Assembly Language - is a low-level The idea of calculating with a machine The Analytic Machine required more • Small hand-held
• Small hand-held electronic
programming language for
microprocessors and other
programmable devices.
Holerith developed a motor driven
machine that counted, sorted and
collated information stored in punched
cards.
An assembler is a program that
converts assembly language into machine
code.
Java was started as a project called
"Oak" by James Gosling in June 1991
dates back around 500 BC when
Babylonians invented the abacus
calculating computer Z3 was
used in aircraft and missile
design during World War II for
the German War Effort.
C is a procedural programming language. It
was initially developed by Dennis Ritchie
between 1969 and 1973.
Ruby was created by Yukihiro
Matsumoto, or "Matz", in Japan in the
mid 1990's
than 50,000 machined parts, which
could not be made with enough
precision to allow his machine to
function reliably.
ENIAC A computer containing 17,000
vacuum tubes and over 500 miles of
wires
FORTRAN was the world's first high-level
programming language. It was
developed at IBM by a small team led by
John Backus.
In 1642, Blaise Pascal, a mathematician,
invented the calculator constructed of
gears and wheels
calculator was first introduced
by Bomar.
Hexadecimal is the most common way
of displaying the raw data sitting in a
machine's memory or even stored on
disk
C++ was devised by Bjarne Stroustrup
also an employee from Bell Labs (AT&T).
Analytic machine is able to store 1,000 20-digit
decimal numbers and a variable program that
could modify the function of the machine so it
could perform various calculating tasks
 . BIOS and DOS Communications Area –
contains the transient data used by programs to
access the I/O devices and the internal features of
the computer system.
COMMAND.COM – command processor program.
It controls the operation of the computer from the
Keyboard.
Video BIOS ROM are found in C0000H up to
C7FFFH and contains program that controls the
display.
LIM 4.0 – is a memory management driver that
resulted from Linux, Intel and Microsoft
standardizing the access to expanded memory
systems.
. IO. SYS – program that loads the into the TPA
whenever an MSDOS or PCDOS is started
FREE TPA – holds application programs as they
are executed like Word, Spreadsheets and CAD
programs to name a few.
BIOS ROM – located on the top 64K of the system
area. This ROM controls the operation of the basic
I/O devices connected to the computer system.
Basic Language ROM – only found in early IBM
systems, this area is open or free in newer computer
system. In newer systems, it is back filled with extra
RAM called upper memory or memory blocks. Each
block is 4KB in length.
MSDOS/PCDOS – it occupies 2 areas of the
memory. One is 16 bytes long located at the top of
the TPA and other one is much larger and is at the
bottom
Hard Disk Memory – Attached to the computer
and the interface card might contain a ROM. This
ROM often holds low-level format software at
location C8000H
I/O Space - allows the microprocessor to
communicate between itself and the outside world.
It allows the computer to access up to 64K
different 8 bit I/O devices
MICROPROCESSOR – the heart of a
microprocessor-based computer system. It is the
controlling element in the computer and sometimes
referred to as the CPU.
Device Drivers – Varies from one pc to another.
It controls the installable I/O devices such as
mouse, scanner and the CD-ROM
. Free Area – this area is used for the expanded
memory system EMS in PC or XT system
or the upper memory system in an AT
system.
. EXPANDED MEMORY SYSTEM - This page frame
(usually located in D0000H to DFFFFH) is used
to expand the memory system by switching in
pages of memory from EMS into this range of
memory address.
BUSES – a common group of wires that
interconnects components in the computer system.
 • A19/S6 - A16/S3
– multiplexed address/status bits.
– lines carry status bits S6 - S3 whenever ALE is
logic 0.
Accumulator register consists of 2 8-bit registers
AL and AH, which can be combined together and
used as a 16-bit register AX
Source Index (SI) is a 16-bit register. SI is used
for indexed, based indexed and register indirect
addressing, as well as a source data address in
string manipulation instructions.
Based Indexed with displacement - 8-bit or
16-bit instruction operand is added to the contents
of a base register (BX or BP) and index register (SI
or DI), the resulting value is a pointer to location
where data resides.
• AD15 - AD0
– Multiplexed address/data bus.
– lines carry address bits A15 - A0 whenever ALE
(Address Latch Enable) is logic 1.
Base register consists of 2 8-bit registers BL and
BH, which can be combined together and used as a
16-bit register BX
Destination Index (DI) is a 16-bit register. DI is
used for indexed, based indexed and register
indirect addressing, as well as a destination data
address in string manipulation instructions.
TPA – holds the operating system and other
programs that control the computer system.
– QS1 and QS0:
show status of
internal instruction queue. Provided for access by
the
numeric coprocessor (8087).
Data register consists of two 8-bit registers DL
and DH, which can be combined together and used
as a 16-bit register DX.
Implied - the data value/data address is implicitly
associated with the instruction.
Addressing mode
DOS – Disk operating system. It controls the way
that the disk memory is organized and controlled
as well as the function and control of some I/O
devices connected to the system
LOCK:
is used to lock peripherals off the system. Activated
by using the LOCK: prefix on any instruction.
Base Pointer (BP) is a 16-bit register pointing to
data in stack segment. BP register is usually used
for based, based indexed or register indirect
addressing.
Register indirect - instruction specifies a register
containing an address, where data is located. This
addressing mode works with SI, DI, BX and BP
registers.
Addressing mode
. Interrupt Vectors – access various features of
the DOS, BIOS, and applications. BIOS is a
collection of programs stored in ROM or in Flash
memory that operate many of the I/O devices
connected to the computer system.
 DT/R Data transmit/receive. Data bus is BHE/S7 Bank high enable HLDA (Hold Acknowledge): Indicates
transmitting (‘1’), or receiving (‘0’) (for controlling – used to enable D15 - D8 in an 8086 during a 16-
that the microprocessor has entered the Minimum Mode: connect MN/MX to
bi-directional bus drivers). bitread/write.
– Multiplexed with S7, which is not used (always hold state. +5V (directly).
1).
– latched with ALE.

Maximum Mode: connect MN/MX to 8086 and 8088 bus cycles consume four ALE (Address Latch Enable) • If more than 10 loads are attached to
ground (directly). system clock periods any bus pin, then the entire 8086/8088
must be buffered

Overflow Flag (OF) - set if the result is Auxiliary carry Flag (AF) - set if there SYSTEM AREA – contains program on I/O addresses between 000H and
too large positive number, or is too small was a carry from or borrow to bits 0-3 in either a ROM or flash memory and RAM 00FFH address the components on the
negative number to fit into destination the AL register. for data storage. main board of the computer
operand.

Pentium Pro Processor-based computer The first 1MB of memory is often called The PS/2 is referred to as microchannel The remaining area is available I/O
systems can have up to 1M less than 4G the real memory because each Intel architecture of the ISA (industry space for expansion that extends from
or 64G of extended memory Processor is designed to function in this standard architecture) system depending I/O port 0500H to FFFFH
area in its real mode of operation on the model number.