Lu et al., 2012). Despite all these exciting properties of the Ti6Al4V,
they are difficult to machine because of the way they reacts chemically with the
52
cutting tool materials during the cutting operation. Which leads to generation of heat
that often results in eventual galling of the cutting tool (Wang and Ezugwu 1997).
Laser metal deposition process is an ideal alternative manufacturing process that
can be used to produce parts with difficult to machine materials such as titanium
and its alloys because it is a tool-less manufacturing process. A number of research
works on laser metal deposition of titanium alloy have appeared in the literature such
as Brandl et al., 2011; Brandl et al., 2012; Lu et al 2012; Mahamood and Akinlabi,
2015b-Mahamood and Akinlabi 2015f; Mahamood et al., 2014a and Mahamood
et al., 2014b. Wu et al.,
Brandl et al., 2011, studied the effects of the laser power, the scanning speed,
and the wire-feed rate on the resulting microstructures. The microstructure was
correlated with these process parameters and revealed fundamental microstructure
of the laser deposited Ti6-Al-4V. Lu et al., 2012, studied the effect of the annealing
temperature and the annealing time on the microstructure of the deposited Ti–6Al–
4V. A unique bi-modal microstructure consisting of coarse primary alpha and fine
lamellar transformed beta was observed in this study. Wu et al., 2004 investigated
the effects of laser power, scan speed, and powder feed rate on the microstructure
of the deposited Ti–6Al–4V and it was discovered that the deposited Ti-6Al-4V
has a long columnar grain structures that dominate the microstructures especially
at high laser power settings used in the study. They also found that the degree of the
columnar grain structure also increases with reducing scanning speed with other
parameters kept constant.
Some of the studies conducted on the laser metal deposition process are discussed
in the next sub-section.
4.1. Characterization of Laser Metal Deposited

Titanium Alloy Composites
Despite the exciting properties of titanium alloys, the wear resistance performance
is very poor as a result of the chemical behaviour of titanium which makes it to react
with any surface it comes in contact with. A number of researches on the laser metal
deposition of Ti6Al4V have been reported in the literature. Some of these works
include those of: Obiolodan and Strucker, (2012). The authors used the laser metal
deposition process to produce composites of 10 and 5w% TiC/Ti6Al4V composite.
The study revealed that the surface property of the Ti6Al4V was improved with the
addition of the TiC/Ti6Al4V composites. Popoola et al. (2013) studied the effect of
TiC addition on the TiC/Ti6Al4V composite using different TiC compositional ratio.
They were able to establish that the TiC/Ti6Al4V composite was able to improve
the wear resistance behaviour of the Ti6Al4V. Wang et al. (2007a) also deposited
TiC/Ti6Al4V composite at different TiC compositions to establish the optimum TiC
53
percentage that resulted in improved properties of the titanium alloy. Ochonogor

et al., 2012 studied the effect of the TiC ratio on the wear resistance performance
of Ti/TiC composite, using laser metal deposition process. Some authors have also
studied the production of functionally graded Ti6Al4V/TiC composite using the
laser metal deposition process (Mahamood and Akinlabi, 2015a; Obiolodan and
Strucker, 2012; Wang et al., 2007b; Zang et al., 2008). The importance of producing
functionally graded parts directly from the 3-D CAD model in one single step in
laser metal deposition process has been the driving force for the research interest in
functionally graded materials (Foroozmehr et al., 2009). The earlier research works
were basically on trying to establish the feasibility of making the functionally graded
materials through the LMD process (Balla et al., 2009; Thivillon et al., 2009). In
some other works, the functionally graded materials were built using the LMD pro-
cess, and then characterized the samples produced. In a study conducted by Zang
et al. (2008), they deposited functionally graded Ti/TiC on a Ti6Al4V substrate.
They first established the processing parameters for various volume fractions of
the Ti/TiC composite in their preliminary works. They used the results from their
preliminary work to successfully deposit a thin wall of functionally graded mate-
rial by adjusting the processing parameters during the deposition process. They
showed that the wear resistance performance of the Ti6Al4V substrate was greatly
improved with the addition of the TiC. They also showed that functionally graded
materials be produced with the LMD without a discrete interface. In another study
performed by Wang et al. (2007b), a functionally graded material of Ti6Al4V/TiC
was deposited using the LMD process. They used Ti6Al4V wire and TiC powder;
and the two materials were fed simultaneously. They achieved the compositional
grading by keeping the wire feed rate of Ti6Al4V constant; while they varied the
TiC powder feed rate. They kept other processing parameters constant. Liu and
DuPont (2003) also successfully deposited functionally graded material of Ti/TiC
composite using the LMD. They relied on the controller in the LENS to monitors
the melt pool area and control the laser power to achieve a constant melt pool area,
for the deposition of their functionally graded material. The melt pool area control
in LENS is intended to control the dimensional accuracy in the deposited part.
Shah, (2011) deposited functionally graded material of Inconel 718 Nickel alloy
and Ti6Al4V using the laser metal deposition process. The effect of the laser pulse
parameters and the powder flow rate on the residual stress was studied. The study
found that the layer thickness plays an important role in the crack behaviour of the
functionally graded material produced. The effect of the powder flow rate on the
melt pool size was also studied; and the study showed that by increasing the powder
flow rate, the melt pool size was found to increase. Lin et al. (2005) used the laser
metal deposition process to produce functionally graded material of stainless steel-
SS316L/super alloy-Rene88DT. They investigated the solidification behaviour and
54
the microstructural evolution of the functionally graded material they produced.

Epitaxial growth and columnar dendrites microstructure were also observed. Qin et
al. (2011) produced in situ functionally graded TiC reinforced titanium matrix from
Ti and Cr3C2 powder using the laser metal deposition process. The functionally
graded material was achieved by changing the powder flow rate of the Ti and the
Cr3C2 powder. The microhardness and the wear-resistance properties of the deposited
samples were studied. The microhardness and the wear resistance were found to be
greatly improved with the addition of the Cr3C2. The problem with the functionally
graded material produced in situ is that the magnitude of the reinforcement achieved
will largely depend on the reactions taking place during the deposition and cool-
ing process. It would be very difficult to achieve a desired percentage ratio of the
reinforcement and the matrix. Also, there is no doubt that different Ti6Al4V/TiC
ratios would have different optimal process parameters.
5. CONCLUSION
The laser metal deposition process has been described in this chapter. The capabili-
ties of the technology in the production of functionally graded materials were also
highlighted. The laser metal deposition process is an important additive manufactur-
ing process that is capable of repairing high valued component parts which were not
repairable or prohibitive to repair in the past. This capability has helped to extent
the service life of many machine parts. Also the ability to produce part that is made
of functionally graded material using the laser metal deposition process is another
important capability of the laser metal deposition process which was also presented
in this chapter. A lot is needed to be done in term of research to further understand
this process in order to position the technology for the production of critical parts
in the aerospace industry which will further help to reduce the buy-to-fly ratio and
help to reduce the carbon foot print of this industry. This can be made possible if
critical complex parts are produced using the laser metal deposition process, thereby
reducing the overall weight of the aircraft through the elimination of some joining
processes by producing complex parts as a single piece part.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work is supported by the Rental Pool Programme of National Laser Centre,
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research Pretoria, South Africa and L’Oreal-
UNESCO for Women in Science.
55
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60
Chapter 4
Enhancement of Surface
Integrity of Titanium
Alloy with Copper by
Means of Laser Metal
Deposition Process
Mutiu F. Erinosho
Esther T. Akinlabi
Sisa Pityana
National Laser Centre, South Africa
ABSTRACT
The laser metal deposition process possesses the combination of metallic powder and
laser beam respectively. However, these combinations create an adhesive bonding
that permanently solidifies the laser-enhanced-deposited powders. Titanium alloys
(Ti6Al4V) Grade 5 have been regarded as the most used alloys for the aerospace
applications, due to their lightweight properties and marine application due to
their excellent corrosion resistance. The improvements in the surface integrity of
the alloy have been achieved successively with the addition of Cu through the use
of Ytterbium laser system powered at maximum of 2000 Watts. The motivation for
this research work can be attributed to the dilapidation of the surface of titanium
alloy, when exposed to marine or sea water for a longer period of time. This chapter
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-0329-3.ch004
Enhancement of Surface Integrity of Titanium Alloy with Copper
provides the surface modification of titanium alloy with the addition of percentage
range of Cu within its lattices; and the results obtained from the characterizations
conducted on the laser deposited Ti6Al4V/Cu alloys have been improved.
1. INTRODUCTION
So many research works have been conducted on titanium and its alloys both pres-
ently and in the past. These works have facilitated the researchers to discover the best
method on how to improve on the production of the alloys, in order to enhance their
functionality in service. Ti6Al4V alloy is the most applicable among the titanium al-
loys; since it exhibits a combination of mechanical, physical and corrosion-resistance
properties which have made it desirable in the aerospace, chemical industries, energy
and automotive industrial services. These alloys are also applied in the developing
biomedical applications, due to their excellent biocompatibility among metallic
materials (Moiseyev, 2006; Lutjering & Williams, 2007).
The enhancements in the mechanical properties of titanium alloys have mostly
been achieved through the addition of alloying compounds (Sen et al., 2010; Gogia
et al., 1992; Okazaki et al., 1993; Tian & Nemoto, 1997).
The alloying additions in titanium can be divided into three different classes. The
α-stabilizers - an example is Aluminium which impart solid solution strengthening
to titanium; the neutral additions, such as tin and zirconium, also contribute to solid
solution strengthening; and finally, the β-stabilizers, such as vanadium, molybdenum,
niobium, iron, copper, chromium and manganese, serve to introduce the β-phase in
an otherwise α-phase microstructure (Leyens & Peters, 2003).
A desired microstructure could also be obtained through thermo-mechanical
processing, like the basket weave microstructure achieved from heat treatments in
the β-phase field. This is found to offer better creep resistance than an equiaxed
α/β phase microstructure (Mishra et al., 2005). The addition of copper to titanium
alloys influences the mechanical properties through age- hardening (Lutjering &
Weissman, 1970). A beneficial effect of precipitation strengthening has been utilized
in Ti-2.5Cu (in weight percent (wt.%)) over commercially pure titanium (Donachie
2000). The work was later extended to titanium alloys containing a variety of other
alloying additions with minor composition modification. An experiment was also
conducted by substituting vanadium for copper with the same 4 wt.% of vanadium;
and this yielded the same results. Copper (Cu), a β-stabilizer, exerts the same influ-
ence on the β transus temperature as vanadium; and the direction on the β transus of
Ti6Al4V alloy was not affected (Bania et al., 1993). Consequently, an attempt was
made by Gollapudi et al., (2011) to improve the compressive strength, as well as
the hardness of titanium alloys, by utilizing the precipitation-hardening technique
61
in an experiment that was conducted to ascertain the performance of Ti-6Al-1.5V-

2.5Cu in comparison to a standard titanium alloy Ti6Al4V; however the ductility
value was decreased marginally. A small amount of less than 2 weight percent of
Cu was found to improve the resistance of Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb to oxidation. It was
also believed that the presence of Cu reduces the concentration of chromium in the
scale, thereby enhancing the formation of a more- coherent and protective alumina
layer on the surface of the sample (Dang et al., 2001). However, Cu has the tendency
to be a useful alloying element for Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb.
Titanium and its alloys are very expensive light metals; and recently, there has
been a renewed interest in titanium powder metallurgy as a cost-operational way of
fabricating components from these expensive metals. The problems faced by these
alloys have been the issue of biofouling in the marine industries. Titanium and its
alloys have been used as the major components for marine use. There has been the
clogging of the sea debris to the marine structures, thereby destroying the surfaces
- as a result of the bacterial and virus attacks such as barnacles, fungi, bacteria,
and marine debris. Diverse numbers of projects have been carried out to provide
solutions to improve and enhance the surface reliability of titanium alloys, and to
reduce the problems by increasing the effectiveness and reducing the costs of the
device’s units or products, and to prolong their service terms.
Ti6Al4V alloy is known to be good for marine environments due to its excel-
lent resistance to corrosion; and it has been used as the primary alloy. Copper, on
the other hand, is among the elements that stabilizes the β-phase of Ti6Al4V alloy;
it has been used in small quantities with the primary alloy to form the modified
Ti6Al4V/Cu alloys through the laser deposition process.
1.1. Titanium and Its Alloys
Today, the most widely used method for Titanium (Ti) processing is known as the
“Kroll process”. It is rarely found in high concentrations; and it is never found in a
pure state; and the difficulty in processing the metal makes it very expensive; thus,
it is only produced only in a batch process. Ti is classified as a non-ferrous and light
metal. Figure 1 shows the representation of the light and the heavy metals.
The metals vary substantially in weight; and Lithium has the lowest density of
0.5 g/cm3 while Osmium and Iridium are the heaviest metals with a density of 22.5
g/cm3. The separation point density between the light and heavy metals is 5 g/cm3;
therefore, Ti is the heaviest light metal with a density of 4.51 g/cm3.
62
Figure 1.
1.2. Metallurgy of Titanium
The physical and chemical behaviour of titanium and its alloys, as well as their
intermetallic properties comprise the monarchies in which material science is ap-
plied to their production.
1.3. Crystal Structure of Titanium and Its Alloys
Titanium can crystallize in various crystal structures; and each modification is only
stable within a particular temperature ranges. Ti, as well as the majority of the tita-
nium alloys, crystallizes at low temperatures in a revised perfectly hexagonal close
packed (HCP) structure; and this property applies to alpha titanium (α-Ti). At high
temperatures, the body centered cubic (BCC) structure is stable, and is referred to
as beta titanium (β-Ti). The atomic unit cells of the HCP α-Ti and the BCC β-Ti are
schematically shown in Figures 2 (a) and (b) (Leyens & Peters, 2003).
From the HCP and BCC crystal structures, the ease of plastic deformation in-
creases from the HCP lattice to the BCC and to the face centered cubic (FCC) lat-
tice. The slip system of HCP structure is three; while that of BCC is twelve (12).
According to the Von Mises’ criterion, at least five independent slip systems are
required to produce homogeneous plastic deformation of metals. This phenomenon
makes it extremely difficult for HCP α-Ti to deform.
63
Figure 2.
1.4. Classification of Titanium Alloys
The alloying elements of Ti are classified as α-stabilizers, β-stabilizers, and neutral:
• α-stabilizers: These are the stabilizing elements that spread the α-phase
field to a higher temperature; such elements include Aluminium, Carbon,
Oxygen and Nitrogen. The α-stabilizing elements are segmented into the
β-isomorphous and β-eutectic elements. The β-isomorphous elements are
soluble in Ti such as Molybdenum, Vanadium and Tantalum. The β-eutectic
elements lead to the formation of intermetallic compounds such as Silicon,
Iron, Nickel, Chromium, Copper, Manganese and Hydrogen.
• β-stabilizers: These are the elements that shift the β-phase field to lower
temperatures. A small amount is added to the α-phase to form near- α alloys.
• Neutral Elements: These titanium alloys have no influence on α/β phase
boundary such as Tin and Zirconium.
1.5. Properties of Titanium Alloys
The properties of metals, like the titanium alloys, are fundamentally based on the
metallic bonding of the atoms in the crystal lattice. The free valence electrons in
the lattice result in the standard metallic properties; and these can be improved with
the integration of impurities into the crystal lattice (Leyens & Peters, 2003). The
high specific strength and excellent corrosion resistance of titanium alloys clarifies
their special usage in the aerospace sector (Leyens & Peters, 2003), the chemical
industry, medical engineering (Sobiecki et al., 2002) and the leisure sector.
64
The alloying elements such Aluminium, Vanadium, Copper, Iron, Chromium

Tin and Silicon have different influences on the properties of titanium. Similarly,
these alloying elements decrease the ductility and the toughness when applied to
titanium alloys. Even more so, Aluminium, Zirconium and Molybdenum increase
the heat resistance properties (Maslenkov & Maslenkova, 1991).
1.6. Mechanical Properties of the Titanium Alloys
The three processes stated below are assumed to improve the mechanical proper-
ties of titanium alloys and other materials. These are alloying, processing and the
production of composite materials.
Principle of Alloying
The principle of alloying highlights the increase in the strength of materials. This
alloy allows the generation of intermetallic structures, such as density, elastic modu-
lus, the coefficient of thermal expansion; and these properties control the corrosion
resistance and oxidation of the material (Leyens & Peters, 2003).
Processing Techniques
The processing techniques permit the properties of the materials to be balanced.

Depending on the specific property profile required for the final application, dif-
ferent microstructures can be generated for titanium alloys - by means of thermo-
mechanical treatment to optimize for strength, such as the solid solution strengthen-
ing, the dispersion strengthening, grain boundary strengthening, texture hardening,
ductility, toughness, super plasticity and stress corrosion, to mention a few (Leyens
& Peters, 2003).
Production of Composite Materials
This is regarded as a recent option among the mechanical properties of titanium

alloys; and it has gained importance in determining the ultra-high strength of ma-
terials. Different materials are combined to create a new composite with improved
properties. Titanium alloys and Aluminides have been strengthened with fibers
to become metal-matrix composites. These ultra-high strength values were better
performed by titanium matrix composites (Leyens & Peters, 2003).
Titanium and titanium alloys have found limited use in the mechanical engineer-
ing applications because of their poor tribological properties such as poor abrasive
wear resistance, poor fretting behaviour and their high coefficient of friction. This
65
poor fretting behaviour of titanium alloys can be improved and enhanced by apply-
ing different surface treatments and coatings (Boyer et al., 1994).
According to Fu et al., (1998), there are four main mechanisms that can be used
for improving the tribological behaviour of titanium alloys. The first is to increase
the surface roughness; the second is to decrease the coefficient of friction; the third
is to increase the hardness; and lastly, to induce a compressive residual stress. The
problem of friction is related to the crystal structure and the reactivity of titanium;
and these problems could be basically overcome by changing the nature of the
surface by using surface engineering technologies as different thermochemical
treatments; hence, the mechanical properties of the new surface can be improved
by a hard compound of titanium (Fu et al., 1998).
1.7. Specific Strength of Titanium Alloys
The strength of titanium and its alloys has been greatly employed in many studies,
in which different alloying elements have been added to titanium alloys, in order to
improve their mechanical properties.
Cu was known to be among the β-eutectic of the α-stabilizing elements. It has
been added to commercially pure titanium, in order to improve its mechanical prop-
erties. As highlighted by Murray, Ti-Cu exhibited precipitation strengthening; and
with a decrease in temperature, the solid solubility of Cu in Ti was reduced and an
intermetallic compound Ti2Cu was precipitated (Murray, 1992). Figure 3 shows the
Ti-Cu binary phase diagram in different temperature ranges.
Various intermetallic phases are illustrated with different atomic and weight
percentages of Cu at specified temperatures. The decreasing solubility of the solid
with temperature is a characteristic of precipitation hardening; and hence, the ad-
dition of Cu to titanium alloys allows manipulation of the mechanical properties
through age-hardening (Lutjering and Weissman, 1970). Kikuchi et al., (2003)
studied the evaluation of the mechanical properties of cast Ti-Cu alloys with the
hope of developing an alloy for dental casting with better mechanical properties
than the unalloyed commercially pure titanium (CP Ti). The Ti-Cu alloys with five
different mass percentages (m %) concentrations of Cu (0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 5.0 and
10.0[INSERT FIGURE 001]m %) were prepared in an argon-arc melting furnace.
They reported that, the mean tensile strengths of all the cast Ti-Cu alloys were
significantly higher than the cast CP Ti. The cast CP Ti became stronger by alloying
with Cu; and there was an increment in the value of the tensile strength and the
yield strength over that of the CP Ti (Kikuchi et al., 2003).
An attempt was made by Gollapudi et al., (2011) to improve the strength of
titanium alloys (Ti6Al4V) by the addition of Cu in wt.%; and by utilizing the pre-
cipitation hardening techniques. In their investigation, Ti-6Al-1.5V-2.5Cu alloy was
66
Figure 3.
compared with Ti6Al4V alloy to ascertain the performance of the alloys. Both the
alloys were melted using a Double Vacuum Arc Melting Technique; and this was
followed by forging and rolling in α-β regime. Subsequently, the alloys were heat
treated at 1010 oC and then water quenched. The alloys were aged at 500 oC and
the ageing features were studied methodically through hardness and tensile testing
techniques. The yield strength of Ti-6Al-1.5V-2.5Cu alloy following peak ageing
was found to be 1059 MPa which was 70 MPa higher than Ti6Al4V alloy under
related conditions (Gollapudi et al., 2011).
1.8. Physical Properties of Titanium and Its Alloys
According to Key to Metal, (Accessed 2013), the arrangement of electrons is re-

sponsible for the unique physical properties of titanium. Titanium has two electrons
in its third shell, and two electrons in the fourth shell. A crystal structure may be
referred to as a physically homogeneous solid in which the atoms are arranged in a
repeating pattern. The pattern arrangement is a structure that determines the physi-
67
cal behaviour of a metal. Examples are thermal conductivity, linear coefficient of

expansion, electrical conductivity and resistivity Magnetic Properties.
1.9. Chemical Properties of Titanium and Its Alloys
According to Williams Gregor (1791), the chemical behaviour of titanium alloy

shows many similarities with those of silicon and zirconium. Titanium alloy belongs
to the first transition group; its chemistry in aqueous solution, particularly in the
lower oxidation states, has some similarities with those of chromium and vanadium.
Titanium is a transition light metal with a white-silvery-metallic colour; and it pos-
sesses a strong, lustrous appearance, and excellent corrosion-resistant properties.
Pure titanium is not soluble in water; but it is soluble in concentrated acids. This
metal forms a passive and protective oxide coating, which leads to its corrosion
resistance when exposed to elevated temperatures in air; and it also resists tarnish-
ing at room temperatures.
Corrosion Behaviour of Titanium and its Alloys
Ti6Al4V spontaneously forms a stable and continuous oxide film upon exposure
to oxygen in air or water, which is important in its excellent corrosion resistance
behaviour. Its corrosion behaviour occurs spontaneously in aqueous solutions, such as
seawater, oxidizing acids, chlorides in the presence of water, rocket propellants and
alkalis (Technical Data Sheet, 2013). Wong et al., (2012) revealed that the corrosion
potentials of the laser-alloyed specimens decrease as the Ti content increases. The
improvement in the corrosion resistance of the alloy was attributed to the presence
of Ti in the intermetallic and metallic phases that create the protective oxide. The
protective surface film of Ti and its alloys to most environments causes their excel-
lent resistance to corrosion; and it consists basically of TiO2. Ti is chemically very
reactive; and the thin oxide film continues to passivate the base metal, as long as
its integrity can be maintained (Wong et al., 2012). Mostly, they occur in oxidiz-
ing environments, such as nitric acid solutions or salt solutions, including sulfates,
chlorides and hypochlorides; but under reducing conditions, or in the presence of
fluoride ions, the protective nature of the oxide film diminishes; and hence, this
condition of Ti is not corrosion resistant (Lutjering & Williams, 2007). Ti6Al4V
is also susceptible to general corrosion in the presence of reducing acids or dry
chlorine gas, and gaseous or cathodic hydrogen. This hydrogen can diffuse into
the metal, thereby forming brittle hydrides (Technical Data Sheet, 2013). Titanium
alloys are generally resistant to stress corrosion cracking (ASM Handbook, 2005).
68
1.10. Microstructures of Titanium Alloys
It is well known that the microstructure of titanium alloys has a substantial influence
on the properties of titanium alloys. The size, the texture (both fine and coarse mi-
crostructures) and the arrangement (both lamellar and equiaxed microstructures) of
the α-phases and β-phases describe the microstructure of the conventional titanium
alloys (Leyens & Peters, 2003).
Lamellar Microstructure
The lamellar microstructure is generated upon cooling from the β-phase field at
the temperatures above the β-transus temperature, approximately 900 oC. The α
grains nucleated at the grain boundaries, and then grew into the prior β grain at the
temperature below the transus temperature. The (α+β) lamellar microstructure for
the Ti6Al4V alloy upon cooling is shown in Figure 4 (a). The β-phase transforms
into martensite, with high cooling rates from temperatures above the martensitic
start temperature (MST) and through the two-phase field. At temperatures below
MST, the β volume fraction is no longer transformed to martensite, and decreases
further (Leyens & Peters, 2003).
The morphology and thickness of α lamella are also very important factors; since
they influence the mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V alloy (Jones et al., 2008 and
Jackson et al., 2009). The lamellae are either fine or coarse, depending on the cool-
ing rate. The slow cooling from the β-phase field results in a pure lamellar micro-
structures; but it becomes coarser with faster cooling rates. Figure 4 (b) presents
the fine lamellae with fine needle-like microstructure after furnace cooling. The
hardening effect on the strength and hardness observed for titanium alloys on mar-
tensitic transformation is only moderate. The chemical compositions of the α and
β phases change in the two-phase field (α+β) with decreasing temperature under
equilibrium conditions; thus, at that low temperature, vanadium strongly enriches
β and stabilizes this phase (Leyens & Peters, 2003).
Equiaxed Microstructures
The equiaxed microstructure occurs as a result of a recrystallization process. Firstly,

the alloy has to be highly deformed in the (α+β) field to introduce the cold work
effect into the material, then upon subsequent solution heat treatment in the two-
phase fields, a recrystallized and a fine equiaxed microstructure is generated. Figure
4 (c) represents a fine microstructure after recrystallization. Due to prolonged an-
nealing, a coarse and equiaxed microstructure can be formed. Figure 4 (d) shows
the coarse microstructure after recrystallization. These microstructures have high
69
Figure 4.
ductility, fatigue strength, and are preferred for superplastic deformation (Leyens
and Peters, 2003). Kong et al., (2011) indicated that, with different cooling rates,
the morphology of the α-phase can appear as equiaxed, acicular, or plate-like; and
70
the different features in the microstructures of the α-phase can lead to different
mechanical properties.
Bimodal Microstructures
This could be referred to as the combination of lamellar and equiaxed microstruc-

tures. At a temperature below the β-transus temperature, the solution heat treatment
of Ti6Al4V results in bimodal microstructures. These microstructures combine
the advantages of lamellar and equiaxed structures; and they thus exhibit a well-
balanced property profile. A typical example of a bimodal microstructure is shown
in Figure 4 (e).
In general, the different microstructures are generated by thermo mechanical
treatments. These are considered as a complex sequence of solution heat treat-
ment, deformation, recrystallization, and annealing for stress relief. The fine-scale
microstructures increase the strength, ductility, retard crack nucleation, and serve
as bedrock for ultra-plastic deformation (Leyens & Peters, 2003).
1.11. Copper And Copper Alloys
Copper (Cu) is a reddish coloured metal with a face-centered cubic crystalline

structure. Due to its band structure, it reflects red and orange light; and it absorbs
other frequencies in the visible spectrum. It is malleable, ductile, and an extremely
a good conductor of both heat and electricity. Cu has a low chemical reactivity and
a greenish surface film coating called patina, which is largely formed on the surface
in moist air to protect the metal from further attack (Lenntech, 1998-2013.
High Conductivity of Electrolytic Copper
The high conductivity of copper can be seen in the form of wires, tubes, extrusions,
bars and sheets. It has excellent ductility. The 99.90% electrolytic tough pitch copper
CW004A is the main grade of Cu, which is used for electrical applications, such as
building wire, motor windings, cables, and bus-bars.
Engineering Aspects of Non-Electrolytic Copper
Engineering copper, grade CW024A is a non-electrical copper; and it is useful for

engineering application. The CW024A grade possesses the following properties,
which make them a standard material for engineering purposes:
Due to its thermal conductivity, this grade of copper is used for components
where rapid heat transfer is essential. The thermal conductivity of Cu is 394 W/
71
mK which is about twice that of aluminium, and thirty times that of stainless steel.
Examples include heat sinks, vehicle radiators, and heat exchangers.
1.12. Titanium and Its Alloy-Copper Modifications
Titanium alloy has been reinforced with 2.5% wt of Cu at an elevated temperature of

up to 350 °C, which combines the formability and weldability of unalloyed titanium
with improved mechanical properties. In the annealed condition, Ti-2.5Cu alloy is
very easy to forge without cracking in the (α+β) field at a preheating temperature
of 800-850 °C; and is has good fatigue properties of 3 ratio 5 of the static tensile
strength. Over the range of 150-320 °C, aged Ti-2.5Cu alloy was also found to have
more creep-resistance than IMI Titanium 317 and the hardest grade of commercially
pure Ti at all temperatures. There was an improvement in strength, and no evidence
of ductility reduction (Key to Metal, 1999-2010).
Zhang et al., (2013) were able to ball- mill Ti powder with 10 wt.% of Cu pow-
der for 3 to 6 hrs and hot- sintered under a pressure between 15 to 30 MPa and at
a temperature between 850 to 1050 °C for antibacterial purposes and applications.
Their result showed that Ti-Cu has a strong antibacterial property - both on the sur-
face - and in the alloying composites. The addition of Cu provided the entire alloy
with an increase in mechanical properties. They also suggested that the antibacterial
property might be related to the release of Cu ions (Zhang et al., 2013).
Cu is well known as a strong β-stabilizing element, and its atomic migration
into Ti lattice results in the formation of β-Ti during cooling; and it could travel a
longer distance in the Ti lattice than other elements; and open more crystallographic
structure of the β matrix (Ghosh & Chauerjee, 2003).
In the research work of Xia et al., (2013), a gas-atomized Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb
powder was sintered with 2 wt.% Cu powder. The small addition of Cu powder
on the sintering densification of gamma Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb resulted in an improve-
ment in the mechanical properties and they also reported that Cu and Cr enrich the
hexagonal close-packed structure of Ti.
Sakuma et al., (2012) studied the effect of several copper contents on the super
elasticity characteristics in Ti-Ni alloy wires. Observations were carried out on Ti-
50Ni, Ti-45Ni-5Cu, Ti-40Ni-10Cu and Ti-37Ni-13Cu. Their results revealed that
during the loading, the degradation of the strain energy and residual strain increases
when the Cu contents decrease.
Much research work has been conducted on Cu-based Ti alloy; and this is widely
used for electrical purposes to boost their properties. In this present research work,
titanium alloy has been used as the base composite; and the addition of Cu was
introduced to improve the mechanical properties of the alloy.
72
Kano et al., (2013) presented the analysis of their invention and patent work on
the production of Ti6Al4V powder with the addition of 1 to 10 wt.% of Cu to im-
prove on the densification. The production was channelled through a Cold Isostatic
Pressing and a subsequent Hot Isostatic Pressing process. Their research procedures
involved material hydrogenation and dehydrogenation processes to produce the
Ti6Al4V powder. Electrolytic Cu powders not more than 45 µm were mixed in a
V-type mixing machine at different weight percentages, of 1 wt.%, 3 wt.%, 5 wt.%,
8 wt.% and 10 wt.%, respectively with Ti6Al4V powder. The mixtures were passed
through the Hot Isostatic Pressing process for 1 hr under a hydrostatic pressure of
100 MPa and a temperature of 900 oC. The results of the sintered capsule showed
a density of not less than 99% and the hardness values increase, as the Cu content
increases from 1 wt.% to 10 wt.%.
Stranak et al., (2011) examined the deposition of thin Ti-Cu films on a Ti6Al4V
substrate using three different method of magnetron sputtering: direct current, dual,
and dual high-power impulse magnetron sputtering. Their study revealed that a larger
amount of Cu was released within the first day from the dual high-power impulse
magnetron sputtering compared to other methods used. They also envisaged that
the Cu released from the Ti-Cu film produced the antimicrobial effect that killed
the Staphylococcus epidermis and Staphylococcus aureus bacteria used in the test.
1.13. Laser Technology
The term Laser is an acronym for “Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission

of Radiation”. The laser device produces intense beams of low divergence light of
an electromagnetic radiation ranging from 1 nm to 1000μm in wavelength, 400 to
700 nm in visible spectrum, and 200 to 400 nm for ultraviolet light. Compared with
other source of light and photon energy, the wavelength of laser light is of a pure
monochromatic type; and it coheres with light of other wave-lengths.
The laser technology process is vibrant to the field of engineering, and in all walks
of life; since it can travel a greater distance and be focused to a small bright spot that
exceeds the brightness of the sun. The light particle that is called a photon exhibits
a particle-like and wave-like property; and it has energy, which can be determined
from Bohr’s model equation (Introduction to laser technology, Accessed, 2013).
1.14. Types of Laser System
There are different types of lasers in the laser system technology and all the lasers
perform dissimilar functions, based on the level of their functionality and purpose.
73
1.14.1. Discharge Gas Type Lasers
In principle, the gas discharge laser involves a container attached with mirrors at
its end, filled with gas and discharged through a jet. Due to their complex nature,
the container configurations, the parameters of gas discharge, the gas mixture, and
the reaction of the discharged container with the laser optics must be taken into
consideration, especially for an inversion. The gas discharge types are explained in
the subsections below.
Helium-Neon Lasers
The helium-neon laser (HNL) is a small laser with a beam quality of pure single
transverse mode usually less than 1.05 and having an operating life of equal to or
greater than 50,000 hrs. The laser was second in the discovery of lasers; and today,
the laser is the first in terms of volume usage and applications. In the configuration
set-up, helium constitutes the major gas mixture; while neon is the actual lasing
medium. The HNL operates on a low current-high voltage principle, with a wave-
length of 633 nm for red colour, 543 nm for green colour, 1523 nm for infrared, 594
nm for yellow colour, and 612 nm for orange colour. The output power value of the
laser depends on the size of the laser cylinder and the wavelength.
Noble-Gas Ion Lasers
The noble-gas ion lasers are mixed-gas lasers that combine the formation of argon
and krypton in their configuration. They operate on a high current-, low voltage-,
low pressure principle, and at a high intensity with a wavelength of 488 nm for the
blue colour, 514 nm for the green colour, 568 nm for the yellow colour, 647 nm for
the red colour and 752 nm for the near infra-red. A cooling mechanism is required
to remove the heat generated at the head of the laser system. The lasers are of two
classes. These are: low power air-cooled lasers, and high power water-cooled lasers.
The two classes have the same features; but the distinguishing limiting factors are
the depletion of the cathode and the consumption of gases.
Carbon Dioxide Lasers
The carbon dioxide (CO2) lasers operate at a pressure, which is equivalent to 10%
of the atmospheric pressure. The beam generated from the CO2 laser is a mixture
of helium and nitrogen. The helium possesses the highest percentage of the mixture
due to its high thermal conductivity and the cooling rate (Industrial Laser Processes,
Accessed, 2013).
The laser is applicable for material processing, due to its very high power-efficiency
relationship. The standard wavelength of this laser is 10.6.., and the power output is
between the value of less than 1 W and greater than 10 kW. The CO2 laser could be
grouped as a continuous-wave (CW) laser and a pulsed laser. In the CW laser, the
operating power is equal to its average power; while in the pulsed laser, the average
74
power leads to a peak power; and it is therefore controlled by an on-and-off duty

cycle (Introduction to laser technology, Accessed, 2013).
Helium-Cadmium Lasers
The operation of helium-cadmium (HC) lasers is similar to that of the helium-neon
laser; but the cadmium metal is the lasing medium; and it becomes solid at room
temperature. The lasers are economical and have an excellent wavelength of 442 nm
for violet. In application, they are used for 3D holographic and stereo-lithography
features. The operation of HC lasers is accomplished by a process of electrophoresis.
Excimer Lasers
The word ‘excimer’ is the termed based on the molecular complexity of two stable
atoms in an electronic excitation state. This is a type of gas-discharged laser that
encompasses the halogen family as XeFl, with a wavelength of 351 nm, XeCl
with a wavelength of 308 nm, KrCl with a wavelength of 222 nm, and KrF with a
wavelength of 248 nm. All these compounds are used in eye-surgery operations,
photolithography and micro-machining applications. With the same beam quality,
the excimer output beam diameter can be spot-focused to approximately 40 times
smaller than the CO2 laser beam. The construction of this type of laser is similar to
the CO2 laser; but the major dissimilarity is the corrosiveness of the gas.
Semi-Conductor Diode Lasers
The advantage of diode lasers lies in the fact that it has been generated by the re-
combination of injected holes and electrons in which electricity is transformed to
light. The merit features of the diode laser over other lasers are the small volume
enclosure, low power consumption, high speed transmission, and the storage of
information compact disc. A double hetero-structure diode laser is constructed with
a feedback mechanism, using two mirrors to cause the circulation of light repeatedly
and to build up the beam by a stimulated emission of radiation.
1.14.2. Solid State Lasers
Neodymium Doped Yttrium Aluminium Garnet

The Neodymium Doped Yttrium Aluminium Garnet (Nd: YAG) with a compound of
Y3Al5O12 is one of the solid-state lasers that are optically pumped via a laser diode, a
flash tube, or a continuous gas lamp in which the light is emitted at a wavelength of
1064 nm in an excitation state. The lasing medium is the Neodymium, a rare earth
element with a valence of 3 embedded in the Yttrium Aluminium Garnet (YAG)
crystal. The Nd: YAG operation could be a pulsed mode operation, which involves
a medium power generation from 20 W to 1800 W; and it is used for deep drilling
and welding operations, or a continuous-wave mode with a high power output from
500 W to 5000 W; and it has the advantage of using the flexibility of a robot for
welding or cutting operations (Industrial Laser Processes, Accessed, 2013).
75
Fiber Lasers
In this type of laser, energy is introduced via a pump diode; and a laser beam is
generated with a wavelength of 1,064μm and a very small focal diameter with re-
spect to the intensity, which is equivalent to 100 times higher than that of the CO2
laser. It is emitted via similar average power. They are applicable in the marking
and engraving of both plastic and metallic materials (Trotec Laser, 2013).
1.15. Dissimilarities between Co2 Lasers and the Nd: Yag Laser
There are many distinctions between the CO2 laser and the Nd: YAG laser; and
these are based on the functionality of the materials and the process properties. The
wavelength of Nd: YAG laser is shorter and it is best fitted with metallic materi-
als; and it produces more elaborated graphics in the same machine set-up; but the
wavelength is not easily adapted for other non-metallic substances, such as plastics,
timbers, acrylic, rubbers etc.; whereas the wavelength of CO2 laser is longer and
it is better suited for most of the non-metallic organic materials, as cited above;
but it is not easily absorbed by most metals (Laser technology, Accessed 2014).
In application, the Nd: YAG laser beams have an advantage over the CO2 laser in
focusing on a very much smaller spot diameter, with higher-power density. However,
the higher power and focusing property of CO2 lasers makes them applicable for
deep penetration welding and thick metal cutting. The Nd: YAG lasers are gaining
acceptance, due to the increment in the quality of the beam and power proficiency
(Laser technology, Accessed 2014).
1.16. Powder Metallurgy
Powder metallurgy (PM) is an advanced manufacturing technology used to produce

a wide range of finished and semi-finished engineering components. PM can be
used for processing all types of metal and alloys in the form of powder and furnished
into a final or near-net shape by using different processes (Global Market Review,
Accessed 2014).
1.17. Additive Manufacturing
Additive manufacturing (AM) is a three-dimensional printing technique that is re-

ferred to as a layer-by-layer technique of producing three-dimensional (3D) objects
directly from a model. AM builds a finished material from the initial production
stage in successive layers. Applications are found in industries, such as the aerospace,
dentistry, sport, auto parts etc.
76
Additive-layer manufacturing can be used to attach additional part features; and

it can be used in the repair of parts (Sears, 2011).
1.18. Classifications of Additive Manufacturing
There are different categories of AM, depending on the material selection and the
design requirement of the output product.
Powder Bed
This class of AM involves the thin spreading of powder in layers; and a laser is al-
lowed to scan the spread powders on the bed. The heated powder is fused together,
thereby forming a solid geometry. Laser sintering is a typical process of the powder
bed type. An example of the material type used includes thermoplastic. Selective
laser melting (SLM) and electron beam melting (EBM) are other processes for pro-
cessing ferrous and non-ferrous materials (Advanced Manufacturing CRC Limited,
Accessed 2015). The EBM is the bed type that uses metal powder; and it is melted
by an electron beam in a vacuum to form a layer-by-layer 3D object.
Material-Deposition Process
This requires the heating of materials through a nozzle connection; and it flows
through a definite path onto a substrate in a layered manner. The 3D product is
obtained by depositing the materials on the prior material deposit in layers; and the
laser beam is applied to melt the materials. The blown or spray process and wire
extrusion are classic examples of the material-deposition process.
3D Printing
This is a three-dimensional printing process that involves layer-by-layer building of

an object onto a platform from CAD files. The object is printed exactly the way it
appears on the CAM data. The kind of materials in this category include thermoset,
graphite etc.
1.19. Laser Metal Deposition
Laser Metal Deposition (LMD) is referred to as the process of using a laser beam
to produce a melt pool on a metal substrate; and the powder is then deposited into
the melt pool created via a nozzle and fusion bonded to the substrate to form a new
77
material layer or composite. Both the laser beam and the powder come out through
the nozzle attached to the robotic arm of the laser system.
1.20. Mechanical and Metallurgical

Bonding in the LMD Process
The LMD process produces an adhesive bonding that permanently attaches the de-
posited powder material from the jets’ blow to the melt pool produced by the laser
on the parent or base material. Against the force of gravity, a new layer of metal or
composite is formed. The process parameters and the powder composition must be
chosen to have a homogeneous distribution in the layer and improved properties.
There are significant limitations to some mechanical and metallurgical bonding in
the LMD processes; since they do not hold very well and require replacement or
repair, due to the parameters used; while some require more heat to melt both the
composite and the base metal (Laser Solutions for Manufacturing, 2013).
1.21. Laser Metal Deposition of Titanium Alloy Composites
Mahamood et al., (2013) laser deposited Ti6Al4V alloy (titanium grade 5) powders
on Ti6Al4V substrate using the Nd: YAG laser machine and varied the laser powers
from 0.8 kW to 3.0 kW; whilst other parameters were kept constant. They revealed
that the microstructures of the Ti6Al4V composites were observed to be columnar
in nature, and showed a fine and coarse globular alpha phase.
Vrancken et al., (2012) presented the analysis on the mechanical properties and the
microstructure of a heat treated Ti6Al4V samples. A YAG fiber laser of wavelength
1070 nm, a laser power of 250 W, scan speed of 0.16 m/sec, and a hatch space of
30μm, were used for their experiment. They discovered that before the heat treatment
process, the alloying samples show a full acicular and martensitic microstructure.
At a lower magnification, a long columnar grain is formed; and this is regarded as
prior β grains. After the heat treatment, the microstructure of the laser deposited
material was found to have a fine martensitic structure and a needle-like structure
of α and β in the mixture.
In the research work for producing medical parts, (Vandenbroucke & Kruth,
2007), reported a selectively laser melted Ti6Al4V alloy on a titanium base plate,
and a Co-Cr-Mo composite on a steel base plate. In their investigation, the energy
density produced for Ti6Al4V alloy was 195 J/mm3 and that of Co-Cr-Mo was 85
J/mm3. The microhardness and the macrohardness test conducted on Ti6Al4V com-
posite showed that hardness increases with an increase in energy density, which is
due to the minimal pores established in the deposited samples and the rapid cooling
of the melt pool.
78
Song et al., (2012) were able to analyse the effect of processing parameters on
the selective laser melted Ti6Al4V alloy on a stainless steel plate for the production
of titanium alloy parts. They made some single tracks of the deposited materials,
using the YLR-100-SM single mode CW Ytterbium fiber laser with a maximum
power of 120 W. Three single tracks were considered, with each track having a laser
power and scanning speed of 120 W and 0.2 m/sec, 110 W and 0.4 m/sec and 110 W
and 1.2 m/sec, respectively. They stated that a crack occurred in the first parameters
used, together with partial melting in the second parameter set; while the third set
of parameters gave the continuous melting of the final deposited sample.
Yu et al., (2012) performed a similar operation by laser depositing Ti6Al4V
powder on a titanium substrate; and they varied the laser power between 380 W
and 570 W; while the other process parameters were kept constant: the scanning
speed at 1000 mm/min, powder feed rate at 1.43 g/min, spot diameter at 1.2 mm, gas
flow rate at 10.5 l/min and layer thickness at 0.5 mm. They revealed that the low-
est laser power of 380 W leads to poor bonding and pore defects. However, higher
heat generated results in poor oxidation; and this was controlled by a monitoring
device to minimize the heat.
Yasa and Kruth, (2011) made an analysis on the laser re-melting on a selective
laser melting parts of AISI 316L stainless steel powder; and they maintained that
almost all the parts with low scanning speed and high laser power, produced a higher
percentage of porosity; and the density was improved after laser re-melting. Thijs et
al., (2010) reported the rate of cooling with varying scanning speed, and indicated
that a decrease in the size of the α-martensitic structure would lead to an increase
in the Vickers microhardness value. Similarly, a higher scanning speed resulted
in some porosity, which was an implication of an unmelted powder region within
the composite. The literature has similarly reported the use of Ti6Al4V alloy and
other metal alloys suitable for biomedical implants for both humans and animals.
Okazaki et al., (2005) in their research study examined the formation of a new bone
using various metal implants, such as 316L stainless steel, Co-Cr-Mo casting alloy,
Ti6Al4V and Ti-15Zr-4Nb-4Ta alloys. They were implanted into the rat femur and
tibia for close to 12 months; and they discovered the presence of foreign-body giant
cells and inflammatory cells. In the implant of 316L stainless steel and Co-Cr-Mo
alloy, osteocytes were observed in the lamellar bone tissue; and these resulted in
the formation of capsulated fibrous connective tissue. The bone formation rates of
the alloy implants after a month of implantation were markedly high.
Reig et al., (2013) investigated the microstructure and mechanical behaviour
of pores during Ti6Al4V powder sintering, and revealed that in order to improve
the behaviour of Ti6Al4V for bone application; stiffness must be reduced, in order
to generate a porous structure. The stiffness of the developed porous material was
varied from 40% to 88% Ti6Al4V after sintering.
79
The production of nanocrystalline Al, Al-10% Cu, and Al-10% Cu with 5% Ti

alloys was conducted for corrosion analysis in the natural sea water using the me-
chanical alloying method. The presence of Cu and Al-10% Cu alloy were reported
to reduce the corrosion rate of Aluminium. The addition of 5% Ti to the alloys
produced the best passivation to the surface of Al with the lowest corrosion rate
(Sherif et al., 2014).
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES AND SETUP
The research work was conducted using the laser techniques at the National Laser
Centre of Council of Scientific Industrial Research (NLC-CSIR), Pretoria, South
Africa. The LMD of the composites was accomplished on the Ytterbium Laser
System equipment (YLS-2000-TR). The system runs at a maximum power of 2000
W and uses a Kuka robot for its task.
Figure 5 shows a typical schematic view of a robotic laser with the nozzle at-
tached to the laser head; and it also shows the deposition process.
The laser is incorporated with dual-core fiber optic cables of 400 microns to
allow the laser beam to be delivered on the substrate via the robot-delivery device.
The laser system produces a wavelength, which radiates at 1.047μm with a better
efficiency output. The deposition operation is completely protected and shielded
with an argon gas, to prevent the deposited composites from oxygen contamination.
Figure 5.
80
2.1. Materials and Methodology
A 99.6% square plate made of titanium alloy grade 5 with a volumetric dimension
of 102 X 102 X 7.54 mm3 was used as the substrate. It was supplied by TITANIUM
METAL SUPPLY, 12215 Kirkham Road, Poway, United States. The substrate was
grit blasted in other to fascinate the surface. After the grit blasting, the substrate
was sanitized with acetone and dehydrated. The two powders used for this experi-
ment are Ti6Al4V and Cu powders and were fed from two different hoppers and
flow out through the nozzle.
The powders used for this project work are Ti6Al4V alloy powder and Cu pow-
der. The Ti6Al4V alloy powder was supplied by F.J. Brodmann and Co., L.L.C.,
Louisiana, TLS Technik GmbH, South Africa. The Cu powder was supplied by the
INDUSTRIAL ANALYTICAL (Pty) LIMITED, South Africa.
Table 1 shows the chemical composition of the Ti6Al4V alloy powder; and Table
2 depicts the chemical composition and the mesh-size analysis of the Cu powder.
The powders enter the cylinder and come out through three different hoses con-
nected to the nozzle at an angle of 120o to each other. The nozzle has four jet holes,
in which three of them coaxially are for the powders; while the fourth one at the
center of the nozzle is for the laser beam.
Table 3 illustrates the experimental matrix used for the laser deposition process.
The samples are designated from A to G at varying scanning speed between 0.3 m/
min and 1.5 m/min respectively.
Table 1. Chemical composition of the Ti6Al4V powder
Element Al V Fe C N2 H2 O2 Ti
Wt.% 6.30 3.90 0.17 0.008 0.005 0.005 0.140 Balance
Table 2. Analysis of Cu powder
Powder Percentage Hydrogen Apparent Mesh Analysis Mesh %

(%) Loss (%) Density (g/cm3)
Copper powder 99.83 0.31 5.1 +100 mesh 0.3
-100+140 mesh 18.3
-140+200 mesh 21.5
-200+325 mesh 25.7
-325 mesh 34.1
81
Table 3. Experimental matrix
Sample Designation A B C D E F G
Scanning speed (m/min) 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5
Additional Constants: Laser power = 1200 Watts; Powder flow rate (Ti6Al4V) = 4.175 g/min; Powder flow
rate (Cu) = 0.32 g/min; Gas flow rate (Ti6Al4V) = 3 l/min; Gas flow rate (Cu) = 1 l/min
Other parameters such as the laser power, powder flow rates and gas flow rates
for Ti6Al4V alloy and Cu are all kept constant. The beam diameter of 4 mm and a
standoff distance of 12 mm were used throughout the experimental setup.
2.2. Microstructure
Prior to optical microscopy observation, the Kroll’s reagent was prepared with 100
ml H2O, 2-3 ml HF and 4-6 ml HNO3. This was prepared according to Struers ap-
plication note of metallurgical preparation of titanium. The samples were etched
for 10-15 seconds, sprinkled with acetone, rinsed under clean running water and
dried off. The microstructures of all the etched samples were observed under the
BX51M Olympus optical microscope. A mirror-like image on the surface of the
samples was observed with no scratches; and this serves as an indication of a good
grinding and polishing operation. All the samples were prepared for metallurgical
characterizations, according to the ASTM standard (E3-11 ASTM Standard).
2.3. Microhardness
The microhardness profiling was performed on a Vickers hardness tester named

Zwick/Roell. The hardness was performed laterally on each sample from the top
of the deposit to the substrate thereby making eight indentations on the sectioned
surface of the deposited Ti6Al4V/Cu composites to the substrate. A load of 500
grams and a dwell time of 15 seconds were used throughout the hardness test ac-
cording E384 ASTM standard [11].
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Microstructural Evaluation
The micrographs of the laser deposited Ti6Al4V/Cu alloys are discussed in this
section. Figures 6 (a) to (h) show the micrographs and the microstructures of the
deposited Ti6Al4V/Cu alloys.
82
Figure 6.
83
The volume of the deposited alloys decreases as the scanning speed increases.
This in turns reduced the grain sizes with respect to the increment in the speed of
scan. Figures 6 (a) and (b) show the macrograph and microstructure of sample A
deposited at laser power of 1200 Watts and scanning speed of 0.3 m/min. Both the
α, β and (α+β) phases were observed in the microstructure. Figures 6 (c) and (d)
depict the macrograph and microstructure of sample B deposited at laser power of
1200 Watts and scanning speed of 0.5 m/min. α- Ti lamella was found to decrease
in length prior the β-phase as the scanning speed increases. Globular microstructures
were also formed after the fusion zone. Both the α- Ti lamella and the acicular
structures were found breaking into the closer grain boundaries of the (α+β) grains.
The gradual disappearance of the α-acicular could be attributed to the decrease in
the energy density as the scanning speed increases Erinosho et al., 2015. Widma-
nstettan structures were observed in the samples (Erinosho et al., 2014). The mar-
tensitic structure in the α-phase region of the modified alloy was likewise found to
decrease as the scanning speed increases. As the time of deposition decreases, the
magnitude of the laser energy induced into the parent material is also reduced.
3.2. Microhardness Analyses
The hardness of the parent material (substrate) was first conducted on the both the
surface and the cross section. The average hardness HV of the surface of the sub-
strate is HV 316; while that of the cross section is HV 342. Figure 7 represents the
histogram of the HV values for both the surface and the cross section of the substrate.
Figure 7.
84
The average HV of the cross section is about 8% higher than that of the HV on
the surface of the substrate. Their occurrence was due to the fact that the bulk
sample is a rolled material and the grain boundaries were elongated and compacted
in between the rolls applying forces. In other words, the cross section suffers the
magnitude of the load; since it was condensed in between the roll surfaces.
The microhardness evaluation of the Ti6Al4V/Cu alloy samples was illustrated
in Figure 8. Seven indentations were made on the deposited alloys.
From the histogram plot of the hardness values, Erinosho et al., 2015, it can be
inferred that the hardness decreases as the scanning speed increases. The deposit at
low scanning speed creates enough room for indentations to be done with the bulk
of deposit as compared with the deposit at high scanning speed. Sample A depos-
ited with a laser power of 1200 W and a scanning speed of 0.3 m/min shows the
highest hardness value of HV 541±20 as compared to the hardness values of other
samples. The hardness of sample A is about 42% higher than that of the hardness
of the cross section of the parent material and about 37% greater than the average
hardness indented on the surface of the substrate. The indentations made on differ-
ent phases of the deposited Ti6Al4V/Cu alloys initiated variations in the microhard-
ness values. However, the presence of Cu accommodates strain around the β phase
thereby causing its stability.
4. CONCLUSION
Today, the combination of different alloys has been a major phenomenon or route
for the improvement of their physical and mechanical properties. The deposition
Figure 8.
85
of titanium alloy and copper powders is a great accomplishment; and the results
obtained have really enhanced the alloy. The gaps between the α/β phases have been
modified with the aid of the copper stabilizer added since it can accommodate strain
around the β phases. The 3 weight percent of copper has a greater impact in the
hardness values obtained as compared with that of the parent material. However,
the future direction of this modified TiAl4V/Cu alloy is streamlined towards the
marine modules in order to enhance their life span during service.
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Yasa, E., & Kruth, J. (2011). Application of Laser re-melting on Selective Laser
melting parts. Advances in Production Engineering and Management, 6, 259-270.
Yu, J., Rombouts, M., Maes, G., & Motmans, F. (2012). Material properties of
Ti6Al4V parts produced by laser metal deposition. Physics Procedia, 39, 416–424.
doi:10.1016/j.phpro.2012.10.056
Zhang, E., Li, F., Wang, H., Liu, J., Wang, C., Li, M., & Yang, K. (2013). A new
antibacterial titanium-copper sintered alloy: Preparation and antibacterial property.
Materials Science and Engineering C. Retrieved from www.elsevier.com/locate/msec
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
3D Printing: This is a three-dimensional printing process that involves layer-

by-layer building of an object.
Bimodal Structure: The structure having two type of arrangement.
Biofouling: This is the fouling of marine structures caused by microorganisms.
90
Laser Metal Deposition: This refers to as the process of forming a solid sample
after the deposition of metallic powder with a beam of laser.
Linear Coefficient of Expansion: This is referred to as the increase in length
of a material due to heating to temperatures below its melting point.
Powder Metallurgy: This involves the compaction of heated powder below the
melting point and solidifies to give the required shape and size.
91
92
Chapter 5
Trend and Development
in Laser Surface
Modification for
Enhanced Materials
Properties
Muhammed Olawale Hakeem Amuda
University of Lagos, Nigeria & University of Johannesburg, South Africa

ABSTRACT
This article presents a process review of the commonly available laser surface modi-
fication techniques for surface property enhancement. This is reinforced with the
specific case treatment of research trends in relation to commonly treated materials.
The progression from simple surface modification to the production of components
with multifunctional characteristics known as functionally graded material is dis-
cussed in combination with emerging research focus on the computational simulation
of laser surface modification for optimization of process dynamics.
1. INTRODUCTION
Many solid materials possess adequate bulk mechanical properties which commend
them for a number of applications but this is not usually the case with their surface
properties. In most cases, the bulk material lacks good surface characteristics for
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-0329-3.ch005
Trend and Development in Laser Surface Modification
effective performance for the timescale over which it is presumed fit-for-purpose.

Additionally, literature (Krauss, 1992) indicates that surfaces of materials are sub-
jected to greater stresses and more direct environmental impact than the interior;
hence, when such aggressive stresses reached a material’s resistance limit, surface
initiated fracture, fatigue, wear and corrosion failures occur. Therefore, surfaces of
materials are usually twitched to make them robust to the environment in which
they will be used in order to derive maximum benefit. The process of treating the
surface of materials to improve their surface functionalities and making them robust
to their environment is referred to as surface modification or surface engineering.
The process involves treatment of the surface or near-surface regions of a material to
permit the surface to perform functions that are distinct from those demanded from
the bulk materials (ASM International, 2001; Cotell and Sprague, 1994). Surface
modification has a chequered history from the advent of civilization to the present
age and it manifests in many forms; but irrespective of the form, however, it involves
changing the composition, crystal structure, texture, chemistry and microstructure of
the substrate of the bulk material up to certain depth towards creating new features
and properties in the surface (Burakowski and Wierzchon, 1999). Some of the ben-
efits of surface modification include improved corrosion and oxidation resistance,
improved wear resistance, reduced frictional energy loss, improved fatigue resistance,
enhanced electrical/electronic properties, thermal insulation, size restoration, bio-
medical functionalization, and improving aesthetics (Ansari et al., 2014). Because
the motivation for surface modification is very wide so is the spread of the process
very wide as well. At one end of the wide spectrum, the depth of modified surface
could be very thin between 0.001-1.0 mm and at the other end, overlayer surface
depth in the range 1- 20 mm are typical (Krauss, 1992). These modification depths
are, of course, process specific and thus, each process can only optimise within a
specific length scale range. There are several presentations of the process such as
ion implantation, nitriding, aluminising, physical vapour deposition (PVD), chemi-
cal vapour deposition (CVD), anodising, laser processing, thermal spraying, cold
spraying, and liquid deposition methods. The possible range of modification depth
in these processes is shown in Figure 1 with ion implantation providing the smallest
depth while weld overlay could be in the tens of a millimetre.
Among these several processes, laser surface modification particularly laser
deposition has the capacity to provide across the spectrum range (nano to millime-
tre) of modified surface depth not possible through other processes. Arising from
these possibilities which have resulted in a wide range of improved surface proper-
ties in treated materials, the growth in laser surface modification process has been
exponential in the last three decades; and new application areas are equally emerg-
ing (Baker 2010). The process is one of the strong driving forces advancing additive
93
Figure 1. Classification and typical surface depth of various surface modification

techniques (ASM International, 2001)
manufacturing particularly in laser engineered net shaping (LENS) manufacturing

systems (Gu et al., 2012).
The attraction in laser technology for surface modification is driven by the ability
to precisely control the spot onto which the beam is delivered to achieve the desired
response. In specifics, laser beam has the ability to precisely deposit a large amount
of energy into a material over a short time scale in a spatially confined region near
the surface of the material. This permits the control of local surface properties
relative to the bulk materials and other regions on the surface (Brown and Arnold,
2010). The degree of distortion and size variations in laser modified layers is mini-
mal compared to such other processes such as weld overlays or conversion coating.
The change in composition and structural fluctuation is equally less compared to
thermal surface treatment. Furthermore, it provides excellent interfacial bonding
between the top layer and the substrate layer resulting in a strongly adherent sur-
face modified layer. Ultimately, it provides possibility for the formation of novel
surface alloys not possible with the other processes owing to the non-equilibrium
characteristics of the process (Kwok et al., 2000). Thus, the many possibilities of
94
materials response from the effect of the incident laser energy, the interaction time
scale and other laser parameters that can result in changes spanning multiple length
scales, from the atomic to the macroscale, have been responsible for the growth in
laser surface technology.
There exist extensive literature on several aspects of laser principles, laser sur-
face modification and applications which are not integrated but are far and wide
apart (Dahotre, 1998; Steen, 2003; Ion, 2005). It has been very difficult and near
impossible to aggregate these wide publications on laser and its use for surface
modification into a simple, quick but detailed reference guide containing recent
developments in the process. Therefore, this article attempts to provide in a single
piece, basic generic information on laser surface modification reinforced with several
reported works on some materials. While it is not the focus of this article to provide
an exhaustive treatment of laser surface modification in all its forms and applica-
tion across the material spectra, yet, due treatment is accorded to such processes as
laser surface alloying, laser surface melting, laser cladding, laser surface sintering
and laser surface composite coating. This is preceded by a review of laser beam, its
characteristics and laser-material interaction in relation to surface modification. The
centric discussion on laser surface treatment techniques is further illuminated with
a new paradigm such as the deposition of functionally graded composite coatings
and the use of computational simulation and statistical optimization technique to
gain further insight into laser surface modification.
2. THE LASER BEAM
Laser composes of light beams propagating mainly in one direction and it represents
an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation (Laser). Un-
like other light sources (collimated light beams, light emitting diodes, hot objects),
lasers exhibit unique distinguishing features including coherency, temporal nature,
monochromatic wavelength, highly concentrated and an irradiance beam profile
(Kirkham and Roundy, 2014). The monochromatic nature of a laser beam indicates
that it is essentially a single narrow wavelength with virtually no light at wave-
lengths outside the central peak. The temporal characteristic of a laser beam make
it to vary from a continuous wave (CW) to an extremely short pulse (femtosecond)
which can provide very high power densities. Its coherency provides capacity for it
to travel in a narrow beam with a small and well defined divergence or spread. This
offers flexibility in permitting a user to specify exactly the area for illumination by
the laser beam. This capability equally makes focusing to a very small and intense
spot in a highly concentrated area possible. And it is this ability for focusing that
makes the laser beam useful for many applications in physics, chemistry, the medi-
95
cal industry, and industrial sectors most especially in materials processing. Also,
the beam irradiance pattern known as the “beam profile” influences the energy
density, the concentration and the collimation of the lights; which determines the
application of the laser beam.
Laser beam can be generated from the three physical states of matter: gases, liquid
and solids and as such are available in many classifications and can be classified
into five broad grouping (gas lasers, liquid lasers, solid lasers, semi-conductor lasers
and free electron lasers). Baker (2010) reported that the various classes of lasers
are grouped based on the active medium, average power, wavelength, and mode of
operation. The details of the classification as provided by Ion (2005) in a chart, based
on power output against wavelength is shown in Figure 2, and vary from excimer,
Nd: YAG, diode through to CO2 lasers. Fibre laser is however not included in the
classification which produces a better quality beam with a wavelength of about 1.06
μm in the near infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
But it represents the trend in laser materials processing. The figure shows that
a wide range of laser beams are available for materials processing across the spec-
Figure 2. A chart of commercial lasers in terms of average power and wavelength

on a background of application windows (Baker, 2010)
96
trum. Dahotre (2002) reported that these various beams can be deployed in heating,
melting and vaporizing materials depending on the relationship between the power
density of the laser beam and its interaction with the material (see Figure 3). Most
surface modification treatments in materials using lasers fall within the regions
labelled heating and melting in Figure 3. However, it must be noted that the char-
acteristics of the beam in terms of its profile greatly influence the outcome of any
laser surface modification process. If a proper beam profile is not ensured, then, the
expected outcome of the modification may not be achieved.
2.1 Laser Beam Profile and Power Density
The beam profile describes the distribution and form of the spatial intensity of the
laser beam. The nature and character of this profile affects the energy density, its
concentration, the collimation of the laser lights and the propagation of the beam
through space. Specifically, in terms of energy density, the profile determines
Figure 3. Map of laser processes as a function of power density per unit interaction
time (adapted from Dahotre, 2002)
97
whether the energy density is highly focused on a localised spot area or it is evenly
spread across a given area. Kirkham and Roundy (2014) reported that there are
many varieties of laser beam depending on the laser source. Excimer laser exhibit
a different beam profile from HeNe laser beam or CO2 laser beam or a Cr:LiSAF
beam. But generally, beam profile can either approximate Gaussian or non-Gaussian
distribution. The non-Gaussian is equally referred to as flat-top beam profile. The
Gaussian beam provides the highest concentration of focused light, whereas, in the
non-Gaussian, uniform energy is distributed across a given area. These broad ideal-
ized profiles are shown in Figure 4 though there are deviations from these two broad
groupings. The character of the beam influences the energy density delivered to a
surface during laser process which in turn affects the response from the material.
Most laser processes particularly those of surface modification are conditioned
to work with the Gaussian profile because this is considered as being able to de-
liver maximum energy density to the surface. Laser surface modification is premised
on the beam being focused on specific spot of the substrate material as it traverse
the surface to generate maximum material response and also minimizing physical
distortion in the material unlike the flat-top profile. The beam profile do degrade
over time delivering out of spectrum energy density to the material and this has
been reported to have caused severe distortion in the process for which it was ap-
plied (Kirkham and Roundy, 2014). This could generate a large error margin in
experiment resulting in misleading outcomes. Thus, it is absolutely necessary to
consistently ascertain the correct beam profile before the commencement of any
Figure 4. Common laser beam profiles: (a) Gaussian profile for highly concentrated
energy distribution and (b) flat-top beam for uniform energy distribution (Roundy,
1998)
98
laser process. Incidentally, there are several methods for controlling and maintain
the beam profile for consistency.
The energy density (E) of a laser beam measures the quantum of energy per unit
area (J/mm2) delivered, and is related to the laser power (q), the scanning velocity
(ν) and the radius rb of the laser beam; as presented mathematically in Equation (1).
It is evident from the equation that the energy density is influenced by the character
of the laser beam. For a Gaussian beam has a smaller radius than a flat-top profile
and this explains why a Gaussian profile delivers higher energy density than a flat-
top beam. In a real-time laser surface modification process not all incident energy
density is converted for surface modification. It is only the fraction that
 q 
E =   (1)
 rb ν 
is absorbed that does the work and this is referred to as the input energy density. The
amount of energy density absorbed by the material’s substrate controls the depth
of the melt pool and hence the volume of the molten alloy (Baker, 2010). Irrespec-
tive of the energy density delivered from any laser beam for surface modification,
the process is characterized by high heating and cooling rates in the range 104 to
1010 Ks-1, thermal gradients between 105 and 108 K/m and solidification velocities
may be up to 30 ms-1 (Baker, 2010). And these are influenced by the laser-material
interaction dynamics. The laser beam may either be continuous wave or pulsed
wave type. In the continuous wave type, the laser produces a continuous output
beam overtime, whereas in the pulse wave type, the laser output occurs in pulses
of some duration at some repetition rates usually in the range of picosecond to
nanosecond. Both types of laser waveform are used for surface modification (Ab-
boud et al., 2007). However, the depth of surface modified layer in both wave forms
are influenced by the laser beam wavelength, temporal pulse power (pulse length,
peak power and pulse shape), repetition rate, beam energy distribution and beam
geometry in terms of the focal spot size and depth of focus (Abboud et al., 2007).
For instance, in pulsed laser modified surface, the properties are controlled by
pulse energy, pulse width, frequency and scan rate. A pulsed mode in laser surface
modification provides temporal limitation in energy coupling into the target which
results in a very limited depth of heat conduction into it resulting in reduced heating
of the work piece. Such laser irradiation mode reduces incidences of defects such
as porosity, bubbles or depressions which occur readily a continuous wave laser
(Pinkerton and Li, 2003). Notwithstanding this, pulsed laser beam is more suited
for surface texturing or ablation.
99
2.2 Laser-Material Interaction
The material response during surface modification is greatly dependent on the inter-
action between the material substrate and the laser beam. Laser-material interaction
phenomena are very complex in relation to the thermo-physical properties of the
substrate. The full description of the several forms of laser-material coupling is be-
yond the scope of a single book chapter as this but the interaction is influenced by a
combination of optical (reflectivity/absorptivity), thermal and electrical properties
of materials which may produce such effect as temperature rise, melting, vaporiza-
tion, cooling and solidification. Detailed literature treatment of the laser-material
interaction is available in many texts on laser materials processing (Gladush and
Smurov, 2011; Steen and Mazumder, 2010). Notwithstanding, it is suffice to note
that the main laser-solid interaction process is the excitation of electrons from their
equilibrium states to some excited states by absorption of photons which manifests
in a particular type of response from the material. The processes occurring when
the laser beam hits a material depend on the amount of deposited laser energy. This
energy in relation to its spatial and temporal distribution determines the type of
surface modification that occurs. The penetration depth of the laser beam depends
on the interaction time which is determined by the cross section of the beam and
the scan rate. Thus, the unique interaction of laser beam with materials over a given
timescale can lead to permanent changes in the material’s surface composition,
chemistry, crystal structure and morphology resulting in improved surface properties
that are not readily accomplished through other means. This unique laser-material
interaction has been utilized in various forms to provide a wide range of laser sur-
face modification techniques such as laser texturing, selective sintering, cladding,
surface melting, etc. (Weng et al., 2014; Lawrence and Waugh, 2014).
3. LASER SURFACE MODIFICATION PROCESSES
The quality of laser surface modification is influenced by three significant parameters

and these are laser power, beam size and scan rate. These parameters determine
the extent of structural and composition changes in the substrate. For instance, an
increasing laser power increases absorptivity in the substrate, melt depth, widens
the heat affected zone and provided for a uniform mixing of the melt pool but it
also increases tendency to surface rippling and crack formation. A small beam size
provides high power density that increases melt depth but decreases melt width
whereas, an increasing scanning speed implies less interaction between the beam
and the material resulting in narrowing melt width and shallow melt depth. It equally
reduces fluid flow which affects the homogenization of the melted zone, changes the
100
shape of the melted zone from circular to elliptical though with reduced tendency for
surface rippling and crack formation. The high cooling rate associated with increas-
ing scanning rate reduces the dendritic arm spacing (Akgun and Inal, 1994). This
wide range in the possibility of combination of the key laser processing parameters
provides opportunity for manipulating the laser process for specific surface modifi-
cation. Therefore, there are many variants of laser surface modification for altering
the surface composition, chemistry, crystal structure, texture and microstructure;
and these are treated in this section. The discussion traverses the principles, merits
and demerits and a brief critique of researches conducted in each of the processes.
3.1 Laser Surface Ablation and Texturing
Laser ablation represents a process for removing material from a substrate (metals,
inorganic insulator/semiconductors and organic materials) by direct absorption of
laser energy resulting in a surface with different morphology. In laser ablation,
the chemical composition and crystal structure of the substrate material is not af-
fected. The process is usually conducted with pulse laser beam although the use of
the continuous wave beam had equally been reported (Brown and Arnold, 2010).
Surface ablation occurs at a particular energy density (fluences) above the melting
point resulting in the formation of plumes; and it depends on so many variables
including absorption mechanism, material properties, microstructure and morphol-
ogy, the presence of defects, beam wavelength and pulse duration. The threshold
of energy density for ablation in metals is between 10 and 100 kJ/m2, for inorganic
insulators- 5 and 20 kJ/m2, and for organic materials-1 and 10 kJ/m2. However, in
the case of multiple pulses, the ablation thresholds may be lower than the stated
ranges. Literature indicates that materials responses during ablation equally involves
a combination of other phenomena such as surface melting and thermally activated
processes which may result in cumulative changes in the materials surface texture,
morphology and chemistry not ordinarily intended (Brown and Arnold, 2010). Ab-
lation finds application in several areas including improving surface roughness for
better adhesion, tribological control, optical and electrical properties and biomedi-
cal functionalization of implant. Frerichs et al. (1995) reported that laser-induced
ablation of some polymeric materials as a pretreatment step prior to metallization
improved their surface roughness for adhesion for the subsequent metallization
process. Recently, Rytlewski and Żenkiewicz (2013) deployed laser ablation for the
formation of catalytically active surfaces that are fully prepared for direct electro-
less metallization in thermoplastic and thermosetting polymer composites. Ho et al.
(2015) deployed laser ablation to modify the surface of AZ31B magnesium alloy for
improved biowettability by inducing alteration in the grain size, surface roughness,
surface energy and surface composition. Such effort resulted in increased protein
101
absorption which assisted in cell/osteoblast growth. Similar process was earlier ap-
plied in generating craters in silicon and gold target material to modify their surface
morphology (Besner et al., 2005).
Another application of laser ablation in the last two decades is the production
of patterned microstructure in materials which is equally known as laser surface
texturing (LST). In LST, specific textures are introduced onto the substrate surface
at specific repetitive positions in the materials using pulsed laser beam. The func-
tionalities of the textured pattern depend on the size, depth and area of the pattern.
There are many options of such patterned texture which may include micropores,
grooves, circular dimple-like depressions. These patterned textures can improve
load capacity, wear rates, lubrication lifetime, wetting characteristics, reduces fric-
tion in tribological mechanical systems (Vilhena et al., 2009). Additionally, LST
has been extended to texturing of multicrystalline silicon for solar cell. This has
eliminated surface processing dependence on grains crystallographic orientations
unlike the chemical texturing methods (Dobrzański and Drygała, 2008). Surface
bio-functionalization using femtosecond pulsed laser multiscale surface texturing
was achieved in titanium and its alloys for dental and orthopaedic implants (Cunha,
2015). And in the recent past, LST has been used to create super-hydrophobic surfaces
(high wettability surfaces with θc>150o) for biological scaffolds, microfluidics, self-
cleaning surfaces, and lab-on-chip devices (Brown and Arnold, 2010). Invariably,
the application window for LST appears inexhaustive and it is most likely that this
will continue to grow into the next decade and beyond. A broad review of the state
of the art in LST is available in the literature.
3.2 Laser Surface Melting and Remelting
Laser surface melting (LSM) involves irradiating the surface of the substrate with
laser beam to a regulated depth without modifying the surface layer composition.
The melting and solidification is very rapid achieving a very high quench rate which
permits the development of non-equilibrium structure. Since there is no change in
surface composition, the melting facilitates the redistribution of dissolved alloying
elements. A major characteristics the LSM technique is the rapid solidification
which can generate hardening through the introduction of crystalline defects such as
vacancies and dislocations. Though, residual stresses are developed which result in
the distortion of a work-piece, but this is readily overcome by applying low powered
surface heating procedure after the laser melting process (Baker and Arnold, 2010).
During LSM, the near surface region rapidly reaches the melting point creating
a liquid/solid interface which start to move through the alloy while diffusion of dis-
solved of elements begins in the liquid phase. At the termination of the laser pulse,
the surface remained below the vaporization temperature (this is the key difference
102
between laser surface ablation and surface melting, vaporization temperature is not
reached in laser melting but in laser ablation) but the maximum melt depth has been
attained and inter-diffusion continues; though the re-solidified interface velocity
is momentarily zero, and later rapidly increases. The interface moves back to the
surface from the region of maximum melt depth. Inter-diffusion continues in the
liquid, but the re-solidified metal behind the liquid/solid interface cools so rapidly
that solid state diffusion may be negligible. At the completion of re-solidification,
a surface alloy has now been created. The melted zone is usually relatively small
of about 50 to 1000 microns permitting very high quench rates in the range of 103
to 106 Ks-1 resulting in non-equilibrium martensitic microstructures (Baker, 2010).
LSM has been applied to both ferrous (cast iron, plain carbon steels, stainless steels
and alloyed steels) and non-ferrous (aluminum alloys, titanium alloys and super al-
loys of the nickel based series) metals either in inert or nitrogenous environments
(Benyounis et al., 2005; Olakanmi et al., 2015; Li et al., 2016; Engeli et al., 2016).
In the case of ferrous metals particularly carbon steels, surface melting cause carbon
redistribution and/or the dissolution of precipitates resulting in the formation of
martensitic or homogenized structure which increased surface hardness many fold
translating to better wear resistance. In titanium alloys, LSM produces fine basket
weave microstructure resulting in higher hardness and better wear and corrosion
resistances (Akgun and Inal, 1994). Microstructures in LSM processes approximate
the conventional solidification structure which is essentially dendritic. An example
is illustrated in Figure 5 in the case of surface melted nodular cast iron and Ti-6Al-4
V titanium alloy. LSM is currently applied in rapid prototyping, rapid tooling and
rapid manufacturing of high grade materials including steels, titanium, aluminum
and nickel based superalloys for different range of fixtures such as turbine blades,
propellers, nozzles, dental and human implants (Zhang and Attar, 2015; Yasa and
Kruth, 2011; Gebhardt et al., 2010).
Figure 5. Dendritic microstructure in laser surface melted: (a) cast iron and (b)
Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy (Benyounis et al., 2005; Akgun and Inal, 1994)
103
Laser surface remelting is closely related to LSM except that in surface remelt-
ing a smaller localized region is focused with intense reheating followed by rapid
solidification to generate extremely fined and tailored microstructure. It is also in
another instance referred to as selective laser melting (SLM). It is mainly applied
to remove surface defects and improve integrity such as homogeneity and adhesion
particularly in overlay coating for improved corrosion resistance. SLM is similar to
selective laser sintering (SLS) except in the way the powder is processed. In SLS,
only the surface of the powder is melted to produce a fused compact while in the
SLM, the powder particles are completely melted and a high density part is produced
(Mahamood et al., 2014). It is strictly not a surface modification process but an
integral part of additive manufacturing. In some instances, laser surface remelting
is loosely classified as LSM. Recent advancement in this area is toward selective
laser melting of metal powder mixture in additive manufacturing (Engeli et al.,
2016; Olakanmi et al., 2015); and laser glazing for the formation of amorphous
structure on substrate surface. In laser glazing, laser beam at power densities in the
range of 105 to 107 W/cm2 is used to surface melt the substrate for about 10-4 to 10-7
seconds. The very intense power densities and short interaction time results in very
high cooling rates exceeding 105 K/s which suppresses the usual nucleation and
crystallisation processes that accompany solidification. Rather, amorphous glassy
surface layers are produced which have been found to assist greatly in closing crack-
ing pores particularly in thermal barrier coatings (Ahmadi-Pidani et al., 2013).
Laser glazing is commonly conducted on the Nd-YAG or Excimer pulsed laser
beams.
3.3 Laser Surface Alloying
Laser surface alloying (LSA) uses focused laser beams to melt coatings and a por-
tion of the underlying substrate. In LSA, alloying elements (metallic or non-metallic
powder) are either deposited on the substrate surface, or fed through a hopper delivery
system or in a gaseous environment and then irradiated by a high-energy laser beam.
This causes dissolution of the powders or diffusion of the alloying gas into the laser
generated melt pool and chemical reaction take place between the additives and the
melted substrate. In a very short period of time, cooling and solidification form a
thickness of 0.1-0.5 mm of a new alloy layer (Tian et al., 2005). Through this, the
composition, chemistry, crystal structure and microstructure structure of the sur-
face layer is altered; and this has been extended to a wide range of materials. LSA
could be conducted in gaseous medium, solid medium or solid + gaseous medium
(Baker, 2010). The diverse choice of alloying materials that can be incorporated
by LSA permits tailoring of surface properties to impart better wear, corrosion and
oxidation properties to mitigate against any degradation mode. This is distinct from
104
the use of laser processing for the formation of a metal matrix composite layer on
the surface via incorporation of ceramic powders because in the case of composite
layer, the injected ceramic particles do not dissolve in the molten substrate layer;
rather it remain embedded in the matrix to produce the composite layer (Thawari
et al., 2003).
Though, laser surface processing requires the protection of the molten pool from
oxidation and other contaminations using inert gases such as argon or helium, these
gases can be replaced with nitrogen to form nitride surface with superior surface
chemistry and structure. Extensive literature abound on laser gas nitriding of titanium
alloys, stainless steels, and aluminum alloys (Baker, 2010). Laser nitriding with
a 100% nitrogen atmospheres in the early works produced a thin 5-10μm surface
layer of titanium nitride (TiN) with surface hardness close to ~ 1000-2000Hv and
improved corrosion resistance together with a lower coefficient of friction and wear
resistance. However, cracking was often a problem in such surface modified titanium.
This was resolved by either using diluted nitrogen atmosphere or by preheating prior
to nitriding but at the expense of a decrease surface hardness and melt depth (Baker,
2010). Controlling parameters in laser gas nitriding process are energy density,
beam diameter, scanning speed, nitrogen pressure or flow rate and these must be
regulated to avoid development of cracks in the nitride surface. Bianco et al. (1995)
investigated the potential use of CO2 as alloying gas and reported better abrasive wear
resistance in CO2-laser alloyed titanium than TiN surface layer produced through
laser nitriding. The attraction in laser gas alloying is that it affords more precise
control of the concentration of the alloying element in the molten pool compared to
powder injection. Additionally, laser gas alloying can be undertaken more easily on
complex shapes without the feeding difficulties associated with powders or wires.
LSA has also been performed with the addition of different powders through
either injection or preplacement in slurry form; though, this is sometimes technically
referred to as cladding. Both cases produce partial dissolution of the powders which
may provide a strong bond with the matrix and confers significant wear resistance to
the substrate (Baker, 2010). The powders may be introduced singly or in mixes and
all metallic or non-metallic powders are possible but for powder injection system, the
particle size must be within the range 45-120 μm for good flowability. Particle sizes
outside this range are only suitable through the preplacement technique. However,
in some applications where service conditions require improved surface strength
through dispersion hardening and /or improved corrosion properties, then a complete
dissolution of the particles during laser processing is preferable. And this is possible
using laser powers of ~3kW, when the particle size is less than 10μm.With SiC par-
ticles, both of these techniques provide an opportunity for the precipitation, in a fine
state, of new phases such as Ti5Si3 and TiC. Thawari et al. (2003) conducted LSA
investigation on medium carbon steel with SiC(p) using high power CO2 continuous
105
wave laser in nitrogenous environment at multiple scans. They established that LSA
of SiC(p) can be used to produce hard and wear resistant layers on medium carbon
steel but these are significantly influenced by the processing variables particularly
the energy density. The microstructure of the laser alloyed layer is influenced by
repetitive scanning producing refined microstructure with increasing scanning (see
Figure 6). Comparative analysis of laser gas and powder alloying, however, showed
that the hardness of the powder alloyed surface is lower than that of the nitrided
surface (Baker, 2005). A wide range of powder mix composition has been reported
in the literature (Tian et al, 2005; Baker, 2010).
LSA of metals combining gaseous atmospheres and powders have equally been
studied particularly mixtures of nitrogen with SiC. Dilute nitrogen atmospheres
combined with powder alloying have been found to produce crack- free surfaces
which have additional hardness relative to the titanium parent alloy and the powder
alloying alone (Baker, 2010).
Figure 6. Cross-sectional micrograph of laser alloyed layers revealing the influ-

ence of repetitive scanning: (a) single scan, (b) two-fold scan, and (c) four-fold scan
(Thawari et al., 2003)
106
3.4 Laser Surface Cladding
Laser cladding for surface modification involves the deposition of a new layer of
material on a substrate by laser fusion of blown powders or pre-placed powder coat-
ings or wire. This process is equally referred to as laser metal deposition (LMD) if
the extrinsic materials being injected are solely metals (Mahamood et al., 2014).
Multiple layers can be deposited to form shapes with complex geometry (Zhong and
Liu, 2010; Tian et al., 2005; Weng et al., 2014)). Defocused or rastered beam laser
beam is used to deliver laser energy for the melting of the cladding material which
upon solidification forms strong metallurgical bond with the substrate. It is a widely
used process for improving the surface and near-surface properties of a new metal
part or resurfacing a worn used component thus permitting restoration of original
dimension through machining (Gabler, 2014). Laser cladded materials are noted for
improved wear, corrosion, oxidation, erosion and fatigue properties but do exhibit
high residual stress due to the rapid cooling associated with the process (Tian et
al., 2005). Laser cladding, compared to other cladding techniques such as thermal
spray and arc welding, provides high deposition rates, low dilution of the substrate,
high cooling rates and low distortion. The process is applicable to both similar
and dissimilar material including those that are difficult to clad via conventional
processes. Figure 7 is the schematic illustration of laser cladding process by filling
powder materials from a synchronous feeding system, through powder preplace-
ment method and wire feeding. The successful deposition of clad materials onto
the substrate by laser process is influenced by laser power (specifically the energy
density), beam size, laser scanning rate or specimen motion velocity. Precise choice
of the melting energy density is critical to avoid excessive dilution. But the most
critical parameter is the laser scanning velocity because this determines the dwell
time of the laser beam on the molten pool which influence the growing process of
the crystals (Emamian et al., 2011; Qian et al., 1997). Therefore, it is necessary to
ensure a good control of the process parameters in order to achieve desired proper-
ties in laser cladding process. In assuring this, extensive investigations have been
conducted on the effect of laser cladding process parameters on the microstructure
and properties of coatings of different materials (Shah et al., 2014; Mahamood et
al., 2013; Emamian et al., 2011; Luo et al., 2011; Thawari et al., 2003; Kwok et
al., 2000). Most of these investigations established that laser parameters played
significant roles in the evolving microstructure, dilution rates and the properties of
the various laser cladded substrates.
Other than laser processing parameters, the quality of the coating material
equally influence the success or otherwise of the cladding process. Broadly, the
physicochemical properties of both the coating and substrate materials should be
considered; and through this, compatible coating materials would be selected to
107
Figure 7. Schematic illustration of common laser cladding processes: (a) powder

synchronous feeding system, (b) powder preplacement method, and (c) wire-feeding
method (Mahamood et al., 2013; Gabler, 2014)
achieve coatings of desired service conditions. The extensive range of experiments

and analysis available on laser cladding has enabled a deeper understanding of
microstructure-composition-synthesis-processing relationships resulting in optimi-
zation of both the process parameters and the material system. The cladding mate-
rials range from single material to multiple material systems comprising single or
multiple metal alloys (Majumdar et al., 2009; Meng et al., 2005), single or multiple
ceramics (Sun and Lei, 2007; Lin et al., 2012; Selamat et al., 2003) or combination
of ceramics and metal alloys as metal matrix composite (Ochonogor et al., 2012;
Zhang et al., 2010). The challenge with single or multiple ceramic cladding, how-
ever, is the presence of defects particularly at certain location between the reinforced
phase and the matrix. Furthermore, the dispersion of the ceramics in the melt may
be poor most especially in coatings formed through the preplaced technique. These
challenges have been attributed to the brittle nature of ceramics (Weng et al, 2014).
108
Defects in cladding coatings have been minimized through the addition of self-
fluxing elements like boron and silicon which prevents the development of pores
and entrapment of inclusions (Tobar et al., 2006; Chen et al, 2005). The injection
of some rare earth elements or their oxides during laser cladding has also been
widely reported in the literature to refine the microstructure of surface coatings
(Stanford et al., 2008; Choi et al., 2004). The rare earth elements are able to ac-
complish this because they readily accumulate on the interface crystalline phases
being surface active elements and reduce the critical nucleation energy. They also
cause a drag on the movement of the grain boundaries. This is further aided by the
unmelted rare earth oxides acting as nuclei to promote nucleation rate (Weng et al.,
2014). The extent of research in laser surface cladding suggests that there are still
opportunities for further exploration of multiple material cladding.
3.5 Effect and Challenges of Laser Surface

Modification on Substrate Properties
The modification of substrate chemistry, microstructure and composition by laser

irradiation bears correlation to the properties of the substrate. Extensive research
in this area reviewed in detail by Weng et al. (2014), Baker (2010) and Tian et al.
(2005) identified the properties affected by laser irradiation to include hardness and
residual stress, surface roughness, wear, corrosion, oxidation and erosion, fatigue and
biocompatibility. The hardness of laser modified surface increased manifolds rela-
tive to the untreated substrate due to the formation of hard dendritic microstructure,
quasispeherical particles or needles in a solid solution strengthened matrix. The hard-
ness (Hv) is controlled by the volume fraction of the hard precipitated force which
is related to the details of the secondary arm spacing. The secondary arm spacing
is itself controlled by the cooling rate. Hardness values in the range 1600-2000Hv
have been reported in laser modified surface. Strongly related to the hardness value
is the residual stress characteristics in surface modified layer which do alternate
between tensile (+ value) and compressive (-ve value) across the modified layer
track. The residual stress is either measured parallel to the laser tack or perpendicu-
larly to it. However, the variation in the residual stress value is more pronounced in
the direction parallel to the laser track than in the perpendicular direction (Baker,
2010). The residual stress is equally influenced by the number of tracks deposited
on the surface modified layer with multiple tracks inducing greater residual stress
than single laser track which probably accounts for the greater tendency to crack in
multiple tracks than in single track (Tian et al., 2005).
Laser irradiation of surfaces induces rippling effect due to the rapid heating and
cooling associated with the process. The characteristics of the rippling are used
to establish the surface finish in terms of roughness and waviness. The level of
109
surface roughness obtained from a laser surface modification process depends on

laser processing parameters, powder concentration and size, details of the carrier
gas flow, track overlap ratio and the environment. The waviness associated with
surface roughness is a function of the conventional flow of the melt surface which
is equally influenced by the track overlap ratio. Generally, laser surface modifica-
tion produces a smoother surface (Ra <10μm) than the as-ground condition or shot
peening, but powder preplacement technique generally produce a poor quality surface
finish (Baker, 2010). The process equally reduces the coefficient of friction and
lowers the tendency for materials transfer and adhesive wear resulting in improved
wear resistance. The use of ceramic materials and some other oxide materials such
as SiC(p) and ZrO2 has resulted in improved erosion and oxidation resistances in
treated material particularly titanium and titanium alloys (Baker, 2010; Tian et al.,
2005). Laser deposited titanium aluminide intermetallic particles also improved the
cavitation resistance in Ti6Al4V alloy (Cárcel et al., 2014). Laser deposited layer
comprising TiAl3 +TiAl on commercially pure titanium alloy provided excellent
oxidation resistance at 1000oC. Similarly, laser synthesised TiN/B/Si/Ni complex
coating on titanium alloys was found to be about four times more oxidation resis-
tant than the untreated alloy after 70hrs at 750ºC (Baker, 2010). Laser cladding of
hydroxyapatite with some metallic alloys such as Ti6Al4V (Tlotleng et al., 2014),
NiTi (Yang et al., 2013), SS316L (Khandelwal et al., 2013) produced excellent
combination biocompatibility and mechanical properties with strong bonding to
the substrate. In the case of the titanium alloy, this was attributed to the formation
of calcium titanates and titanium phosphides at the interface (Weng et al., 2014).
In spite of the tremendous success achieved with laser irradiation for surface
modification and structural property improvement; it, notwithstanding, has some
challenges. These challenges include high dilution, existence of cracks and pores
particularly in surface modified layer deposited with coating materials exhibiting
wide disparity in physicochemical properties (Weng et al., 2014). This is the situ-
ation in the cladding of metal substrate with ceramic coating materials. The very
high cooling rate associated with laser irradiation is responsible for the existence of
cracks in laser surface modification. This is due to the high level of residual stress
resulting from the solidification strain. Pores are facilitated by the presence of residual
shielding gas or the gas in-situ during laser processing which has not enough time
to escape from the molten pool. Literature suggests that ensuring physicochemical
compatibility between coating and substrate materials can minimize the problem
of cracking. Furthermore, it is necessary to use appropriate combination of process
parameters; and this is best achieved through screening experimentation. Then
preheating of substrate material reduces the cooling rate and this in turn relaxes the
residual stress which assists in reducing the tendency to cracking (Weng et al., 2014).
Mridha and Baker (1994) reported that laser surface alloying especially nitriding in
110
a dilute environment (nitrogen-argon, nitrogen-helium mixed gases) produces crack

free surface modified layer.
There is also the difficulty in achieving reproducibility of modified layer in laser
surface modification which is a common problem in metal-ceramic coating system
(Tian et al., 2005). Surface modification for biocompatibility using hydroxyapatite
presents its own challenge in terms of changes in the constituents, lack of adequate
density and poor bonding strength between the coatings and substrate. But, Katto
et al. (2002) resolved this challenge by using a hybrid laser ablation-assisted laser
deposition method. The laser ablation was used to improve the adhesion between the
coatings and the substrate by creating a buffer interlayer which significantly improved
the crystalline structure and mechanical characteristics of the coating material.
4. EMERGING TRENDS IN LASER SURFACE

MODIFICATION RESEARCH
Though, laser surface modification has been extended to wide areas as indicated
in Figure 8 to improve both the surface and sub-surface properties of materials yet
researchers are continually exploring ways to further expand its horizon while ad-
dressing the inherent challenges associated with the process. Therefore, emerging
research efforts in laser surface modification are focused on four broad areas and these
are: formation of functionally graded material coating, development of amorphous
coating, optimization of process parameters and integration of other techniques to
laser surface modification with a view to addressing many in-process challenges in
stand-alone conventional laser surface modification process.
The existence of a sharp distinct interface between the substrate and the coating
has severally been identified as major point of weakness due mainly to different
thermal expansion coefficient which set up residual stresses at the interface ulti-
mately resulting in cracking (Pei and De Hosson, 2000). Recent studies (Weng et
al, 2014; Sobczak and Drenchev, 2013) have shown that functionally graded coat-
ings produced by a one-step laser process provided a feasible solution for avoiding
the interfacial problems that are common in laser coatings. This provides a gradual
change in composition, microstructure and properties rather than the sudden change
in single layer coating. The research interests in this area include evaluating mate-
rial mix suitable for gradient coating, the interplay of process parameters and mate-
rial property. Also, there is the attraction to extend the gradient coating to multiple
material with capacity for self-lubricating property. There are equally research
openings in the modelling and fracture mechanics of these functionally graded
coatings.
111
Figure 8. Application window for laser surface modification technique (Vora and
Dahotre, 2013)
Laser amorphous cladding coating has recently been identified for improving
both wear and physicochemical properties due to the glassy structure of the coatings.
Such coatings have been successfully formed on some steels such as Ni–Fe–B–Si–
Nb, Fe–Co–B–Si–Nb, Fe–Cr– Mo–Y–B–C amorphous phases (Weng et al., 2014).
Recently, research is equally being focused on amorphous/nanocrystalline phases in
laser cladding of Fe3Al–B4C–TiN mixed powders on TA2 alloy substrate (Li et al.,
2013). There is therefore research motivation for laser amorphous cladding coating
of some commonly used biomedical materials like titanium alloys and stainless
steels for improved surface properties.
Laser surface modification is influenced by many factors including laser power,
beam scanning speed and size, shielding environment overlap between successive
laser tracks, materials thermal properties, heat transfer phenomena, and convection-
induced mixing in the molten pool such that experimental characterization alone
cannot provide full elucidation of the process. Computational modelling via numeri-
cal simulation based on finite element modelling or computational fluid dynamics
is being investigated to obtain better information on the dynamics of the process
(Lei et al., 2012; Earl et al., 2015). Furthermore, optimization of the combination
of process parameters are being attempted using various statistical schemes (Vora
112
and Dahotre, 2013); and this exploration is expected to continue into the nearest
future because it offers potential for establishing optimum range of parameters for
defect free surface modification process. Optimum range of parameters established
through such statistical optimization has the incentive of minimizing wastage and
reducing cost in experimentation.
Weng et al. (2014) identified another emerging research area in laser surface
modification in which laser irradiation is assisted with some other techniques such
as electromagnetic agitation or vibration to improve the microstructure and proper-
ties by facilitating diffusion and other reactions in the molten state. Electromagnetic
excitation can also act as a source of heating which is beneficial in improving wet-
tability between metals and ceramics while vibration can assist in reducing residual
stress (Liu et al., 2012; Wu, 2000). In another area, laser melting is being combined
with cold spray technology to develop a hybrid system known as laser assisted
cold spray (LACS) technology for materials’ deposition to improve both adhesion
and cohesion strength than possible with conventional thermal spray technology
(Tlotleng et al., 2014). LACS was developed to widen the scope of materials that
can be successfully deposited through cold spray technology and at the same time
eliminating the need for gas heating since this would be provided by the laser beam.
Though, the technology is new but it has been successfully applied for the deposition
of hydroxyapatite coating on titanium alloy for biomedical application (Tlotleng et
al., 2014). It has equally been applied for the deposition of aluminum cold-sprayed
coatings substrates onto aluminum alloy substrates and Ni-20Cr coatings onto In-
conel718 substrates (Christoulis et al., 2012). Research direction currently and in
the near future would be focused on investigating the suitability of the process for
the deposition of hard facing materials and composite coatings which are currently
processed via laser cladding. The process is equally being explored for the deposi-
tion on thin sections which is difficult with current processes due to likelihood of
distortion arising from high solidification shrinkage.
5. CONCLUSION
Laser beam because of its unique characteristics is widely used in surface modification
of different materials for improved functionalities. Though it is available in various
classes yet each class do have specific area(s) where it is appropriately suited based
mainly on the wavelength, the available power and the profile. For laser surface
modification, both the continuous and pulse waves are applicable. Pulsed laser beam
is mainly used for surface modification without injection of external elements like
laser ablation, laser melting or remelting, whereas, the continuous wave whether CO2
or, Nd:YAG or fibre based finds application in laser surface alloying and cladding.
113
The success of laser surface modification is influenced by the combination of pro-

cess parameters and material characteristics. In spite of the success achieved in laser
surface modification, the process has some challenges which deserve consideration.
In the face of this, there are new areas of research in laser surface modification with
a view to achieving better understanding of the process. These new areas include
development of gradient coating, amorphous coating, computational simulation and
optimization and hybrid laser surface modification process.
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121
Chapter 6
Laser Surface Processing
for Tailoring of Properties
by Optimization of
Microstructure
Jyotsna Dutta Majumdar
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India
Andreas Weisheit
Fraunhofer-Institut für Lasertechnik ILT, Germany
I. Manna
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India & Indian Institute of Technology
Kanpur, India
ABSTRACT
Laser surface processing involves modification of surface microstructure and/or
composition of the near surface region of a component using a high power laser
beam. The advantages of laser surface processing over conventional equilibrium
surface processing include rapid processing rate, retention of non-equilibrium
microstructure, alloying in liquid state and development of processed zone with
superior properties as compared to the same developed by equilibrium processing
route. Microstructure plays an important role to control the final properties of the
tailored component. In the present contribution, with a brief introduction to laser,
and its application, the microstructures developed under optimum conditions by
different laser surface processing will be discussed with the corresponding improve-
ment in properties. Finally, a brief review of the future scope of research in laser
surface processing will be presented.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-0329-3.ch006
Laser Surface Processing for Tailoring of Properties by Optimization of Microstructure
1. INTRODUCTION
Laser, the acronym of Light Amplification for Stimulated Emission of Radia-

tion (LASER), is a coherent source of light and energy (Steen, 2003). Due to the
unique advantages of its ability to deliver a high power density within a very short
interaction time, a rapid processing speed, environment friendliness and ability to
deliver a clean processed zone it has wide range of application in materials science
and materials processing (Steen, 2003; Dutta Majumdar & Manna, 2011). In the
past, laser processing has successfully been applied to tailor the surface or bulk
processing of component (Steen, 2003). The application of laser in bulk materials
processing are machining, welding, direct laser metal deposition, and forming (Steen,
2003; Dutta Majumdar & Manna, 2011). On the other hand, application of laser
in surface processing includes modification of microstructure and/or composition
of the near surface region of a component using laser as a source of heat. In the
past, laser surface processing has been successfully applied for improving wear,
corrosion and oxidation resistance of magnesium and its alloys, titanium, steel and
aluminium by laser surface melting, laser surface alloying, laser surface cladding,
laser surface texturing and by pulsed laser deposition (Majumdar & Manna, 20112).
In all the treatments, it has been observed that laser parameters play important role
to ensure the formation of defect free surface with the desired microstructure for
tailoring its properties (Steen, 2003; Majumdar & Manna, 2011; Dutta Majumdar
& Manna, 2013; Molian and Sudarshan, 1989; Draper and Poate, 1985). In this
regard, it is also relevant to mention that, microstructure controls the mechanical,
chemical and thermal properties developed in the processed zone. Hence, the key
to optimization of process parameters lies on engineering of the microstructures
for the desired application.
In the present contribution, a detailed discussion on the microstructures developed
in different laser surface processing and the ways to control it will be discussed in
details. The contribution has been divided into 5 sections; a brief introduction to
lasers and its application, microstructures developed for different laser surface pro-
cessing and associated improvement in properties will be discussed. Finally, a brief
review of the future scope of research in laser surface processing will be presented.
1.1 Laser and its Application in Materials Processing
The unique characteristics of laser which distinguishes itself from the other source
of light include (a) coherency, (b) monochromaticity and (c) directionality. The
monochromatic radiation, refers to the radiation with single wavelength (Steen,
2003; Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 2011). Laser beam irradiates light within a
very narrow band of wavelengths. Due to its monochromaticity, laser beam may
122
be focused to a very small spot, which may be used in materials processing. The
history of development of laser goes back in 1916 when Einstein observed the
existence of stimulated emission (Lamb and Retherford, 1947). However, the first
light-emitting maser–which quickly became known as the laser–was constructed
in 1960 (Maiman, 1960). The history of year-wise development of laser has been
discussed elsewhere (Hecht and Teresi, 1998). The list of different lasers invented
till date for materials processing application are summarized in Table1 (Steen, 2003;
Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 2011).
1.2 Generation of Laser Beam
Figure 1 shows the schematic of laser generation process (Steen, 2003; Dutta Ma-
jumdar and Manna, 2011; Dutta Majumdar, 2000). The laser generation unit con-
sists of three main components like, a gain medium, which generates laser light, a
device for exciting the gain medium and an optical delivery/feedback system. The
gain medium is usually excited by application of energy from an external source;
which is called pumping. The laser chamber which contains gain medium is called
cavity which consists of a fully reflecting mirror at one end and a partially reflecting
mirror in the other end. The cavity material selection is based on the wavelength
of the laser which contains the gain medium. Additional accessories are cooling
the mirrors, guiding the beam and manipulating the target which is mandatory to
facilitate material processing. Due to pumping, an electromagnetic wave is generated
inside the laser cavity at the natural (resonant) frequency of the atoms or molecules
of the material that fills the cavity. The waves get reflected back and forth between
Table 1 Commercially available lasers and their industrial applications
Laser Discovery Commercia- Wavelength Application

lization
Ruby 1960 1963 694.3 nm Metrology, medical applications,
inorganic material processing
Diode 1962 1965 0.78 to 1.65 Semiconductor processing, bio-
μm medical applications, welding
Carbon Dioxide 1964 1966 10.6 μm Material processing – cutting/joining,
atomic fusion,
Nd-YAG 1964 1966 1.064 μm Material processing, joining, analytical
technique
Excimer 1975 1976 193-353 nm Medical application, material
processing, coloring,
Free electron laser 1971 1997 100 nm Medical surgery, surface modification
of polymer,
123
Figure 1. Schematic showing the basic components of a laser

Arnold, Aziz, Schwarz, Herlach, 1999; Baeuerle, 2000; Callister & Rethwisch, 2013
the mirrors and reinforce each other in phase at the natural frequency of the cavity
substance. Electromagnetic waves at this resonant frequency emerge from the end
of the cavity having the partially-reflective mirror. The output may appear as a
continuous or pulsed beam (Steen, 2003). The detailed physics and mechanism of
generation of laser beam are discussed in elsewhere (Steen, 2003; Dutta Majumdar
and Manna, 2011; Dutta Majumdar, 2000).
1.3 Laser-Matter Interactions
When laser light irradiates the surface of a material, a part of it is reflected from
the surface based on the reflectivity (R) of the material to the laser beam and rest
is transmitted into the material. Reflectivity of a given material will depend on the
frequency of the light source, temperature of the material surface and its phase. The
typical reflectivity of metal in the near ultra violet (UV) and visible spectral range
are between 0.4 and 0.95 (Baeuerle, 2000). On the other hand, the reflectivity is
between 0.9 and 0.99 in the infra-red (IR) wavelength range (Baeuerle, 2000). On
the other hand, the reflectivity of silicon and nickel increase upon melting however,
only by a factor of about 2 for silicon and a few percentage in nickel, respectively
(Toulemonde et. al., 1985; Arnold et. al., 1999). The absorbed light decays with
depth at a rate determined by the material’s absorption coefficient. In general,
the absorption coefficient, α is a function of wavelength and temperature, but for
constant α, intensity, I0 decays exponentially with depth, z (Iz) according to the
Beer–Lambert law:
I (z) = I0e-az (i)
Where, I0 is the intensity of light on the surface after considering reflection loss.
The magnitude of the gradient of intensity with depth yields the volumetric energy
deposition rate as a function of depth which is proportional to I0e-αz. In this regard,
124
it is relevant to note that the standard term used to define the optical penetration
or absorption depth (d) is the depth at which the intensity of the transmitted light
drops to 1/e of its initial value at the interface, d = 1/α. The optical absorption
depth for metals and semiconductors vary with the wavelength of laser and has been
discussed elsewhere (Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 2011). Some materials such as
glasses exhibit strong non-linearities in their index of refraction leading to a num-
ber of interesting effects such as self-focusing, defocusing, or soliton propagation
(Slusher and Eggleton, 2004; Ghofraniha et. al., 2007). For continuous wave (CW)
or pulsed mode laser with nanosecond duration laser pulses, it is typically assumed
that most of the absorption is due to single photon interactions. However, for pico-
second (ps) and femtosecond (fs) lasers, the extremely high instantaneous intensity
enables phenomena such as optical breakdown and multiphoton absorption which
can significantly decrease absorption depths (Staudt et. al., 1998).
The laser used and its fluence play important role to determine the behavior of
the materials during laser processing. When the absorbed laser energy is directly
transformed into heat, the process is denoted as photo-thermal which is observed
when the laser induced excitation rates are slower than the thermalization time. In
this case, the response of material will be a function of the local heating and cool-
ing rates, maximum temperatures reached, and temperature gradients, all of which
can be determined from the solution to the heat equation for the given irradiation
conditions. Because material heating rates can be so extreme, reaching as high as 109
K/s for nanosecond (ns) pulses and even higher for femtosecond lasers, significant
changes to the material can occur.
Laser heating with fluences below the threshold of melting can activate a variety
of temperature dependent processes within the solid material like phase transfor-
mation, the reorganization of the crystal structure (Hick, 1983), and sintering of
porous materials (Bourell et. al., 1992). The large temperature gradients associated
with localized laser heating can lead to rapid self-quenching of the material, trap-
ping in highly non-equilibrium structures and generation of large thermal stresses,
thermo-elastic excitation of acoustic waves leading to several phenomena like work
hardening, or cracking (Wang and Xu, 2001).
Fluence above the threshold of melting can lead to the formation of transient
pools of molten material on the surface. Due to melting, there will be a much
higher atomic mobility and solubility than in the solid phase, resulting in material
homogenization. In addition, high self-quenching rates with solidification front
velocities up to several m/s can be achieved by rapid dissipation of heat into the
cooler surrounding bulk material. Such rapid quenching can freeze-in defects and
supersaturated solutes as well as form metastable material phases. On the other
hand, a slow re-solidification rate will cause grain coarsening by recrystallization of
larger grains than the original material. If the temperature is far above the melting
125
temperature, hydrodynamic motion can reshape and redistribute material. A radial

temperature gradients (to a value of 102 to 104 K/mm) may cause convective mass
flows to circulate material (Ghofraniha et. al., 2007). For most materials, the liquid’s
surface tension decreases with increasing temperature and the liquid is pulled from
the hotter to the cooler regions which is termed as Marangoni effect (Staudt et. al.,
1998). Convective and thermocapillary forces can cause significant deformations
that are frozen-in during solidification leading to formation of different shapes such
as rimmed indentations, sombrero shaped craters, and even nanometer scale tips
(Mori and Ando, 1989; Chichkov et. al., 1996).
1.4 Microstructure Development during Solidification
The morphology of the microstructure after solidification will depend on the consti-
tutional solidification ahead of the solidification front. The solidification front may
proceed as either a stable planar front or as an unstable front leading to dendrites
or cells. Constitutional super-cooling may be thermal constitutional super-cooling
or compositional constitutional super-cooling (Flemings, 1974). Figure 2 shows
Figure 2. Constitutional supercooling in alloy solidification, (a) phase diagram,

(b) solute enriched layer in front of a liquid-solid interface, (c) formation of stable
interface and (d) unstable interface
126
the schematic view of constitutional super-cooling process in alloy solidification;

(a) phase diagram, (b) solute enriched layer in front of a liquid-solid interface, (c)
formation of stable interface and (d) unstable interface (Flemmings, 1974). When
the thermal gradient is less steeper than the melting point gradient, partition effects
take place at the solidification front giving rise to composition variation in this re-
gion leading to a higher temperature zone in the liquidus than the actual temperature
and hence, a super-cooled zone ahead of the solidification front (Flemings, 1974).
It may be derived that, there is no constitutional super-cooling if
G m C * (1 − k )
≥− L S (1.1)
R kDL
where, G is the thermal gradient of the liquid ahead of the solid-liquid interface, R is
the solidification velocity, mL is the slope of the liquidus, DL is the diffusivity through
the liquid, k is the partition coefficient and Cs is the composition in equilibrium
with solidus composition. If the ratio is larger than the threshold, the stable planer
front solidification will occur. Figure 3 shows the microstructural morphology as a
function of solidification rate and thermal gradient. It also illustrates the Equation
(1.1) and introduces the concept of “absolute stability” when the solidification rate,
R, is so large that there is insufficient time for diffusion (Flemings, 1974). On the
other hand, the degree of fine-ness of the microstructure will depend on the cooling
rate. Higher the cooling rate finer is the morphology. For a very high cooing rate
the microstructure might get unstable near to the solid – liquid interface.
1.5 Laser in Materials Processing
Laser has a wide scope of application in materials processing. Typical applications

of lasers in materials processing include (a) fabrication or shaping of components
like cutting, bending, drilling, and welding, (b) development of components with
tailored properties like laser assisted 3-D manufacturing, (c) development of graded
components with tailored properties by laser assisted 3-D manufacturing, and (d)
surface tailoring by laser surface engineering (Majumdar and Manna, 2011; Dutta
Majumdar and Manna, 2013). The classifications of laser material processing tech-
niques are summarized in Figure 4 (Majumdar and Manna, 2011). From the heat
requirement point of view, the processes are divided into three major classes, i.e.
the process involving only heating (without melting), melting (without vaporizing)
and vaporising. The processes which require heating are transformation hardening,
bending, paint stripping and stereolithography and require low power density. Surface
127
Figure 3. Mapping of microstructural morphology as a function of solidification

rate and thermal gradient
melting, welding, cladding, glazing, and reclamation involve melting and require
a higher power density. Cutting, drilling, marking, cleaning and shock hardening
demand removal of materials as vapor, hence, need delivery of a high power density
to ensure evaporation (see Figure 4).
1.6. Laser in Surface Processing
Laser, as a source of heat may be used for surface processing of materials due to its
exponentially decaying energy distribution with depth. Figure 5 shows the processing
regime of laser surface processing (Majumdar and Manna, 2011; Dutta Majumdar
and Manna, 2013). Surface processing like transformation hardening needs only
heating, however, adequate time should be allowed for the diffusion of dissolved
carbides. Surface processing like alloying, cladding composite surfacing and glazing
require melting. On the other hand, in processing like surface texturing, and shock
hardening, a very high density short duration laser irradiates the surface to cause
materials removal, plasma formation or shock wave generation and hence, needs
128
Figure 4. Classification of Laser Materials Processing
evaporation of materials from the surface. Laser surface processing may broadly be
classified into four categories, surface processing which involves (a) microstructural
modification of the surface (hardening, remelting, shocking, and annealing), (b) both
microstructural as well as compositional modification of the near-surface region
(alloying, cladding, etc.), (c) removal of surface layer (texturing, paint stripping,
surface cleaning) and (d) depositing another layer (pulsed laser deposition, laser
assisted chemical vapor deposition) on the surface (Majumdar and Manna, 2011).
The advantages of laser surface processing over conventional processing include a
faster processing speed; rapid heating/cooling rate (104-1011 K/s), a very high thermal
gradient (106-108 K/m) and ultra-rapid solidification velocity (1-30 m/s) (Majumdar
and Manna, 2011; Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 2013). These extreme processing
conditions develop a metastable microstructure and composition in the near surface
region with large extension of solid solubility. Though, laser surface processing is
having several advantages as stated above, a careful optimization of process parameters
is essential to ensure the development of a defect free surface microstructure with
improved properties. In the present contribution, the role of different laser surface
processing routes in tailoring the surface properties and the microstructures under
optimum process parameters will be discussed in details (Figure 5).
129
Figure 5. Schematic showing the different laser surface processing regime mapped
against power density and interaction time. The melting and boiling temperatures
are represented by the diagonal lines
2. LASER TRANSFORMATION HARDENING
Laser transformation hardening is a process of development of a hard and wear

resistance surface on medium to high carbon steel and cast iron by heating it above
the austenitizing temperature and subsequently, quenching it to develop martensite
in the microstructure (Callister and Rethwisch, 2013). Economy in time/energy con-
sumption, precise control over the depth of hardening, minimum heat affected zone,
cleanliness and ability to apply the technology to finished and semi-finished products
are several advantages of laser surface hardening over conventional surface harden-
ing (Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 2013). Laser surface hardening has successfully
been applied to harden the surface layers of turbine blades, crankshafts and tractor
engine components (Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 2013; Molian and Sudarshan,
1989). Table 2 shows the comparison between laser transformation hardening with
the other competitive techniques (Ion, 2002). Laser surface hardening was intro-
duced in 1973 in Industry scale (Miller and Wineman, 1977). A hardness value to
130
Table 2. Comparison of Laser Hardening with Other Competing Hardening Techniques
Output Parameters Techniques Employed

Laser Electron Beam Flame Induction Arc
Maximum depth, mm 1.5 1 10 5 10
Precision High High Low Medium Low
Distortion Negligible Negligible High Medium Medium
Quenchant required No No Yes Yes Yes
Environmental impact Low Low Medium Low Medium
a maximum of 1000 VHN has been reported up to a depth of 1.5 mm depending on

the applied materials without causing the surface melting to occur.
During austenitization, the steel is heated at a temperature of 50 0C above the
austenitizing temperature and sufficient time should be allowed for the dissolution
of carbides and its homogenization. On rapid heating, dissolution of cementite oc-
curs by the diffusion of carbon from the carbide zone towards the surrounding
ferrites and a short-distance diffusion for its transformation from low carbon aus-
tenite to high carbon austenite. Figure 1 shows the schematic dissolution of carbides
in pearlite during heating to transform into austenite (Callister and Rethwisch, 2013).
The transformation of the pearlite is thought to proceed by diffusion from the ce-
mentite plates into the ferrite plates, possibly starting from the edge of a pearlite
colony (Figure 6). This time-dependent process does not take long but heating much
above the austenitising temperature, Ac1, is essential to allow it to proceed to any
extent during laser treatment. The superheat, and the extent of the diffusion process,
is slightly influenced by the prior size of the pearlite colonies. These colonies, on
transformation, become austenite having 0.8% carbon. Carbon diffuses down the
concentration gradient. The ferrite regions may also have transformed to the face
centred cubic structure of austenite. On rapid cooling, these regions of austenite
which have more than a certain amount of carbon (e.g., 0.05%) will quench to
martensite. The % of austenite to be transformed into ferrite will depend on the
cooling rate. If the cooling rate is sufficiently fast, usually there is a direct transfor-
mation from austenite to martensite. The microhardness of the transformation
hardened region will depend on the carbon content and % martensite transformed
from austenite (cf. Figure 7) (Callister and Rethwisch, 2013). However, retained
austenite may be found in the microstructure if the carbon content is above a certain
value (more than 1.0%). The required rate of cooling is indicated by constant cool-
ing curves. In laser transformation hardening the cooling rate usually exceeds 1,000
○
C s−1, which means that most steels will self-quench to martensite not bainite or
pearlite. The process parameters which play important role in determining the mi-
131
crostructure of the laser transformation hardened product include (a) power den-
sity of laser, (b) interaction time between laser and matter, (c) reflectivity of the
surface, (d) the composition of the steel. The optimization of microstructure for a
given steel/alloy system should ensure sufficient time for the diffusion to occur
without causing melting of the surface and powder density should be just adequate
to cause austenitization. The surface hardening of high carbon or high carbon alloy
steel is difficult to achieve due to the difficulty in processing the surface for a long
time, which needs to be undertaken for a high carbon or a high carbon low alloy
steel.
Usually, high power continuous wave or pulsed wave laser with sufficiently long
pulse duration is applied for laser transformation hardening. However, short pulse
duration laser with repetitive application of pulses was also observed to cause hard-
ening of the surface, where, the mechanism of austenite to martensite phase trans-
formation is due to the combined influence of quenching and stress generated due
to introduction of shock wave. Figures 8 (a-c) show the scanning electron micro-
graphs of (a) cross section of femtosecond laser irradiated (with a 100 μJ and 300
Figure 6. Schematic showing the carbide dissolution process for the transformation
of pearlite to cementite
132
Figure 7. Schematic variation of microhardness as a function of carbon content in

transformation hardened sample
fs femtosecond laser) with an energy of 100 mJ for 3 numbers of shots and (b,c) a
high magnification view of the same. From Figure 8b, it may be noted that there is
formation of partially ablated zone containing martensite followed by stressed region
in the sub-surface due to generation of shock wave during femtosecond-matter in-
teraction. In this regard, it is relevant to note that the stressed zone does not show
any signature of micro cracks. Because of generation of high stress in the subsurface
region, there was a significant refinement of microstructure. The average microhard-
ness of the laser treated surface was increased to 350 VHN as compared to 240
VHN of the as-received substrate with a significantly increased wear resistance
property as compared to as-received substrate (Dutta Majumdar et. al., 2016)
3. GRAIN REFINEMENT AND SOLUTE SUPER-SATURATION BY

LASER SURFACE MELTING
The grain refinement is one of the most effective strengthening mechanism, for
improving mechanical properties without loss in ductility (Callister and Rethwisch,
2013). Laser surface processing has the potential to melt the near surface region of
133
Figure 8. Scanning electron microscope of cross section of (a) femtosecond laser

process 0.4% C steel lased with energy of 100 mJ with 3 numbers of shots and high
magnification view of (b) zone 1 (c) zone 2 of (a)
134
the substrate by using the high power laser as a heat source to cause surface micro-
structural homogenization and refinement to improve wear, and aqueous corrosion
resistance of metals and alloys. In the past, laser surface melting has been successfully
applied for the refinement of surface microstructure and homogenization of composi-
tion to improve wear and corrosion resistance of steel, aluminium and magnesium
alloys (Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 2014). The important characteristics of laser
surface melting include (a) formation of near homogeneous refined microstructure
in alloys due to moderate to rapid solidification rates and a high cooling rate, (b)
negligible heat affected zone and hence, negligible distortion of the substrate, which
makes it applicable in near thermally sensitive materials; (c) flexibility in processing
and scope of automation; (d) control of process parameters can also cause reducing
surface roughness and hence, polishing.
Dutta Majumdar et al. (Dutta Majumdar et. al., 2010; Dutta Majumdar et. al.,
2010) studied the effect of laser assisted grain refinement of AISI 52100 steel on
its microstructure, wear and corrosion behaviors. During the process, AISI 52100
steel of dimension: 20 mm× 20 mm× 5 mm was sand blasted and subjected to laser
surface melting using a 2 kW continuous wave (CW) CO2 laser with a circular beam
(of beam diameter of 3 mm) using argon and nitrogen as shrouding gas (at a gas
flow rate of 5 l/min), respectively (Dutta Majumdar et. al., 2010). The specimens
were mounted on a CNC controlled X–Y stage which was moved at a speed of 1–5
m/min. The sample holder was continuously cooled with water to avoid excessive
heating of the substrate.
Figures 9 (a, b) show the scanning electron micrographs of the laser surface
melted AISI 52100 steel showing (a) top surface and (b) cross section laser melted
in Ar and N2 shrouding atmosphere processed under optimum parameters (with a
power of 2 kW and at a scan speed of 1 m/min). Surface melting in Ar atmosphere
developed a uniform and homogeneous microstructure consisting of lamellae of
ferrite and very fine carbides (predominantly iron carbides and only a few chro-
mium carbides). Application of optimum process parameters is however, important
to ensure complete dissolution of the carbides. Surface melting in N2 atmosphere
refines the microstructure with the presence of finely dispersed nitrides inside
grains (labeled as 1) and also presence of thin nitride rich layer at the grain bound-
ary region (labeled as 2). The thickness of the surface layer was found to vary from
2 μm to 25 μm depending on the applied laser parameter. Furthermore, the area
fraction of nitrides was maximum at the near surface region and decreased with the
depth from the surface and varied with laser scanning speed. Presence of dispersed
nitrides along grain boundary region is attributed to diffusion of nitrogen via grain
boundary. A detailed phase analysis of the top surface of laser surface melted AISI
52100 ball bearing steel was undertaken to identify the phase distribution in the
melt zone. Figure 10 shows the X-ray diffraction profiles of the as-received (plot 1),
135
laser surface melted SAE 52100 steel in Ar environment (plot 2), and in N2 (plot 3),
respectively. The X-ray diffraction profile of the as-received 52100 steel consists of
ferrite, chromium carbide (Cr3C2) and cementite (Fe3C). On the other hand, due to
laser surface melting, there is a decrease in the intensity of ferrite peaks (decrease
in mass fraction of ferrite), a marginal increase in intensity of chromium carbide
(Cr3C2) and cementite (Fe3C) (Dutta Majumdar et. al., 2010). A marginal increase
in carbide content in the microstructure is possibly due to a high rate of cooling
experienced by the austenite during eutectoid transformation. Furthermore, there is
formation of martensite due to rapid quenching associated with laser melting, which
is evident from the peak splitting of ferrite for surface melted steel. Laser surface
melting in N2 environment, on the other hand, develops a larger quantity of iron
nitrides (Fe4N, Fe3N and Fe2N) and chromium nitrides (Cr2N) in the microstructure
along with the presence of α-Fe, martensite, cementite (Fe3C) and chromium carbide
(Cr3C2) phases.
Corrosion behavior of as-received and laser surface melted AISI 52100 steels
was evaluated by potentiodynamic polarization studies in a 3.56 wt.% NaCl solution.
The corrosion parameters in terms of corrosion potential (Ecorr), primary potential
for pit formation (Epit) and corrosion rate are presented in Table 3. A detailed
Figure 9. Scanning electron micrographs of the top surface of laser surface melted
AISI 52100 steel in (a)Ar atmosphere (b) Nitrogen atmosphere lased with a power
of 2 kW and a scan speed of 1 m/min (27)
136
Figure 10. X-ray diffraction profiles of the top surface of as received (plot 1) and
laser surface melted AISI52100 steel lased in Ar atmosphere (plot 2) and nitrogen
atmosphere (plot 3) lased with a power of 2 kW and a scan speed of 1 m/min
Table 3. Summary of corrosion behavior of as-received and laser surface melted

AISI 52100 steel in a 3.56% NaCl solution
System Corrosion Potential Pitting Potential Corrosion Rate (mm/

Ecorr, mV(SCE) Epitt, mV(SCE) year)
AISI 52100 Steel -980 -430 2.6
Laser surface melted in Ar -1010 -270 2.32
Laser surface melted in N2 -980 -330 0.964
analysis of the corrosion data in Table 3 reveals that laser surface melting improves
the corrosion resistance in terms of reduction in corrosion rate (from 2.6 mm/min
to 2.32 mm/min) and enhancement in critical potential for pit formation (Epit) (from
-430 mV(SCE) to -230 mV(SCE)). An inferior corrosion behavior in as-received
SAE 52100 steel is due to the distribution of carbides causing micro-galvanic cell
formation due to presence of phases with different electrochemical behavior. Laser
surface melting in nitrogen atmosphere has improved pitting corrosion resistance
137
in terms of increased critical potential for pit formation, Epp1 (−330 mV (SCE)) as
compared to as-received SAE 52100 steel (−430 mV(SCE)) (Dutta Majumdar et.
al., 2010). In addition, there is a significant improvement in corrosion resistance in
terms of decrease in corrosion rate from 2.6 mm/year (for as-received steel) to 0.964
mm/year due to surface melting in nitrogen atmosphere. The improvement in pitting
corrosion resistance due to surface melting is mainly due to homogenization of
microstructure. A maximum decrease in corrosion rate is observed for the samples
melted in nitrogen atmosphere, possibly due to incorporation of nitrogen in the
matrix. Figure 11 compares the kinetics of wear in terms of depth of wear as a
function of time measured by friction and wear monitor (model no: TR-208M1)
using specimen (both as-received and surface melted SAE 52100 steel) as disc and
hardened steel ball (of 3 mm diameter) as a pin at an applied load of 2 kg and at 15
numbers of revolution. From Figure. 3.3 it may be noted that the depth of wear
increases with time for both as-received and laser surface melted AISI 52100 steel.
A close comparison of different graphs in Figure 3 also reveals that the wear resis-
tance of laser surface melted samples in Ar is marginally improved as compared to
Figure 11. Kinetics of wear in terms of cumulative depth of wear as a function of

time against hardened steel ball using a friction and wear Monitor (Model No.:
TR-208M1) at an applied load of 2 kg and 15 numbers of revolution for as-received
and laser surface melted AISI 52100 steel (lased in Ar atmosphere and nitrogen
atmosphere with a power of 2 kW and a scan speed of 1 m/min)
138
the as-received AISI 52100, which is attributed to improvement in hardness due to

grain refinement and the presence of more volume fraction of carbides and mar-
tensite. A maximum improvement in wear resistance is observed for the samples
melted in % N2 atmosphere, which is attributed to a significant improvement of
microhardness achieved by dispersion of mainly iron and chromium nitrides, pres-
ence of carbides and grain refinement. The wear rate improvement in different
samples also follows the same trend as hardness improvement. Hence, it may be
concluded that wear resistance is proportional to the hardness of the samples.
A poor corrosion resistance of magnesium and its alloys is a frequently encoun-
tered problem for its long term application as aerospace and automotive components
(Cahn et. al., 1996). In the past, several successful attempts have been made to
improve wear and corrosion resistance of magnesium and alloys by laser surface
processing (Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 2013). Laser surface melting is the unique
approach of refinement and homogenization of surface microstructure and compo-
sition of magnesium based alloy system which is beneficial in improving its corro-
sion resistance (Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 2013). Dutta Majumdar et al., (2003)
surface melted MEZ (Zn 0.5%, Mn 0.1%, Zr 0.1%, rare earth elements 2%, Mg
remaining percentage), a Mg alloy (in as-cast condition), using a 10 kW continuous
wave CO2 laser (Model: Rofin Sinar, RS 10000) having a beam diameter of 4 mm
with Ar as shrouding environment (at a flow rate of 6 l/min) with a scan speed
ranging from 100 – 400 mm/min and studied its effect on wear and corrosion resis-
tance properties. Figures 12 (a,b) show the scanning electron micrographs of the
top surface of the as-received MEZ and the same following laser surface melting
with a laser power of 2.5 kW and scan speed of 100 mm/min. A detailed compari-
son between Figure 12(a) with Figure 12(b) shows that there is a significant refine-
Figure 12. Scanning electron micrographs of (a) the top surface of as-received (b)
laser surface melted (lased with a power of 2.5 kW and a scan speed of 100 mm/
min) magnesium based alloy (MEZ), respectively
139
ment of microstructure. The microstructure of as-received MEZ consists of coarse

grains of solute (Zn, Mn) rich Mg with the presence of Mg, Zn, Nd and Ce-rich
precipitates along the grain boundaries (confirmed by energy dispersive spectros-
copy analysis). On the other hand, laser surface melting has produced a crack/defect-
free microstructure with the presence of uniformly dispersed nano-precipitates
throughout the matrix. The refinement of precipitate dimension is attributed to dis-
solution of precipitates in the MEZ alloy and its re-precipitation during rapid so-
lidification. During rapid solidification some solutes were also present in the matrix
in supersaturated form, which is confirmed by energy dispersive spectroscopic
analysis. Figure 13 compares the wear loss of the as-received MEZ and laser surface
melted MEZ lased with a power of 1.5 kW and a scan speed of 200 mm/min (cor-
responding to the conditions where, a maximum hardness was achieved in the melt
zone), as a function of time evaluated by Pin-on-Disc wear testing machine against
a hardened steel disc with a 3 kg applied load and 300 rpm wheel speed (Dutta
Majumdar et. al., 2003). From Figure 13 it may be noted that wear loss is consider-
ably reduced due to laser surface melting due to grain refinement and presence of
very fine precipitates. The corrosion resistance property of as-received and the same
due to laser surface melting was evaluated by potentiodynamic polarization technique
in a 3.56 wt.% NaCl solution using a standard calomel electrode as reference elec-
trode and platinum mesh as a counter electrode. Polarization was carried out
Figure 13. Kinetics of wear, in terms of cumulative wear depth as a function of time
for as-received and laser surface melted (lased with a power of 1.5 kW and a scan
speed of 200 mm/min) by a Pin-on-Disc wear testing machine against hardened
steel disc with a 3 kg applied load and 300 rpm wheel speed
140
from−1900 to−900 mV (SCE) at a scan rate of 0.5 mV/s to construct the Tafel plots
(logarithmic variation of current as a function of voltage) and derive the anodic and
cathodic Tafel constants (Fontana, 1887). The corrosion current (icorr) was determined
from the intersection of these two linear plots, which was converted to corrosion
rate (Fontana, 1887). A detailed analysis shows that the corrosion potential in laser
surface melted sample shifts towards nobler value (-1190 mV(SCE)) as compared
to the as-received MEZ substrate (-1530 mV (SCE)). The corrosion rate due to
laser surface melting is also reduced to almost an order of magnitude (0.133 mpy)
than as received MEZ substrate (6.12 mpy). From the detailed analysis of the post
corroded microstructure, it was concluded that the enhanced corrosion resistance
of laser remelted specimens is attributed to the combined influence of grain refine-
ment, dissolution of intermetallic phases, and retention of alloying elements (rare
earth elements) in extended solid solution. In addition, the grain boundary pre-
cipitates strengthened the oxide film by anchoring the Mg(OH)2 film in laser surface
melted samples. Similar other attempts on corrosion resistance enhancement of
magnesium and its alloys had been discussed elsewhere (Dutta Majumdar, 2013;
Dutta Majumdar et. al., 2003).
Several other examples of application of laser surface melting in surface homog-
enization and microstructural refinement for improving wear, and corrosion resistance
and polishing purpose had been reported elsewhere (Dutta Majumdar and Manna,
2011; Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 2014). In spite of the scope of application of
laser surface melting in improving properties, the process is not widely used in
Industry because (a) the choice of application of the technology in alloy system is
not clear, (b) control of surface roughness following laser surface melting is often
difficult, (c) residual stress generated in the surface melted zone needs to be mini-
mized.
A nano-structured surface can be attained by laser melting using a high energy
density pulsed laser. A high energy density laser may cause surface melting and
evaporation leading to the formation of surface ablated region for topographical
modification which may be termed as surface texturing (Etsion, 2005). Surface
texturing in commonly applied for achieving the desired surface topography and
chemical properties on a nanometer scale, which in turn has an impact on wettability,
protein and cell adhesion (Pfleging et. al., 2011; Pfleging et. al., 2009). In the past,
studies were undertaken to understand the effect of texture dimension and orientation
on cell attachments on to Ti-6Al-4V surfaces (Yu et. al., 2010; Chen et. al., 2007;
Mwenifumbo et. al., 2007; Gamboaa et. al., 2013). In an earlier investigation, surface
texturing of Ti-6Al-4V was achieved using a ArF excimer laser (ATLEX-500-SI,
ATL GmbH, Wermelskirchen, Germany) at a wavelength of 193 nm (pulse length
5 ns) at a laser fluence of 2.4 J/cm2, a laser pulse repetition rate of 200 Hz and 50
laser pulses. Figure 14 shows the scanning electron micrograph of laser surface
141
Figure 14. Scanning electron micrographs of top surface of laser surface textured
Ti-6Al-4V lased with excimer laser (ArF) at a laser fluence of 2.4 J/cm2, a laser
pulse repetition rate of 200 Hz and 50 laser pulses
textured Ti-6Al-4V. From Figure 14 it may be noted that the microstructure consists
of nano-grained α-Ti (labeled as 1) with size of 100-500 nm, β-Ti (labeled as 2) and
oxides (labeled as 3). In addition, due to ablation there is formation of micro-cut
hemi-spherical zone of 2-4 mm diameter. The mechanism of texturing was mainly
due to surface evaporation and sublimation (Brown and Arnold, 2010).
Figure 15 shows phase distribution in the laser surface textured Ti-6Al-4V
(Pfleging et. al., 2015). From Figure 15 it may be noted that there are presence of
maximum mass fraction of α-Ti phase (green colored and labeled as 1), 5-10% β-Ti
(yellow colored and labeled as 2) and only small amount of TiO2 (red colored and
Figure 15. Phase distribution map in the textured zone of linear textured Ti-6Al-4V
142
labeled as 3) phases in textured surface. A detailed study of orientation distribution

of the individual phase was undertaken to understand the effect of laser processing
on the crystallographic texturing of different phases. Figures 16 (a, b) show the
orientation mapping of (a) α-Ti and (b) β-Ti in laser surface textured of Ti-6Al-4V
with linear geometry. The grains with different orientation are labeled on both
Figures. The grain labeled as 1 are orientated along (010) plane, and grain labeled
as 2 are orientated along (120) plane, the grains labeled as 3 and 4 shows orientation
mismatch between the grains in α-Ti of Figure 16 (a). From the orientation distribu-
tion of β-phase (cf. Figure16 (b)), it is evident that a maximum amount of β-Ti phase
is orientated along (111) plane, only of few are orientated along (001) plane and
(101) plane. Rest of β-Ti phase shows orientation mismatch between the grains
(Pfleging et. al., 2015).
A detailed study of the corrosion behavior of the textured surface was and from
the detailed corrosion behavior it was observed that due to laser texturing there is
a substantial decrease in corrosion rate in the textured surface as compared to as-
received Ti-6Al-4V. Due to surface nano-structuring, the pitting potential shifts to
nobler direction from -335 mV (SCE) to -200 mV (SCE) (Kumari et. al., 2015).
The improvements in corrosion resistance and pitting potential of excimer laser
surface treated Ti–6Al–4V alloy was reported to be primarily due to the reduction
of solute partitioning effect and refinement of microstructure (Yue et. al., 2002; Yue
et. al., 2000). Jeong et. al. (2011) also showed improved corrosion resistance of
laser textured surface as compared to untreated commercially pure titanium and
Ti–6Al–4V alloys. There is a significant change in Young’s modulus in textured
zone from 117 ± 5 GPa (for as-received Ti-6Al-4V) to 139-148 ±10 GPa for textured
surface. The improvement in young’s modulus is due to presence of oxide phases
(i.e. rutile, anatase and Ti2O3). A significant improvement in wear resistance is also
observed against WC surface by fretting wear as compared to as-received Ti-6Al-4V
Figure 16. Phase distribution map in the textured zone of linear textured Ti-6Al-4V
143
(Kumari et. al., 2015). The improved wear resistance of laser surface textured Ti-
6Al-4V is attributed to improved micro-hardness on the surface due to grain refine-
ment and formation of oxide phases on the surface.
4. MICROSTRUCTURAL REFINEMENT
AND SURFACE ALLOYING
Laser surface alloying is a process of tailoring the microstructure and composition

of the near surface region of a component by melting the alloying ingredient in the
form of a pre-deposited coating or added externally along with a part of the underly-
ing substrate with a high power laser and its solidification to form the alloyed zone
confined to the near surface region of the substrate (Dutta Majumdar and Manna,
2014). The process variables in laser surface alloying are wavelength of laser used,
laser power density, beam diameter, scan speed/interaction time, pre-deposit layer
thickness or the rate of externally added powder, and shrouding environment used
during laser processing. In addition, the materials parameters which play important
role to determine the quality of the alloyed zone formed include physical properties
like reflectivity, absorption coefficient, thermal conductivity, melting point and den-
sity. The advantages of laser surface alloying over the conventional pack cementation
include (a) alloying in liquid state leading to addition of any alloying elements into
any substrate, (b) a faster processing speed and hence, kinetics of alloying, (c) scope
of attainment of metastability in the microstructure, (d) microstructural refinement.
The process has been successfully applied to metals and alloys for engineering on
microstructure for improving surface dependent engineering properties like wear,
corrosion and high temperature oxidation resistance. The process is especially suit-
able for surface alloying with the alloying elements which is otherwise difficult to
alloy due to its low solubility or no solubility in the solid state. In this section, a
few examples of applying laser surface alloying for surface alloying of few metallic
systems will be described.
Laser surface alloying is particularly suitable for alloying with the solute where,
conventional diffusion based surface alloy is otherwise difficult. Alloying with the
difficult to alloying solute is usually achieved due to (a) dissolution and intermixing
of the solute elements in liquid state, (b) rapid solidification to cause supersatura-
tion of the matrix with dissolved solid in liquid state, (c) uniform distribution and
fine precipitation of the remaining solute during ultra-fast solidification. Notable
successful results in this regard include laser surface alloying of Ti with Si, Ni with
Si, Mg with Mn and in several other systems (Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 2014).
Laser surface alloying of copper with chromium was successfully achieved for
development of finely dispersed chromium precipitates in super-saturated (with
144
chromium) copper matrix (Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 1999; Dutta Majumdar et.
al., 1996). The processing steps involved electrodeposition of Cr on Cu substrate (to
a thickness of 10 μm and 20 μm) and subsequently, laser melting of pre-deposited
Cr along with a part of the underlying substrate with a 2 kW continuous wave (CW)
CO2 laser with a beam diameter (d) of 1 mm at focus and protective argon shroud
(to avoid oxidation during lasing). The process variables for the above mentioned
investigation were incident power density (which varied between 1000 and 2500
MW/m2) relative scan speed between the laser and stage (which varied between 0.25
and 1 m/min). A detailed investigation on the microstructural evolution of the alloyed
zone shows that both the morphology and degree of fineness varied with process
parameters (Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 1999; Dutta Majumdar et. al., 1996). The
morphology of the microstructure was coarse dendritic at higher energy density (a
product of the power density multiplied by interaction time), and fine cellular at
lower values of energy density. In addition, the optimization of process parameters
is essential to ensure the presence of defect free and uniform microstructure (Dutta
Majumdar and Manna, 1999).
Figures 17 (a, b) show the (a) scanning electron micrograph and (b) X-ray dif-
fraction profile of the top surface of laser surface alloyed copper with chromium
(with a pre-deposit thickness of 20 μm), lased with applied power density of 1270
MW/m2 and interaction time (ti) of 0.08 s. Figure 17 (a) reveals the dispersion of
sub-micron sized (average particle size ranging from 200 nm to 500 nm) chromium
precipitates (labeled as 1) in supersaturated copper matrix (labeled as 2). In addi-
tion to the presence of chromium in free form, Cr is also found to be present in
solid solution with Cu (Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 1999). Figure 17 (b) shows
the X-ray diffraction profile of the top surface of laser surface alloyed Cu with Cr
(Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 1999). From the detailed analysis of the X-ray dif-
Figure 17. (a) Scanning electron micrograph and (b) X-ray diffraction profile of the
top surface of laser surface alloyed Cu with Cr lased with a power density of 1270
MW/m2, 1270 MW/m2 and interaction time (ti) of 0.08 s
145
fraction profile, the amount of Cr in solid solution with Cu was calculated to vary
from 1 at% to 4.9 at.% (Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 1999). The amount of Cr in
free form and in the form of solid solution was inversely varied with energy den-
sity of laser. Due to laser surface alloying, there was a significant improvement in
average microhardness (to as high as 225 VHN) of the alloyed zone as compared
to 85 VHN of the substrate. The improvement in average microhardness of the al-
loyed zone is attributed to the refinement of microstructure, presence of Cr in the
form of fine precipitates and also due to its presence in solid solution. The average
microhardness of the alloyed zone was found to vary inversely with applied power
density and interaction time (and hence, applied laser energy density). The main
purpose of incorporation of Cr in Cu was improvement in wear resistance property.
The abrasive wear and erosion resistance properties were evaluated on the surface
of both as-received and laser surface alloyed Cu with Cr (Dutta Majumdar and
Manna, 1999). The resistance to abrasive wear in dry condition (without lubrica-
tion) was evaluated using a mechanical polishing wheel, where the as-received and
laser alloyed surface (after careful mechanical polishing) was placed in contact with
a hardened steel disc rotated at a constant angular speed (v) between 50 and 300
rpm for a given length of time (t). The respective applied load (L) and time (t) were
varied from 0.3 to 3 kg and 15 to 60 min, respectively to simulate an accelerated
wear testing condition. Figure 18 (a) compares the kinetics of abrasive wear of as-
received and laser surface alloyed Cu with Cr under abrasive wear condition in terms
of the mass loss per unit surface area (Δm) as a function of time (t) at an applied
load of 5 N. From Figure 18 (a) it may be noted that there is significant decrease
in wear rate in laser surface alloyed Cu (labeled as 2), as compared to as-received
one (labeled as 1). The improvement in abrasive wear resistance of laser surface
alloyed Cu is attributed to improved hardness because of the presence of Cr in solid
Figure 18. Mass loss per unit area (Dm) due to (a) abrasive wear as a function of
time (t) at an applied load of 0.5 kg and (b) erosive wear as a function of tempera-
ture (T) in a 20% sand dispersed in oil at 300 rpm of rotation for Cu (plot 1) and
Cu (Cr) (plot 2)
146
solution and in free precipitates. The erosion resistance property of the as-received
and the same after laser surface alloying was also evaluated in a rotary fluid slurry
bath consisting of 20% sand dispersed in viscous oil (with specific gravity of 0.8)
rotating at 750 rpm both at room temperature (300 K) and at elevated temperature
(up to 450 K). During erosion testing, the sample surface was placed at an angle
300 with the fluid surface. Figure 2 (b) compares the cumulative material loss (Δm)
per unit area due to erosion as a function of temperature for as-received Cu (labeled
as 1) and of laser surface alloyed copper with chromium (labeled as 2), lased with
an applied power density of 1590 MW/m2 and interaction time of 0.08 s (with a
pre-deposit thickness of 20 μm) after 24 hrs. of erosion in a 20% sand dispersed
media. From Figure 18 (b) it may be noted that the extent of material loss increases
with an increase in temperature for both pure Cu and laser surface alloyed Cu with
Cr. However, the rate of increase in erosion for Cu(Cr) is practically negligible as
compared to a substantial increase in rate of wear with temperature for pure Cu,
especially beyond 370 K (Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 1999).
Following the similar processing route, laser surface alloying was also success-
fully attempted to increase the pitting corrosion resistance of AISI 304 stainless
steel (by laser surface alloying with Mo), high temperature oxidation resistance and
biocompatibility of titanium and its alloys by laser surface alloying with Si and
laser gas alloying, respectively (Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 2014). Laser surface
alloying of Ni with Si and Al was also reported to increase the high temperature
oxidation resistance of Ni significantly (Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 2012). Mag-
nesium based alloy was also subjected to laser surface alloying with Al+Mn in
different ratios and Ni with a notable enhancement in corrosion resistance prop-
erty due to laser surface alloying (Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 2013, Dutta Ma-
jumdar et. al., 2002).
5. COMPOSITE MICROSTRUCTURE BY LASER

SURFACE PROCESSING OF METALS/ALLOYS
Laser surface processing may be applied for the development of monolithic or

graded ceramic dispersed metal matrix composite surface on metallic substrate
(Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 2011; Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 2014). However,
optimization of process parameters and choice of dispersed phase play important
role in determining the particle size distribution, wettability and bond strength of
the particles with the matrix and development of composite layer with a minimum
defect density. In the past, a metal matrix composite layer was developed on steel,
magnesium, titanium and aluminium based substrate by laser surface allotting (Dutta
147
Majumdar and Manna, 2011; Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 2014; Dutta Majumdar
and Manna, 2013; Weisheit, 1993).
Attempts to disperse different oxide (Al2O3) and non-oxide (WC, SiC and Cr2C3)
based ceramic particles were undertaken on the surface of magnesium alloy (MEZ:
RE 2%, Zn 0.5%, Mn 0.1%, Zr 0.1% and the rest Mg) using a 10 kW continuous
wave (CW) CO2 laser (Model: Rofin Sinar, RS 10000) with a beam diameter of 4
mm and a focal point 30 mm above the surface by melting the MEZ substrate and
simultaneously feeding the ceramic powders (particle size ranging from 25 μm to
60 μm) using a side nozzle under Ar shroud using a 6-axis nozzle. The main process
variables were the incident laser power (P =1 to 4.5 kW), scan speed (v=100 to
800 mm/min) and powder composition applied. WC could not be deposited due to
its significantly higher density (15.6 g/cm3) as compared to magnesium based al-
loy (1.74 g/cm3) leading to segregation of 90% of WC at the solid-liquid interface.
Attempts to disperse pure Al2O3 also failed due to poor wettability between Al2O3
particles and liquid magnesium causing poor bonding after solidification. However,
laser surface alloying (using a power of 3.5 kW, scan speed of 600 mm/min and
powder feed rate of 20 mg/s) with a powder mixture of Al and Al2O3 in the ratio of
3:1 could lead to successful formation of Al2O3 and Mg17Al12 dispersed surface in
grain refined magnesium alloy matrix (cf. Figure 20). The presence of Al2O3 and
Mg17Al12 are labeled as 1 and 2, respectively and also confirmed by X-ray diffraction
study (Dutta Majumdar et. al., 2004). In addition, there was a significant refine-
ment in microstructure with the formation of a defect free and continuous interface
between the Al2O3 particle and the matrix. Due to the refinement of microstructure
and dispersion of Al2O3 and Mg17Al12 phases, there was a significant improvement
in microhardness of the surface modified layer (to as high as 350 VHN) as com-
pared to 35 VHN of the MEZ substrate, which however, was found to decrease with
increase in applied laser power and scan speed (Dutta Majumdar et. al., 2004). In
addition, there was a significant improvement in wear resistance (with reduction in
wear kinetics to almost two orders of magnitude) against hardened steel ball with
a 3-kg applied load and 300-rpm wheel speed (Dutta Majumdar et. al., 2004). The
dispersion of SiC in MEZ substrate was achieved with the formation of defect free
and continuous composite surface (cf. Figure 19 (b)) when lased with a power of
2 kW, scan speed of 200 mm/min and powder feed rate of 20 mg/s. The average
area fraction of SiC particles was found to vary from 20 to 50% for different laser
processing conditions. The average microhardness of the composite surface was
improved to as high as 270 VHN as compared to 35 VHN of as-received substrate,
and microhardness was highest at the near surface region and decreased with depth
from the surface. Due to improvement in hardness, the wear resistance was also
significantly improved in laser composite surfaced MEZ as compared to as-received
one (Dutta Majumdar et. al., 2003). Dispersion of Cr2C3 was achieved when lased
148
Figure 19a. Scanning electron micrographs of the top surface of laser surface alloyed
MEZ with (a) Al+Al2O3 (lased with a power of 3.5 kW, scan speed of 600 mm/min)
(b) SiC (lased with a power of 2 kW, scan speed of 200 mm/min) (c) Cr2C3 (lased
with a power of 2 kW, scan speed of 200 mm/min), processing was carried out at a
powder feed rate of 20 mg/s
with a power of 2 kW, scan speed of 200 mm/min and powder feed rate of 20 mg/s
(Dutta Majumdar et. al., 2006). Figure 19 (c) presents the scanning electron mi-
crograph of the top surface of laser composite surfaced MEZ with Cr2C3, showing
the presence of Cr2C3 (labeled as 1) with a defect free interface dispersed in grain
refined MEZ matrix (labeled as 2) processed with an power of 2 kW, scan speed
of 200 mm/min and powder feed rate of 20 mg/s. The average micro-hardness of
149
Figure 20. Scanning electron micrograph of the cross section of laser composite
surfaced Al with Al+SiC under optimum processing condition (lased with a power
of 3 kW and scan speed of 500 mm/min)
the composite surface was increased significantly to 100–200 VHN as compared

to that of 35 VHN of the MEZ matrix. The mechanism of hardening was due to the
combined effect of grain refinement and dispersion hardening due to the presence
of Cr2C3 particles. The wear resistance of the surface was 4 to 6 times higher as
compared to that of the as-received MEZ. The corrosion rate was 5 times lower in
composite surfaced MEZ as compared to as-received substrate.
Al and its alloys are popular in aerospace and automotive industry because of
its low density and high strength to weight ratio (Bakes et. al., 1979). However,
degradation due to wear and erosion are of serious concern for prolonged use of the
component made of Al and its alloys (Wan and Xue, 1996). The wear resistance
enhancement of Al and its alloys can be done by bulk composite surfacing, which
improves the hardness but decreases ductility significantly (Callister and Rethwisch,
2013). On the other hand, dispersion of ceramic particles on the surface could be
used for improving wear resistance of Al and its alloys without sacrificing its duc-
tility. However, the difficulty in dispersion of ceramic particles on aluminium
matrix by conventional plasma transferred arc welding (which is commonly used
in practice), laser surface processing may be chosen as the preferred technique. In
an earlier attempt, development of SiC dispersed surface on aluminium matrix was
achieved by pre-depositing SiC and a mixture of Al + SiC (at a ratio of 1:1) were
pre-deposited (by dispersing the powders of particle size 25–50 μm in alcohol with
an organic binder and applying the coating on the surface using a brush to a thick-
ness of 200 μm) on the substrate and subsequently, irradiating the pre-deposited Al
substrate with a 10 kW continuous wave (CW) CO2 laser with a beam diameter of
150
3.5 mm and Ar as the shrouding gas. Optimum process parameters used for the
development of a defect free, graded microstructure was an applied power of 3 kW,
scan speed of 300-500 mm/min with the coating of Al and Al+SiC (Dutta Majum-
dar et. al., 2006). Figure 20 shows the scanning electron micrograph of the cross
section of laser composite surfaced Al with Al+SiC under optimum processing
condition (lased with a power of 3 kW and scan speed of 500 mm/min). There is
formation of defect free composite layer consisting of partially dissolved SiC par-
ticles if grain-refined matrix and the presence of Al-Si lamellae at the grain bound-
ary triple points. The area fraction of ceramic particles is maximum at the surface
and decreased with depth. A detailed X-ray diffraction study confirms the presence
of SiC and Al along with a few Al4C3 and Si peaks, and hence, SiC was dissociated
during laser irradiation and mixed with the matrix to form Al4C3 intermetallics and
free Si. The microhardness of the composite surface is significantly improved (up
to 150–240 VHN) as compared to that of 25 VHN of as-received Al. Alloying with
Al+SiC was found to be most effective in improving hardness. Figure 21 shows the
cumulative loss of wear (in terms of vertical displacement) as a function of time for
as-received Al (plot 1), and laser composite surfaced Al with SiC lased with a
power of 3 kW, scan speed of 500 mm/min (plot 2), 3 kW, 300 mm/min (plot 3) and
laser composite surfaced Al with Al+SiC lased with a power of 3 kW, a scan speed
Figure 21. Cumulative loss of wear (in terms of vertical displacement) as a func-
tion of time for as-received Al (plot 1), and laser composite surfaced Al with SiC
lased with a power of 3 kW, scan speed of 500 mm/min (plot 2), 3 kW, 300 mm/min
(plot 3) and laser composite surfaced Al with Al+SiC lased with a power of 3 kW,
a scan speed of 500 mm/min (plot 4), respectively against a diamond indenter in 1
kg applied load
151
of 500 mm/min (plot 4), respectively against a diamond indenter in 1 kg applied

load. From Figure 21 it is evident that wear depth increases with time. The wear
rate is initially very high following which it decreases. A close comparison of dif-
ferent graphs in Figure 21 also reveals that the wear resistance of laser composite
surfaced Al is significantly higher than as-received Al. Laser composite surfaced
Al with Al + SiC (lased with a power of 3 kW and scan speed of 500 mm/min)
offers a maximum resistance to wear. The improved wear resistance due to laser
composite surfacing is attributed to improved microhardness achieved by refinement
of microstructure, dispersion of ceramic particles and alloying with silicon. The
mechanism of wear had been reported elsewhere (Dutta Majumdar et. al., 2007). A
detailed evaluation of corrosion resistance property in a 3.56 wt.% NaCl solution
shows a marginal deterioration of corrosion behavior because of the presence of
SiC phase in the matrix (Dutta Majumdar et. al., 2006). The choice of binding al-
loying element plays an important role in determining the microstructure and
properties of the composite layer. Laser surface processing of Al was carried out
with 70WC-15Co-15NiCr by using a 5 kW fiber optics delivered Nd:YAG laser.
The optimum process parameters for the development of a defect free microstructure
was an applied power of 3.5 kW, scan speed of 0.04 m/s and a powder feed rate of
10 mg/s. Figure 22 shows the dispersion of fragmented and agglomerated WC
particles (zone 1), dissociated and re-precipitated WC (zone 2), a mixture of WC+
Al4C3 (zone 3) in Al rich matrix (zone 4). The variation of size of the globular WC
particles is due to partial dissolution of the particles during/before laser processing
operation (Nath et. al., 2012). There is also the formation of carbides of chromium
and aluminium followed by partial dissolution of WC and its intermixing with
matrix. The size of the globular precipitates varied at different regions and also with
laser parameters. The microhardness of the alloyed zone was significantly increased
Figure 22. Scanning electron micrograph of the laser composite surfaced Al with
WC+Co+NiCr lased with a power of 3.5 kW, scan speed of 0.04 m/s and a powder
feed rate of 10 mg/s
152
(200 VHN to 650 VHN) as compared to 22 VHN of as-received substrate. A

graded decrease in microhardness from surface to substrate was observed which is
attributed to the change in the carbide content and grain size with depth. Due to
improved microhardness in the alloyed zone, there was a significant improvement
in wear resistance against WC ball under fretting wear. The improvement in wear
resistance was attributed to the presence of carbides in grain refined aluminium
(Figure 22).
6. DEVELOPMENT OF IN-SITU DISPERSION BY LASER

REACTIVE ALLOYING
Laser reactive alloying involves addition of reactant ingredients during laser melting
to synthesize the refined product and its distribution in the melt zone and forming
in-siu composite layer during solidification. The process may be applied for the
dispersion of carbides, nitrides, oxides or intermetallic phases in metallic matrix.
The development of in-situ composite surfacing by laser surface processing on
aluminium, steel and Cu substrate had been discussed elsewhere (Dutta Majumdar,
2011). The advantages associated with the dispersion of particles by in-situ reac-
tive process include refinement of dispersed phase and possibility of nano-sized
precipitation dispersion, overall refinement of microstructure, increased bonding
of the precipitates with the matrix, an energy efficient process. Melting in reactive
environment (especially in nitrogen environment for nitride former) is the easiest
way of dispersion of nitrides in metallic matrix. Laser gas alloying of titanium is
the commonly applied surface processing technique in this regard (Dutta Majum-
dar, 2011). However, introduction of large residual tensile stress and coarse inter-
connected nitrides are the major problems associated with laser gas nitriding. By
careful control of the shrouding gas pressure and laser parameters (applied power
density, interaction time), formation of fine fragmented dendrites with a minimum
residual stress could be achieved with an improved hardness (Dutta Majumdar, 2011;
Biswas et. al., 2009; Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 2015). Formation of in-situ nano-
dispersed nitrides and carbu-nitrides were also reported to be formed in laser surface
processed mild steel by surface alloying with silicon and subsequent remelting in
nitrogen environment (Dutta Majumdar, 2010). For the formation of in-situ nitride
and carbu-nitride dispersion, a mild steel (of 0.25 wt. % C) plate was subjected to
laser surface alloying with Si using a 10 kW continuous wave CO2 laser (with a
beam diameter of 3.5 mm) by simultaneous deposition of Si (of particle size 25–40
μm) through an external feeder (at a feed rate of 4 g/min) using argon as shrouding
environment. Followed by laser surface alloying, the alloyed surface was subjected
to remelting in nitrogen atmosphere (with and without a graphite coating of 50 μm
153
thickness) to form a nitride layer on the surface. Figures 23 (a–c) show scanning
electron micrographs of the top surface of laser surface alloyed mild steel with Si
lased with a power of 1 kW, scan speed of 500 mm/min and subsequent melting
(with a power of 2 kW, scan speed of 500 mm/min) in (a) Ar, (b) in nitrogen and
(c) in nitrogen followed by graphite coating. It was observed that surface remelting
Figure 23. Scanning electron micrographs of the top surface of laser surface al-
loyed mild steel with Si lased with a power of 1 kW, scan speed of 500 mm/min and
remelted in (a) argon (b) nitrogen (c) nitrogen followed by graphite coating, with
an applied power of 2 kW and scan speed of 500 mm/min
154
followed by silicon alloying leads to fine silicide dispersion in the microstructure.

Silicides were re-precipitated in the grain boundary regions (as evident by the
thickening of grain boundary areas). The redistribution of silicides along grain
boundary region is possibly due to remelting and re-precipitation of silicides in
the grain boundary regions which act as the sites for heterogeneous precipitations.
From Figure 23 (b) it is evident that surface remelting of the alloyed layer in nitro-
gen atmosphere develops fine nitrides (of both iron and silicide) dispersed surface.
Surface remelting in N2 atmosphere followed by carbon deposition, on the other
hand, causes the formation of martensite (which is confirmed by X-ray diffraction
analysis) along with the presence of nitrides of iron (predominantly, Fe2N and a few
Fe3N), silicon (Si3N4) and silicide (Fe3Si and Fe2Si) phases (cf. Figure 23 (c)). The
phases formed on the surface were analyzed by X-ray diffraction technique. Figure
25 shows the X-ray diffraction profiles of surface alloyed mild steel with Si lased
with a power of 1 kW, scan speed of 500 mm/min (plot 1) and the same remelted
in argon (plot 2), nitrogen (plot 3) and carbon deposited and subsequently melted
in nitrogen atmosphere (plot 4) (with a power of 2 kW, scan speed of 500 mm/
min) using Co as target (λ=1.791 A). From the X-ray diffraction profiles, it may
be noted that laser surface alloying leads to the formation of a number of silicides
(FeSi, Fe2Si and Fe3Si) in the alloyed zone (cf. Figure. 24). The absence of free
silicon confirms complete melting of silicon and its intermixing to form silicide
phase in the microstructure. A detailed study also revealed that there is a systematic
shifting of α-Fe peaks due to laser surface alloying with Si, which is attributed to
the presence of Si in solid solution withα-Fe, which was found to vary with laser
parameters. A comparison of the intensities of silicides peaks between plot 1 and plot
2 of Figure 24 shows that there is a marginal increase in the intensity of FeSi phase
following remelting in Ar environment. In this regard, it is relevant to mention that
among of three stable iron silicides: Fe3Si, FeSi and FeSi2, FeSi is the most stable
due to its minimum free energy of formation (Schlesinger, 1990). Hence, increase
in FeSi content while remelting is possibly due to a higher time available due to
slower rate of cooling and hence, the formation of stable phase at a higher quantity
in the microstructure. Laser surface remelting in nitrogen environment develops
nitrides, of predominantly iron (Fe2N, Fe3N) and silicon (Si3N4) along with silicide
phases (Fe2Si and Fe3Si). The intensity of the nitride phases was however, found to
vary with laser parameters. Surface remelting in N2 atmosphere followed by carbon
deposition leads to the formation of martensite along with the presence of nitrides
of iron (predominantly, Fe2N and a few Fe3N), silicon (Si3N4) and silicide (Fe3Si
and Fe2Si) phases. Figure 25 compares the kinetics of wear in terms of cumulative
depth of wear as a function of time measured by friction and wear monitor (model
no: TR-208M1) using specimen as disc and diamond pyramid indenter as a pin
material at an applied load of 19.6 N and number of revolution at 15, for (a) mild
155
Figure 24. X-ray diffraction profiles of the top surface of laser surface alloyed mild
steel with Si lased with a power of 1 kW, scan speed of 500 mm/min (plot 1) and the
same remelted in argon (plot 2), nitrogen (plot 3) and nitrogen followed by graphite
coating (plot 4), with an applied power of 2 kW and scan speed of 500 mm/min
Figure 25. Kinetics of wear in terms of cumulative depth of wear as a function of

time measured by friction and wear monitor against diamond indenter at an applied
load of 19.6 N and a number of revolution of 15, for (a) mild steel, laser surface
alloyed mild steel and the same remelted in (b) Ar, (c) nitrogen and (d) nitrogen
following deposition of carbon shoot
156
steel, (b) laser surface alloyed mild steel with Si and the same following remelt-
ing in (c) nitrogen and (d) in nitrogen following deposition of carbon shoot. From
Figure 3 it is evident that depth of wear increases with time. A comparison of wear
behavior of different surface alloyed mild steel shows that laser surface alloying
with silicon considerably decreases the magnitude and kinetics of wear in mild
steel (plot 1 vis-à-vis plots 2–4 in Figure 25). In mild steel, the wear rate is very
high during the initial period following which it decreases. The decreased rate of
wear at a higher interaction time is attributed to accumulation of worn out debris
at the intermediate region and hence, changing the mode of wear from two-body
to three-body. The initial high rate of wear and its duration also decrease in laser
surface alloyed mild steel with Si (both in as-alloyed condition and after remelting).
Comparison of different plots in Figure 25 shows that the wear rate of the surface
remelted samples is significantly lower than as-alloyed mild steel. The improved
wear resistance due to laser surface alloying and remelting in nitrogen atmosphere
is attributed to improved microhardness achieved mainly by dispersion of silicides
and nitrides and partly by grain refinement. The improved wear resistance due to
laser surface alloying and remelting in nitrogen atmosphere with carbon deposition
is due to dispersion of silicides and nitrides, grain refinement and partly by mar-
tensitic transformation. The wear resistance enhancement due to surface processing
is mainly due to improvement in hardness.
Reactants with salt mixtures which undergo self-propagating high temperature
synthesis (SHS) can also be utilized to disperse fine reaction products as the pre-
cipitates where, the reaction can be initiated by laser heating. The processing steps
involve mixing the SHS reactant mixtures in the form of a slurry, applying it on top
of the substrate and subsequently, laser irradiation, releasing heat to cause melting
of the reactants along with a part of the substrate to form finely dispersed carbides
or nitrides on the surface of substrate. The process has been successfully applied to
develop composite ceramic dispersed coating on AISI 1025 steel (Chatterjee et. al.,
2010; Chatterjee et. al., 2011; Chatterjee et. al., 2012). During the processing, the
reactant ingredients were aluminium (Al), titanium dioxide (TiO2) and hexa-boron
nitride (h-BN) powders (in the ratio of 4:3:2). Laser irradiation was conducted us-
ing a continuous wave Diode laser (Model:LDF 6000, Laserline, Germany) having
a power range of 200 W–6000 W (wavelength: 915–980 nm), using Ar shroud.
Followed by laser surface alloying, a post surface melting operation was carried out
to reduce the surface roughness and ensure homogeneous distribution of coating
(Chatterjee et. al., 2010; Chatterjee et. al., 2011). A comparison between the in-
situ developed surface with the same developed by external addition of the product
particles showed that in-situ dispersion offers a superior quality of the surface in
terms of reduced particle size of the dispersoids with its uniform dispersion,
higher bonding and reduced defect density as compared to externally added reinforc-
157
ing phases. In addition, the probability of agglomeration can be reduced (Chatterjee

et. al., 2012). Finally, it is an energy efficient technique where, dispersoids can be
achieved at reduced energy density.
To reduce residual stress distribution and maximize the particle size distribution,
laser surface remelting can also be conducted (Chatterjee et. al., 2010). Figure 26
shows the scanning electron micrograph (back scattered image) of the cross-section
of the coating, developed by laser surface melting (M) and subsequent laser heat
treatment (G) showing the presence of uniformly dispersed titanium rich phase
(white globular), aluminium rich precipitates (grey colored precipitates) in black
(steel) matrix. A detailed XRD analysis and EDS analysis confirmed that the white
particles are titanium nitride and titanium boride and the grey precipitates are alu-
mina. The phases are formed exploiting the following SHS reaction:
4Al+3TiO2+2BN=2Al2O3+TiB2+2TiN+2303K (6.1)
The wear coefficient (= (Wear volume)/(Applied load × sliding distance), mm3/

Nm) was calculated by measuring the average track depths with the help of a stylus
profilometer. The values of track depths were taken as the average of several mea-
sured readings at different locations of each track. Figure 27 compares the wear
coefficient of the dispersed surface without (M) and with (G) laser post-treatment.
From Figure 27 it may be noted that wear coefficient reduced significantly for each
sample after laser post treatment. As postulated in the previous studies on the same
coating, the wear probably takes place because of the dislodgement of harder par-
ticles of coating under stresses arising during ball-on-disc test. Although, the un-
treated coating has sufficiently higher microhardness (as measured from the cross-
Figure 26. Scanning electron micrograph of the cross section of laser surface al-
loyed AISI 1025 steel with Al2O3+TiB2+TiN coating followed by laser post heat
treatment (processing conditions are mentioned in the text)
158
Figure 27. Bar chart showing the average wear coefficient values obtained at
the top 25 mm of the surface of as-coated AISI 1025 steel (M1, M2 and M3) with
Al2O3+TiB2+TiN and the same after laser post treatment (G1, G2 and G3)
section), the other factors like toughness and coating microstructure also define the
ultimate wear resistance of the coating.
In another attempt, h-BN content was off-stoichiometric and the effect of incor-
porating additional amount of h-BN in precursor mixture on the mechanical proper-
ties of the resultant coating was determined. At higher magnifications, the coating
cross-sections reveal uniformly dispersed particle with small globular and acicular
shape in the matrix (Figure 28 (a-c)). A significant change in microstructure is
observed with increase in the amount of h-BN in precursor powder mixture. Sample
1 (Figure 28 (a)) shows acicular grains with an average size of 1 μm width and 2–4
μm length, whereas, samples with higher h-BN in precursor powder mixture (Fig-
ure 28 (b, c)) have grains of globular and nodular shapes. In fact, Figure 28 (b)
reveals a transition stage showing co-existence of acicular and nodular grains in the
microstructure. Microhardness was measured on a number of cross-sections of each
coating and the average microhardness values are summarised in Figure 29. The
error bars corresponding to each data point is also given. This denotes the range of
variation observed at each point. Microhardness values of the coatings were sig-
nificantly higher as compared to that of as-received low carbon steel substrate
(average microhardness: 230 HV0.05). The substantial increase in hardness can
possibly be attributed to the formation of fine-grained structure of the rapidly
quenched coating and to the presence of hard phases formed out of the SHS process.
In addition, the microhardness decreases with the increase in h-BN content in the
precursor mixture. It is possibly due to increase in free h-BN content in the final
coating. The reduction in hardness for Sample 4 is 20% of the hardness of Sample
1. The error bars on microhardness values are not of the same magnitude for samples
159
Figure 28. Scanning electron micrographs of the cross section of combined SHS and
laser surface alloyed coating developed on AISI 1025 substrate with a power of 2
kW, scan speed of 5 mm/s with the variable h-BN content in the precursor mixture:
(a)sample 1: x (X =Stoichiometric amount of h-BN in the precursor powder mixture
(b) sample 2: 2X (c) sample 3: 4X
with different amounts of h-BN addition in precursor powder. The friction and wear
behavior of the coating was compared to be substrate by its evaluation using a Ball-
on-disc tribometer.
7. MICROSTRUCTURAL DESIGN BY HYBRID THERMAL

SPRAYING AND LASER MELTING
Thermal spray deposition is commonly applied for the development of metallic

or ceramic coatings on metallic substrate for improving its wear and corrosion
resistance properties (Sharma. and Dutta Majumdar, 2014). However, presence of
160
Figure 29. Variation of the average coating microhardness with respect to the amount
of h-BN in the precursor powder mixture
Figure 30. Scanning electron micrographs of the top surface of (a) HVOF spray
deposited and (b) laser assisted HVOF spray deposited NiCrBSi alloy coating de-
veloped on AISI 304 stainless steel
porosities and micro-cracks are the problem associated with thermal spray deposition
(Sharma. and Dutta Majumdar, 2014). In addition, development of inhomogeneous
microstructure and composition is another problem associated with the coatings
developed by thermal spray deposition (Sharma. and Dutta Majumdar, 2014). Laser
surface melting of thermal spray deposited surface offers the scope of microstructural
homogenization and refinement for the development of surface alloyed or clad layer
for the improvement of surface dependent engineering properties. Laser surface
melting of plasma spray deposited Mo on AISI 304 stainless steel was reported to
161
cause surface alloying of Mo in steel with improved, microhardness, wear and pitting
corrosion resistance of AISI 304 stainless steel (Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 2011;
Dutta Majumdar and Manna, 2014). In an another investigation, it was observed
that laser surface melting of NiCrBSi coated (by HVOF spray deposition) AISI 304
stainless steel surface offered a refined microstructure with uniform dispersion of
borides and silicides in the γ-Ni matrix.
Figures 31 (a, b) show the scanning electron micrographs of the top surface of
(a) HVOF spray deposited and (b) laser assisted HVOF spray deposited NiCrBSi
alloy coating developed on AISI 304 stainless steel (Sharma. and Dutta Majumdar,
2014; Sharma. and Dutta Majumdar, 2015). A detailed microstructural investigation
of the HVOF spray deposited surface shows the presence of featureless partially
amorphous γ-Ni matrix (labeled as 1), fine nano-structured primary nickel borides
(labeled as 2), eutectic mixture of nickel and nano-nickel boride (Ni3B) (labeled
as 3), dispersion of nano-structured chromium boride (labeled as 4). Furthermore,
the phase distribution is not homogenous in the microstructure. Presence of thick
inter-splat boundaries (labeled as 5) was also observed in the microstructure. Laser
surface melting leads to further refinement of the microstructure with the uniform
distribution of nano-sized chromium borides (labeled as 1) and nickel borides (la-
beled as 2) in the refined γ-Ni matrix (labeled as 3).
A detailed microhardness measurement shows that the average micro-hardness
of the coating in as-coated and as-melted conditions is improved to 900 VHN and
1200 VHN, respectively as compared to as-received substrate (250 VHN). The
Figure 31. Kinetics of wear in terms of cumulative depth of wear as a function of time
for as received (plot 1), HVOF spray deposited (plot 2), and laser melted NiCrBSi
coating followed by HVOF spray deposition (plot 3) on AISI 304 stainless steel
162
significant increase in micro-hardness of the coating is attributed to the presence

of nano-structured borides (of Cr2B and Ni3B) in grain refined and partially amor-
phous γ-Ni matrix. The marginal variation of microhardness with depth is attrib-
uted to the presence of composite structure. An increased hardness due to laser
surface melting is attributed to refinement of microstructures and presence of sili-
cides in the matrix along with borides.
Figure 31 shows the kinetics of wear in terms of cumulative depth of wear as a
function of time for as received (plot 1), HVOF spray deposited (plot 2), and laser
melted NiCrBSi coating followed by HVOF spray deposition (plot 3) on AISI 304
stainless steel against ‘WC’ ball with a diameter of 5.2 mm, with a stroke length
of 1 mm and frequency is 10 Hz at an applied load of 10 N under fretting wear
condition. From Figure 31 it may be observed that there is a significant decrease in
kinetics and magnitude of wear in HVOF sprayed surface (plot 2) as compared to the
as-received AISI 304 stainless steel (plot 1), and kinetics of wear further decreases
for laser melted surface followed by HVOF spraying (plot 3). The significant de-
crease in wear kinetics in HVOF sprayed surface is due to presence of nano-sized
borides and hence, improvement in hardness of the surface. A close look of the wear
behavior shows that wear rate during initial stage of wear is faster following which
it decreases in both the as-received and as-coated surface. The initial high rate of
wear is due to removal of materials from the surface by the abrasive action of WC
surface. Gradually, the accumulated worn out particles at the interface changes the
mechanism of wear from two-body abrasive to three body wear and also reduces
the effective abrasive action of WC ball by acting as a barrier. As a result, the wear
rate gradually decreases. The wear rate, worn out volume and coefficient of friction
were also carefully measured after the end of wear testing. It was observed that the
average wear rate (0.0028 mm3/mm) and the wear volume (0.0020 mm3) of coated
surface are significantly lower as compared to the average wear rate (0.0050 mm3/
mm) and the wear volume (0.0032 mm3) of the as-received substrate. Due to laser
surface melting of the coating, there is further reduction in the average wear rate
(0.0019 mm3/mm) and the wear volume (0.0011 mm3). Especially, at the later stage
of wear, the kinetics of wear reduces to a maximum extent possibly, due to presence
of silicide which increases the resistance to softening at a higher pressure of opera-
tion. The mechanism of wear was fretting in coated surface in contrast to partly
high stress abrasion and partly fretting in as received HVOF spray deposited coat-
ing on AISI 304 stainless steel. Due to laser surface melting, the wear mechanism
changes to adhesive assisted fretting and abrasive. Development of Al20Si coating
by plasma spraying and subsequently laser cladding was successfully attempted by
Bobzin et. al. (2012) and was found to offer a superior corrosion resistance property
than plasma spray deposited coating
163
8. SUMMARY AND FUTURE SCOPE OF RESEARCH
From the above mentioned discussions, it may be concluded that laser surface
processing may be applied for the modification of microstructure for tailoring the
surface properties in various capacities, i.e. by grain refinement, surface alloying,
composite surfacing, etc. However, retention of the optimum microstructure in each
processing is essential for improving the desired properties. Though there was an
extensive effort on the laser surface processing however, the future scope of research
in this direction concerns the following:
1. Minimizing surface roughness associated with laser surface processing, may

be achieved by applying laser polishing after surface processing.
2. Homogenization of microstructure: Though the microstructure associated with
laser surface alloying is macroscopically homogeneous, however, a localized
heating arrangement may be applied to homogenize it further.
3. Minimizing residual stress: one of the major problem associated with process
parameters optimization is minimization of residual stress, which could be
achieved by pre-heating or post-heating operations.
4. Though reactive processing is a unique technique for the development of nano-
dispersed surface, however, reactants are often intermixed with molten surface,
hence, an extensive research work need to be undertaken in this direction.
5. A thorough process optimization should be carried out using optimization tool
for achieving the desired properties in real component and the corresponding
process map needs to be documented.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Partial financial supports from Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, Bonn, German
Academic Exchange Service, Germany; Department of Science and Technology,
N. Delhi; Council of Scentific and Inductrial Research, N. Delhi; Department of
Biotechnology, N. Delhi; and Defence Research and Development Organization, N.
Delhi for the said contribution are gratefully acknowledged. The authors are grateful
to their collaborators (Prof. B. L. Mordike, Prof. Lin Li, Prof. N. B. Dahotre, Dr. Sisa
Pityana, Dr. R. Galun, Dr. W. Pfleging, Prof. A. Ostendorf, Dr. Evgeny Gurevich,
Prof. A. K. Nath and Prof. A. Roy Choudhury) and former/present PhD students (Dr.
A. Basu, Dr. A. Biswas, Dr. R. Bhairy, Dr. G. Telasang, Dr. S. Chatterjee, Mr. A.
Kumar, Mr. S. Nath, Mr. P. Sharma and Ms. Renu Kumari) who acted as co-workers.
164
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172
Chapter 7
Mitigation of Wear
Damage by Laser Surface
Alloying Technique
Isaac Damilola Adebiyi
Vaal University of Technology, South Africa
Patricia A. P. Popoola
Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa
Sisa Pityana
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, South Africa
ABSTRACT
Today’s increasingly extreme and aggressive production environments require that
machine components be made with materials having specific surface properties such
as good wear resistance. Unfortunately, nature does not provide such materials,
and alloys having these specific properties are usually very expensive and their use
drastically increases components and production costs. Moreover, the economic
implications of wear, in form of detrimental effects – and waste, are severe. This
includes replacement costs, and all downtime costs related to such replacement.
Consequently, companies will increasingly need to look to wear reduction as a
direct, immediate avenue for maintaining output quotas and for cutting production
costs. Laser coating of engineering alloys with wear resistant materials is one ef-
ficient and economical means of increasing the wear resistance of these alloys. This
work discusses laser coatings for wear prevention. Different wear mechanisms are
discussed and the coatings for specific environment are identified. This will provide
information for combating wear.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-0329-3.ch007
Mitigation of Wear Damage by Laser Surface Alloying Technique
INTRODUCTION
Wear is a damage to the surface of a solid as a result of progressive loss (removal)

or displacement of material from the surface by the mechanical action of impact,
erosion, metal-to-metal contact, abrasion, oxidation, and corrosion, or a combination
of these (Camacho et al. 2014). Wear occurs when interaction between two surfaces
or bounding faces of solids within the working environment produces dimensional
loss of one solid, with or without any actual decoupling and loss of material. Wear
is the predominant factor that controls the life of any machine part. Metal parts often
fail their intended use not because they fracture, but because they wear, which causes
them to lose dimension and functionality. Wear damage occurs in twofold. The first
is the loss of materials from the surfaces that are in contact which causes reduction
in dimension of the components or parts. The implication of this is increase in the
dimensional tolerance between the moving parts. Consequently, there will be high
vibration, high noise, reduced efficiency and malfunctioning of the system. In situ-
ations where dynamic loading is involved, the reduction in component dimension
could promote fatigue fracture which can lead to catastrophic failure. Secondly,
wear debris (material which detached from worn surface), is harmful and may cause
contamination, for example, in a food or beverage processing machine. Moreover,
the debris may act as abrasives when trapped inside the contacting surface leading
to increased wear rate. The debris may also block valves, critical pipes, oil filters
or may accumulate in an electrical contacting point preventing the normal function
of a system (wu et al, 2014, Zmitrowicz, 2005, Bayer, 2002).
Wear is affected by: the working environments such as load, speed and tempera-
ture; different types of counter-bodies such as solid, liquid or gas also affect wear;
and the type of contact which ranges between single phase or multiphase - which
may combine liquid with solid particles and gas bubbles. According to Davis (2001),
wear causes metallic surfaces to deteriorate progressively which leads to loss of
plant efficiency and at worst a shutdown. Although there are four wear mechanism
such as: surface fatigue, abrasion, adhesion and tribochemical reaction, most worn
parts do not fail from a single mode of wear, but from a combination of modes,
such as abrasion and impact. Four main types of wear systems (tribosystems) are
identified. These are:
• Relatively smooth solids sliding on other smooth solids.

• Hard, sharp substances sliding on softer surfaces.
• Fatigue of surfaces by repeated stresses (usually compressive).
• Fluids with or without suspended solids in motion with respect to a solid
surface
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Chand and Fahim, (2000) and Shah (2007) described wear resistance as the
ability of a material to withstand mechanical action such as rubbing, scraping, or
erosion, which tends to progressively remove material from its surface. Such ability
helps to maintain the material’s original appearance and structure. Wear is a surface
or near surface phenomenon rather than the bulk alloy. Therefore, wear resistance
of a component can be improved by providing a surface of different composition
and property from the bulk material. The various methods of wear reduction can
be categorized into two major types. The first is the application of high wear resis-
tance metals and alloys. These metals and alloys are usually more expensive and the
method is thus accompanied by high cost of both materials and labour. The second
method is improving the wear resistance of the existing material by addition of wear
resistant alloying element to the surface of the material, i. e. surface modification
(coating) of the existing metal and alloys. The coating increases wear resistance of
the metal/alloy by conferring one or more of the following wear resistant properties:
high melting temperature, high density to avoid gas flux through open pores to the
substrate, stress free or in a state of compressive stress at the working temperature
and good adhesion (Kennedy and Hashmi, 1998). Wear can also be reduced by im-
provement in working conditions, proper materials selection and appropriate design.
Laser surface alloying (LSA) is a unique method in which external alloying
elements in the form of powder are introduced into the surface of a material to
improve the surface properties. The powders could be applied as preplaced paste
or injected directly into the melt pool created by means of a high power laser beam.
The alloying materials function as the solute and the melt pool of the substrate as
solvent to form a new alloy layer. This leads to improvement in materials property
by influencing structural changes, and it also makes it possible to develop an alloy
with the bi- or multi-component structure. LSA combines controlled modification
of both the microstructure and chemical composition, which allows the tailoring of
the surface properties to application requirements. Apart from yielding equilibrium
phases, LSA also leads to the formation of complex and metastable phases because
of rapid melting and re-solidification. Thus the process is particularly efficient for
improving the wear resistance of metals and their alloys. LSA has the advantage
of consuming only a small amount of material on the surface of the substrate; the
energy supply can be well controlled; a very local treatment is possible; the total
heat input is low, resulting in minimal distortion; the heating and cooling rates are
high, resulting in a fine microstructure and metastable phases; and the treatment is
a non-contact process. LSA also allows a large number of combinations of surface
and bulk properties, and thus significantly increases the number of options for the
design engineer (Fogagnolo et al. 2013, Brytan, et al. 2010, Kwok et al. 2006)
The complex nature of wear requires a detailed understanding of the mechanism
involved in each case of wear type in order to combat it. Therefore, this chapter
174
will discuss the various types of wear, the mechanism involved in each case and the
methods of improving the wear resistance of engineering materials. The economic
success of the coating process depends on the ability to select appropriate powder
materials for a particular metal/alloy, effective application of the powdery materials
to coat the surface of the alloy and the ability of the coating to mitigate wear damage.
Detail discussion and emphasis will be on the application of laser coatings for the
improvement of wear resistance for engineering materials. Intensive literature will
be provided on coating by laser application, benefits and some industrial applica-
tion of the process. Furthermore, because the distinction between surface coatings
and the process of modifying the surface by changing its composition is not always
clear, some useful surface modification techniques will also be considered.
COST AND ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS OF WEAR
The impact and value of wear has grown so fast and far beyond the era where the
casual use of a lubricant was sufficient to alleviate wear problems. Wear has been
listed as one of three major technical areas affecting materials utilization and cost
reductions (Glaeser et al., (1992). The cost of wear is enormous, and thus great
efforts have been made ever since the early ages of industry, with aims to reduce
or eliminate wear. Wear is a common occurrence; it is experienced in everyday
events such as the wearing out of the tyre and the deterioration of the faucet gasket
of an automobile, to mention a few. In such situations, wear and its effects do not
seem to constitute a significant threat and it is thus taken for granted. However, the
economic implications of wear in the industry can be very severe and the conse-
quences catastrophic. Wear reduces equipment precision and efficiency and causes
deterioration of functional capacity and a depreciation of value. Wear necessitates
replacement of part, which in turn cost money and causes downtime. Hence, wear
reduction will not only reduce replacement cost, but will also lower down time.
Therefore, companies are constantly looking for effective means of reducing wear
and increasing service life of components which invariably leads to overall cost
saving (Sullivan et al., (2004).
In an attempt to estimate wear costs, the following areas should be considered:
• Replacement costs due to wear

• Scheduled maintenance costs
• Unscheduled maintenance or repair costs.
Moreover, wear cost should be considered from three major viewpoints, which
are: Capital, Labour and Technology: Capital considerations include equipment
175
replacement costs and all downtime costs related to such replacement. The labour
costs involved in assessment of wear include all costs of maintenance programs. A
third area of assessing wear cost is technological cost which reflects on the cost of
keeping wear to a minimum on older equipments. Wear costs can thus be divided
into direct and indirect costs. Direct costs entails equipment replacement, equipment
rental and standby maintenance, whereas indirect costs include those incurred as
a result of loss of production, product liability, uncompleted work and damage to
or loss of additional equipment. A typical scenario to illustrative the detrimental
economic implication of wear is the case of the wire rope of dragline earth moving
equipment used in strip mining. After a few months in operation, the wire must be
replaced due to reduction in the diameter caused by notching. This is necessary to
prevent the snapping of the wire during operation. The process of changing about
100 to 150 meter long dragline is time-consuming, expensive and involves a lot
of hard work. The rope itself cost about USD120, 000 and the labour costs about
USD50, 000. In essence, several kilogram of wire rope is discarded as result of
wearing away of few grams (Glaeser, et al., 1992).
WEAR MECHANISMS
Wear is a complex process, the understanding and control of which requires the
knowledge of surface chemistry, fracture mechanics, elastic and plastic deforma-
tion, heat generation, etc. Metallurgical structures also have pronounced effect on
the wear resistance of a material. In order to design surface coating to effectively
mitigate wear damage on the surface of engineering materials, an understanding of
wear rate, varieties of wear modes, and the underlying wear mechanisms is essen-
tial. Wear processes can be classified into different types according to the type of
tribological load and the materials involved. These are: sliding wear, fretting wear,
abrasive wear, and material cavitation. Wear is caused by a number of mechanisms,
and by close examination of the wear scars, debris, morphology and microstructural
alterations of the damaged parts, the following four mechanisms are considered to
be especially important (Deters, 2009, Kovaříková, et al.)
1. Abrasive Wear Mechanism or Wear by Abrasion
This is the most frequently encountered wear mechanism in industry. Abrasive wear
mechanism is similar to what will be observed in a machining and grinding process
during a manufacturing. In this mechanism, wear is initiated by hard asperities or
particles which are trapped between the two contacting surfaces (Hosseinzadeh, et
al., 2012). These hard asperities or particles penetrate into the softer surface under
176
Figure 1. Schematic representation of: (a) three-body abrasive wear mechanism (b)
two-body abrasive wear mechanism
the normal contact pressure exerted by the other surface. When a tangential mo-
tion is imposed, the material in the softer surface is removed by combined effects
of ‘micro-ploughing’, ‘micro-cutting’ and ‘micro-cracking’. As a result, the worn
surface is generally characterized by grooves and scratches. The wear debris often
has a form of micro-cutting chips. There are two types of situation where abrasive
wear may occur in the industry as shown in Figure 1. These are: the three-body
abrasive wear and the two-body abrasive wear.
In the three-body abrasive wear, foreign hard particles, is either trapped between
two sliding surfaces and abrading one or both surfaces, or embedded in a softer
surface and abrading the opposing one. This is usually readily found in the mining
industry and in machines working in desert. The two-body abrasion occurs where
there is metal-on-metal contact and there are protuberances (asperities) on a harder
surface. These protuberances plough or cut through the other metal surface. Unfor-
tunately, asperities will always exist on every engineering surface. This is because
they can never be completely eliminated even by very sophisticated polishing. Thus,
the likelihood of two-body abrasion will always exist in engineering systems. It is
usual in service to experience both two-body and three-body abrasions simultane-
ously. This is because a system that was initially two-body abrasion system (metal
against metal) may change into three-body system. An example is when work hard-
ened wear debris is generated in a system that was initially a two-body, or when
abrasive particles are introduced into a system as a result of contaminated lubricant
(Poitout, 2004, Bhushan, 2013).
Abrasive wear can also be categorized, based on the degree of the surface dam-
age, to include scratching, grinding and gouging abrasion. Scratching abrasion
occurs when small, hard and sharp particles repeatedly move over the solid surface
causing a scouring action. The abrasive particles are not constrained and they do
not cause fracture. Thus scratching wear is often known as a free sliding wear and
it is the least severe form of abrasion. Grinding abrasion occurs when small abra-
sive particles are forced against a metal surface with enough force to fracture and
177
Figure 2. Impact wear caused by high stress abrasion
be crushed. This usually leads to the continuous generation of fresh, sharp cutting
edges which aggravates wear damage. Gouging abrasion mechanism causes the
most severe damage. It occurs where abrasion is combined with strong impacts
induced by large and heavy objects, which are forced with pressure against a solid
surface leaving prominent gouges and grooves. Gouging abrasion is characterized
by a high angle of incidence as shown in Figure 2, and the damage accumulation in
the surface layers of the wearing material is characterized by the presence of deep
indentations, which are generated by repeated impacts or compressive loading of
heavy and large abrading particles. Sliding abrasion on the other hand is character-
ized by a low angle of incidence as shown in Figure 3
Figure 3. Sliding wear caused by low stress abrasion
178
2. Adhesive Wear Mechanism or Wear by Adhesion
This is the mechanism which occurs when two irregular surfaces are in contact. The
surfaces of engineering components are never perfectly flat, and the most highly
polished engineering component show irregularities or asperities. If two of such
irregular surfaces are in contact, the real contact will only exist at the asperities
which is a small fraction, usually in the order of one percent of the apparent con-
tacting area (Oden and Martins,1985, Ramadoss et al., 2013). This usually results
in plastic deformation of the asperities and their intermetallic adhesion to the other
surface as shown in Figure 4.
This forms cold weld junctions between the contacting asperities. The strength
of a junction is determined by the surface structure and by the mutual solubility of
the two contact metals. The tendency of adhesion is lowest for a pair of metals with
almost zero mutual solubility, but this is limited to very few metals. Most metallic
materials show appreciable tendency of adhesion. The relative movement of one
surface over the other is certain to cause the weaker or softer surface to tear off
either at the point of contact (adhesion junction) or within the bulk material of the
two surfaces. The strength of the adhesion junction determines where tearing will
take place. When the adhesion junction is relatively weak, e. g when there is low
mutual solubility between the two surfaces in contact or when the metallic sur-
faces are separated by oxide film, tearing will take place at the junction and mate-
rial loss during wear will be minimal. However, when tearing occurs inside the
softer material, a fragment of the softer material will be dragged away and adhering
to the harder body. This is known as material transfer. If the sliding action continues,
there will be plastic deformation of the transferred fragment. This usually produces
a plate-like morphology on the transferred material. In cases where multiple mate-
rials that have been plastically deformed are transferred, a layered surface morphol-
ogy on the counterface results (Ramadoss et al., 2013, Shabani and Mazahery, 2012).
Figure 4. Schematic representation of adhesive wear mechanism
179
3. Fatigue Wear
According to Chattopadhyay (2014), fatigue wear is a localized and progressive

structural damage on the surface of a material as a result of cyclic loading. When
two surfaces are in contact, fatigue wear is experienced by the material having the
lower fatigue strength when there is repeated sliding or rolling at the contacts be-
tween asperities with very high local stress with or without lubrication. This results
in high plastic deformation which in turn causes crack initiation, crack growth, and
fracture. Fatigue wear also occurs when cyclic shear stress or strain loading of the
surface and subsurface of a soft material exceeds the fatigue strength of the material.
During fatigue, cracks usually propagates at the material’s surface and spread to the
subsurface regions. Due to repeated or cyclic loading, delamination and cracking of
the subsurface can occur resulting in separation and delamination of the material
pieces when the cracks connect to each other. When there is contact between the
asperities on the surfaces of engineering materials; the relative movement (sliding
or rolling) of the surfaces will result in severe plastic deformation. The result of
fatigue wear is severe plastic deformation. The continual and alternating stresses
will cause the formation and propagation of cracks under the stressed surface as
shown in Figure 5.
The surface is thus destroyed. Generally, fatigue wear is initiated by fatigue-
related cracks and flaking, and triggered by repeated alternating stress cycles. Fatigue
wear is usually associated with rolling or sliding systems in which tensile and/or
shear stresses result in surface or sub-surface cracks. Sliding fatigue wear is char-
acterized by a high degree of plastic deformation, high strain and shifting of surface
material in the sliding direction. Grains are usually drawn out and oriented parallel
Figure 5. Schematic representation of adhesive wear mechanism
180
to the surface, and there is submicron-sized dislocation cells which are similar to
highly cold-worked metals (Siddiqui, et al., 2013)
MECHANISM OF WEAR MITIGATION BY LASER COATINGS
In situations where wear cannot be avoided, a change in the nature of wear especially
from abrasion/adhesion to oxidation (e.g. by surface engineering of the contacting
parts) can considerably mitigate wear rate. Wear is usually a combination of the
different mechanism earlier discussed and the best type of coating will only be the
most suitable for a particular application. Hence, there is no overall best coating
but there is an optimum coating, such as laser coating, for a specific application.
The laser beam produces a localized intense source of heat, which when used
to deposit a coating material, can produce a surface layer of altered microstructure.
Fu et al. (2000) identified at least five different mechanisms of using surface-mod-
ification methods to increase wear resistance: (1) inducing a residual compressive
stress; (2) decreasing the coefficient of friction; (3) increasing the surface hardness;
(4) altering the surface chemistry; (5) increasing the surface roughness. In addition
to these, the intrinsic properties of the coatings, such as density, mechanical and
chemical properties, metallurgical reaction and bonding between the substrate and
the coating, also significantly affect the performance of the coatings under wear
conditions. The mechanisms of wear mitigation by laser techniques include decrease
in the coefficient of friction which is due to the hardening effect of the laser alloyed
coating, thus preventing adhesive and abrasive wear.
Another mechanism by which laser application mitigates wear is the usual sig-
nificant increase in the surface micro-hardness of the laser deposited coating, and
the refined microstructure which evolves in the process. The significant increase
in hardness usually leads to improvement in the ability to resist abrasion, adhesion
and plastic deformation during loading. Coatings that will mitigate wear must have
a close construction without noticeable discontinuities in the form of delaminations
or pores. Hard coatings prepared by various deposition techniques and conditions
exhibit the widest variety of microstructures among materials in terms of grain size,
crystallographic orientation, lattice defects, texture, and surface morphology as well
as phase composition (Mayrhofer et al., 2006).
Laser alloying produces structure change mostly by the addition of powder
particles into the surface of the material which leads to improvement in the mate-
rial’s properties. The process is characterized by violent mixing of constituents in
the melt pool; solidification of the remelted materials which leads to the formation
of a new alloy; convection motions in the laser melt pool which decides the final
181
distribution of the alloying element in the remelted zone; and a big temperature
gradient (Dobrzański et al. 2007). The mechanism of laser surface alloying (LSA)
involves the combination of controlled modification of both the microstructure and
the chemical composition which allows tailoring of the surface properties to applica-
tion requirements. The process also leads to the development of equilibrium phases
and the formation of complex and metastable phases because of its rapid melting
and re-solidification (Vaziri et al., 2010; Chande and Mazumda, 1983).
Surface modification has the advantage of consuming only a small amount of
expensive material on the surface while using an inexpensive substrate for the bulk,
the energy supply can be well controlled; a very local treatment is possible; the total
heat input is low, resulting in minimal distortion; the heating and cooling rates are
high, resulting in a fine microstructure and metastable phases; the treatment is a
non-contact process. There is no wearing of tools, or any mechanical forces acting
on the work piece; the process depth is well defined. It also allows a large number
of combinations of surface and bulk properties, and thus significantly increases the
number of options for the design engineer. Laser surface modification is a modern
surfacing technique which is becoming more and more popular in engineering ap-
plications. Compared with other methods of surface modification, it possesses the
following characteristics:
• Possibility of forming alloys of non-equilibrium compositions,

• Formation of a fine microstructure,
• Presence of a metallurgical bond between the surface layer and the substrate,
• A small heat-affected zone.
• The combination of a controlled minimal dilution of the substrate by the coat-
ing material and nevertheless a very strong fusion bond between them (Lo et
al., 2003; Oberlander and Lugscheider, 1992).
WEAR RESISTANCE LASER COATING MATERIALS
Powder materials for laser alloying are selected based on application requirements
such as hardness, wear resistance, erosion-resistance and oxidation-resistance. The
achievement of a strong fusion bond over the entire interface between the substrate
and the alloy layer is an essential aspect of laser alloying. Good wetting between
the coating material and the substrate is therefore required. Laser alloying powder
materials can be divided into two main types. These are metal (alloy) powder and
ceramic powder. The third types called cermet is the combination of CERamic and
METal.
182
1. Wear Resistance Coating Material: Metals and Alloy Powder
Metal and alloy powders such as nickel-based alloy, Co-base alloy, and Fe-based
alloys find suitable application in laser alloying. These alloys have good wettability
to various carbon steel, alloy metals, stainless steel and various non-ferrous metals.
Alloy powders can be classified into three types as follows:
a. Nickel Based Alloys
Nickel based alloys are characterised by good high-temperature oxidation resistance.

These alloys are suited for applications where parts are exposed to an aggressive
atmosphere at elevated temperatures. Nickel based alloys, because they are widely
available and much cheaper, can be used as a substitute for cobalt since cobalt is
relatively rare and expensive. Chromium, boron, carbon, silicon and aluminium are
commonly mixed with nickel. This lead to formation of hard borides and silicon
carbide which improves wear resistance and hardness. Aluminium, when added to
nickel base alloys further increases the hardness due to the formation of intermetallic
phases (Grunenwald, 1996; Marsden, 1990).
b. Cobalt Based Alloy
Cobalt base super alloys are usually called stellites alloys. When used for alloying,
these alloys are very popularly known for improvement of wear resistance especially
in hostile environments (de Hosson, 1996). Stellite alloy powders are mixtures of
cobalt and other elements like nickel, chromium, tungsten, carbon and molybdenum.
Chromium is added to form carbides and to provide strength to the cobalt matrix
as well as to enhance the resistance against corrosion and oxidation. Tungsten and
molybdenum have large atomic sizes and, therefore, give additional strength to the
matrix. They also form hard brittle carbides. Nickel is added to increase the ductility.
The predominant carbide found in stellites is the chromium rich metal-stable, metal
carbide M7C3 type (M = metal (Cr, Fe, W, Ni)) which is hard and are responsible for
the hardness and wear resistance of stellite alloyed layers (de Hosson 1996). Stellite,
on the benefit of its excellent wear resistance, is usually used on wear proof parts
(Xu et al., 2006). Stellite alloys consist of complex carbides in an alloy matrix and
have exceptional resistance to wear and many forms of mechanical and chemical
degradation over a wide temperature range. These properties of the satellite alloys
are mainly due to the unique inherent characteristics of the hard carbide phase
dispersed in a CoCr alloy matrix. The stellite alloys are usually used for alloying
due to high hardness and good bonding strength with substrate (Sun et al., 2005).
183
c. Iron Based Alloys
The laser alloying of an iron base alloy on an iron base substrate for improvement
of surface properties may not be a common practice. However, a mixture of iron
with other metal powders such as chromium, carbon and manganese or tungsten
has superior wear resistance compared to steIIite 6 (Choi and Mazumder 1994,
Komvopoulos, 1994). This is because these elements form carbides when added
to iron and promote solid solution strengthening. M6C, instead of the M7C3 type
found in stellite alloys, is found in the alloy layer formed by these elements. M6C
carbide is believed to be able to accommodate some nitrogen and it is facilitated by
Mo and N (Lo et al., 2009)
2. Wear Resistance Coating Material: Ceramic Powder
There is a relative ease in laser alloying of metallic and alloy powder onto a metallic
substrate due to the similarities in the properties of the metal powder and the substrate.
In contrast, properties of ceramics and metals, such as the rate of heat conduction
and the coefficient of thermal expansion between metal and ceramic are quite dif-
ferent. There is also poor wettabiIity of ceramics powders to metallic substrates.
Consequently, laser alloying with ceramic materials are with relative difficulty (de
Hosson, 1996). Metallic materials are characterized by high intensity, toughness
and outstanding technology performance, while ceramic materials have distinguish-
ing properties that metals cannot compare with, such as wear-resistance, heat and
erosion-resistance and chemical stability. Hence, a metal substrate alloyed with a
ceramic powder will form a metal matrix composite that will possess a combination
of the superior properties of both metals and ceramics. Metal matrix composites
in general have excellent performance compared with metallic materials because
of the ductile-fracture behavior in addition to high strength and elastic modulus.
3. Wear Resistance Coating Material: Cermets
A cermet is composed of ceramic (cer) and metallic (met) materials and is ideally
designed to have the optimal properties of the ceramic and the metal powders. It
is a common practice to add metal or alloy powders to ceramic powders when the
later is alloyed on to metal. Such practice produces a good compound between the
alloyed layer and substrate and also protects the ceramic phase. The hardness and the
wear resistance for a given cobalt base powder mixture can be further improved by
adding hard particles, such as carbides, nitrides and borides directly to this mixture
(Vollertsen, et al., 2005). For example, tungsten carbide (WC/W2C) is added to a
184
cobalt base powder in order to enhance the abrasive wear resistance. Acker et al.
(2005) investigated the influence of the WC distribution in laser cladded metal matrix
composites on the wear resistance. Tungsten carbide allows no plastic deformation,
the thermal expansion is low and the wettability by molten metal is good. Tungsten
carbide is dissolved by molten cobalt. The dissolution increases with the temperature
of the melt and the interaction time. Depending on the carbon concentration in the
melt, dissolved tungsten carbide crystallizes to WC, or with low carbon concentra-
tions, to W2C or brittle phases such as Co3W3C and Co6W6C. The temperature of
the melt should be as low as possible to prevent the formation of these phases.
PRINCIPLE OF WEAR MITIGATION BY LASER COATING
1. Microstructural Modification and Phase Transformation
The engineering solution to minimize or eliminate surface initiated failure lies in

tailoring the surface composition and/or microstructure of the near surface region
without affecting the bulk (Bommi et al., 2004). Hofmeister et al. (1999) emphasized
the need for the control of microstructural development in order to tailor the proper-
ties of materials for particular applications. According to Majumdar et al. (2011),
besides chemistry, processing route influences the microstructures and properties of
metallic materials significantly. Laser materials processing is one of the emerging
processing (fabrication) routes capable of tailoring the microstructures and hence
properties of metallic materials. This is because nucleation and growth of precipitates
can be enhanced or suppressed during laser processing (Noordhuis and De Hosson
1993). According to Almeida et al (1995), microstructural modifications are often
responsible for an increase in the wear resistance.
Laser surface alloying can cause dynamic grain recrystallization, grain refinement
and homogenization of microstructure. This grain refinement is usually effective
in improving wear resistance. According to Dahotre and Mukherjee (1990), laser
surfacing is both attractive and interesting because of the wide variety of chemical
and microstructural states that can be retained as a result of the rapid quench from the
liquid phase. These include chemical profiles where the alloying element is highly
concentrated near the atomic surface and decreases in concentration over shallow
depths, and uniform profiles where the concentration is the same throughout the
entire melted region. The types of microstructures include extended solid solution,
metastable crystalline phases and metallic glasses. The metallurgical phenomenon
that lead to modification of microstructure by laser surface modification process
include alloy-induced transformations, composite strengthening through production
of second phase particles, or a combination of both.
185
Martukanitz and Babu (2007) investigated the development of advanced wear

and corrosion resistant systems through laser surface alloying and materials simula-
tion. The authors reported a modification of microstructure. The resultant deposit
showed precipitation of primary dendrites, fine ferrite grain size, and fine inter-
dendritic eutectic ferrite microstructure which offers the opportunities for improved
wear performance at relatively low material cost. Tsay et al. (2002) investigated the
impact toughness of 13Cr martensitic stainless steel hardened by laser and reported
that the microstructure of the hardened zone was much finer than that of the base
metal. Embrittle species distributed more uniformly in the refined microstructure.
The improved toughness of the laser-hardened specimen was attributed to the refined
microstructures along the prior austenite grain boundaries in the laser-hardened
zone. Babu et al. (2006) observed a change in microstructure of the hard coatings
produced during laser surface alloying. Some of the microstructures in the laser
deposits exhibit a predominantly martensitic microstructure while some showed
the presence of a fine distribution of carbide particles. These microstructures are
effective in improving wear resistance.
Zhang and Lei (2003) investigated the microstructure and erosive–corrosive wear
(ECW) performance of laser-clad 0.2% C martensitic stainless steel and reported that
the microstructure of the laser alloyed layer consists of austenite and metal carbide.
The authors observed an evolution of dendritic columnar austenite grains that are
surrounded by eutectics in the laser zone which led to increased wear resistance.
2. Formation of Metal Matrix Composite (MMC)
This involves the introduction of additional hard material such as ceramic particles
into the molten pool created on the surface of the substrate by laser. Composite
materials are formed when two or more dissimilar materials with different physi-
cal and mechanical properties combine to produce a final material having superior
properties compared to the individual components. The result is that a microstruc-
ture characterized by hard ceramic particles distributed in a metal matrix with very
strong bonding is formed in the surface layer of the treated metal. This layer on the
top of a metal work-piece is called metal matrix composite (MMC) and it serves
for improving the mechanical and tribological properties. Metal Matrix Compos-
ites (MMCs) is a promising material for wear-resistance applications because of
the excellent combination of the hard ceramic reinforcements and ductile metallic
matrix (Chotěborský, et al 2012). Metal matrix composites (MMCs) combine excel-
lent ductility and toughness of metallic matrices with high strength and hardness of
ceramic reinforcements. Thus MMCs have recently attracted much interest. Metal
matrix composites (MMCs) are a type of composite in which ceramics, such as TiC,
WC and TiB2 with a high melting point and high hardness, are distributed in a metal
186
matrix. In metal matrix composites, hard particles distributed in the matrix cause
an increase in strength, stiffness, wear resistance and decreased density. According
to Casati and Vedani (2014), the particles can improve the base material in terms
of wear resistance, damping properties and mechanical strength. Al2O3, ZrO2, TiN,
TiC and VC are examples of hard particles used as reinforcements in metal matrices.
(Emamian et al., 2011). Metal matrix composites (MMC) reinforced with ceramic
particles has good toughness and wear resistance (Yamaguchi, et al. 2013). According
to Pityana (2009), it is necessary to consider the volume fraction, distribution and
interfacial bonding of the particles with the metallic host matrix when fabricating
MMC for wear application. A significant increase in the wear resistance of the laser
alloyed samples is obtained in laser alloying of X12CrNiMo martensitic stainless
steel due to the homogenoeus dispersion of very hard TiC particles in the crack-free
MMCs thus formed and the refinement of the MMCs (Popoola and Adebiyi, 2011)
3. Precipitation of New Alloy
Laser surface alloying produces new alloy that could not have been produced by
conventional methods (Schwartz, 2002). The process is a non-equilibrium synthesis
method involving fast heating and cooling cycles which produce metastable phases
by exceeding the solid-solubility limit beyond the equilibrium phase diagram;
supersaturation increases due to nonequilibrium solidification. This leads to the
development of a wide variety of microstructure with novel properties that can
not be produced by any conventional processing technique (Da Costa, et al. 2002).
Adebiyi and Popoola (2015) studied the mitigation of abrasive wear damage of Ti–
6Al–4V by laser surface alloying. The authors observed the precipitation of hard
dendrites of titanium aluminide intermetallic and complex phases in the alloyed
zones in addition to the hard reinforcement powder particles. These constituted a
favorable combination in resisting wear damage.
4. Fabrication of Functionally Graded Materials (FGM)
Functionally Graded Materials otherwise known as Functionally Gradient Mate-

rials (FGMs) are essentially two-component composite that is characterized by
compositional gradient. FGMs can be considered as second-generation composite
materials fabricated on a microscopic level to have a smooth spatial variation
of material properties in order to improve the overall composition performance.
Whereas traditional composites are homogenous in composition, FGMs possess a
gradual spatial compositional variation of the composite material in terms of vol-
ume fraction and microstructure. Contrary to traditional composite materials which
187
involve a compromise between the desirable properties of the component materials,

significant proportions of FGMs contain the pure form of each constituent material
which eliminates the need for compromise and ensures the full utilization of the
properties of both components. Therefore, FGMs posses property gradient which
leads to behavioural flexibility. Jamaludin et al. (2013) reported that this property
gradient is influenced by position-dependent chemical composition, microstructure
or atomic orders, and by controlling these factors, the property gradient could be
customized to meet any specific need.
An inexpensive functionally graded material would be more suitable for wear-
resistant applications in automobiles, aerospace and water transport machinery than
traditional materials. This can be found in a FGM comprising of ceramic-metal
combination. Such FGM is a combination of the hard ceramic face on the outer
side, a tough metal face on the back side that can be fitted to a support frame, and a
graded composition from metal to ceramic in between. Thus, a tough ceramic face
is not only enhanced, ceramic-metal debonding is also prevented as the following
unique attributes are combined
• High wear resistance due to the presence of the ceramic phase

• High toughness as a result of impact resistance
• Easy joint ability because it is weldable/boltable to metal supports
Khan (2015) reported that depending on cost savings and expediency, the wide
variety of processes available for the fabrication of functionally graded materials
includes plasma spraying, powder metallurgy, physical vapor deposition and chemical
vapor deposition to mention a few. Although Watanabe and Sato (2011), reported
that the powder metallurgy route is the most important method of producing FGMs,
successful laser fabrication of FGMs have been reported (Qin et al. 2010, Petrov
et al. 2002, Shah et al. (2014), Mahamood et al. 2012. One method to avoid most
of the catastrophic machine failure due to wear is to fabricate FGMs based on the
requirement of the application and proper condition monitoring (Khan, 2015). Roy
and Davim (2015) reported that there has been an extensive effort on the development
of compositionally graded material for wear resistance improvement. A function-
ally graded, hard and wear-resistant coating of Co–Cr–Mo alloy was fabricated on
Ti–6Al–4V alloy using Laser Engineering Net Shaping (LENSTM). This method
is advantageous because of the ability to fabricate graded structures with or with-
out porosity on one side of the structure (Krishna et al. 2008). The laser has been
used to produce a number of wear-resistance functionally graded coatings having
low friction coefficient. This type of structure consists of metal matrix composite
(MMC), in which solid lubricant, such as CuSn, which serves as a ductile matrix is
188
reinforced by appropriate ceramic phase such as WC/Co. Thus the method allows
the fabrication of coatings with tailored properties which shows very good wear
resistance with stable dry friction coefficient (Yakovlev et al. 2004).
CONCLUSION
• Mitigation of wear damage in the industry is of paramount importance be-

cause the economic implications of wear in the industry can be very severe
and the consequences catastrophic.
• Laser surface alloying allows selective modification of the part that is at risk
of wear attack through the application of coating materials. This lead to over-
all cost reduction as compared to replacement of parts.
• Wear resistant coatings by laser application lead to the development of new
alloys with unique features and functional properties on the surface of the
material
• Laser is also advantageous in fabricating a hard, wear-resistant, function-
ally graded coating with tailored properties on the surface of engineering
materials
The authors acknowledge the financial support of the University of Johannesburg

Research funding and Esther Akinlabi acknowledges the Johannesburg Institute of
Advanced Study for the writing fellowship award.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Functionally Graded Materials (FGCMs): Inhomogeneous materials, that are

made up of two or more different types materials fabricated to have a continuously
varying microstructure and spatial composition profile.
Laser: An acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation,
is essentially a coherent, convergent and monochromatic beam of electromagnetic
radiation with wavelength ranging from ultra-violet to infrared.
Laser Surface Alloying: A material processing method in which the high power
density of the focused laser sources is used to melt a portion of a substrate to form
a melt pool into which a coating powder is simultaneously deposited and allowed
to solidify.
Metal Matrix Composite (MMC): A material made from two or more con-
stituent materials of which one is a metal and the other material may be a different
metal or another material, both material having significantly different properties,
which when combined, produce a material with characteristics difference from the
individual components.
195
Wear: Damage to the surface of a solid due to the continuous removal or dis-
placement of material from the surface by virtue of mechanical action of impact,
erosion, metal-to-metal contact, abrasion, oxidation, and corrosion, or a combination
of these leading to dimensional loss of one solid.
Wear Mechanism: The mode of material loss and the complex changes occur-
ring on the surface of the material during wear.
196
197
Chapter 8
Computational Dynamics
of Laser Alloyed Metallic
Materials for Improved
Corrosion Performance:
Computational Dynamics of
Laser Alloyed Metallic Materials
Olawale Samuel Fatoba Gabriel Ayokunle Farotade

Tshwane University of Technology, Tshwane University of Technology,
South Africa South Africa
Abimbola Patricia Idowu Popoola Sisa Lesley Pityana

Tshwane University of Technology, National Laser Centre, South Africa
South Africa
ABSTRACT
Laser alloying is a material processing method which utilizes the high power density
available from defocused laser beam to melt both metal coatings and a part of the
underlying substrate. Since melting occur solitary at the surface, large temperature
gradients exist across the boundary between the melted surface region and under-
lying solid substrate, which results in rapid self-quenching and re-solidifications.
Alloyed powders are deposited in a molten pool of the substrate material to improve
the corrosion resistance of the substrate by producing corrosion resistant coatings.
A 3D mathematical model is developed to obtain insights on the behaviour of laser
melted pools subjected to various process parameters. Simulation with 3D model
with different values of various significant processing parameters such as laser
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-0329-3.ch008
Computational Dynamics of Laser Alloyed Metallic Materials
power, scanning speed and powder feed rate influences the geometry and dynamics
of the melt pool, and cooling rates. It is expected that the melt pool flow, thermal
and solidification characteristics will have a profound effect on the microstructure
of the solidified region.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Laser Phenomenon
The word laser is an acronym that stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation. As said in the definition, laser is light but different from
the normal light that is used on daily basis in terms of the beams they possess. In
laser, the laser beam is much narrower than flash light with only one colour while
the normal light is wide with many different colours (Toma, 2005). Majumdar and
Manna (2003) refer to a laser as a device that consists of three basic components;
an optical system, active medium and pumping source. An optical system or cavity
is also referred to as feedback mechanism consisting of two mirrors placed parallel
to each other forming an optical oscillator. The active medium which can be atoms,
molecules or ions in gaseous state or solid crystal is placed between the mirrors and
the chemical species in the gain medium; it determines the wavelength of the input
through the process of stimulated emission. The pumping source supplies energy to
the gain medium by exciting the laser medium into higher quantum energy levels.
When an external energy is supplied to the irradiated atoms, the atoms attain an
excited state and spontaneously emit a photon. The photons moving along the optic
axis interact with a large number of excited atoms, stimulate them and get amplified.
The process occurs repeatedly creating more photons which exit through the partially
transmitting mirror as intense laser beam as indicated in Figure 1 Eventually the
laser beam is guided to the work piece by the reflective mirrors or optical fibres.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram illustrating the basic principle of lasers (Majumdar

& Manna, 2003)
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1.2. Laser Surface Processing
Compared with other methods of surface modification, laser surface processing is

characterized by possibility of forming alloys of non-equilibrium compositions, for-
mation of a fine microstructure, development of a strong metallurgical bond between
the surface layer and the substrate, a small heat-affected zone and the combination
of a controlled minimal dilution of the substrate by the coating material. It has major
advantages of high productivity, automation worthiness, non-contact processing,
and elimination of finishing operation, reduced processing cost, improved product
quality and greater material utilization. These characteristics and advantages have led
to increasing demand of laser in material processing (Lo, Cheng & Man, 2003:96-
104; Oberlander & Lugscheider, 1992:657-665; Li & Yuan, 1994).
1.3. Laser Surface Treatment
Laser Surface Treatment has a strong impact on classical manufacturing and repair
tasks addressing markets such as turbo machinery, aeronautics, automotive, off-shore
and mining as well as tool, die, and mould making and life science (Kelbassa, 2011).
According to Steen and Mazumdar (2010), laser has some distinctive properties for
surface heating. For opaque materials, such as metals, the laser beam electromagnetic
radiation is absorbed within the first few atomic layers and there are no associated
eddy currents or hot gas jets. Moreover, there is no radiation spillage outside the
optically defined beam area. Compared with other methods of surface modifica-
tion, laser surface engineering is characterized by possibility of forming alloys of
non-equilibrium compositions, formation of a fine microstructure, development
of a metallurgical bond between the surface layer and the substrate, a small heat-
affected zone and the combination of a controlled minimal dilution of the substrate
by the coating material, and nevertheless, a very strong fusion bond between them.
high productivity, automation worthiness, non-contact processing, elimination of
finishing operation, reduced processing cost, improved product quality, greater
material utilization and minimum heat affected zone. These characteristics and
advantages have led to increasing demand of laser in material processing (Lo et al.
2003; Oberlander and Lugscheider, 1992; Li et al. 2011).
1.4. Categories of Lasers
Lasers can be classified according to either the active medium, wavelength and
excitation mechanism. There are various types of lasers used in industries but the
common type of lasers used are gas, solid-state, dye and diode lasers also known
as semiconductor lasers classified according to their active medium.
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1.4.1 Gas Lasers
Gas lasers utilise gas or gas mixture as the active medium. Excitation usually is
achieved by current flow through the gas. During operation, the gas is often in the
state of plasma, containing a significant concentration of electrically charged particles.
Frequently used gases include CO2, argon, krypton, excimer and gas mixtures such as
helium–neon. The most commonly used gas laser in materials processing is the CO2
laser. Carbon dioxide lasers use a gas mixture of CO2, helium (He), nitrogen (N2),
and possibly some hydrogen (H2), water vapour, and/or xenon (Xe) for generating
laser radiation. CO2 lasers emit light with a wavelength of 10.6 µm with an overall
efficiency of 10-13%. Regardless of the low efficiency, the CO2 lasers have a good
beam quality and focusability. They are widely used in engineering and material
processing due to the high power that can be obtained (>5 kW) and the high speed
accuracy for cutting, welding and marking both ferrous and non-ferrous materials.
1.4.2. Solid-State Lasers
Solid-state lasers also called solid crystalline or glass lasers consist of a host and
an active ion doped in the solid host material. The active media used are rare earth
ions such as neodymium, erbium, holmium and transition metals like, chromium,
titanium, nickel and others. The most common utilized ions are Cr3+ and Nd3+ with
the host as YAG (Yttrium Aluminium Garnet), Glass and YLF (Yttrium Lithium
Fluoride). The beam has a wavelength of 1.06 µm. These lasers generate high output
powers, or lower powers with very high beam quality, spectral purity and stability.
These lasers have found major applications in the automotive industry for high speed
welding of body components (Wirth, 2004).
1.4.3 Diode Lasers
Diode lasers also known as Semiconductor lasers are based on semiconductor grain
media, which are diodes that are electrically pumped. They operate on electrical
pumping basis with moderate voltages. High efficiency can be achieved particularly
for high-power diode lasers, and allows their use as pump sources for highly efficient
solid-state lasers and diode-pumped lasers. Diode lasers are much smaller than gas
or solid state lasers in the same power range. They have found major success in
conduction welding, cladding and laser hardening. Their applications are extremely
widespread, including areas as diverse as optical data transmission, optical data
storage, metrology, spectroscopy and materials processing.
200
1.4.4. Dye Lasers
Dye lasers use an organic dye as the gain medium with gain spectrum as available
dye or a mixture of dyes. Dye lasers are normally pumped at short wavelengths with
either a green laser such as argon ion laser; frequency doubled solid state laser or
excimer laser emitting ultraviolet light. The most important feature in dye lasers
is the output wavelength that can be adjusted. Today, they are still used in areas
such as spectroscopy for chemical analysis of gaseous samples due to their distinct
wavelengths which are hard to generate (Labuschagne, 2006).
1.4.5 Fibre Lasers
Fibre lasers belong to the solid state laser group. Laser beam are generated by means
of seed laser and magnify it in specially designed glass fibres, which are supplied
with energy through pump diodes. Fibre lasers with a wavelength of 1.064 µm,
produce an exceedingly small focal diameter; consequently, their intensity is up
to 100-times higher than that of CO2 lasers with the same emitted average power.
Fibre lasers are optimally suited for metal marking via annealing, for high-contrast
plastic markings and for metal engraving. Fibres feature a long service life of at
least 25,000 laser hours and are generally maintenance-free.
1.5. Laser Beam Characteristics
Laser beam characteristics play a very important role in laser material processing.
Laser beam is characterised by several parameters such as laser beam mode, focus-
ability and polarisation. The beam with low divergence angle produces a smaller
focused spot and greater depth of focus (Toyserkani, Khajepour & Corbin, 2005).
The laser energy can be distributed in a uniform or Gaussian distribution over the
laser beam spot area. In order to achieve a good quality beam, it is necessary to
resonate the beam in a chamber where certain distributions of amplitude and phases
of electromagnetic field can be produced due to repeated reflections between the
mirrors (Svelto, 1998). These specific shapes produced in the resonator are called
transverse electromagnetic modes (TEMs). Each TEM is a different energy distribu-
tion across the beam. TEM00 (Gaussian) and TEM01* (created by oscillation between
orthogonal TEM01 modes) are common in industrial lasers.
Another important issue is the reflectivity from the surface of the metal. The
reflectivity is a strong function of laser wavelength and temperature and it varies
from metal to metal. As the temperature increases in the process zone, reflectiv-
ity decreases and absorptivity increases due to an increase in the photon popula-
tion (Steen, 2003), this indicates the potential for more energy absorption by hot
201
material. However, this is only true if the surface conditions remain constant. In
practice, there is often oxidation or phase change which can alter this behaviour of
absorptivity. Laser absorption differs from one material to the other based on the
wavelength of the laser. For example, CO2 laser is very well absorbed in plastics
and plywood while Nd:YAG is poorly absorbed in the same materials. Nd:YAG has
good absorption in steel and non-ferrous metals while CO2 laser is poorly absorbed
in some non-ferrous metals (Berkmanns & Faerber, 2010). Some metals and their
absorptivity in different lasers are shown in Figure 2.
1.6. Lasers in Materials Processing
During laser materials processing, the laser light strikes the surface of the material,
but due to high reflectivity of majority materials to laser radiation a portion of beam
energy is reflected from the material surface, while the rest is transferred into the
material (Brown & Arnold, 2010:91). When the laser interacts with the material
and near surface regions, extreme heating occurs followed by rapid cooling when
the laser is removed, in this way the material is ablated, welded or alloyed depend-
ing on the application. A summary of some of the advantages of using lasers for
surface engineering are as follows:
• A chemically clean light source delivers precisely controlled energy to lo-

calised regions.
Figure 2. Absorption rate of laser radiations in cold metal (Berkmanns & Faerber,
2010)
202
• Fibre optic beam delivery systems and robot manipulation capabilities en-
able the process to be easily automated and provide remote access to the
component.
• The low heat input process gives precise control of geometry and composi-
tion of the modified material.
• Laser beam energy profiles can be tailored to an application, to allow ex-
tremely rapid processing, with minimal or no thermal effect on the substrate
material.
• High processing speeds can produce refined and novel microstructures in the
surface region.
• High process precision allows the possibility of near net shape processing
with tailored properties.
1.7. Influence of Laser Processing Parameters
A large number of process variables such as laser beam, wavelength, beam diameter,
powder feed rate and beam velocity determine the quality of the produced layer.
Physical occurrence of the materials such as material reflectivity, absorptivity of the
powder also plays a significant role in the quality of the layer. The key parameters
that influence the characteristics of the deposited layer are laser power, scanning
speed and powder feed rate (Sun & Hao, 2012:985; Popoola, 2011:18).
1.7.1. Scanning Speed
The scanning speed refers to the speed in which the laser beam travels along the
substrate and this has an effect on the interaction time between the powder and beam
irradiation. The scanning speed is achieved by either moving the laser head against
the fixed substrate, or by moving the substrate against the fixed laser head (Kobryn
& Semiatin, 2000; Choi & Chang, 2005). High scanning speed leads to reduced
amount of powder particles onto the substrate resulting in formation of a thin layer.
It could also result in incomplete processing of the materials, such as improper
melting or no melting at all. Low scanning speed, depending on the laser power,
could result in high dilution or even evaporation of the materials being processed.
1.7.2. Laser Power
The amount of laser energy available on the surface of material being processed
depends on the maximum laser power. Laser power influences the material physi-
cal properties through their microstructural characteristics (Kobryn & Semiatin,
2000; Brandl et al. 2011; Choi & Chang, 2005). A close control of laser power and
203
scanning speed is crucial as it determines the energy density applied to the system.
Optimized parameters are required to achieve a coating with dense microstructure,
good metallurgical bond, which are free from defects. Adequate high laser power
and energy density have been reported to promote fast cooling rates and surface
solidification resulting in refined grained microstructure. However, low laser power
could result in porosity, decrease in melt depth, lack of fusion of the deposit with
the substrate, or even no melting at all.
1.7.3. Powder Feed Rate
The powder flow rate is the amount of material in grams leaving the nozzle in a
unit time. The material flow rate has a considerable effect on the physical, metal-
lurgical, chemical and mechanical properties of the final deposited material, and
on the overall economy of the laser metal deposition (LMD) process (Kobryn &
Semiatin, 2000; Brandl et al. 2011; Wu et al. 2004; Shukla et al. 2012; Lewis &
Schlienger, 2000). According Pityana et al. (2013:02), gradual increase in powder
feed rate causes an increase in the track width, the track height and the deposit
weight. The average micro-hardness of the specimens was seen to increase when
the powder feed rate was increased. If the material flow rate is too high, depending
on the available energy density, most of the material may not be melted because
the available energy density may not be sufficient to melt the material properly and
this would result in poor material utilization.
1.7.4. Laser Beam Diameter
The laser beam diameter is also known as the laser spot size. It is the width of the
laser beam measured at a given focal distance. It is measured at a plane perpendicu-
lar to the beam axis; and it is measured in millimetres. The spot size is inversely
proportional to the laser energy density. Smaller spot size yields larger laser energy
density (Senthilkumaran, Pandey & Rao, 2009; Steen, 1998).
1.7.5. Gas Flow Rate
The gas flow rate is the powder carrier gas flow rate. The powder is delivered through
the carrier gas that protects the powder from environmental contamination. The gas
flow rate has also been found to affect the properties of the deposited part (Bi et al.
2006; Erzincanh & Ermurat, 2005; Pityana et al. 2013). The gas flow rate should not
be too low, in order to provide better protection for the powder; and neither should
it be too high, so as not to blow the powder away from the melt pool.
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1.7.6. Overlap Percentage
In the multiple track deposition process, the overlap percentage is the percentage of
the preceding track that is covered by the succeeding track. The shape of a single
track is dome-shaped and a certain overlap percentage is necessary to prevent poros-
ity, and to achieve a high-dense part (Schneider, 1998). It is important to have the
right combination of parameters to achieve the desired properties.
1.7.7. Dilution Rate
Dilution quantifies the relative amount of molten substrate material that has mixed
with the alloying material. When a laser beam irradiates both the deposited layer
and the substrate, elements of the substrate are introduced into the deposited layer
and alter the properties of the coating (Von Wielligh, 2008:93). The main process
parameters that influences dilution rate are laser power, the laser scanning veloc-
ity, the powder feed rate and the carrier gas volume flow rate. Dilution has been
reported to be important factor which influences the properties and performance of
the deposited coating. According to Yang (2003:05), high dilution and overheating
are undesirable compounds that lead to a decrease in microhardness and wear re-
sistance of coatings. Overheating also increases the distortion and residual stresses,
which may cause micro-cracking in the coating.
1.8. INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENT LASERS
Lasers are preferable tools compared with the other traditional ones. They are widely
used in industry for cutting, welding, surface treatments, and drilling, especially in
the automobile industry in developed countries (Steen et al. 1981). Most car frames
are produced by laser cutting on a programmed robot assembly line. Also many car
components are laser treated or processed. Moreover, lasers are also functionally
used for medical purposes for short sight correction, and cancer operations. Other
applications such as those used for communications, data transmission, internet
backbones, and audio vision home appliances are increasingly used in daily life.
Table 1 shows industrial application of different lasers.
2. THE MECHANISM OF HEAT TRANSFER IN LASER

PROCESSING
Heat is defined as energy transferred by virtue of a temperature difference. It flows

from a high temperature region to a low temperature region. Heat transfer is used
205
Table 1. Industrial applications of different lasers
Type of Laser Wavelength Areas of Application

Carbon dioxide (CO2) 10.6 µm Material processing, surgery etc.
Dye laser 390-640 nm Medicine, Birth mark removal
Nd: YAG 1.064 µm Material processing
Nd: Glass 1.062 µm Velocity and length measurement
Excimer 193 nm Laser surgery
Ruby 694.3 nm Tattoo removal, Holography
Hydrogen fluoride 2.7-2.9 µm Laser weapon
Helium-neon 632 nm Holography, spectroscopy
Argon 454.6 nm Lithography, spectroscopy
to predict the energy transfer taking place in the material bodies, which result from
the temperature difference. There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction,
convection, and radiation (Callen, 1960; Holman, 1989a; Ingo, 1985a; Ingo, 1985b).
2.1. Conduction Heat Transfer
Conduction is transfer of the energy from high temperature region to the low tem-
perature region in a body. In this situation, a temperature gradient will be formed,
and heat is transferred by conduction. The rate of heat transfer per unit area is
proportional to the normal temperature gradient:
∂T
q = − KA (1)
∂x
This is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction. The positive constant k is the
thermal conductivity of the material. The negative sign is included to ensure that
heat flows in the direction of decreased temperature. q is the rate of heat transfer
∂T
and is the temperature gradient in the direction of the heat flow. The unit of
∂x
thermal conductivity k is W/m/K. Similarly, heat conduction rate equation can be
written in y and z directions. In general, the heat flux is a vector quantity and ex-
pressed as:

q = − k ∇T (2)
206
q = Local heat flux density, W/m2

k = Thermal conductivity of material, W/m/k
∇T = Temperature gradient, K/m
2.2. Convection Heat Transfer
Convection heat transfer is related to the transfer of heat from a bounding surface
to a fluid in motion, or to the heat transfer across a flow plane within the interior of
the flowing fluid. If the fluid motion is induced by the fan, blower, pump or some
other similar device, the process is called forced convection. If the fluid motion
occurs as a result of the density difference produced by the temperature difference
the process is called free or natural convection (Holman, 1989b). The velocity of the
fluid motion obviously influences the heat-transfer rate. Thus, the defining equation
of convection heat transfer is:
q = hA(Tw − T∞ ) (3)
The symbol h is called the convection heat-transfer coefficient. An analytical

calculation of h may be made for some systems, but for complex situations it must
be determined experimentally. The units of convection heat-transfer coefficient h
are in watts per square meter per Celsius degree when the heat flow is in watts.
Convection heat transfer will have a dependence on the viscosity of the fluid in ad-
dition to its dependence on the thermal properties of the fluid (for example: thermal
conductivity, specific heat, density).
2.3. Radiation Heat Transfer
In the conduction and convection heat transfer system, the energy transfer passes
through a material medium. However, in the radiation heat transfer system, heat
energy can be transferred through the perfect vacuum regions. The mechanism
involved is electromagnetic radiation that is propagated as a result of a temperature
difference, this is called thermal radiation. Thermal radiation is electromagnetic
radiation emitted by a body by virtue of its temperature and at the expense of its
internal energy. Thermal radiation has same nature to the visible light, x-rays, and
audio waves. The differences between these are their wavelengths and the source of
generation. From thermodynamic consideration, an ideal thermal radiator or black-
body that emits energy, its rate is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute
temperature of the body and directly proportional to its surface area. Thus:
207
qemitted = σ AT 4 (4)
q = Heat transfer per unit time (W)

σ = 5.669x10-8 W/m2K4
T = Absolute temperature, Kelvin (K)
This equation is the Stefan-Boltzmann law of thermal radiation. It governs only

radiation emitted by a blackbody (Holman, 1989b). The equation is valid only for
thermal radiation and may not be treated for other types of electromagnetic radiation
so simply. Letter σ is the proportionality constant and is called the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant with the value of 5.669 x 10-8 W/m2K4.
3. LASER SURFACE MODIFICATION TECHNIQUES
Laser surface techniques have attracted industries owing to the possibility of accurate
control of the area where laser radiation is delivered, as well the amount and rate of
energy deposition. The flexibility of control of the beam’s interaction with regard to
wavelength, energy density and interaction time, and the wide choice of interaction
environments has led to the significant developments of laser technology such as
laser welding, drilling, alloying, cladding and etc. (Kusinki et al. 2012:711). The
laser’s ease of automation and robotic manipulation capability also makes laser sur-
face technique very suitable for repair activities in extreme or remote environments,
such as under water or in areas with radioactive contamination (Mondal et al. 2008).
3.1. Laser Surface Hardening
Laser surface hardening (LSH) is a method of producing hard wear resistant surface
layer by inducing transformation through the heating effect of the laser beam. The
surface regions exposed to laser are heated rapidly while the surrounding material
acts as an efficient heat sink leading to rapid quenching and martensitic hardening
without affecting the bulk material. It is widely used in industry for materials which
do not harden as a result of martensitic transformation. Examples of components
that can be laser hardened are camshafts, power steering housing, diesel cylinder
liner bores, gear teeth and automobile valve guides and seats.
3.2. Laser Surface Melting
Laser surface melting (LSM) is a well-established technology applied to many mate-

rials for hardening, reducing porosity and increasing wear and corrosion resistance.
208
LSM is a versatile and promising technique that can be used to modify the surface
properties of a material without affecting its bulk property (Yue et al. 2004; Rams
et al. 2007). The modification attained in the surface properties of the materials
is due to rapid melting followed by rapid solidification as shown in Figure 3. The
intimate contact between the melt and the solid substrate causes a very fast heat
extraction during solidification resulting in very high cooling rates of the order of
105 to 108 k/s. The high cooling rates to which this surface layer is subjected result
in the formation of different microstructures from bulk metal leading to improved
surface properties (Pinto et al. 2003).
3.3. Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD)
A continuous wave laser beam is irradiated on a target in a vacuum chamber. The

target is placed on a travelling holder and inclined to the beam axis, while the sub-
strate is fixed and held parallel to the target. The laser beam vapourizes material
from the target, which is deposited on the substrate as shown in Figure 4. Applica-
tions of the technique range from the production of superconducting and insulating
circuit components to improved wear and biocompatibility for medical applications.
However, optimization can require a considerable amount of time and effort. Indeed,
much of the early research into PLD concentrated on the empirical optimization of
deposition conditions for individual materials and applications, without attempting
to understand the processes occurring as the material is transported from target to
substrate (Krebs et al. 2001).
Figure 3. Laser surface melting of a substrate (Pinto et al. 2003)
209
3.4. Laser Cladding
Laser cladding involves heating and cooling of metallic materials to alter their
physical and mechanical properties without changing the product shape and is
often associated with increasing strength of material. Laser cladding ensures that
the coating fuses to the substrate with minimal dilution. This is because it is more
energy efficient with better process control and reproducibility (Villar, 1999:64).
The alloy powder mixture is delivered from the feeder to the substrate area by the
use of carrier gas and gravitational force. Subsequently, it is directed to the melt
pool by a co-axial or lateral powder feeding nozzle. The energy supplied by the
laser beam can be effectively controlled to allow complete melting of the injected
powder with minimal dilution (Mordike, 1997:357; Kathuria, 2000:262; Shepeleva
et al. 2000:45).
3.5. Laser Surface Alloying
Laser surface alloying (LSA) is a unique method where external alloying elements
in form of powder, paste, suspension, electrolytic coatings and plasma or flame
sprayed coatings are introduced into the surface of a substrate, as pre-placed addi-
tion material or injected directly into the melt pool, treated by a high power laser
beam (Brytan, Bonek & Dobrzanski, 2010). In LSA, the melting, intermixing and
solidification occurs rapidly only at the surface, the bulk of the material remains
cool, thus serving as an infinite heat sink. Large temperature gradients exist across
the boundary between the melted surface region and the underlying solid substrate,
which results in rapid self-quenching and resolidification (Wirth, 2004:51).
Laser surface alloying (LSA) is increasingly more recognized as a powerful sur-
face modification tool to improve the wear and corrosion resistance of engineering
components. The particles introduced in the interaction zone completely dissolve
in the liquid phase, thereby modifying the surface layer chemical composition
(Li, Chen & Zhang, 2011; Kwok et al. 2003). The distinctive advantages of the
LSA technique for surface modification are now well acknowledged and include
the refinement of the grain size because of rapid quench rates and the generation
of meta-stable structures with novel properties that are not feasible by competing
methods (Kwok, Cheng & Man, 2006; Dobrzanski et al. 2007).
The distinctive advantages of the LSA technique for surface modification include
the refinement of the grain size because of rapid quench rates and the generation
of meta-stable structures with novel properties that are not feasible by competing
methods and laser surface alloying (LSA) modifies the surface morphology and near
surface structure of components and its alloys with perfect adhesion to the interface
of the bulk steel (Kwok et al. 2006; Dorbrzanski et al. 2007). With optimal laser
210
processing parameters, a dependable coating that is free of pores and cracks can be
produced on the matrix. LSA can rapidly provide a crack-free and thick layer in all
instances with metallurgical bonds at the boundary between the substrate and alloyed
layer (Fagagnolo et al. 2013). In LSA, external alloying elements in form of powder,
paste, suspension, electrolytic coatings and plasma or flame sprayed coatings are
introduced into the surface of a substrate, as pre-placed addition material or injected
directly into the melt pool, treated by a high power laser beam (Brytan, Bonek & Do-
brzanski, 2010). The particles introduced in the interaction zone completely dissolve
in the liquid phase, thereby modifying the surface layer chemical composition (Li,
Chen & Zhang, 2011; Kwok et al. 2003). The result of this is rapid self quenching
and resolidification of new alloy due to the large temperature gradients between the
substrate and melted surface region (Wirth, 2004:51). Evolution of a wide variety
of microstructures is one of the consequences as a result of the rapid cooling from
the liquid phase (Adebiyi et al. 2014; Wei et al. 2013). Hence, the synthesis of
new alloy is possible by depositing a premixed ratio of elemental powders during
laser alloying. Powders alloyed on worn or new working surfaces of components
by LSA provide specific properties such as erosion resistance, corrosion resistance,
high abrasive wear resistance, heat resistance and combinations of these properties.
Consequently, safety in automotive and aerospace applications and improvements
in machinery performance can be realized by the method (Yakovlev et al. 2004).
According to Poulon-Quintina et al. (2012), laser beams can generate specific mi-
crostructures including nano-crystalline grains and metastable phases because of
specific thermal characteristics induced by laser irradiation. Laser processing offers
cost advantages and exceptional and important quality over traditional techniques.
These include process compactibility, low porosity, high throughput speed, high
process efficiency, and good surface homogenity. In addition, the formation of a
amorphous or non- equilibrium phase as well as refinement and homogenization of
the microstructure, all without affecting the bulk properties of the substrate (Zhou
et al. 2014; Sugioka and Cheng, 2014) as shown in Figure 5.
4. THE MECHANISM OF LASER SURFACE ALLOYING
Laser alloying uses a focused laser beam as a heat source to create a melt pool on
an underlying substrate. Powder material is then injected into the melt pool through
nozzles. The incoming powder is metallurgically bonded with the substrate upon
solidification. Laser alloying is a process similar to cladding except that another
component of the alloy is injected into the molten pool of substrate. Alloying requires
a greater laser power density than cladding. The process starts with melting of a
substrate by laser irradiation. On the surface of a melt, there is temperature distri-
211
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of laser alloying experimental process (www.twi-

global.com)
bution, T, which results in the surface tension distribution, γ, as shown in Figure 4.

The convection movement of the melt pool is caused by the surface tension which
pulls the materials from the centre. When solid particles are injected into the melt
pool, the convection permits good mixing with the substrate material. The particles
are melted, and reaction with the substrate can take place. The reaction slows down
and stops soon after the laser beam moves to the next position. The subsequent
rapid cooling of the melt makes it possible to form metastable or high-temperature
phases as the product of the reaction. However, cooling rapidly can also be slowed
by lowering of laser beam speed over the substrate.
Figure 4. Pulsed laser deposition (Gao et al. 2007)
212
Solidification of the remelted materials and convections motions in the laser

melt pool decides the final distribution of the alloying element in the remelted zoned
and a big temperature gradient. The powder is either introduced directly by the
nozzle during alloying, or applied as paste which dries up on the specimen surface,
and then subjected to alloying. This makes it possible to develop an alloy with bi- or
multi-component structure. Moreover, a high degree of adhesion is obtained between
the substrate and the coating, and the rapid self cooling made possible by heat re-
moval to the cold substrate is responsible for the development of advantageous,
fine-grained and novel microstructures (Dobrzański et al. 2007:235-238; Kwok,
Cheng & Man, 2006:3544; Chande & Mazumda, 1983:181).
Laser surface alloying is generally used to improve hardness, wear as well as
corrosion resistance, and some other surface characteristics of individual products.
Figure 6 shows a schematic diagram of a typical laser surface alloying process. As
shown in the figure, a laser beam moving with a constant scanning speed in the
horizontal direction and having a defined power distribution strikes the surface of
an opaque material, and a part of the energy is absorbed. A thin melt pool forms on
the surface due to laser heating. Simultaneously, a powder of a different material is
fed into the pool, which mixes with the molten substrate by convection and diffu-
sion. As the laser source moves away from a location, resolidification of the zone
occurs, leading to a final microstructure of the alloyed surface. During laser surface
alloying, as the heat source interacts with the molten substrate, several complex
phenomena such as melting, vapourization pase changes, Marangoni convection,
mixing of the powder feed, alloy solidification, heat and mass transfer, moving heat
source and resulting microstructural evolution occur.
Figure 6. Surface Temperature (T) and Surface Tension (γ) Distribution across a
Laser Melted Pool (Pawlowski, 1999).
213
5. TRANSPORT PHENOMENA IN LASER ALLOYING PROCESS
The laser processing of a metallic surface involves the phase change in the surface
region. Depending on the settings of the laser output parameter (e.g., the duty cycle
and the power intensity, the laser scanning speed, and the material properties) the
depth of melt pool can be controlled, which is necessary for practical laser surface
treatment applications. Moreover, the numerical simulation of the laser processing
pertinent to the surface treatment gives insight into the temperature field, which is
difficult to measure accurately during processing. Consequently, investigating the
numerical simulation of the laser surface treatment process and the predictions of
temperature field and the melt pool size is essential. A number of studies have been
conducted to examine the laser-induced melting process. The phase change, includ-
ing the melting in relation to the laser drilling, was examined by Zhang and Faghri
(1999), who determined that the losses from the melt pool due to the conduction
heat transfer reduce the melt pool depth. Numerical modeling and experimental
investigation of the molten pool characteristics during the laser processing were
carried out by Yang et al. (2001), who showed that the Marangoni flow carries
hot fluid from the free surface toward the bottom of the melt pool. A study on
momentum, heat, and mass transfer in a laser surface alloying process was carried
out by Sarkar et al. (2002). Their results indicated that the species concentration
distribution inside the molten pool could be predicted during the alloying process.
The transport phenomenon in the laser surface alloying was investigated by Raj et
al. (2001), who determined that the melting of the alloying element is not instanta-
neous and cannot be modeled as a species mass flux boundary condition on the free
surface. Analyses of the laser heating and melting were carried out by Tami et al.
(2003). They presented the analytical model for the dross adhesion at the laser cut-
ting section, providing information on the kerf geometry and the heat-affected zone.
Laser-induced melting, vaporization, and re solidification in metals were studied
by Chung and Das (2004). They derived the relation for the times needed to initiate
melting, achieve vaporization, and reach the maximum melting depth during the
laser heating pulse. The laser melting of ceramics was studied by Li et al. (2004),
who showed that the model incorporating the volumetric heating source is more
accurate in the prediction of the melting process than the than the surface heating
source model. The influence of the laser beam geometry on the laser transformation
hardening of steel was investigated by Safdar et al. (2007), who indicated that the
triangular beam geometry produced the best thermal history to achieve improved
transformation hardening and highest hardness without sacrificing the processing
rate and hardening depths. The melting and re solidification of a subcooled powder
particle caused by the laser nanosecond heating pulse were examined by Konrad et
214
al. (2007). They used an integral approximate method to predict the location of the
solid-liquid interface during the heating process.
(Sahoo and DebRoy, 1988; Uglov et al. 1992; Smurov et al. 1992; Antonova
et al. 1998; Yuan et al. 2002; He et al. 2003) reported the history of the study of
the influence imposed by the surface tension gradient on the convection character
at metals melting by laser radiation extends over several decades. However, many
fundamental aspects still remain unexplained. Among them are the mechanisms of
capillary thermal-concentration convection manifestation and resulting instability of
microflows of laser alloying as reported (Uglov et al. 1992; Smurov et al. 1992). The
laser alloying is widely applied for the modification of units surface and improve-
ment of their operation properties such as hardness, thermal and wear resistance,
antifrictionality, corrosion resistance, etc. Alloying elements are either preliminary
applied on the material surface (as a coating or powder layer) and then penetrate into
it during the fusion, or are injected into the melt by a gas flow. The processes in the
surface layer of metals initiated by the laser radiation have been studied for quite
a long time (Uglov et al. 1992; Smurov et al. 1992; Antonova et al. 1998; Yuan et
al. 2002; He et al. 2003). The thermal-capillary convection so called “Marangoni
convection” is commonly known to be one of the governing factors dictating the
laser alloying quality. At the same time, some investigations prove the influence
of admixtures in the melt on the surface tension temperature gradient; in turn, the
character of thermal hydrodynamic flows, admixture distribution in the resulting
liquid casting pipe, this pipe shape, and surface layer structure after cooling highly
depends on this gradient.
In laser molten pool, there are three important physical processes of heat transfer,
mass transfer and convection. It is shown that energy transfer determines the rate of
heating and cooling, convection and mass transfer determine the extent of mixing
and final composition. Specially, convection in laser molten pool can strongly affect
the quality of laser alloying, welding and cladding. Some computer simulations of
heat transfer and mass transfer have been reported (Chande and Mazumder, 1983;
Yang, 1990). In recent work, some new phenomena of convection in laser molten
pool have been observed (Chen, 1998; Masami et al. 2004; Batteh et al. 1999;
Fulrich et al. 1999). In order to examine convection mechanism in theory, 3D com-
puter simulation of convection and transfer heat in laser molten pool is needed. The
main physical process in laser molten pool requires some of the incident beam to
be absorbed while the rest is reflected. If the absorbed heat exceeds the threshold,
the molten pool will be developed. In static melting, molten pool shape and absorb-
ability are constant. Two driving forces for fluid flow in laser pool are the surface
tension gradient and the buoyancy force.
Yilbas and Hashmi, (2000) reported the influence of melt layer thickness for
sound laser processing of surfaces, which can lead to improved tribological proper-
215
ties of the surface. In the melt layer, a flow field is developed due to the Marangoni
effect. The convection current developed in the melt pool influences the rate of
heat transfer while modifying the melt pool size and the mushy zone thickness.
This, in turn, influences the laser melting process and the resulting surface quality.
Consequently, investigation into the laser melting of the surfaces and marangoni
effect is essential. Considerable research studies had been carried out to examine
the laser heating process and the phase change in the irradiated region (Hoashi
et al. 2002; Ajaev and Willis, 2006; Chodhury and Hu, 2003; Rohde et al. 2006;
Chakraborty et al. 2004; Huang et al. 2010). Heat transfer analysis pertinent to the
laser melting process was carried out by Basu and Date (1990). They indicated
that two contrarotating cells in the molten pool were developed. The phase change
and conduction heating in relation to laser drilling was investigated by Zhang and
Faghri (1999). They indicated that the conduction heat loss significantly reduced
the thickness of the liquid layer, which became the recast layer after the completion
of drilling. Temperature distribution and the melt pool size due to the laser heating
were investigated by Rostami and Raisi (1997). They showed that the melt pool size
was affected with the translation speed of the laser beam. The momentum, heat,
and mass transfer in a laser surface alloying process were investigated by Sarkar
et al. (2002). They assessed the influences of laser power, scanning speed, and
powder feed-rate on geometry and dynamics of the pool and species concentration
distribution in the irradiated region. The melt pool formation in laser processing
of steel was carried out by Yang et al. (2001). They analyzed the effects of heat
conduction and Marangoni flow on the melt pool formation. An analytical model
for the evaluation of the melt film geometry in laser cutting of steel was introduced
by Tani et al. (2003). They introduced the criterion governing the melt formation
and rejection in terms of the laser processing parameters. The material removal
mechanisms in the fusion cutting process were examined by Quintero et al. (2006).
They obtained the temporal evaluation of molten layer thickness through adopting
the conservation equations. The analysis of solid-liquid phase change due to laser
pulse heating was carried out by Krishnan et al. (2007). They showed that when
metal foam was in the phase changing environment, the heat transfer process was
conduction dominated irrespective of the heat source pulse width. Laser heating and
phase change process was investigated by Yilbas and Mansoor (2006). They showed
that the recoil pressure attained the high values in the early heating period due to
the rapid evaporation of the cavity surface. The effects of nonconventional laser
beam geometries on the melting of metallic materials were examined by Safdar et
al. (2006). They indicated that the laser beam geometries did not have a significant
effect of the resulting melt characteristics due to the high thermal conductivity of
metals. Melting of a sub-cooled metal power particle subjected to a nanosecond
laser heating was investigated by Konrad et al. (2007). They showed that laser power
216
intensity was the most important processing parameter on the phase change in the
irradiated region. The laser heating and the phase change process in the irradiated
region was studied earlier (Bin-Mansoor and Yilbas, 2006; Shuja et al. 2009).
However, the studies were limited to either two-dimensional axisymmetric heating
situations or moving heat source model without including the Marangoni effect.
However, the convective current generated in the melt pool due to the Marangoni
flow modifies temperature found in the melt pool.
6. NUMERICAL MODELING IN LASER SURFACE TREATMENT
(Didenko, 2006; Didenko et al. 2006; Didenko et al. 2004) studied in details the
laser alloying process of high purity iron with 40µm Cr electrolytically predeposited
on the sample surface. The authors have used the CW CO2 laser generating TEM10
Gaussian mode with an output power of 2kW and 2.5kW focused to the diameter of
3mm and constant speed of the work table set to 18.4 mm/s. The process was carried
out in an argon atmosphere. For the process modelling a multiphase mathematical
model of the laser re-melting of high purity iron with a pre-deposited chromium
layer was used resulting from solution of the partial differential equations for con-
servation of energy, mass and momentum. The FLUENT program was used for
numerical modelling of the fluid flow and mass transfer in the molten pool during
laser alloying. Finite element mesh used to simulate alloying process was prepared
with the GAMBIT program. The numerical results, predicted the final composition
in the solidified alloy, Didenko et al. (2006) and Didenko et al. (2004) compared
with corresponding experimental results and the agreement they found was good.
The non-uniform chromium distribution (the presence of high chromium concen-
tration fields near the solid/liquid interface) is caused by a multidirectional liquid
material movement, which is due to the presence of few vortexes in the melted
pool. The presence of vortexes in the liquid is caused by the non-uniform energy
distribution in the laser beam (TEM10 mode), which directly influences the mass
transport kinetics and gives rise to the final dimension and shape of the melted
pool, its microstructure and, consequently, properties of the resolidified material.
Subrata et.al. (2011) studied Ni-Cr-Mo Cladding on Mild Steel Surface using
CO2 Laser and Process Modelling with Response Surface Methodology (RSM). An
anti-corrosive powder mixture of Ni, Cr and Mo with a selected ratio is deposited
as a thin layer on the mild steel plate with the help of 3.5 kW CO2 laser. Experi-
ments were performed according to L9 Taguchi orthogonal array. The study of the
influence of process parameters on responses and process optimization to find the
optimal input parameters combination by expecting the improved clad quality was
also studied. Based on experimental data, a mathematical model was developed
217
to find the relationship between process input parameter and responses. It was
discovered that there is a high degree of approximation between the experimental
results and predicted one. The results of the experiment were extended to develop
the regression model using response surface methodology (RSM). Multi-objective
optimization was done to find out the optimal parametric setting to achieve desired
clad bead dimension with aspect ratio ≤ 15, during laser cladding process. The
optimization result showed that at laser power of 1.014 kW, scan speed of work
table at 0.475 mm/min, and powder feed rate of 8.807 g/min, both the responses
clad height and clad width are optimized at 0.25 mm and 3.85 mm respectively.
From the regression model, scan speed of work table and powder feed rate were
the most significant parameters in laser cladding process. It was concluded that the
range of these parameters should be selected carefully, because the clad quality was
very sensitive to these responses. The response surface methodology was found to
be effective for the identification of key process parameters and development of
significant relationship between the process variables and response.
Onan, Baynal and Unal (2015) investigated the optimization of induction hard-
ened AISI 1040 steel by experimental design method and material characterization
analysis Martensite formation was observed application as a result of non-diffusion
transformation after induction hardening. At this period, there were three chosen
factors such as power supplied, scan rate, distance between work piece and coil,
which affected material properties. Developed response variables such as surface
hardness and case depth were determined after the experiments were done in the
industrial conditions. Data were taken by Taguchi method using L27 experiment
orthogonal arrays table. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was employed with the
help of data taken and the regression equation was determined. As a result of these
experiments and analyses, the optimization of the process conditions for induc-
tion hardened steel was investigated. As a consequence of the optimization, micro
structural characterization using Light microscopy was carried out to determine the
effects of the hardness from the outer surface to the centre and nevertheless trans-
formations associated with structural changes are investigated and so that results
are determined. The optimization studies of induction hardening were performed
and hardness and case depth were measured and analyzed. When the results were
compared, power ratio, scan rate and intersections were more effective than other
factors. The selection of higher power ratio and lower scan rate affected micro
structural transformation during hardening process. As a result of applying higher
power ratio or lower scan rate, induction hardening allowed high surface hardness.
A hard phase, called martensite, was not 100% observed on the Light microscopy.
Micro structural characterization showed that four different region from surface to
inner surface, was called martensite, pearlite and ferrite respectively.
218
Kochure and Nandurkar (2012) applied the use of the Taguchi method of ex-
perimental design with L9 orthogonal for selection of optimum process parameters
of induction hardening of EN8 D steel. Orthogonal arrays L9, Signal to Noise ratio,
analysis of variance (ANOVA) were applied to study, performance characteristics
of induction hardening process. Hardness and case depth has been considered as
performance characteristics. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) of response vari-
ables showed a significant influence of process variable power and heating time.
The experimental investigation showed the effects of process parameters such as
power, heating time on hardness and case depth pattern achieved on work piece. The
optimum parameter found were 14 kW power and heating time 4 sec, power is the
most influential parameter. Further multiple regression equations were formulated
for estimating predicted values of hardness and case depths at various locations
such as case depths at outer & inner vertical, top and centre portion of slots for a
specified range. The results obtained by regression equations closely co-relate each
other which validate the regression equation developed.
Averyanova et.al. (2012) investigated the effect of main process parameters on
single lines and single layers manufactured from 17-4 PH martensitic powder using
SLM technology. This statistical approach aimed to identify the impact of influence
factors, such as laser power, scanning speed, layer thickness and hatch distance, on
objective functions for a single fused track (1D object), such as width, height of a
track and a dilution zone, contact angle, and for a single fused layer (2D objects)
such as roughness and geometrical characteristics. The methodology was applied
to explore SLM process was the following: on the first step of the experimental
design approach, among a big number of process parameters values the optimal set
of parameters can be quickly determined by the complex objective function. The
obtained results showed that in order to manufacture stable, regular single tracks
and dense single layers the finest 17-4 PH powder– D90, 15mm (Powder1) should
be applied. This powder possesses the most important specific area that mainly
depends on powder shape and particle size distribution. The greater surface area of
fine particles led to high melting activity and, by consequence, to a higher melting
rate. As a result, it was concluded that the use of finer powder was favourable for the
specific Phoenix System SLM machine. The layer thickness had the most significant
effect on the properties of the fused section of the powder bed (density, roughness).
A range of researchers carried out their extensive research work using CO2 la-
ser to investigate the laser coating performance on corrosion and wear behaviour.
Kathuria (1997) presented a study of laser cladding process in both stationary and
scanning beam modes with the laser cladding of satellite six on mild steel and
Cr-Ni materials. The effects of the various parameters such as input power, beam
interaction time, scanning frequency and traverse speed were considered. Shepeleva
et al. (2000) presented a comparison between the laser cladding process in which
219
the method of direct injection of cladding powder into the melt pool is used and
plasma cladding process. They captured optical and SEM photographs of cross
section of clad-substrate interface. It was found that the laser cladded zone has
a smooth interface with the substrate, which prevents stress concentration at the
clad-substrate interface during application. They also concluded that laser cladded
zone; unlike the plasma treated surfaces are free of micro cracks and pores. Chrys-
solouris et al. (1998) performed an experimental investigation on laser cladding
with aluminium alloy as substrate and copper based powder as cladding material.
The process parameters of their experiments had been powder feed rate (g/min),
process speed (mm/min) and gas supply (l/h). They observed that the process speed
did not affect dilution depth while increasing powder feed rate might have a nega-
tive effect on performance. They concluded that in order to achieve an optimum
clad result, in terms of increased clad depth and minimum alloying zone, powder
feed rates should be kept low and process speed should be high. Meng et al. (2005)
conducted powder laser cladding experiments in order to improve wear resistance
of titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V substrate) using NiCoCrAlY powder. The process
parameters of this process were laser power (750 W), scanning speed (3-7 mm/s)
and laser beam diameter (Φ3 mm). They observed that with high laser scanning
speed, thick preplaced powder layer could not be melted completely and the qual-
ity of the coating was poor. They concluded that with the preplaced NiCoCrAlY
powder, a laser cladding on Ti-6Al-4V surface without cracks and pores could be
obtained and micro hardness of the surface is two times higher than that before
cladding. Davim et al (2007) performed experimental study on geometric form of
clad layer. They examined the effect of processing parameters such as laser power,
scanning velocity and powder mass flow rate on clad height, clad width and depth
penetration into the substrate. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to
investigate the influence of processing parameters in the form of single cladding
layer and hardness of coating. They also presented a prediction of laser clad geom-
etry for coaxial laser cladding process (6 kW continuous CO2 laser) through linear
multiple regression analysis. They concluded that clad height increased with powder
mass flow rate and laser power and decreased with scanning velocity. The depth of
penetration increased with laser power and powder mass flow rate. The clad width
increased with powder mass flow rate. The present work investigates the parametric
effects of laser cladding parameters such as laser power, scan speed and powder feed
rate on performance evaluation parameters namely clad height and clad width and
a process optimization for the selection of optimal parameters combination using
response surface methodology (RSM). The result of optimization can be used to set
the process parameters at optimum level for the better clad quality during laser clad-
ding operation. The result obtained through RSM technique can also be compared
with other optimization method like genetic algorithm, scatter search approach etc.
220
Ermuat et.al (2013) studied process parameters investigation of a laser-generated

single clad for minimum size using design of experiments. The aim of the study was
to investigate the effecst of four important process parameters (i.e. laser focal distance,
travel speed, feeding gas flow rate and standoff distance) on the size of single clad
geometry created by coaxial nozzle-based powder deposition by high power laser.
Design of experiments (DOE) and statistical analysis methods were both used to
find optimum parameter combinations to get minimum sized clad, i.e. clad width
and clad height. Factorial experiment arrays were used to design parameter combi-
nations for creating experimental runs. This procedure was somehow complicated
in understanding the effects of the selected problem parameters on the outcome.
Therefore, DOE methodologies were utilized so that the operation can be better
modelled/understood and automated for real life applications. The study also gives
future direction for research based on the presented results. Taguchi optimization
methodology was used to find out optimum parameter levels to get minimum sized
clad geometry. Response surface method was used to investigate the nonlinearity
among parameters and variance analysis was used to assess the effectiveness level
of each problem parameters. The overall results showed that wisely selected four
problem parameters had the most prominent effects on the final clad geometry.
Minimum clad size was achieved at higher levels of gas flow rate, travel speed and
standoff distance and at minimum spot size level of the laser focal distance.
Influence of the process parameters was experimented to be able to produce
minimum sized clads created by laser assisted direct metal part fabrication system
using DOE and statistical analysis methods. Several process parameters affect the
size of the clad geometry. Laser focal distance, standoff distance, gas flow rate and
travel speed were investigated and the conclusions can be written as follow: Laser
energy intensity is varying at different levels of laser focal distance because the
size of the laser spot is changing at each level; results changing of the intensity of
the penetrated energy to the substrate. Travel speed relates to the interaction time
between laser spot and substrate material which affects the clad size since dominat-
ing the size of the molten pool. Higher travel speeds shorten the interaction time
and make the clad size small. Clad size reduces with the increase of the standoff
distance. The effect of the standoff distance should be lowered as much as possible
to build complex part geometry in good condition. The high level of feeding gas
flow rate, minimum sized geometry was achieved because of reducing the powder-
laser beam interaction time by increasing the powder particle speed. In addition,
there is a powerful relation between standoff distance and gas flow rate. Standoff
distance and feeding gas flow rate are the parameters that dominate the shape of
the particle flow including particle speed. On top of that, shape of the laser beam
waist has a connection about rate of the intensity of each particle moving through
the beam of laser.
221
Mondal, Paul and Kukreja (2013) studied the application of Taguchi-based gray
relational analysis for evaluating the optimal laser cladding parameters for AISI1040
steel plane surface. The effect of various laser cladding process parameters like laser
power, scan speed, and powder feed rate on clad bead quality characteristics (or clad
bead geometry) for AISI 1040 steel substrate have been studied by performing a num-
ber of experiments with L9 orthogonal array. In order to find the process parametric
setting for best quality clad bead based on experimental results, a multi-response
optimization technique using grey relational analysis (GRA) was used. The GRA
was applied on laser cladding process to find out the grey relational grade for each
experiment. On optimization, power of 1.25 kW, scan speed of 0.8 m/min, and a
powder feed rate of 11 gm/min had been found to be the best parametric setting for
laser cladding operation of AISI 1040 steel substrate. Moreover, the analysis of vari-
ance was also performed to determine the contribution of each control factor on the
clad quality characteristics. Finally, to ensure the robustness of GRA, a confirmatory
test was performed at selected optimal parametric setting. An expression of gray
relational analysis that directly integrates the multiple performance characteristics
(i.e., laser power, scan speed, and powder feed rate) into a single performance char-
acteristic is called gray relational grade. Therefore optimization of the complicated
multiple performance characteristics can be greatly simplified to a single objective
optimization problem through this approach. It was found that the performance
characteristics of the laser cladding process such as clad height, clad width, and
clad depth were improved together using this methodology. Furthermore, from the
results of ANOVA, the contribution of each cladding factor on the cladding quality
characteristics in decreasing order were laser power, scan speed of work table, and
powder feed rate. Finally, the confirmation tests had ensured the robustness of the
optimal combination of laser cladding process for AISI 1040 steel surface.
7. 3D-SIMULATION OF LASER MOLTEN POOL
Laser alloying uses a focused laser beam as a heat source to create a melt pool on
an underlying substrate. Powder material is then injected into the melt pool through
nozzles. The incoming powder is metallurgically bonded with the substrate upon
solidification. In order to examine convection mechanism in theory, 3D computer
simulation of convection and transfer heat in laser molten pool is needed as reported
by Yang et al. (2013). The main physical process in laser molten pool requires some
of the incident beam to be absorbed while the rest is reflected. If the absorbed heat
exceeds the threshold, the molten pool will be developed. In static melting, molten
pool shape and absorbability are constant. Two driving forces for fluid flow in laser
222
pool are the surface tension gradient and the buoyancy force. The surface tension
gradient and the buoyancy force are defined by the following equations:
∂γ ∂T ∂γ
= . (5)
∂x ∂x ∂T
Fb = − ρβ∆Tg (6)
While the governing equations can be written as (Brent et al. 1988):

Continuity:
∂ρ 
+ ρ∇.V = 0 (7)
∂t
Momentum equation

∂V   
ρ[ + (V .∇)V ] = µ∇2V − ∇P + Fb (8)
∂t
Energy equation

∂T 
+ (V .∇)T = α∇2T (9)
∂t
   
where V = ui + vj + wk
V=Total velocity of fluid, u,v and w are components of V in x, y and z direction

respectively.
µ= Viscosity
γ= Surface tension
β= Volumetric thermal expansion coefficient
g= gravitational acceleration.
T= Temperature
P= Pressure
ρ= Mass density
α= Thermal diffusivity
223
Pawlowski et al. (1999) compared the effects of surface tension gradient and
buoyancy force, their fluid fields in laser molten pool with computer simulation as
shown in Figure 2.4. It was discovered from Figure 2.4 that from the centre of
molten pool the fluid flow direction was from the bottom to the top. Likewise, on
the surface of the molten pool the fluid flow direction was from the centre to the
edge and in the interface of solid-liquid, the fluid flow direction was from top to
∂γ ∂γ
bottom thereby producing a circular flow. Since liquid iron is negative, in
∂T ∂x
the pool centre is lower than that in the pool edge, therefore, liquid metal is drawn
from centre to edge. The Regnolds number (Re) was about 1200 (<critical Re=2000),
which indicates a planar flow. The convection field pattern due to buoyancy force
and surface tension are similar as shown in Figure 7. This means they have the same
flow direction from bottom to top in the pool centre. The authors concluded that
convection in laser molten pool is mainly induced by surface tension gradient (Yang
et al. 2013). Finally, the authors concluded that there was a strong convection and
heat transfer in laser molten pool. There left and right flow cycles symmetrical to
the plane centre which was perpendicular to the moving direction of laser beam.
Convention and heat transfer made laser molten pool widen. The results simulated
agreed with experimental results.
Figure 8 represents 3D convection field distributions of XZ, YZ and XY planes
in laser molten pool. Both buoyancy and surface tension gradient were considered
in calculating and simulating heat transfer and convection in the molten pool. The
convection pattern in YZ plane is similar to the one due to surface tension gradient.
Both the right and left hand cycles are symmetric to the centre plane. The fluid flow
is drawn from from the centre to the edge on top of the molten pool and the flow
Figure 7. Convection Pattern due to Surface Tension and Buoyancy Forces in Laser
Melted Pool (Yang et al. 2013)
224
Figure 8. 3D Computer Simulated Convection in Laser Molten Pool (Yang et al. 2013).
speed become larger. From the results, the flow speed at the centre is about 24mm/s
while at the edge it is about 870mm/s. However, at XZ plane, the left and right hand
cycles are anti-symmetric to the centre line drawn from the centre to the edge, and
their maximum flow speed is about 580mm/s. Finally, there is convection cycle on
the top of the molten pool in XY plane. All the flows are from the centre to the edge
of the pool which corroborated laser molten pool experiment (Chen, 1998).
8. CONCLUSION
The following conclusions can be deduced:
• The application and efficiency of LSA is highly dependent and sensitive to

small changes in process parameters and these process parameters play a sig-
nificant role in the quality of the alloyed layer.
• When metal foam is in the phase changing environment, the heat transfer
process is conduction dominated irrespective of the heat source pulse width.
• Convection in laser molten pool is mainly induced by surface tension gra-
dient. Also, the two main driving forces for fluid flow in laser pool are the
surface tension gradient and the buoyancy force.
• A little imbalance in the process parameters can result in large variations in
the geometry, microstructure and properties of the alloyed zone.
• There is need for a careful selection and control of these parameters through
an optimization process to establish an appropriate laser power-scan speed
combination for achieving defect-free alloyed layers.
225
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236
Chapter 9
Laser Additive
Manufacturing of
Titanium-Based Implants:
A Review
Martin Ruthandi Maina

Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenya
ABSTRACT
Titanium and its alloys exhibit a unique combination of mechanical, physical prop-
erties and corrosion resistance behaviour which makes them desirable for aero-
space, industrial, chemical, medical and energy industries. The selective addition
of alloying elements to titanium enables a wide range of physical and mechanical
properties to be obtained. Ti-based alloys are finding ever-increasing applications
in biomaterials due to their excellent mechanical, physical and biological perfor-
mance. Intense researches are being pursued in the development of new Ti-based
alloys with bio-functionalization closer to human bone, owing to their excellent
mechanical strength and resilience when compared to alternative biomaterials,
such as polymers and ceramics. Several manufacturing techniques are capable of
producing porous materials. There is a need to control pore size, shape, orienta-
tion and distribution. This work reviews the application of Ti-based alloys in the
biomedical industry and also proposes laser additive manufacture process for the
manufacture of medical implants.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-0329-3.ch009
Laser Additive Manufacturing of Titanium-Based Implants
1. INTRODUCTION
Metals and their alloys are widely used as biomedical materials. Metallic biomateri-
als like stainless steels, Co-Cr alloys, commercially pure titanium and its alloys are
extensively used due to their excellent mechanical properties. However, metallic
materials sometimes show toxicity and are fractured because of their corrosion and
mechanical damages (Yuhua Li. et al, 2014; Kannatey-Asibu, 2009).
The family of titanium alloys offers a wide spectrum of strength and combinations
of strength and fracture toughness. This permits optimized alloy selection which
can be tailored for a critical component. The development must be performed on
the basis of metallurgy and the resultant alloys must have a good balance between
mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. Among metallic materials, titanium
and its alloys are considered the most suitable materials for biomedical applica-
tions due to their superior properties. They satisfy the requirements of implantation
materials better than other materials (Elias et al., 2008;Temenoff & Mikos, 2008).
Laser additive manufacturing is one of the processes for manufacture of titanium
based alloys. The process has many variables that can influence the soundness and
mechanical properties of the resulting part by affecting characteristics such as surface
finish, porosity, residual stresses/cracking, microstructure, and texture. The variables
include laser type, laser power and power distribution, laser spot size and shape,
laser traverse speed, line spacing, layer thickness, deposition pattern, powder shape,
size, and size distribution, powder feed rate, powder velocity, substrate temperature,
substrate surface finish, substrate thickness, substrate microstructure and texture,
and the size and shape of the deposit (Gu et al., 2012; Kobryn & Semiatin, 2001).
The composition of implant biomaterials must be carefully selected to avoid ad-
verse reactions. Metals such as Ti, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ta, Sn are non-toxic and have good
compatibility. β-type Ti-based alloys have high strength and low elastic modulus
compared to pure titanium, hence they are used as a starting material for the im-
provement of mechanical properties of porous compacts. Although, fabrication of
implants from materials with lower elastic modulus can reduce stress shielding effect,
the modulus mismatch to bone is still substantial. To provide a way for living bone
to attach itself permanently to an implant, an artificial bone should have a porous
structure. Porous titanium implants demonstrate an important gain in promoting
tissue in-growth and in the firm securing of an implant (Elias et al., 2008).
Porous materials in implants are increasingly attracting widespread interest of
researchers and desirable by the biomedical industries. The mechanical properties
of porous Ti-based alloys are dependent on porosity, pore morphology, pore size
distribution and microstructure. There is a need to come up with a novel method of
manufacture of the porous Ti based alloys with a keen control of pore size, shape,
orientation and distribution. There is also need to develop analytical models to predict
237
the structure-dependent mechanical performance of porous materials. Analytical

models can calculate the overall material response under idealized conditions or
simplified assumptions (Zhiqiang & Liou, 2013; Udomphol, 2007).
Materials used for biomedical applications cover a wide spectrum and must
exhibit specific properties. An ideal implant should have mechanical properties
close to natural bone and should bond well with human tissue. The most important
property of materials used for fabricating implants is biocompatibility and corrosion
resistance. There is need to develop new implants with low elastic modulus that
mimic the architecture and also encourage bone to grow into the pores. A material
with a porous structure is a desirable implant to meet the above mentioned require-
ments and also eliminate the problem of interfacial instability with the host tissue
(Yuhua Li. et al, 2014; Kannatey-Asibu, 2009).
Titanium alloys are considered the most attractive metallic materials for bio-
medical applications. Despite the excellent properties of Titanium and its alloys, the
addition of elements can also exert significant influences on mechanical properties.
Mechanical strength may be increased by adding alloying elements or through heat
treatments, which may lead to solid solution strengthening. If the elastic modulus
decreases, the mechanical strength also decreases (Elias et al., 2008; Temenoff &
Mikos, 2008; Gu et al., 2012; Kobryn & Semiatin, 2001; Zhiqiang & Liou, 2013;
Udomphol, 2007).
The production technique utilized to manufacture porous material affects pore
shape, size, distribution, and cell wall/edge structure, which in turn determines me-
chanical properties, i.e., yield strength and elastic modulus. There is therefore need to
investigate the effects of the various process parameters on the manufacture process
in order to control the process and hence achieve an efficient manufacturing process.
2. OVERVIEW OF TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS
Primary attributes of Titanium Alloys include; elevated strength-to-density ratio,

low density, exceptional corrosion resistance, and excellent elevated temperature
properties. Titanium’s elevated strength-to-density ratio makes it useful in the aero-
space industry while its exceptional corrosion resistance makes it useful for chemical
processes and marine industry. Titanium alloys offer attractive elevated temperature
properties for application in hot gas turbine and auto engine components. They
also exhibit excellent fatigue strength and life in air, which remains relatively unaf-
fected by sea water and other environments. Most titanium alloys can be processed
to provide high fracture toughness with minimal environmental degradation. The
lower strength titanium alloys are generally resistant to stress corrosion cracking
and corrosion-fatigue in aqueous chloride media (Yuhua Li. et al, 2014; Kannatey-
238
Asibu, 2009).Other Attractive Properties of Titanium Alloys include; low modulus

of elasticity, low thermal expansion coefficient, high melting point, essentially
non-magnetic, high intrinsic shock resistance, non-toxic, non-allergenic and fully
biocompatible, very short radio-active half-life, and excellent cryogenic properties
(Elias et al., 2008; Kazuhiro et al., 2003).
Titanium alloys can be grouped into three categories according to the predomi-
nant phase or phases in their microstructure, namely, alpha, alpha-beta, and beta.
The selective addition of alloying elements to titanium enables a wide range of
physical and mechanical properties to be obtained. Titanium alloy microstructures
are characterized by the various alloy additions and processing method. Alloying
additions, notably aluminium and interstitials (O, N, C), tend to stabilize the alpha
phase, i.e., raise the temperature at which the alloy will be transformed completely
to the beta phase. This temperature is known as the beta transus temperature. Addi-
tions such as chromium, niobium, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, tantalum
and vanadium stabilize the beta phase by lowering the temperature of transformation
(from alpha to beta). Tin and Zirconium behave as neutral solutes in titanium and
have little effect on the transformation temperature, acting as strengtheners of the
alpha phase (Temenoff & Mikos, 2008; Gu et al., 2012; Kobryn & Semiatin, 2001).
Research has shown that Ti, B, Mg, Si, P, Ca, Sr, Zr, Nb, Mo, Pd, In, Sn, Ta, Pt,
and Au are biocompatible elements, while harmful elements include Be, Al, V, Cr,
Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, and Ag. The toxicity of V has been widely reported (Yuhua
Li. et al, 2014;Gu et al., 2012; Kobryn&Semiatin, 2001).The cytotoxicity of pure
metals and the relationship between biocompatibility and polarization resistance
of typical pure metals and surgical implant materials have been reported. Ti, Nb,
Ta, Zr and Sn are low cytotoxic elements (Hrabe, 2010; Temenoff&Mikos, 2008;
Udomphol, 2007).
3. BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF TITANIUM ALLOYS
Biomaterials are used in different parts of human body as artificial valves in the
heart, stents in blood vessels, replacement implants in shoulders, knees, hips, el-
bows, ears and dental structures. They are also used as cardiac simulators and for
urinary tract reconstruction. Amongst all these, the number of implants used for
spinal, hip and knee replacements are extremely high. Materials used for biomedical
applications cover a wide spectrum and must exhibit specific properties. The most
important property of materials used for fabricating implants is bio-compatibility
and corrosion resistance. Titanium alloys are considered to be the most attractive
metallic materials for biomedical applications. Ti-6Al-4V has long been favored
for biomedical applications. However, for permanent implant applications the alloy
239
has a possible toxic effect resulting from released vanadium and aluminum. For
this reason, vanadium and aluminum free alloys have been introduced for implant
applications (Yuhua Li. et al, 2014; Elias et al., 2008).
To meet practical requirements of bone ingrowth and long-term implantation,
it is necessary to develop new implants with low elastic modulus that mimic the
architecture and also encourage bone to grow into the pores. A material with a
porous structure is a promising implant to meet the above mentioned requirements
and could eliminate the problem of interfacial instability with the host tissue. An
ideal implant should have mechanical properties close to natural bone and should
bond well with human tissue. The main reason why good fixation of implantation
materials to the bone tissue remains a problem is the elastic modulus mismatch
between biomaterials and the surrounding bones. However, the implanted materials
must be strong and durable enough to withstand the physiological loads exerted on
it and expected to serve for much longer period or until lifetime without failure or
revision surgery (Gepreel &Niinomi, 2013; Nakai et.al, 2011). A suitable balance
between strength and stiffness to best match that of bone is highly essential. In order
to further reduce elastic modulus of Ti-based alloys, porous materials have been
introduced. The reason why porous materials work is that the amount of materi-
als supporting the same cross section area for porous materials is much less than
bulk materials. Thus, if the stress is increased deformation is larger and stiffness is
smaller. The main idea of porous alloys is to reduce the stiffness. In addition, porous
materials can provide better biological fixation by promoting bone tissue ingrowth
into the pores of the implants, which enables homogeneous stress transfer between
bones and implants. The elastic modulus of porous materials can be adjusted over
a relatively wide range (Bönisch et.al,2013; Kannatey-Asibu, 2009; Elias et al.,
2008;Narendra&Sandip, 2007). Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of an artificial
hip joint (left) and knee implant.
4. MANUFACTURE OF POROUS TITANIUM BASED ALLOY
Fabrication methods of porous biomedical alloys have been investigated exten-

sively. Past studies show the potential of using various techniques to control pore
size, shape, orientation and distribution, including the creation of hierarchical
and functionally-graded pore structures (Yuhua Li. et al, 2014;Elias et al., 2008).
However, porous alloys fabricated through conventional sintering methods have
coarse grains. Besides, it is hard to obtain single equiaxed β phase. The production
technique utilized to manufacture porous material affects pore shape, size, distribu-
tion, and cell wall/edge structure, which in turn determines mechanical properties,
240
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of an artificial hip joint (left) and knee implant
i.e., yield strength and elastic modulus of porous materials (Temenoff&Mikos,

2008;Kobryn&Semiatin, 2001).
Powder metallurgy processed porous materials contain micro-porous cell walls/
edges in addition to macropores obtained as a result of expansion of an inert gas or
by removal of spacer particles. Accordingly, the resultant mechanical properties of
porous materials are sensitive to the cell edge/wall structure as well as the content and
shape of macropores (Li et.al 2013; Brailovski et.al,2011; Gu et al., 2012). Powder
metallurgy technique provides a high degree of freedom and allowsone to produce
structures varying in a wide range. However, this high degree of freedom brings
along a high number of processing parameters, affecting structural, chemical and
mechanical properties. For instance, compaction and sintering behavior of powder
mixtures composed of powders with different morphology and deformability change
with size and proportion of the constituents. This induces a structural difference in
pore walls. Another example could be the relationship among free surface area of
the porous materials, the impurity content and its effects on mechanical properties
(Kazuhiro et al., 2003;Chad. et al., 2014; Wang et.al, 2013).
Rapid prototyping (RP) techniques, combining computer-aided design (CAD)
with computer aided manufacturing (CAM), are considered as a viable alternative
for achieving extensive and detailed control over porous architecture, making it
possible to build objects with predefined microstructure and macrostructure and
controlled hierarchical structures. The imperfection of conventional techniques has
encouraged the use of RP technologies (Kobryn&Semiatin, 2001;Chad. et al., 2014)
241
Figure 2. Product development cycle (Kaufui & Al do, 2012)
5. LASER ADDITIVE MANUFACTURE PROCESS
Additive Manufacturing (AM) is another name of Layer Manufacturing or Rapid

Manufacturing/ Prototyping in which a product is made layer-by-layer. Each layer
corresponds to a cross-section of 3D CAD model of the product. The core problem
in AM lies in making layers and joining successive layers. Additive Manufacturing
started with using plastics because of ease of processability and aim of making just
visual prototypes. The process has grown to include all types of materials (Gu et.al.,
2012; Kobryn&Semiatin, 2001).The steps involved in product development using
rapid prototyping are shown in Figure 2. It can be seen that creating models faster
save a lot of time and there is the possibility of testing more models.
Additive manufacturing processes are classified into liquid base, solid based,
and powder based processes. The processes as shown in Figure 3 are stereolithog-
raphy (SL), Polyjet, fused deposition modeling (FDM), laminated object manufac-
turing (LOM), 3D printing (3DP), Prometal, selective laser sintering/melting
(SLS/M), laser engineered net shaping (LENS), and electron beam melting (EBM).
The liquid-and powder-based processes seem more promising than solid-based
processes of which LOM is the predominant one today.
In both SLM and LENS, powders are fully melted by laser beam. Processing
leads to the formation of small grains, non-equilibrium phases and new chemical
compounds depending upon the composition of the powders resulting into me-
chanical properties (yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, ductility) better than
corresponding wrought products. In SLS, mixtures of metallic powders are designed
in such a way that some of the powders could be melted to hold other powders to-
gether and give rise to an integrated product. SLM is preferred over SLS for obtain-
242
Figure 3. Three-dimensional printing processes (Kaufui & Al do, 2012)
ing high-strength products (Kobryn&Semiatin, 2001;Steen, 1991;Zhang et.al, 2011).

Figure 4 shows a schematic depiction of the laser engineered net shaping (LENS)
process.
Additive manufacturing implies layer by layer shaping and consolidation of
powder feedstock to arbitrary configurations, normally using a computer controlled
laser. First, the computer aided design (CAD) model of the object to be produced
is mathematically sliced into thin layers. The object is then created by selective
consolidation of the deposited material layers with a scanning laser beam. Each
shaped layer represents a cross-section of the sliced CAD model. Laser additive
manufacturing has many variables that can influence the soundness and mechani-
cal properties of the resulting part by affecting characteristics such as surface fin-
ish, porosity, residual stresses/cracking, microstructure, and texture. The variables
include laser type, laser power and power distribution, laser spot size and shape,
laser traverse speed, line spacing, layer thickness deposition pattern, powder shape,
size, and size distribution, powder feed rate, powder velocity, substrate temperature,
substrate surface finish, substrate thickness, substrate by affecting characteristics
such as surface finish, porosity, residual stresses/cracking, microstructure, and
texture. The variables include laser type, laser power and power distribution, laser
spot size and shape, laser traverse speed, line spacing, layer thickness, deposition
pattern, powder shape, size, and size distribution, powder feed rate, powder veloc-
ity, substrate temperature, substrate surface finish, substrate thickness, substrate
microstructure and texture, and the size and shape of the deposit (Lopez-Heredia,
2008; Steen, 1991; Narendra&Sandip, 2007).
243
Figure 4. Schematic depiction of the laser engineered net shaping (LENS) process
(Yuhua Li. et al., 2014)
6. LASER FUNDAMENTALS
Laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiations.

The basic laser consists of two mirrors which are placed in parallel to each other to
form an optical resonator, which is a chamber in which light would oscillate back
and forth between the mirrors forever, if not prevented by some mechanism such
as absorption. One of the two mirrors is partially transparent to allow some of the
oscillating power to emerge as the operating beam. The other mirror is totally reflect-
ing. Between the mirrors an active medium resides which is capable of amplifying
the light oscillations by the mechanism of stimulated emission. Figure 5 shows the
schematic diagram of a laser.
Figure 5. A schematic diagram of a laser
244
There is a change from one energy level to another when light radiation interacts
with matter. This energy difference between the levels must be balanced by the
emission or absorption of radiant energy. There are three different ways in which
light radiation interact with energy levels namely, fluorescence, absorption, and
stimulated emission (Steen, 1991; Narendra&Sandip, 2007). During fluorescence,
a molecule in an upper energy level spontaneously decays to a lower energy level,
emitting the energy in form of a photon with the appropriate frequency. For absorp-
tion, light of frequency f and wavelength λ interacts with a molecule in a low en-
ergy level raising it to a higher level. The light energy is hence absorbed by the
molecule. For stimulated emission, a molecule in an upper energy level interacts
with incoming light of frequency f. The molecule is stimulated to drop to a lower
energy level emitting the energy difference as light. This is the process responsible
for laser operation (Narendra&Sandip, 2007).
A laser needs a material with a suitable set of energy levels called the active
medium for the laser. This active medium can be a solid, liquid, or gas. These define
the type of laser. There are various types of lasers that are commonly used for laser
material processing. These include gas lasers, solid state lasers, semiconductor lasers
and liquid dye lasers. In gas lasers the active laser medium is gas. Semiconductor
lasers use semiconductor materials as active medium and they are based on radiative
recombination of charge carriers. For liquid dye lasers, liquid solution consisting of
an organic dye dissolved in liquid solvent acts as the laser active medium (Steen,
1991; Narendra&Sandip, 2007).
7. CONCLUSION
Whereas researchers have reported the various benefits of porous titanium based
alloys when applied in the biomedical industry, little work has been done regarding
manufacture of the alloys. More so, laser additive techniques for the manufacture
of the alloys are yet to be fully investigated. Little work has been done in order to
establish the effects of the various laser and process parameters on the process. This
therefore raises the need for further studies in order to identify the effects of different
parameters on the process. Research efforts should be geared towards optimization
and control of the process to minimize the costs associated with the trial and error
choice of parameters. A thorough analysis of the manufactured products in terms
of strength and surface quality is needed.
245
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work is supported by the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technol-
ogy, Nairobi, Kenya and the University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa.
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About the Contributors
Esther T. Akinlabi Professor Esther Akinlabi is the Head of Department of

Mechanical Engineering Science, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment,
University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Her research interest is in the field of
modern manufacturing processes – Friction Stir Welding and Laser based additive
manufacturing. Her research in the field of laser based additive manufacturing in-
clude laser material processing and surface engineering. She is a rated NRF re-
searcher and has demonstrated excellence in all fields of endeavors. Her mentorship
and research experience is enviable as she guides her postgraduate students through
the research journey. She is a recipient of several research grants and has received
many awards of recognition to her credit. She is a member of the South African
Young Academy of Science. Prof Akinlabi has filed two patents and co-authored
over 150 peer reviewed publications.
Rasheedat M. Mahamood is a research fellow at the department of Mechanical

Engineering Science, Auckland Park Kingsway Campus, University of Johannesburg,
Johannesburg, South Africa. She is also a lecturer at the Department of Mechanical
Engineering, University of Ilorin, Nigeria. Her research interest is in the area of
laser additive manufacturing and materials characterization.
Stephen A. Akinlabi is a doctorate candidate at the Department of Mechanical

Engineering Science, University of Johannesburg and currently at the round off
stage of his studies. He has over five years teaching experience as a lecturer and
over ten years of industrial experience. His research interest is in the field of Laser
forming and material characterization.
***
Damilola Isaac Adebiyi is a researcher in new materials development. His re-

search interests include laser surface engineering, cold spray coating and additive
manufacturing. He received an award for Innovation and excellence in the use of
stainless steel by the Southern African Stainless Steel Development Association.

He has authored many publications and chaired plenary section in International
conference.
Muhammed Olawale Hakeem Amuda is currently a Postdoctoral fellow in the

Department of Mechanical Engineering Science, University of Johannesburg with
close to 20 years involvement in academics, research and development. His research
interests span materials development and processing for emerging technologies
such as low energy fusion welding processes and surface modification of metallic
materials for improved corrosion and thermal efficiency. In specifics, his research
portfolios cover materials processing and fabrication, computational mechanics ap-
plied to material processing, predictive algorithm, innovative coating technique via
TIG torch melting and laser materials processing; phase transformation in solids;
and materials characterisation. His main current research is on the production of
self-lubricating functional graded metal matrix composite on titanium alloy for high
temperature application. In addition to this, he has attempted surface composite of
aluminum with silicon carbide ceramic particles via friction stir processing. He is
equally working on the development of thermal barrier coating for the hot section
of jet engines, coal and gas fired turbines. He is collaborating with other colleagues
on: (i) microstructure and mechanical property characterisation in thin wall ductile
iron castings, (ii) characterization of flow behavior in AA 7075 aluminum alloy
during hot deformation and (iii) optimization of design parameters of flame torch
melting for surface modification. He had been a visiting scholar to Malaysia and
South Africa on a range of developmental issues such as production of functionally
graded metal matrix composite for the aerospace industry and the development of
advanced manufacturing and marine materials for the maritime industry. He is a
member of several professional bodies including American Society of Materials,
American Welding Society, American Ceramic Society, The Material Society,
Nigeria Society of Engineers and a registered engineer with the Council for the
Regulation of Engineering, Nigeria. He holds PhD in Materials Science and Engi-
neering from the International Islamic University Malaysia, a Master’s of Science
in Mechanical Engineering, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria and Bachelor’s
degree in Metallurgical and Materials Engineering from the Obafemi Awolowo
University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
Mutiu F. Erinosho is a Postdoctoral Fellow in the Department of Mechanical

Engineering Science, University of Johannesburg. and a young researcher. He is
working on titanium alloy (grade 5) and copper composites for medical and marine
application.
283
Gabriel Ayokunle Farotade is currently a PhD reseacher at Department of

Chemical, Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Tshwane University of Technol-
ogy, Pretoria, South Africa. He holds B.S (Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)
degree and M.S degree in Metallurgical and Materials Engineering. His research
work is on Laser Based Additive Manufacturing.
Olawale Samuel Fatoba is currently a PhD researcher rounding up his doctorate

degree at Department of Chemical, Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Tsh-
wane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa. He holds B.S (Mechanical
Engineering) degree and M.S degrees in Mechanical Engineering & Metallurgical
and Materials Engineering. His research work is on Laser Based Surface Engineer-
ing of Steels for Enhanced Service Performance as well as process optimization via
Artificial Neural Network, Genetic Algorithm, Finite Element Method, Taguchi and
Response Surface Models. His research experience has culminated in publications
of over 15 articles in peer-reviewed Journals and several oral presentations in both
local and international conferences.
Martin Ruthandi Maina, Assistant Lecturer, Department of Mechatronic

Engineering, School of Mechanical, Manufacturing & Materials Engineering,
Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology, Nairobi, Kenya. Msc.
Mechatronic Engineering, Bsc. (Honors) Mechatronic Engineering. Registered
Graduate Engineer, Engineers Board of Kenya (EBK). Graduate Member, Institute
of Engineers of Kenya (IEK). Research Interests: Laser machining and material
processing, Control Engineering.
Sisa Pityana is a professor and an eminent researcher He specialises in addi-

tive manufacturing, laser processing, laser cold spraying, laser cladding, material
processing and characterisation.
Abimbola Patricia Idowu Popoola is a Senior Lecturer at the Department

of Chemical, Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Tshwane University of
Technology, Pretoria, South Africa. She holds B.Sc (Honours) (Metallurgical and
Materials Engineering) degree and Master’s and Doctoral degrees in Metallurgical
Engineering. She has published over 150 articles in peer-reviewed Journals and
several oral presentations (35) in both local and international conferences; in addi-
tion she has authored several chapters in books. Dr Abimbola Patricia Popoola has
also graduated 3 PhD and 10 Masters’ degree students.
Panos Stavropoulos is a Lecturer (2014-) in Manufacturing Technology and

Systems, of the Hellenic Air Force Academy-GREECE (HAFA). He owns a BEng
284
in Mechanical Engineering and an MSc in Advanced Mechanical Engineering

from the University of Sussex-UK, a PhD in Engineering from the Department of
Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics, University of Patras-GREECE and a
MBA from the HoU-GREECE. He worked among others, as a Research Engineer
(2001-2007) and a Project Manager (2007-today) in Laboratory of Manufacturing
Systems and Automation at the Dept. of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics
at the University of Patras. From 2010 to 2014 he was the WCP and Production
Manager at the Crown Holdings Inc., Bevcan - Europe and Middle East Division,
Patras Plant, managing the operation and maintenance of 2 Aluminium Beverage
can production lines, while developing and supervising industrial and continuous
improvement projects through World Class Performance – 6σ philosophy. His main
research interests are focused in the field of CAD/CAM and RP/AM/RM systems,
conventional/non-conventional/micro manufacturing processes and machine tool
design. He speaks fluently English and German. He is a Member of the Institution
of Mechanical Engineers-IMEchE (http://www.imeche.org/) since 2000, registered
as a Chartered Engineer (Reg. N.: 594894) in the Engineering Council (http://
www.engc.org.uk/), member of the Virtual Research Laboratory for a Knowledge
Community in Production - VRL-KciP since 2004 and a member of the Technical
Chamber of Greece and of the Technical Chamber of Mechanical and Electrical
Engineers. He is member of the editorial board for one (1) International Journal and
reviewer for ten (10) International Journals and a number of International Confer-
ences. He has acted as a member of the organising and programme committees of
five (5) International Conferences. Since 2002 he has been involved in seventeen
(17) RTD projects funded by the EC, acting as a Research Engineer, Technical and/
or Project Manager, in the field of Advanced Manufacturing Processes. He has been
involving in the submission of approx. 30 proposals of R&D projects, addressing
EC’s and national calls with a total approved funded budget of 17 M€. He has more
than 90 publications (eighteen (18) publications in international refereed scientific
journals, eight (8) publications in Greek refereed scientific journals, five (5) chapters
in books, sixty-four (64) publications in conference proceedings with review in the
full paper. His scientific work has been acknowledged by the international scientific
community as the total number of unique citations of his research publications is
460 (based on Scopus, ISI Web of Knowledge and Google Scholar citation indices).
Andreas Weisheit is a Senior Scientist working in the field of laser material

processing for over 25 years. Actually he is manager of the ILT group “Cladding
and Heat Treatment”.
285
286
Index
3D Printing 77, 90, 242 functionally graded materials 12, 48, 54-
55, 118-119, 187-188, 192, 194-195,
A 231
Functionally Graded Materials (FGCMs)
abrasive 65, 105, 145-147, 163, 172, 176- 195
177, 181, 185, 187, 189, 192-194,
211, 232 G
additive manufacturing 1-2, 9-14, 17-22,
40, 43, 46-48, 55, 57-59, 76-77, 86, Gradient Composite Coating 92
89, 93, 104, 116, 118, 226, 236-237,
242-243, 246-247 H
adhesive 17, 60, 78, 110, 163, 179-181
aerospace application 24, 44 Heat Transfer 71, 112, 205-208, 214-216,
alloying elements 33, 64-66, 89, 102, 104, 224-225, 228-231, 235
140, 144, 174, 210-211, 215, 236,
238-239 L
laminated object manufacturing 1, 9-10,
B 17-18, 242
Bimodal Structure 90 laser 1-62, 73-82, 84-125, 127-172, 174-
Biofouling 62, 90 175, 181-195, 197-205, 208-222,
224-237, 242-247
C laser additive manufacturing process 1, 11,
18
computational simulation 92, 95, 114 Laser Beam Profile 92, 97, 117
conduction 99, 184, 200, 206-207, 214, LASER COATING 172, 181-182, 185, 219
216, 225, 228 Laser machining 24, 40-41
convection 181, 206-207, 212-213, 215- laser-material interaction 5-6, 95, 99-100,
216, 222, 224-225, 235 165
laser metal deposition 1, 6, 9-10, 12-13,
F 20-22, 43, 46-49, 52-55, 57-58, 60,
77-78, 86, 88, 90-91, 107, 118, 122,
fatigue 34, 37-40, 42-44, 70, 72, 87, 89, 193, 204
93, 107, 109, 173, 180, 238 laser metal deposition process 6, 10, 12-13,
21, 43, 46-49, 53-55, 57-58, 60, 118
Index
laser power 7, 20-21, 40, 46, 49-51, 53-54, microstructure 7-9, 20, 22, 34, 43, 53, 55-
56-59, 78-79, 82, 84-86, 88, 99-100, 58, 60-61, 69, 71, 78-79, 82, 84, 87-
107, 112, 117, 139, 144, 148, 197, 90, 93, 101-104, 106-107, 109, 111,
203-205, 211, 216, 218-220, 222, 113, 115, 117-119, 121-122, 126-127,
232, 237, 243 129-133, 135-140, 142-145, 147-148,
laser processing 6-7, 19-20, 24-25, 45, 93, 150-151, 153-154, 158-164, 174,
101, 105, 107, 110, 116, 122, 125, 181-182, 185-188, 190-192, 194-195,
142, 144, 148, 151, 165, 185, 203, 197-199, 204, 211, 213, 217, 225,
205, 210-211, 214-216, 228, 230-231, 227, 237, 239, 241, 243
246
lasers 2-6, 21-22, 24-25, 39-45, 57, 73-76, O
95-97, 115-116, 119, 122-123, 125,
127, 168, 198-202, 205-206, 226-227, Optimized parameters 197, 204
229-230, 232, 234, 245
laser surface alloying 95, 104, 110, 113, P
119, 122, 144-146, 148, 153-155, 164, patterned microstructure 102
166, 168-169, 172, 174, 182, 185-187, powder feed rate 53-54, 79, 148-149, 151,
189-193, 195, 210-211, 213-214, 216, 153, 198, 203-205, 218, 220, 222,
226, 228, 230-231 237, 243
laser surface modification techniques 92, Powder Metallurgy 62, 76, 91, 165, 188,
100, 208 241
Linear Coefficient of Expansion 68, 91 process optimization 115, 164, 217, 220
M S
Material Characterization 46, 218 scanning 7-8, 10, 14, 34, 49-51, 53, 56-57,
material removal 18, 26, 216 79, 81, 84-86, 99-101, 105-107, 112,
mechanical properties 13, 32-33, 38, 51, 118, 132, 134-136, 138, 140, 142,
61, 65-66, 69, 71-72, 78, 85, 87-90, 145, 147, 149-150, 153, 156, 158,
92, 110, 115, 133, 158, 167-168, 186, 160-161, 197-198, 203-205, 213-214,
192, 194, 204, 210, 227, 233, 236-243 216, 219-220, 228, 234, 243
melt pool 7-8, 12-13, 46, 48, 52, 54, 77-78, scanning velocity 7-8, 50-51, 57, 99, 107,
99-100, 104, 174, 181, 195, 198, 204, 118, 205, 220
210-214, 216-217, 220, 222, 230 selective laser melting 9-11, 14, 20, 77, 79,
metallic materials 4-6, 32, 61, 76, 179, 90, 104, 116, 120, 234, 247
184-185, 192, 197, 210, 216, 228, selective laser sintering 1, 9-10, 14-15, 20-
237-239 22, 59, 104, 118, 165, 233, 242
Metal Matrix Composite (MMC) 186, 188, stereolithography 1, 9-10, 15-17, 20-21,
195 127, 242
microhardness 55, 57-58, 60, 78-79, 82,
84-85, 88, 118, 131, 133, 138, 145,
148, 151-152, 155, 158-162, 192, 205
287
Index
T W
temperature 5-7, 40-41, 47, 52-53, 61, wear 5, 21, 24, 38, 52-57, 65, 87, 93, 102-
63-64, 66, 69, 71-73, 75, 87, 100, 107, 109-110, 112, 115-116, 118-119,
102-103, 117, 124-126, 130-131, 144, 122, 130, 133, 135, 137-141, 143-152,
146-147, 155, 173-174, 182-183, 185, 154-155, 157-160, 162-163, 165-170,
197, 201, 205-208, 210-211, 213-217, 172-189, 191-196, 205, 208-211, 213,
223, 229-230, 237-239, 243 215, 219-220, 227, 232-233
Ti6Al4V 9, 21, 32, 47, 52-62, 66-69, 71, wear mechanism 163, 172-173, 176-177,
73, 78-79, 81-82, 85-86, 88-90, 110, 179-180, 193, 196
114-115, 118, 232-233 wear resistance 21, 38, 52-55, 57, 65, 93,
titanium alloy 21, 42-44, 47, 52-54, 57-62, 103, 105, 110, 116, 118-119, 130,
68, 72, 78-79, 81, 86-87, 89, 103, 110, 133, 138, 143-146, 148-152, 155, 158,
113, 117, 169, 220, 227, 239, 246-247 166-167, 169, 172, 174-176, 181-189,
191, 194, 205, 211, 215, 220, 233
288

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Advanced Manufacturing

Techniques Using Laser

Rasheedat Modupe Mahamood

Stephen Akinwale Akinlabi

A volume in the Advances in

Names: Akinlabi, Esther Titilayo, 1976- editor. | Mahamood, Rasheedat Modupe,

British Cataloguing in Publication Data

Handbook of Research on Applied E-Learning in Engineering and Architecture Educa-

701 E. Chocolate Ave., Hershey, PA 17033

Laser Additive Manufacturing................................................................................ 1

Rasheedat Modupe Mahamood, University of Johannesburg, South ;

Africa & University of Ilorin, Nigeria ;

Esther Titilayo Akinlabi, University of Johannesburg, South Africa

Laser-based Manufacturing Processes for Aerospace Applications..................... 24 ; ;

Panos Stavropoulos, Hellenic Air Force Academy, Greece

Angelos Koutsomichalis, Hellenic Air Force Academy, Greece

Nikos Vaxevanidis, School of Pedagogical and Technological Education,

Laser Metal Deposition Process........................................................................... 46

Rasheedat M. Mahamood, University of Johannesburg, South Africa &

University of Ilorin, Nigeria ;

Enhancement of Surface Integrity of Titanium Alloy with Copper by Means

Mutiu F. Erinosho, University of Johannesburg, South Africa

Esther T. Akinlabi, University of Johannesburg, South Africa

Sisa Pityana, National Laser Centre, South Africa

Trend and Development in Laser Surface Modification for Enhanced

Muhammed Olawale Hakeem Amuda, University of Lagos, Nigeria & ;

University of Johannesburg, South Africa ;

Esther Titilayo Akinlabi, University of Johannesburg, South Africa

Laser Surface Processing for Tailoring of Properties by Optimization of

Jyotsna Dutta Majumdar, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, ;

Andreas Weisheit, Fraunhofer-Institut für Lasertechnik ILT, Germany

I. Manna, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India & Indian

Institute of Technology Kanpur, India ;

Mitigation of Wear Damage by Laser Surface Alloying Technique. ................. 172 ; ;

Isaac Damilola Adebiyi, Vaal University of Technology, South Africa

Patricia A. P. Popoola, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa

Sisa Pityana, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, South

Computational Dynamics of Laser Alloyed Metallic Materials for Improved

Olawale Samuel Fatoba, Tshwane University of Technology, South ;

Abimbola Patricia Idowu Popoola, Tshwane University of Technology, ;

Gabriel Ayokunle Farotade, Tshwane University of Technology, South ;

Sisa Lesley Pityana, National Laser Centre, South Africa

Laser Additive Manufacturing of Titanium-Based Implants: A Review............ 236 ; ;

Martin Ruthandi Maina, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and ;

Compilation of References............................................................................... 248

About the Contributors.................................................................................... 282

Index. ................................................................................................................. 286

Laser Additive Manufacturing................................................................................ 1

Rasheedat Modupe Mahamood, University of Johannesburg, South

Africa & University of Ilorin, Nigeria ;

Esther Titilayo Akinlabi, University of Johannesburg, South Africa

Laser additive manufacturing is an advanced manufacturing process for making

Laser-based Manufacturing Processes for Aerospace Applications..................... 24 ; ;

Panos Stavropoulos, Hellenic Air Force Academy, Greece

Angelos Koutsomichalis, Hellenic Air Force Academy, Greece

Nikos Vaxevanidis, School of Pedagogical and Technological Education,

In this chapter the latest developments in Laser manufacturing technologies and

Laser Metal Deposition Process........................................................................... 46

Rasheedat M. Mahamood, University of Johannesburg, South Africa &

University of Ilorin, Nigeria ;

Enhancement of Surface Integrity of Titanium Alloy with Copper by Means

Mutiu F. Erinosho, University of Johannesburg, South Africa

Esther T. Akinlabi, University of Johannesburg, South Africa