Earthworks

Earthworks are engineering works created through the

moving and/or processing of massive quantities of soil or
unformed rock. Earthwork is done to reconfigure the
topography of a site to achieve the design levels.
Earthwork involves cutting and filling to achieve the
required topography.
Cutting: Cutting is the process of excavating earth
material from a work location or borrow pits to achieve
the desired topography.
Filling: The filling is the process of moving the excavated
material or additional earth material to a work location
to achieve the desired topography.
Applications of Earthwork: Typically, earthwork is done
in the following projects:
• Road works
• Railways
• Irrigation project such as canals and dams
• Other common earthwork applications are land
grading to reconfigure the topography of a site, or
to stabilize slopes
Earthwork Calculation Methods:
1. Cross – Section Method
2. Borrow Pit Method
3. Contour Method
A. Cross – Section Method
A cross – section method is a section normal to the
center line of a proposed highway, canal, dam or other
construction project.
a. By End – Area Method / Trapezoidal Method
- Simplest method and Very common technique
used for computing earthwork volumes.
𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐
𝑽𝑬 = ( )∗𝑳
𝟐
b. By Prismoidal Formula
- Sometimes called as “Simpson’s Rule for
Volumes”
- More accurate than end – area method
𝑳
𝑽𝑷 = (𝑨𝟏 + 𝟒𝑨𝒎 + 𝑨𝟐 )
𝟔
Where:
A1 & A2 – Areas of the cross-sections at the ends
or bases of prismoids
Am – Area of mid-section
L – distance between two end cross-sections
The area of the middle section is obtained by raking
dimension of the middle section and computing the area
or by computing the area of a section whose dimensions
are Intermediate of the end dimensions
The volume obtained by the trapezoidal-rule is always
greater than the volume obtained by the prismoidal
formula.
Prismoidal Correction (Prismoidal Excess)
- Accurate for Three – Level Section

The following five types of cross sections generally occur

in practice:
1. Level Section
2. Two level Section.
3. Side hill two level Section.
4. Three level Section.
5. Multi-level Section.
𝑳
𝑽𝑪 = (𝑪 − 𝑪𝟐 )(𝑫𝟏 − 𝑫𝟐 )
𝟏𝟐 𝟏
Corrected Volume:
𝑽 = 𝑽𝑬 − 𝑽𝑪
Curvature Correction
When the excavation is curved the sections are radial
and a curvature correction must be applied to the
formula. Pappus’s theorem states that the volume swept
out by an area revolving about an axis is equal to the
product of the area and the length of the path traced out
by the centroid of the area. In other words, the corrected
volume is where the distance between the cross-sections
is taken along the path of the center of mass.

Volume = Area x distance travelled by centroid

𝑨𝑺𝟏 + 𝑨𝑺𝟐 𝒆̅
𝑽𝑪 = ( )∗𝑳∗
𝟐 𝑹
Where:
𝒆𝟏 +𝒆𝟐
𝒆̅ = ; average eccentricity
𝟐

Corrected Volume: In the case of railroad or highway construction there is

𝑽 = 𝑽 𝑬 ± 𝑽𝑪 both cut and fill. However, it is transitional. For example,
there may be a number of full fill-sections and a number
Plus sign is to be used when e is on the inside of the curve of full cut-sections. In between there may be a section of
and minus sign when, outside. The eccentricity of a partial fill and cut.
particular cross-section can be determined by locating its
centroid. The centroid is determined by dividing the Frustum Formula:
cross section into small triangles and by taking moments 𝒅
𝑽= (𝑨 + √𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐 + 𝑨𝟐 )
about any line. The correction is normally small but when 𝟑 𝟏
R is small the correction becomes large.

Volume through Transition

𝑯𝒄𝒖𝒕 + 𝑯𝑭𝒊𝒍𝒍
𝑳=
𝑮𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 − 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒅
 B. Borrow Pit Method C. Contour Method
This method is generally used for calculating the
volumes of excavations for basements or tanks. When
the area excavation is square, rectangular or consists of
a number of vertical sides, as in the case of foundation of
a water tank, underground reservoir, etc. The volume
can be computed by taking levels of number of points
along a grid. The difference between the formation level
and the existing level of the ground will give the height
of fill or cut at the corresponding points.

Volume can be measured by a contour map, but the

volume calculated by this method is approximate. It
cannot be compared with the volume calculated by the
cross-section method. As the full ground irregularities
are not predicted by contours, and also as the contour
intervals are not small, volume calculated from contours
is likely to be an approximate one. To calculate volume
by this method, general recommendations of contour
interval is a maximum of 2 meters for a regular ground
surface, and 0.5 meter for an irregular topography. This
Ground Model method is used mainly to find the capacity of a reservoir.
To find out the capacity of a contour, two methods can
Assembly of Rectangular Prisms be adopted.

1. Average area method (Known as trapezoidal

method)
∑ 𝒉𝟏 + 𝟐 ∑ 𝒉𝟐 + 𝟑 ∑ 𝒉𝟑 + 𝟒 ∑ 𝒉𝟒
𝑽=𝑨 𝒅
𝟒 𝑽= (𝑨 + 𝟐 ∑ 𝑨𝒊 + 𝑨𝒏 )
Where: 𝟐 𝟏
h1 = height found on one area only
h2 = height common to two areas ∑ 𝑨𝒊 = sum of areas of interior sections
h3 = height common to three areas A1 & An = area of first and last sections
h4 = height common to four areas
2. Prismoidal formula
- Applicable only for odd number of sections

𝒅
𝑽= (𝑨 + 𝟐 ∑ 𝑨𝒐𝒅𝒅 + 𝟒 ∑ 𝑨𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏 + 𝑨𝒏 )
𝟑 𝟏

Note: if there is an even number of section, use the end

area to get the volume of the last segment.
Mass Diagrams
In highway and railroad construction it is
necessary to compute volumes of earthwork to be cut or
to be filled in and distance through which cut earth is to
be transported for filling 'purposes. This will determine
the cost of the earthwork portion of the project.
Mass diagrams are graphical representation of
the cumulative amount of earthwork moved along the
centerline and distances over which the earth and
materials are to be transported.
Mass diagrams determine the average haul, free
haul, and overhaul on a given segment of roadway. Mass
diagrams tell the contractors and inspectors the quantity
of material moved and how far it can be economically
moved. Highway engineers strive to balance the amount
of cut and fill during a highway construction project to
avoid costly hauling of materials.
The abscissa represents the distance in stations,
while the ordinate represents the cumulative volume.
 Characteristics of Mass Curve:
1. Rising sections of the mass curve indicates areas
where excavating exceeds fill, whereas falling
sections indicate where fill exceeds excavation.
2. Steep slopes reflect heavy cuts & Fills, while flat
slopes indicate areas from small amount of
earthwork.
3. The difference in ordinates between any two points
indicate net excess of excavation over embankment
or vice versa.
4. Any horizontal line dawn to intersect two points
within the same curve indicates a balance of
excavation (cut) and embankment (fill) quantities
between the two points.
5. Points of zero slope represent points where
roadway goes from cut to fill or from fill to cut. 6-
The highest or the lowest points of the mass haul
diagram represents the crossing points between the
grade line (roadway level) and natural ground level.
 Definitions of Terms:
1. Haul; haul distance, average haul distance
- They are all connected with movement of earth
from one point to another usually from cut to fill.
Haul distance is the actual distance from the
point of cut to the point of fill. Average haul
distance is the distance between the center of
gravity of cut to the center of gravity of fill. Haul,
however, means product of volume of cut and
average haul distance. It is also equal to the area
between the mass haul curve and the balancing
line. Haul is volume multiplied by distance.
Hence its unit is m3 x m. However, it is usually
expressed as station meter which means 1 m3 of
earth work moving through 1 station.
2. Free haul distance (FHD); overhaul
- Contractor is to be paid for carrying the
excavated material. Usually two rates are used
for payment to the contractor. One is based on
free haul distance for which the contractor is not
paid any extra. In other words, it is distance of
earth is moved without additional
compensation. Another is overhaul which is
more than the free haul limit and for which
contractor is to be paid extra.
3. Borrow and waste
- Normally the balancing line is so adjusted that
the amount of cut and fill are equal. However,
this may require long overhaul. Sometimes, it is
economical to fill an embankment by borrowing
earth from outside. This is known as "borrow".
Similarly sometimes it is wise to leave the cut
material in spoil banks when the transportation
distance is very large and will involve large
overhaul. This is known as "waste".
 4. Limit of economic haul (LEH)
- It is the maximum limit of haul distance-beyond
which it is not economical to use the material
obtained from cuts. Beyond the limit of
economic haul, it is more economical to waste
the material or to take the: materials from the
borrow pits than to haul it.
a. Compute the side slope of both sections.
b. Compute the value of x at station 10+200 if it has
a cross sectional area of 14.64 m^2.
c. Compute the volume between stations 10+100
and 10+200 using end area method with prismoidal
correction.

𝑪𝒃 3. Given the cross section of a proposed road to be

𝑳𝑬𝑯 = ∗ 𝑪 + 𝑭𝑯𝑫
𝑪𝒉 constructed, find the cross-sectional areas in sq.m.
Where: The base of road is 6 m and the side slope are 1.25:1
Cb – cost of borrow
Ch – cost of haul per meter station 7.80 2.00 0 4.00 5.65
C - length of basis of cost of haul, a meter +3.84 +2.42 +4.25 +2.50 +2.12
station is 20 m, therefore C = 20 m
4. Given the following section of an earthworks for a
5. Shrinkage and Swelling proposed road construction on a hilly portion of the
- Shrinkage or swell factor: It is well known that route. The width of the road base for cut is 6 m for
one cubic meter of excavation on amount will allowance of drainage canals and 5 m for fill. Sides
not occupies exactly 1 m3 of space in the fill, so slopes for cut is 1:1 and for fill is 1.5:1
adjusting is required. This can be done by using
the shrinkage or swell factor. The shrinkage is 3.7 0 x .
usually 5 to 15%. -0.8 +1.8
a. Compute the value of x.
b. compute the area in fill.
c. Compute the area in cut.
Examples:
1. Below are the given cross-section notes about a 5. In a certain portion of road to be constructed the
ground which be excavated for a 9 m roadway. following data were taken:
Compute the volume of excavation between stations 1 + 040
3+100 and 3+120 by: x 0 x .
a. End Area Method -1.84 -1.22 -0.42
b. Prismoidal Formula
1 + 100
Sta. 3 + 100 x 0 x .
7.38 0 12.285 +0.98 +3.05 +0.50
+1.92 +3.15 +5.19
Base for cut = 9 m Side slopes = 1:1
Sta. 3 + 120 Base for fill = 8 m Sides slopes = 1.5:1
8.82 0 10.08
+2.88 +2.52 +3.72 a. Compute the area of station 1+040
b. Find the area of station 1+100
2. Given the cross section notes of an earthwork c. Determine the diff. in volume of cut and fill using
between stations 10+100 to 10+200. Assume both end area method.
stations to have the same side slope and width of the
base. 6. The center height of the road at station 7+480 is 2 m
Sta. 10 + 100 fill while at station 7+530 is 1.20 m cut. From station
6.45 0 4.5 7+480 to 7+530 the ground makes a uniform slope of
+2.3 +1.5 +1.0 +4. 80%.
a. Determine the slope of the new road.
Sta. 10 + 200 b. How far from station 7+480 will the fill extend?
6.0 0 6.9 c. Determine the stationing of the point where the
+2.0 x +2.6 fill is extended?
7. The side slope of a road fill is 2H to 1V. The width of
the roadbed (including shoulder and ditches) is 7 m
and the height of fill at the road center is 3 m. The
ground slope 8% upward to the right.
a. What is the distance of the right slope stake from
the road center?
b. What is the distance of the left slope stake from
the road center?

8. The grading works of a proposed National Road

shows the following data of an earthworks:
Free haul distance = 50 m
Cost of borrow = P5 per cu. m.
Cost of haul = P0.25 per meter station
Stationing of one limit of free haul = 2+763.12
Stationing of one limit of economical haul = 2+948.03
Assume the ground surface has a uniform slope from
cut to fill.
Station Area
Cut (m2) Fill (m2)
2+440 51
2+740 0 Balancing point
3+040 69

a. Compute the length of economical haul

b. Compute the overhaul volume
c. Compute the volume of borrow
d. Compute the volume of waste

9. A single summit mass diagram has the following

data:
Station Mass Ordinate (m3)
0+000 -80
0+800 -130

Initial point of free haul distance = +700

Initial point of economic haul = +230
Free haul Distance = 60 m
Limit of economical haul = 400
a. Determine the overhaul volume in cu. m.
b. Determine the volume of waste.
c. Determine the volume of borrow.

Problem Set
421, 423, 424, 427, 428
428-B, 430, 434, 725, 726,
439, 441, 445