Early Uprising in Bengal/Eastern India/South India

Sanyasi The British rule in Bengal after 1757 brought a new economic order & spelt ruin on Zamindars,
Revolt (1770- peasants & artisans alike. The famine of 1770 & the callousness on the part of the Company was
1800) considered to be the direct result of the alien rule.

The Sanyasis were known for their martial tradition, were involved in landholding, moneylending
etc. Fakirs enjoyed rent free tenures and retained armed followers during the Mughal days. Both
these wandering monks were affected by Company’s high revenue demands, and commercial
monopoly. Their mutual relationship, organizational network facilitated mobilization of the rebels.
Company was unwilling to tolerate such bands of armed monks who would challenge its idea of a
settled peasant society.

The restrictions imposed on visits to holy places estranged the sanyasis. The sanyasis in retaliation
organized raids on the company’s factories & state treasuries. Warren Hastings could contain
these raids only after prolonged military action

Chuar Famine, enhanced land revenue demands & economic distress forced the Chuar aboriginal
Uprising - tribesman of Midnapur district to take up arms. The revolt lasted from 1760 to 1782 & then again
1760 surfaced between 1795 & 1816.

Ahom’s Revolt Company’s Authorities had pledged to withdraw from the territory of Ahoms (Assam) after the
conclusion of the Burmese War (1824-26). However the English attempted to incorporate the
Ahom’s territory in the Company’s dominion & this sparked of a rebellion under Gomdhar Konwar
but was quelled by the Britishers.

Kol Uprising The Kols of Chhotanagpur resented the transfer of land from Kol headmen (Mundas) to outsiders
(1831) like Sikh & Muslim farmers & in 1831 killed or burnt about a thousand outsiders. Only after large
scale military operations order could be restored. It was led by Buddhu Bhagat

Khasi Uprising The East India Company after occupying the hilly region between Jaintia in the east and Garo hills
in the west, planned a military road to link up the Brahmaputra valley with Sylhet and brought a
large number of Englishmen, Bengalis and other labour to complete the project. This intrusion was
resented by Tirat Singh, who was supported by the Garos, the Khamptis and Singhpos in a bid to
drive away the lowland strangers. The insurrection developed into popular revolt against British
rule in the area. The superior military force suppressed the revolt in 1833.

Pagal Panthis Pagal Panthis. a semi-religious sect founded by Karam Shah, lived in the northern districts of
Bengal. Tipu, the son and successor of Karam Shah, took up the cause of the tenants against the
oppressions of the Zamindars. The area remained disturbed in the 1830s and 1840s.

Tipu’s sect held the promise of a new regime and just rents. Similar to this was Titu Mir’s
movement whose followers were organized into a community with distinctive dress. As local
zamindars tried to curb them, they started collecting their own rents and stuck terror in the
 region.

Santhal The Santhals living in the area between Bhagalpur, Rajmahal hills resented oppression by the
Uprising – revenue officials, landlords & the money lenders & were determined to expel the outsiders also
1855 called the dikus. In 1855, the Santhals under the leadership of Siddhu & Kanhu rebelled &
declared the end of company rule & set themselves independent. Extensive military operations
brought the situation under control in 1856. The Government pacified the Santhals by creating a
separate district of Santhal Paraganas.

Pabna Pabna Peasant Uprising, was a resistance movement against the oppression of the zamindars. It
Uprising originated in Pabna which currently lies in Bangladesh. The zamindars routinely collected money
1870-1880 from the peasants by the illegal means of forced levy, abwabs (cesses), enhanced rent and so on.
Peasants were often evicted from land on the pretext of non-payment of rent. The leader was
Ishan Chandra Roy.

Munda For over three decades the Munda sardars (in present Jharkhand State) had been struggling
Uprising against destruction of their system of common land holdings from the intrusion of jagirdars,
thekedars and money lenders. The rebellion (ulgulan) of the Munda tribesman occurred during
1900 under the leadership of Birsa Munda who mobilised his followers on religious and political
grounds. In 1899, Birsa proclaimed a rebellion to establish Munda rule in the land by killing
thikadars, jagirdars, Rajas and Hakims and Christians. For this he gathered a force of Mundas. He
was, however, captured in February 1900 & later died.

The aim of this movement was not merely to drive out the dikus but to put an end to British rule.
It was the political awareness and ability to connect to the broad picture that was new in the late
19th century tribal movements.
Faraizi The Faraizis, followers of a Muslim sect founded by Haji Shariatullah of Faridpur in Eastern
Movement Bengal, advocated radical religious, social and political changes. Shariatullah's son Dudhi Mian
organised Farazais to expel the English intruders from Bengal. The sect also supported the cause
of the tenants against the exactions of zamindars. The Faraizis disturbances continued in 1838 to
1857. Most of the Faraizis joined the ranks of Wahabis.

Uprising in Western India

Koli/Bhils Bhils revolted in Westnern Ghats with their strongholds in Khandesh in 1817-1819 Kolis in Gujarat,
Uprising the neighbours of Bhils also rose in rebellion in 1829, 1839 & from 1844-48.

Kutch The British interfered in the internal feuds of the Kutch. In 1819, a British force defeated and
Rebellion deposed Rao Bharmal in favour of his infant son. The actual administration of Catch was
undertaken by Council of Regency under the superintendence of the British Resident. The
administrative innovations made by the Regency Council coupled with the excessive land
assessment caused deep resentment. The English reverses in the Burmese war emboldened chiefs
to rise in revolt and demand the restoration of Bharmal. Though extensive military operations
brought the situation under control, the trouble erupted again in 1831. The Company's authorities
were then compelled to follow a conciliatory policy.

Ramosi The Ramosis, the hill tribes in the Western Ghats, resented British rule and the British pattern of
Uprising administration. In 1822. under Chittur Singh, they revolted and plundered the country around
Satara. A superior British force restored order in the area.

Satara The people of Satara rose in revolt under Dhar Rao in 1840, because the popular ruler of Satara
Uprising Pratap Singh was deposed and banished by the British. Narsing Patekar led revolt in 1844. He was
defeated and captured by the British.

Phadke Revolt Vasudeo Balwant Phadke organised an armed rebellion in 1877, after the terrible famine of the
western India. He recruited young peasants of Maharashtra and organized political dacoities. He
was the earliest nationalist to organize the political dacoities. He was captured later & died in
1883. With him the rebellion also died.

Gadkari Assumption of direct administration of Kolhapur by the British created resentment among
/Samantwadi Gadkaris, who rose in revolt in Kolhapur. This revolt was suppressed finally by the British.
Revolt
Samantwadi revolt occurred in Ratnagiri and was led by Phond Sawant, Sawants captured some
forts but were drove away by British. They later fled to Goa and caused considerable troubles for
British forces.
Revolt of Raja After acquisition of the Northern Sarkars in, the East India Company demanded a gift of three
of Vizangaram lakhs from the Raja apart from ordering him to disband his troops. On Raja's refusal, his estate
was annexed. The Raja with the support of his people and his troops rose in revolt and lost his life
in a battle in 1794. Finally, the Company offered the estate to the deceased Raja's son and also
reduced the demand for presents

Velu Thampi’s Disgusted with the harsh terms imposed on the State of Travancore under the subsidiary alliance
Revolt treaty of Wellesley in 1805, the ruler did not pay the subsidy resulting into accumulation of
arrears. The high-handed attitude of the Company compelled Diwan Velu Thampi raise the banner
of revolt with the support of the Nair battalion. A large British force restored peace in the area

Rampa Revolt The hill tribesman of Rampa in coastal Andhra Pradesh revolted in March, 1879 against the
depredations of the government-supported mansabdar and the new restrictive forest regulations.
Only a large military operation could suppress the rebellion in 1880.

It was led by Sitarama Raju who was a formidable tactician. Koya revolt also occurred in AP where
Koya tribes had rose against their overlord, a mansabadar family that was in collusion with British.
It was led by Tomma Sora. Another movement was that of Chenchu tribals who launced a powerful
forest satyagraha during NCM in Nallamalai hills.

Wahabi The Wahabi movement, basically an Islamic revivalist movement, was founded by Syed Ahmad of
Movement Rae Bareli (1786-1831) who was influenced by the teachings of Abdul Wahab (1703-1787) of
Arabia. Syed Ahmad condemned all accretions to and innovations in Islam and advocated a return
to the pure Islam and society of Arabia of the Prophet’s times. In India, its important centre was
at Patna though it had its missions in Hyderabad, Madras, Uttar Pradesh and Bombay. Since Dar-
ul-Harb (The world of Kafirs) was to be converted to Dar-ul-Islam (The World of Islam), a Jihad
was declared against the Sikh Kingdom of the Punjab. Syed Ahmad lost his life in action. After the
overthrow of the Sikh ruler & the incorporation of the Punjab into the East India Company, the
 sole target of Wahabis attack became the English dominion in India. The Wahabis played a notable
role in spreading Anti-British sentiments & offering well planned challenge to British Supremacy
during from 1830s to 1860s.

Nirankari
Movement The Nirankari movement was founded by Dayal Das (died 1855), who belonged to a half-Sikh, half-
Hindu community in Peshawar. He believed that God is formless, or nirankar (hence the name
Nirankari). He saw that Sikhism was being assimiliated into Hindusim in front of his eyes. His main
target was the worship of images against which he preached vigorously. He re-emphasized the
Sikh belief in Nirankar the Formless One.

Namdhari or After the fall of kingdom of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, there were several attempts to raise the old
Kuka glory of the Khalsa. Several movements to reform the Sikhism were started. First one being
Movement Namdhari movement, which was started by Baba Ram Singh Namdhari, disciple of Bhai Balak Singh.
He was a soldier in Khalsa army. The objective was to abolish all distinction of caste among Sikhs;
advocates indiscriminate marriage of all classes; marriage of widows; reverence for cows. English
education, mill-made cloth and other imported goods were boycotted. Kukas even avoided use of
the post of fives established by the British and depended upon their own system of postal
communication. The British government started keeping strict vigil on Kukas. Baba Ram Singh was
sent to Andaman islands under Life imprisonment for treason & he died in 1885.

Bijolia In Bijolia city in Bundi district of Rajasthan from 1915-1927. Led by Vijay Singh Pathik. It was
Movement against the feudal cesses.

Social/Cultural Reform Movements

Mahima The primary objectives of social reform movement were to - Create a social climate for
Samaj/ modernization and Develop a rational approach to religion.
Rahnumai
Mazdayasnan Mahima Samaj was founded in Orissa by Mahima Goswami who preached against any narrowness

Sabha that divided human beings. Laid stress on habits that control the body and mind

In 1851 a group of English educated Parsis setup the Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha or Religious
Reform Association for the object of “the regeneration of the social condition of the parsis & the
restoration of the Zoroastrian religion to its pristine purity”. Naroaj Furdonji, Dadabhai Naroji &
K.R. Cama were in the forefront of this movement. It attacked practices like Purdah system,
women education, raising the age of marriage etc. Gradually the Parsis emerged as the most
westernized section of Indian society.
Young Bengal A radical trend arose among the Bengali intellectuals during the late 1820’s & the 1830’s. Henry
Vivian Derozio, a native of Scotland who taught at Hindu College had special love for India. Derozio
& his followers were known as Derozians & Young Bengal & were fiery patriots. Derozio was
removed from the Hindu College because of his radicalism & died of Cholera soon after. The
Derozians attacked the old & decadent customs, rites & traditions. They were passionate about
women’s rights & demanded education for them.

They posed an intellectual challenge to religious and social orthodoxy of Hinduism. They discussed
various aspects of western science and stood for a number of social reforms.

Derozio imbued the spirit of free thinking, in his students.Their radicalism and faith in everything
British alienated them from the masses. They never succeeded in organizing any social movement
in support of their proposed reforms.

Dharma This was an orthodox society founded in 1830 by Radhakant Deb. Members of the Sabha defended
Sabha the socio religious status quo against newspapers. Their objective was to counter Brahmo Samaj
movement & its radical reforms. They supported education amongst women

Atmiya Sabha Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1815 to propogate monotheism & other reforms in the Hindu
Society. Raja Ram Mohan Roy launched programme of social reform , promoted western education
among masses. His idea was to reform Hinduism in the light of reason. He condemned idolatry,
polytheism.

He founded Vedanta college to promote monotheism. Supported British rule believing it would lead
to rapid modernization.

After Raja, Keshab Chandra Sen popularized the movement amongst the masses while the
Debendranath Tagore provided it with a better organizational structure. Keshab Chandra also
preached by attacking caste system and focusing on women’s rights. This caused a split. Adi
Brahmo Samaj came under Debenra Nath while Keshab’s followers founded Brahmo Samaj of India.

Veda Samaj This society was formed in 1864 by K. Sridharalu Naidu. This movement was inspired to fight the
causes of Brahmo Samaj in South India. In 1871, the name of this society was changed to Brahmo
Samaj of South India. Naidu translated Brahmo Samaj literature into Telugu and Tamil and tried
to carry out social reforms in South India; however his death in 1874 weakened this reform
movement.

Prarthna Started by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang in 1867 in Bombay. Its objective was to reform Hindu religious
Samaj thoughts & practice in the light of modern knowledge. M G Ranade was one of the chief leader,
members remained Hindus while preaching progressive reforms. It preached monotheism,
denounced idolatry, priestly domination, and caste distinctions. It adopted a cautious approach and
the reforms were to come gradually. This made the Sabha more acceptable. Its activities in the
south were led by Veersalingam Pantulu.
Poona Founded by M.G. Ranade in 1867 alongwith R.G. Bhandarkar & Vishnu Shastri with the objective of
Sarvajanik serving as a bridge between the government & the people. Pheroz Shah Mehta & Tilak were also
Sabha associated with it. It discussed national issues particulary issues relating to drain of India’s
 Wealth

Arya Samaj By Swami Dayanand Saraswati in 1875 to reform Hindu Religion. He claimed Vedas as most
authentic religious text and attacked idolatry, caste system, child marriage, advocated widow
remarriage. His teachings are summarized in Satyartha Prakash. He also denounced untouchability
and repudiated caste system. His aggressive reforms received warm acceptance in NW.

Theosophical Founded in New York by Madam H.P Blavatsky & Col H.S. Olcott to advocate the revival &
Society strengthening of ancient religions of Hinduism, Zoroastrianism & Buddhism. Restored faith of
Indians in their own religion and ancient cultural heritage. Later revitalized by Annie Besant.

Deccan Started in 1884 by M.G Ranade among others, to contribute to the cause of education & culture in
Society Western India. This society founded the Ferguson College, Pune in 1885.

Indian In 1887 by M.G. Ranade & Ragunath Rao. It was the social reform cell of Indian National Congress.
National
Social
Conference
Sharada Pandita Ramabai, the youngest daughter of Anant Shastri, was a social reformer, a champion for
Sadan the emancipation of women, and a pioneer in education. Left totally alone by the time she was 23,
Ramabai acquired a great reputation as a Sanskrit scholar. Deeply impressed by her prowess, the
Sanskrit scholars of Calcutta University conferred on her the titles of "Saraswati" and "Pandita".
She rebelled against the caste system and married a shudra advocate, but was widowed at 23,
having a baby girl. In 1882, she establishsed the Arya Mahila Samaj for the cause of women’s
education in Pune and different parts of Western India. This led to the formation of the Sharada
Sadan in 1889, a school which blossomed into an umbrella organisation called Pandita Ramabai
Mukti Mission, 40 miles outside Pune.

Madras Hindu Founded in Madras in 1892 by Viresalingam Pantalu. The movment concerned the plight of widows &
Association combat Devdasi system.

Bharat Started by Pandit Madan Mohan Malvaviya & Pandit Din Dayal Sharma in 1902. This mandal was also
Dharma known as Sanatan Dhamis. In defence of the orthodox Hinduism & against the teachings of the
Mahamandala Arya Samaj, the Rama Krishna Mission etc Orthodox educated Hindus organized themselves.
Among them were Dharma Maha Parishad in South India, the Dharma Maha Mandali in Bengal etc.

Servants of Founded in Bombay by Gopal Krishan Gokhale to train “national missionaries” for the service of
India Society India.

Bharat Stree Started by Sarla Devi Chaudhary in 1910. It was the first women organization which promoted
Mahamandal equal rights of women.

Social Service Founded in 1911 in Bombay by Narayan Malhar Joshi to improve the condition of the social masses
League by opening schools, libraries & dispensaries.

Indian Founded in Madras in 1917 by Mrs. Annie Besant. It worked for the upliftment of women.
Women
Association
Poona Seva Founded by G.K. Devadhar & Ramabai Ranade (Wife of M.G. Ranade) in Pune to establish
Sadan institutions for the economic upliftment & useful employment of women

Deva Samaj Founded in Lahore by Shiv Narayan Agnihotri in 1887. Its ideas were close to Brahmo Samaj.

Ramakrishna On 1 May 1897 at Calcutta, Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Mission—the organ for social
Mission service. The ideals of the Ramakrishna Mission are based on Karma Yoga

He established the Vedanta societies at San Francisco and New York. Preached equality of all
religions, and service of men being supreme. His idea of religion was one that will give us faith in
ourselves, power to feed and educate the poor.

Ramakrishna completely untouched by western rationalism, he offered simple interpretations of

Hinduism which became immensely popular among western educated Bengalees. His teachings
contain an open rejection of the values imposed by Western education and the routine life of a
time bound job.

Vivekananda infused into this discourse a missionary zeal. He condemned the other reform
movements as elitist and invoked the ideal of social service. The best way to serve God was to
serve the poor people. His evocation of Hindu glory mixed with patriotism had a tremendous impact
on the young mind

Radha Swami Founded in 1861 with main center at Agra by Tulsi Ram also known as Shiv Dayal Saheb. It
Satsang propagated belief in one supreme being, religious unity, emphasis on simplicity of social life & social
service.

Seva Sadan Founded in 1885 in Bombay by Behramji S Malabari. It campaigned against child marriages &
enforced widowhood & care for socially exploited women.

Lokhitawadi Started by Gopal Hari Deshmukh. Advocated western education and a rational outlook. He
advocated female education for the upliftment of women. As a votary of national self-reliance, he
attended Delhi durbar in 1876, wearing handspun khadi cloth. Wrote famous collection of letters
"Shataptren" which touched upon all aspects of society.

Satya Shodak Founded by Jyotibha Phule in Maharasthra in 1873. It opposed untouchability, priestly domination.
Samaj It belived in social quality & upliftment of lower castes by education. There was one of the
movement which instead of taking positional change in the caste system, questioned the
fundamentals of this social organization. Phule argued that Brahmans were the progeny of Aryans,
who had subjected the original inhabitants of the land. He sought to unite both the non-Brahman
peasant castes as well as dalit groups in a common movement.
Justice Party Started in 1915-16 in Madras by C.N. Muralidhar, T.M. Nairy & P. Tyagaraja Chetti. It was opposed
Movement to Brahmin predominance. In the Madras presidency, non-Brahman movements rose in protest
against Brahmans who monopolized government jobs. This movement took shape in the form of a
cultural movement to construct a non-Brahman identity - which began with an inversion of the
Aryan theory of Indian civilization. Its central theme was an emotional devotion to Tamil language
 which could bring disparate group of people together. On the political front, it began with the
formation of Justice Party in 1916. It opposed the Congress as a Brahmin dominated organization
and claimed separate communal representation for non-Brahmans. This demand was granted in 1919
reforms. The party decline after forming ministries in 1920 - It became engrossed in newly
acquired power and gave up their reformist agenda and became less interested in plight of
untouchables.
Aligarh Started by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan by established the Mohammedan Anglo Oriental College in 1875
Movement at Aligarh. This college developed later into Aligarh University. The Aligarh movement aimed at
spreading western education among muslims without weakening their allegiance to Islam. Sir Syed
propogated his ideas through his magazine Tandhib-ul-Akhlagu (Improvement in manners & morals).

Syed Ahmed Khan tried to achieve two purposes disseminate education among Muslims and
promote understanding between English and Muslims. He did not support INC and considered their
activities as sedition. He also rejected the idea that Hindus and Muslims are the members of one
"Indian Nation". The Aligarh movement aimed at securing a dominant role for Muslims in
government

Post 1857 - Agrarian society and peasant discontent - In this period there was a greater awareness of colonial
policies, laws and institutions among the peasantry, both tribal and non-tribal. In many cases these institutions
were used to seek redress. There was growing involvement of the educated middle class intelligentsia as
spokespersons for the aggrieved peasantry linking their movement to a wider agitation against certain undesirable
aspects of colonial rule.

Indigo Planters In Bengal the planters were forced by the Britshers to grow Indigo crop under the terms which
– 1860 were least profitable to them. The revolt was directed against British planters who behaved like
feudal lords in their estates. The oppression of the planters increased in the second half of the
19th century as indigo lost its importance as an export item. The disturbances started in autumn
of 1859 when peasants refused to accept advances from the planters. Coercion from planters was
met with stiff resistance. Substantial peasants and village headmen provided leadership. The
peasants also took their cases to the courts. Dinabandhu Mitra’s Neel Darpan depicted the
atrocities of the planters. This helped in brining the peasant’s issue into the wider arena of
institutional politics and this resulted in growing pressure on the planters to behave. Indigo
plantation continued in politically backward regions of Bihar - Gandhiji’s intervention finally
bought the complete demise.

Deccan Riots - 1. The root of discontent lay in the changing relationship between the Marathi Kunbi peasants and
1875 the moneylenders. With the ryotwari system and the creation of property rights in land-
exploitation by moneylenders increased.
2. Situation for conflict was created when the government increased the revenue rates in 1867
 3. The cotton boom created by American civil war had just crashed and as a result peasants were
impoverished.
4. Poona Sarvajanik Sabha took the cause of peasants and sent volunteers to the villages to
arouse the Kunbi peasants against the new rates.
5. Rioters were quite aware of the new institutional framework of power relations as they
specifically targeted money lenders.

Muslim League Nawab Salimullah issued in 1906 May a circular in which he suggested an organization to be known
1907 as All India Muslim Conference. A conference was held In dec and All India Muslim League was
found, It had two objectives
a)To promote among Muslims loyalty to the British rule.
b) To protect political rights of Muslims and put their aspirations before government.
c)To promote friendly feeling with other communities without risking first two goals.
The first session of the league was held in 1908 at Amritsar. The same year Aga Khan became the
president. The league supported partition of Bengal & was a loyalist organization. After 1913 Aga
Khan left the league which led to the emergence of new leaders like Muhammad Ali, Shaukat Ali &
M.A. Ansari.

Oraon Oraon Movement (1914-1919) a tribal uprising of a section of the Oraons under the leadership of
Movement Jatra Oraon, a twenty-five year old youth of Gumla, Ranchi, occurring during the late colonial
period in the Chhotanagpur region. In April 1914 Jatra proclaimed that he had received a message
from Dharmesh, the supreme god of the Oraons to revive the Oraon Raj. He advocated that
Oraon religion should be freed of evils like ghost hunts and exorcism, belief in bhuts or spirits,
animal sacrifice and liquor drinking and advocated vegetarianism, austerity and restraint. As the
movement progressed, agrarian issues came to the fore. The Tana Bhagat movement (in this name
the Oraon Movement was popularly called) continued to spread throughout 1918. In 1919 Tana
activity acquired a new momentum under the leadership of Sibu Oraon and Maya Oraon. From the
1920s the Tana Bhagat movement developed links with Gandhian nationalism and lost much of its
earlier radical colour. The Congress propagated that Gandhi Raj would usher in the tribal
millennium. The Tana movement thus became integrated into the political mainstream and the
Congress ideology.

Home Rule Estd by Annie Besant at Madras in September 1916. She was the president & other members
League included Arundale, P.C. Ramaswamy Iyer, V.P. Wadia. Balgangadhar Tilak had estd another Home
Rule League in April 1916 at Pune.

Home rule league were organized on the lines of Irish Home Rule leagues and represented new
trend of aggressive politics. People were feeling the burden of war time miseries caused by high
taxation and a rise in prices. Tilak ensured government that he wanted reform of administration
and did not want to overthrow the government.

Tilak and Besant decided to revive political activity on their own. Tilak's league was restricted to
Maharashtra, Karantaka, Central provinces and Berar. Demands included Swaraj, linguistic states
and education in the vernacular. Besant's league was setup in Madras and covered the rest of
India. It was loosely organized and George Arundale was the organizing secretary. Both the
 leagues aimed to convey the common man the message of home rule as self government. It also
attracted politically backward regions of Gujarat and Sindh.

There was lack of effective organization. Moderates were pacified by Montagu's statement of
1917. Movement shifted the emphasis from educated elites to masses. It created a generation of
ardent nationalists and revived the congress as an effective instrument of Indian nationalism.
Many of the local leaders of Gandhi’s early Satyagraha came from Home Rule League background
and they used organizational networks created by the Leagues.

Champaran European planters forced the farmers to cultivate Indigo on atleast 3/20 (Tinkathiya) parts of
Satyagraha their land. Rajendra Prasad, Mazhur-ul-Haq, J.B. Kriplani, Mahadev Desai accompanied him. An
1917 enquiry was set up to alleviate miseries of which even Gandhi was a member. Gandhiji went to
champaran on Raj kumar Shukla's invitation. The peasant masses spontaneously rallied to the call
of Mahatma, his intervention broke the barrier of fear in the minds of poor peasants, who now
dared to defy British authority.

Kheda Kheda district of Gujarat faced a variety of factors, such as destruction of crops by late rains,
Satyagraha sudden rise in agricultural wages, high rate of inflation, and the outbreak of bubonic plague
1918 contributed to the hardship particularly for the rich Patidar peasants. Kheda peasants refused to
pay revenue due to failure of crops. After Satyagraha the government issued instructions to
collect revenue only from those who could afford to pay. Indulal Yagnik & Vallabh Bhai Patel
supported Gandhi. Movement was started and sustained by local leaders

Ahmedabad Workers demanded Plague bonus but employers wanted to withdraw after the epidemic. Mill
Mill Problem owners offered 20% bonus, Gandhiji went on fast and finally mill owners agreed for 27.5% bonus.
1918 Ambalal Sarabhai’s sister Anasuya Behn was main lieutenant of Gandhi here. Ambalal Sarabhai was
representing the Mill Owners.

This movement went a long way in mobilizing and organizing the working classes in Ahmedabad,
paving the way for foundation of the Textile Labor Association in 1920.

If we look at the pattern of above three movements we find that Gandhi was invited to provide
leadership where considerable mass mobilization had already taken place under local initiative.
Masses interpreted Gandhi’s message in their own terms, his leadership served to break the
barrier of fear. In the process all these regions became strongholds for support for Gandhian
politics.

Rowlatt In 1917, a committee was formed under the direction of Justice Rowlatt, the purpose of which
Satyagraha was to investigate the revolutionary movement in India. The findings & recommendations of this
committee were issued in the so called Rowlatt report. This act authorized the Government to
imprison any person without trial & conviction of the court of law. The law also enabled the
government to suspend the right of Habeas Corpus, which had been the foundation of civil
liberties in Britain.

Gandhiji was opposed to the Bill describing it as the distrust for common men. It signified
government reluctance to part with arbitrary powers. He decided to launch a nationwide
 movement, starting with a general strike on April 6. But the movement soon lapsed into violence.
By mid April the satyagraha had started losing momentum, forcing Gandhi to withdraw it. Though
the Act was not withdrawn, movement was significant in the sense it marked the beginning of a
transformation of Indian nationalist politics from being the politics of elites to politics of
masses.

Limitations

 Whole of India was not affected, it was more effective in cities.

 Strength of movement was more due to local grievances
 Effectiveness depended on the capability of local leaders to related local grievances to
issue of Rowlatt Act.

Jallianwala Crowd demanded to know the whereabouts of Satyapal and Kitchlew throught the reciting of the
Bagh th
poem ‘Fariyad’ on the day of Baisakhi (13 April, 1919). Martial law was proclaimed later at
Massacare
Lahore, Gujarat & Layal with curfew at Amritsar. An enquiry was setup under Hunter which was
described by Gandhiji as “White Wash”. Rabindranath Tagore renounced his title.

Khilafat Muslims regarded sultan of Turkey as their spiritual leader. After the world war, Turkey was
Movement dismembered and the khalifa removed from power. This incensed Muslims. Muslims demanded
that Khalifa's control over Muslim sacred places be retained and Khalifa should be left with
sufficient territories. Khilafat committee was formed under the leadership of Ali brothers,
Maulana Azad etc.

Gandhiji saw in the movement a platform from which mass and united cooperation could be
declared against government. It was felt this was a good opportunity to cement Hindu-Muslim
unity and bring Muslim masses into national movement. He highlighted its anti-British aspects and
underplayed its pan Islamic tendencies, and thus for the first time united the Hindus and Muslims
in a combined battle against British.

Historians believe that Khilafat was being used more as a symbol, while the leaders actually had
little concern about altering political realities in the Middle East.

Non Causes
Cooperation
Movement 1. Government's failure to fulfill promises made to the Khilafat leaders,

(1920)
2. Hunter committee report which justified the Jallian Wala Bagh massacre, 3. Rowlatt Act 4.
deteriorating economic condition after the war and 5. ill conceived Montagu-Chelmsford reforms .

To protest these Gandhiji suggested a programme of non violent mass struggle which will involve:

1. non payment of taxes 2. boycott of foreign goods 3. promotion of khadi and Hindu Muslim unity,
surrender of titles and honors. 4. NCM resolution also provided for a radical restructuring of the
INC through the construction of district and village level units to transform the party into mass
organization. 5. There were efforts at developing national schools and arbitration courts.
 Achievements

1. Hindu-Muslim unity remained unshaken

2. Marked by participation of regions and classes that did not participate in the past in any
movement. 3. Boycott of foreign clothes and council elections was more or less successful. 4.
Movement demonstrated that it commanded support and sympathy of vast sections of Indian
people and demonstrated the capacity of Indians to take part in modern national politics.

Limitations:

1. Middle class participation was not spectacular. 2. There was uneven geographical spread and
wide regional variations. 3. Masses often crossed the limits of Gandhian creed of non-violence.4.
Attitudes of Khilafat leaders revealed that they did not accept the creed of non-violence as a
matter of faith but for short term gains. 5. In some areas mobilization depended on the personal
influence of local leaders. 6. Dependence on capitalist prevented the leaders from mobilizing the
working class.

Withdrawal - Gandhiji withdrew the movement after the Chauri Chaura incident . Withdrawal was
followed by Bardoli resolution, which emphasised the need for constructive work before beginning
any political agitaiton. 2. Violence could be easily made as an excuse by the government to launch
an massive attack on the government as a whole. It was possible that Gandhiji was protecting the
movement from likely repression and demoralization. There were signs that mass involvement was
on the ebb.

AITUC Formed in 1920 with Lotvala’s help. M.N Roy, Muzzafarabad Ahmad, S. A Dange & Shaukat Osmani
led the trade unionist movements. The first All-India Trade Union Congress was, however,
inaugurated in Bombay in December 1920 by Swami Shradhanand and was presided over by Lajpat
Rai. The Congress continued to meet annually and even representatives from abroad attended
some of its sessions. The Britishers leveled the kanpur/Meerut conspiracy against them

Eka Movement Towards the end of 1921, peasant discontent surfaced in the districts of Hardoi, Bahraich and
Sitapur, with grievances relating to the extraction of a rent that was generally 50 percent higher
than the recorded rent. Congress and Khilafat leaders provided the initial thrust to the peasant
grievances and the movement grew under the name Eka or unity movement. With grass-root
leadership not in favour of non- violence taking over the movement, the authorities succeeded in
bringing it to an end. It was led by Madari Pasi and the main demand was conversion of batai into
cash.
Moplah The Moplah rebellion was a British-Muslim and Hindu-Muslim conflict in Kerala that occurred in
Uprising 1921. During the early months of 1921, multiple events including the Khilafat movement and the
Karachi resolution fueled the fires of rebellion.

Moplahs were the descendants of Arab traders who had settled in this region and married local
Nyar women. Gradually, the Moplahs became dependent on agriculture and turned into a
community of cultivating tenants, landless labors etc. The traditional system stipulated an equal
 sharing of the net produce of the land by janmi, kanamdar and cultivator. The British system
upset this arrangement by recognizing the janmi as absolute owner of land with right to evict
tenants. Apart from this over-assessment, a huge burden of illegal cesses and pro-landlord
attitude of judiciary added fuel to fire. In the rebellion religion and economic grievances
intermingled to produce a mentality of open resistance.
Akali The Singh Sabha Movement was a Sikh movement that began in the late 19th century in reaction
Movement to the proselytizing activities of Arya Samajis and Christians. The movement's aims were the
(1921-1925) revival of the Sikh Gurus' teachings, the production of religious literature in the Punjabi language
using the Gurmukhi script, and a campaign to increase literacy

Akali movement traced its origin to the wider reforming Singh Sabha movement. The campaign
started in 1920 when Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC) was formed.

2. Its aim were to reform the Sikh Gurudwaras and to reclaim control of the Sikh Shrines from
the hands of government manipulated loyalist committees.

3. Akali Dal was formed as an auxiliary of SGPC to wrest control of the shrines.

4. Akalis came to head on collision with government when in 1921 it took the keys of the Golden
Temple.

5. Gandhi and Congress supported the campaign, which ultimately forced the government to
surrender the administration of the temples to Akalis.

Babbar Akali In the wake of the Akali Movement came the Babbar Akali Movement, an underground terrorist
Movement, movement in 1921 mostly in the Jullundur Doab, the territory between Satluj and the Beas. Its
1921 aim was to overthrow the British Government by a campaign of murders and terrorism in the
Punjab. They committed a number of acts of violence and fought pitched battles against the
police. Many of them were killed in encounters. The movement of the Babbars was short-lived but
because of its intensity, it set a noble examble of supreme sacrifice.

Swarajya Motilal and C R Das supported participation in council elections to fill the political void which
Party 1923 follows a mass movement, other leaders suggested constructive work like promotion of hindu
muslim unity, building of schools. Later congress accepted the demand to participate in elections
the goal being to expose the government and create as much disruption as possible. In 1923 Das &
Nehru formed the Swaraj Party at Allahabad with a view to take part in the 1923 Council
elections with C. R. Das as President and Motilal Nehru as Secretary. The new party contested
the elections; they had some success in so far as they were able to convince the Government that
the system of diarchy introduced in the Provinces was unworkable

Though the participation was successful partially in that exposed the government, it failed to
cement political work with mass movement. Also, strategy of obstruction had its own limitations
and leaders could not resist the perks and privileges of the office. Later, some leaders joined the
government. Their important achievement was the defeat of Public Safety Bill.

Hindustan Established in October 1924 in Kanpur by revolutionaries like Ramprasad Bismil, Jogesh
Republic Chatterjee, Chandrashekhar Azad and Sachindranath Sanyal. kakori robbery was organized by
Association, them, after which Ramprasad Bismil, Roshan Lal, Asfaqullah Khan were hanged. However, the
1924 group was reorganized under the leadership of Chandrashekhar Azad and with members like
Bhagat Singh, Bhagwati Charan Vohra and Sukhdev on 9 and 10 September 1928- and the group
was now christened Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA).

Chandrashekar and Rajguru killed Saunders who was behind lathi charge in which Lala Lajpat Rai
died. Later Bhagat Singh threw a bomb in central legislative assembly to raise mass awareness.

Communist Major impact was of Bolshevik party overthrow of Czarist regime, this motivated Indian masses
Party of India, that they can do the same. M.N.Roy was the principal force behind CPI. He wrote "India in
1925 Transition" and and "Vanguard of Indian Independece". He bought together all the communist
forces mentioned here to form the CPI. A large number of organizations were set up embodying
the idea of Workers and Peasant Party to serve as a legal cover after the Kanpur Conspiracy .The
basic objective was to work within Congress to give it a more radical orientation and organize
workers and peasants class to work towards the goal of independence first and socialism
eventually. From 1934 onwards there were signs of renewed labor militancy and of tendencies
towards reunion of communist and trade union factions. This alarmed the government circles
leading to the formal banning of CPI in 1934. P. C. Joshi later revived CPI by working under the
legal front of CSP.

All India The War showed the usefulness of the princes to the empire, as they donated generously to war
People’s State funds, rendered valuable military services and encouraged army recruitment in their states.
Conference,
1926 At the end of World War I, princely states wanted a recognition of their services in the shape of
greater constitutional restrictions on the domineering tendencies of political department, more
guarantee of insularity against the rising political tides and greater participation in the
consultative process of the Empire.

Princes demanded a Chamber of Princess as an advisory committee and right of direct access to
government. The 1919, Act provided for a 120 member Chamber of Princess to advise Raj on all
matters relating to the states and their relationship with the paramount power.

Princely states were never completely isolated from the British Empire as both nationalistic
politics and communal tensions spilled over from neighboring provinces. Sometimes Princes also
exhibited active interest in the politics of British India. For example, rulers of Bharatpur became
ardent supporters of Hindu nationalism. There were many others, who remained steadfastly loyal
to the Raj.

In the 1920s, popular movement began to appear in all these state in the form of praja mandals.
These mandals were eventually affiliated to the national body called All India State’s People
Conference founded in 1927. It raised moderate demands for democratic rights and
constitutional changes, to which many of the princes responded with repression. During this
Congress maintained a policy of non-interference in the affairs of the states. As a result, during
CDM, princely states were instrumental in suppressing Congress activities in their respective
territories. In 1938 when Congress defined the goal of Independence it also included the Princely
States. Nehru became the President of All India State’s People Conference in 1939. It helped
 spreading consciousness among the people of the States & a feelin go unity all over India.

Simon The purpose was the review the Act of 1919 after a gap of ten years. The 7 member commission
Commission, was labeled ‘White Men Commission’. Huge demonstration under Govind Vallabh Pant at Lucknow &
1927 Lala Lajpat at Lahore. The report of Simon Commission was published in May 1930. It stated the
constitutional experiment with Dyarchy was unsuccessful & in its place recommended the
establishment of autonomous government. It recommended special powers to governor general &
governors to look after the interest of minorities, strengthening the centre, increasing
electorate base on communal basis, Indianization of defence forces, delink Burma from India &
Sindh from Bombay. The Indians rejected the report as it gave no regard to Dominion Status. It
became a basis for the Govt of India Act 1935.

The commission was boycotted by Jinnah who carried the minority opinion in Muslim League.
Later, he persuaded Muslim leaders to evolve a compromise formula called "Delhi Proposals" with
set of demands to be incorporated in the draft constitution . The proposal envisaged doing away
with separate electorates in favor of joint electorates with reserved seats for minorities. 1/3rd
seats in central assembly were to be reserved for Muslims, formation of three new Muslim
majority provinces and proportional representation in Punjab, Bengal. When some of the
amendments proposed by Jinnah were not accommodated, Jinnah went to Shafi faction of Muslim
League and in March 1929 gave 14 points which were to become basis of all future action by the
Muslim League.

Bardoli This happened when government announced a revenue hike of 22%, even though the cotton prices
Satyagraha, have been declining. Patel organized a no rent campaign among Kaliprajs who were the low caste
1928 inhabitants. Emphasis was placed on rural class unity and traditional mutuality between peasants
and labors.The movement was a spectacular success. On the basis of a judicial enquiry, enhanced
revenue rates were cut down, confiscated lands were returned. The success of the satyagraha
proved that this technique was more effective than constitutional methods.

Nehru Report, Secretary of State, Lord Birkenhead challenged the Indians to produce a constitution that would
1928 be acceptable to all. A meeting held at Bombay set up a 8 member committee headed by Motilal
Nehru & others included Bose, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Sir Ali Imam, Shahib Qureshi, Sardar Mangal
Singh, MS Anney & G.R Pradhan. The report was placed before Congress Session in Calcutta in
1928 where it was adopted unanimously

It supported Universal adult suffrage, division on linguistic grounds, complete dissociation of

state from religion, equal rights for women and rejected principal of separate electorates.

It recommended reservations for Muslims in areas where they were in minority. but was
criticized by CPI on the grounds that it did not demand complete freedom and accepted zamindar
interests to an extent. It demanded 19 fundamental rights with equal rights for women.

Nehru and Bose considered the idea of dominion status a step backwards. Gandhiji proposed a
compromise solution which that if the government did not accept the report by 1929, the
Congress would go in for a non-cooperation movement to achieve full independence.
All-India To counter the Muslim League programme against the Congress, the nationalist Muslims formed a
Muslim party called the All-India Muslim Nationalist Party on 27 July 1929 with Abul Kalam Azad as
Nationalist President, Dr. Ansari as treasurer and T.A.K. Sherwani as Secretary. Its objective was to fight
Party 1929 communalism and exhort Muslim to take their due share in India’s struggle for freedom.

Civil In Dec 1928 Congress discussed Nehru Report and an ultimatum was given to Government to
Disobedience accept the Nehru Report by year end. In Nov, 1929 a conference of prominent national leaders
issued a "Delhi Manifesto" which demanded the purpose of RTC should be to formulate a scheme
Dandi March, for implementation of dominion status and that the congress should be in majority position.
1930
Later in 1929 Lahore session, it was declared the since the government has failed to take any
steps towards granting the Dominion status, there is no point in participating in RTC-1 which
would only discuss the process of granting Dominion status and not when it should be granted.
Congress declared Poorna Swaraj as its goal. The AICC was authorized to start a civil
disobedience movement to achieve this.

Dec 31, 1929 - On the banks of River Ravi, newly adopted tricolor was hoisted.

Jan 26, 1930 -First independence day to be celebrated everywhere.

On 31 January 1930 Gandhi announced an 11 point ultimatum for Lord Irwin.It was a compromise
formula and included issues of general interest (reduction of military expenditure, education
etc.), capitalist demands, peasant themes . It was a mixed package to appeal to wide cross section
of political opinions and united the Indians. Of all the grievances, salt tax seemed to be the most
crucial since it affected all sections and did not have divisive implications.

Viceroy Irwin rejected these demands, and hence on 12 March began the historic Dandi March to
Gujarat seashore where he publicly violated the salt law, accompanied by the boycott of foreign
cloth and liquor.

The general plan was civil disobedience of salt laws, picketing of liquors and foreign shops,
lawyers can give up practice. Things began to take abrupt turn towards end of April, as violent
terrorist activites (Chittagong raid) and less disciplined mass upsurges began to take place in
different parts of India. There was a definite advance of radicalism over the 1920 movement.

New feature of the movement was participation of business class who provided finance and
supported the boycott movement. Movement also witnessed large scale women participation. Non
payment of chaukidara taxes and no-revenue campaign became major features.

First RTC, The first session of the Round Table Conference was called in London to discuss the Simon
1930 Commission Report. Congress refused to take part in the conference but representatives of the
Liberals, the Muslim League & the representatives of princely states assembled in London. Three
basic principles were agreed & accepted by British Government :

1. The form of new Government of India was to be a All India Federation

 2. The Federal Government, subject to some reservations would be responsible to 

federal
legislature.

3. The Provinces were to enjoy their autonomy

Held under the Chairmanship of Ramsay MacDonald. Failed to resolve any issues as it was opposed
by congress. A Conference on Indian Affairs without the Congress was a meaningless exercise.

Gandhi Irwin To contain the movement, government retaliated with repressive measures; all front leaders and
Pact, March thousands of volunteers were arrested. In urban areas the enthusiasm of the mercantile classes
1931 were dampened by the financial losses because of the disruption of day to day business. Educated
youth felt attracted to revolutionary terrorism. The working class support was non-existent.
Drastic fall in agricultural prices resulted in movement of the lesser peasantry acquiring radical
tendencies such as not rent campaigns in UP. So eventually the movement was withdrawn.

The most weighty reason for withdrawal of the movement was appearance of radicalism and
violence among certain lower classes who refused to remain under control of local congress
leaders. The movement was going against the Gandhian creed of non-violence and was tearing
apart the fragile unity of the political nation.

The Government madea gesture of Goodwill by releasing the Congress Leaders including Gandhi.
Finally the Viceroy Lord Irwin & Gandhi neogitated a settlement popularly known as Gandhi- Irwin
Pact. As per it Gandhi agreed to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement & participate in the
Second Round Table conference but most of the leaders did not like this pact. The Government
also conceded the right to make salt for consumption to villages along the coast, as also the right
to peaceful & non-aggressive picketing.

Second RTC, This session remained deadlocked on the minority issue, as not just the Muslims but all other
1931 minorities such as the depressed classes, Anglo-Indians etc. demanded separate electorates,
which Gandhi was adamant not to concede.

Gandhi came back to India and the movement was renewed with great vigor but evoked less
enthusiasm. The rich peasants felt betrayed by withdrawal and remained unstirred in many places.
The labor remained apathetic and the Muslim often antagonistic. Government repression saw
thousand of volunteers behind bars. The movement gradually declined by 1934.

For Congress, CDM was no means a failure. It had by now mobilized great political support and
gained a moral authority, which were converted into a massive electoral victory in 1937.

McDonald This award was based on the theory that India is not one nation but a combination of several
Communal classes of people. Not only depressed classes were included but also Muslims, Sikhs, Christians
Award etc. Since, Congress had already accepted the separate award for Muslims, it adopted a position
in which it neither accepted nor rejected the award making it clear that it won't oppose the
award without the concurrence of minorities. Mahatma Gandhi went on a fast unto death in
 Yeravada Jail. An agreement was reached with the consent of Mahatma Gandhi & Ambedkar which
came to be known as ‘Poona Act’. The British government also approved it. Accordingly 148 seats
were reserved in different provincial legislatures in place of 71 as per communal award.

Arhar The nationalist Muslims started another organization called the All-India Majlis-i- Ahrar-i-Islam
Movement, in 1931 to work for the attamment of independence through constitutional means. Its followers
1931 supported the Congress and worked for the economic, educational and political advancement of
Muslims. The influence of the Ahrars was, however, mostly confined to the province of Punjab.

Congress The demise of CDM resulted in serious dissension within the Congress. The socialists and other
Socialist left elemetns - Jayaprakash Naryan, Patwardhan, Narendra Dev, Minoo Masani formed the CSP.
Party, 1934 It was meant to operate from within the congress and try to change its orientation towards a
socialist programme as well as contain the dominance of conservative leaders. Its members
rejected what they saw as the Communist Party of India's loyalty to the USSR as well as the
anti-rational mysticism of Mohandas Gandhi

The CSP advocated decentralized socialism in which co-operatives, trade unions, independent
farmers, and local authorities would hold a substantial share of the economic power. CSP activists
were able to develop close connections with the emerging Kisan Sabha. N G Ranga started an
Indian Peasant Institute to train kisan cadres.

All India Kisan The initiative to organise peasants into Kisan Sabhas was taken by the active members of Home
Sabha, 1936 Rule League in UP - Gauri Shankar Misra, Indra Narain Dwivedi supported by Madan Mohan
Malviya. The UP Kisan Sabha was set up in 1918. In the mid-1920, Baba Ramchandra emerged as
the leader of peasants in Avadh and led a few hundred tenants from Jaunpur and Pratapgarh
districts to Allahabad and apprised Jawaharlal Nehru of the conditions of the peasants. Nehru
made several visits to the rural areas and developed close contacts with the Kisan Sabha
Movement.

In 1921, the nature of peasant movement underwent a marked change with peasants indulging in
looting of bazaars, houses, granaries and clashes with the police. The Government easily
suppressed these outbreaks of violence. It passed the Awadh Rent ( Amendment ) Act which
though brought little relief to the tenants , was instrumental in the gradual decline of the
movement.

In Bihar the Kisan Sabha Movement started under the leadership of Swami Sahajanand
Saraswati. The movement sought to construct a broad front of the peasantry. The radical
developments under the leadership of N G Ranga, Namboodripad, the peasant front culminated in
the formation of All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) which Sahajanand Saraswati as the first
President. Because of the CSP members, AIKS remained part of the Congress.

Common demands were

 50% reduction in rent.

 Full occupancy rights to tenants
  Abolition of Begar
 Restoration of customary forest rights.
 5. Abolition of zamindari

Hindustan
Mazdur Sevak
Sangh

Forward Block, Bose was elected President in Haripura session and was seeking reelection at Tripuri. Gandhi did
1939 not like the comprehensive plan of industrialization and national development prepared by
National Planning Committee on the initiative of Bose. Bose's idea that India should fight for
freedom during the war was also not acceptable to Gandhi. At Tripuri session Bose, defeated
Pattabhi Sitarammaya who was endorsed by Gandhi. Differences also emerged on the Congress
stance during the war. Subash wanted to take advantage of British dilemma while Nehru and
Gandhi were of the view that since Britain is waging a war against anti-fascist elements, to take
advantage of them would be morally wrong. The matter worsened when a resolution was moved by
Govind Pant which reiterated its faith in Gandhian policies, expressed faith in the old working
committee and asked Bose to constitute a new working committee. This resolution was known as
Pant Resolution was passed, leading to resignation of Subhash.

Its main objective was attainment of complete independence and establishment of a modern
socialist state. It became a party at its Nagpur session on 18 June, 1940 and attempted a form a
left consolidated front but the Communist Party of India and the Congress Socialist Party did not
join it. However, it collaborated with the All-India Kisan Sabha and was against any compromise
with the British Government. In the then prevailing situation, it advocated collaboration with
Italy, Germany and Japan to get rid of the imperialists British rule.

Radical It was formed by M. N. Roy in August 1940 after he left the Congress along with his followers.
Democratic He believed that he would be able to convince the British Government to form coalition ministries
Party, 1940 by combining the anti Congress elements in the various provinces.

August Offer, The Indian Viceroy Lord Linlithgow in August 1940, issued from Simla a statement that was
1940 intended to break the Constitutional deadlock. The important points were

 An immediate expansion of Viceroy’s executive council by indicuitng into that 


body a
number of representative Indians
 The Establishment of War Advisory Council
 The promotion of practical steps to arrive at an agreement among Indians on the
form which the post war reprentative body would take.


 Indian people would help British Government.

Indian recation was hostile as it made no commitment of transferrign power.

Individual The left wing in the Congress wanted militant anti-war and anti government action and wanted to
Satyagraha, start a mass movement. Gandhiji, however denied any mass movement and instead started a civil
disobedience on a very small scale, in which individual congressmen chosen by Gandhiji would make
1940 anti war pronouncements and get themselves arrested. This was meant as a preparation of mass
struggle and as an expression of people's feeling for freedom of speech and participation in the
war. It was decided that mass movement is not feasible due to lack of hindu-muslim unity and lack
of discipline in congress. The idea was to carry constructive political work till all possibilities of
settlement with government were exhausted. The Congress Working Committee decided to start
individual civil disobedience on Oct 11, 1940. In it Vinoba Bhave, Jawahar Nehru & Brahma Dutt
were the first 3 satyagrahis.

Cripps Mission, By now Britain was aligned with Russia against Germany in the war, the deteriorating war situation
1942 made Congress reevaluate its stand and it suspended the individual Satyagraha. In order to win a
favorable public opinion in India, it was deemed necessary by government to offer some
constructive gestures. To secure the Indian cooperation in war Sir Sttaford Cripps was sent to
India.

Cripps mission came to India in March-April 1942 promised:

Indian self determination after the war; India then might opt out of the commonwealth, but had
to enter into a treaty to safeguard British interests; there would be an elected constituent
assembly to which princes could also nominate their representatives; the provinces could secede
from the union if they wished and this gave tacit recognition to Muslim League’s Pakistan demand.
More immediately, Indians would become members of the viceroy’s executive council in order to
prop up war efforts.

Congress rejected the proposal because it did not want to shoulder responsibilities without real
power and also wanted some control over the defense. It also objected to right of princely state
to secede. Jinnah rejected the proposal because it did not recognize Muslims’ right to self
determination and equality as a nation.

Mission signified an important change in British policy. It announced Indian independence after
the war to be the ultimate goal of British policy; and that unity would no longer be a precondition
for independence. Nehru and Maulana were official negotiators for Congress.

Quit India British withdrawal in Malay led to the belief that they might leave India, leaving us vulnerable to
Movement, a Japanese aggression. Failure of the Cripps mission along with economic distress caused by the
1942-44 war compounded the problems. Quit India resolution demanded immediate end to British rule in
India.

In the absence of leadership Achutya Patwardhan played a crucial role. He led All-India
underground movement by continuing to provide a line of command and source of guidance and
leadership to the movement all over. Aruna Asaf Ali and Sucheta Kriplani were popular women
leaders. The Quit India Movement saw high peasant participation along with support of lower rung
government officers.

The achievement of Quit India Movement lay in the fact that it convinced the British government
they were no longer wanted in India leading to consideration of demand for independence on the
 immediate agenda of national movement , and as Wavell pointed out it would be virtually
impossible to hold India by forcce

Jatiya Sarkar Parallel Government during Quit India Movement at Midnapore (West Bengal). It undertool relief
of Tamluk work, sanctioned school, & supplied paddy to needy.
1942

INA It was first conceived by Mohan Singh in Malya in 1942, an officer in British Indian Army when he
went to Japanese camp for help. Indian POW were handed over to him who were then recruited
to INA. These recruits were to march alongside the Japanese to liberate India. However, their
efforts came to an end when differences emerged over INA’s role and top leader were arrested.

Second, phase was led by Netaji when he arrived in Singapore. Aim was to march through Burma
to Imphal and then to Assam, where Indian people were expected to join them in an open
rebellion. He set up provisional government of Free India which declared war on USA and Britain.
However, the Imphal campaign ended in a disaster leading to retreat.

Reasons for failure - lack of air power, breakdown in chain of command, disruption of the supply
line, lack of cooperation from the Japanese.

C R Formula, To resolve the constitutional impasse Rajagopalachari evolved a formula in March 1944.

Formula’s
1944 Main points were:
It stipulated, among other things, the following:

(i) “a plebiscite of all the inhabitants held the basis of adult franchise or other practicable
franchise” in “contiguous districts in the north-west and east of India wherein the Muslim
population is in absolute majority... shall ultimately decide the issue of separation from
Hindustan”;

(ii) border districts to be given “the right... to choose to join either state”;

(iii) “mutual agreements... for safeguarding defence, and commerce and communications and for
other essential purposes”; and

(iv) these terms would be binding after complete transfer of
power to Indian hands.
v) Muslim League to endorse demand of Independence by Pakistan

vi) League to cooperate with Congress to form an interim government at Centre.

Jinnah’s counter-terms were:


(i) plebiscite of only the Muslims (ie only the Muslims should vote)
in the Pakistan areas since they demand Pakistan on the premise that they constituted a nation by
themselves, and were entitled to the right of self-determination;

(ii) the six existing provinces, with minor alternations, to form the new state; (iii) it should be
sovereign (i.e. Common Centre was unacceptable); and

(iv) the division must precede, and not follow, the transfer of power to Indian hands. Jinnah also
objected to the plethora of pre-conditions, which rendered the Rajaji Formula almost unfeasible
and unworkable.
Wavell The main provisions were akin to Cripps mission proposals. It essentially dealt with the Indian
Plan/Shimla demand of self-rule & reconstitution of viceroy’s executive council giving a balanced
Conference, representation to the major communities. Executive council was an interim arrangement in which
1945 all but the Viceory & the Commander in Chief were to be Indians & all portfolios except defence
were to be held by Indian members. Conference broke down because of Jinnah’s insistence that
Muslim league alone represented Indian Muslims & hence no non league muslim members could be
nominated to viceroy’s council.

Cabinet Pathick Lawrence (secretary of state for India), Stafford Cripps & A.B. Alexander were
Mission, 1946 memebrs.

The Cabinet Mission plan brief was to discuss two issues 1. The principles and procedures for
framing a new constitution for granting independence, and the formation of an interim
government based on widest possible agreement among Indian political parties.

The Mission rejected the proposal of a sovereign Pakistan as a non viable concept and proposed a
three tier structure of a loose federal government for the Union of India, including both the
provinces and the princely states. There would be a Union government in charge of defense,
foreign affairs and communications; all residual powers would be vested in provincial governments
which would be free to form groups.

A Constituent assembly was to be elected by the provincial assemblies to draft a constitution for
the whole of India, it would first meet at the Union level and then split into three sections:
Section A of Hindu majority provinces, Section B of Muslim majority provinces in NW, and
Section C would include Bengal and Assam. Provinces would have the right to opt out of any
particular group, but not from the Union.

An interim government would look after day-to-day administrative matters.

Congress had certain reservations - It wanted immediate independence without having to wait for
the Constitution to be framed. It also did not like Assam and NWFP, to be grouped with the
other Muslim majority provinces. It also wanted additional power for central government to
intervene in crisis situations.

Although the league initially accepted the proposal, Nehru’s assertion that Congress had only
accepted to participation in the Constituent Assembly led to withdrawal of league.

The communal riots and the unworkability of the Congress - League in the constituent assembly
compelled many to think in terms of accepting partition.

INA Trials, The trials was to take place in public to reveal the horrors that the INA men had perpertrated.
1946 As the details of INA campaign emerged, the soldiers came to be considered as patriots of
highest order. Congress leaders could hardly ignore the issue that so profoundly touched popular
emotions. Trials were held at Red Fort in Delhi. Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai, Tejbahadur Sapru fought
the case on behalf of three senior INA officers, Shahnawaz khan, P.M. Sehgal & Gurbaksh Singh
Dhillon (who had earlier been officers in the British Indian Army). Muslim league also joined the
 country wide protests.

Nehru raised the demand for leniency of INA soldiers. The campaign got high publicity, INA
members were hailed by masses as patriots. The campaign had a wide geographical reach, with the
participation of diverse social groups and political parties. Demands for INA trials later evolved
into violent confrontations but they showed signs of remarkable communal harmony. The impact
of INA trials on the unity of the army really perturbed the Raj ast it was their only reliable
apparatus of the rule.

RIN Mutiny, Indians serving in the Royal Indian Navy mutined. In 1945 Bombay Raqtings of HMIS Talwar
1946 struck work due to Flagrant racial discrimination, unpalatable food & abuse. Later HMS Hindustan
in Karachi also mutined. Seventy four ships, four flotillas, & twenty shore establishments in
Bombay, Karachi, Cochin, Vizag, Calcutta & Delhi had

come under the command of a Naval Central Strike Committee headed by M.S. Khan. In Bombay
the Mutineers hoisted the tricolor on their shipmasts together with a portrait of Subhash
Chandra Bose & shouted Jai Hind on their Barracks. Their protested against:

 INA Trials
 Racial discrimination (Demanding equal pay for the Indian & White soldiers).
 Upalatable food.
 Abuse by White superiors.
 Arrest of a rating for scrawling “Quit India” on HMIS Talwar
 Use of Indian troops in Indonesia demanding their withdrawal.
 Vallabh Bhai Patel & Jinnah jointly persuaded the ratings to surrender in 1946.

Congress Reaction: The Congress remained largetly indifferent to the revolutionary situation
because of two considerations – that the situation would go out of control & that disciplined
armed forces were vital in a free India. The Congress did not support the upsurge because of its
tactics & timings. Gandhi remarked that the mutiny was badly advised, if they had any grievances
they should have waited for the guidance of leaders.

British Response

The upsurge prompted the British to extend some concessions

 Only those INA members accused of murder or brutal treatment of fellow

prisoners would be brought to trial
 Imprisonment sentences passed against the first batch were remitted.
 Indian soldiers withdrawn from Indo-China and Indonesia.
 Finally the decision to send Cabinet Mission to India was taken.

Tehbhaga The Tebhaga movement was a militant campaign initiated in Bengal by the Kisan Sabha (peasants
Movement, front of Communist Party of India) in 1946. At that time share- cropping peasants had to give
1946 half of their harvest to landlords, a feudal institution. The demand of the Tebhaga (sharing by
thirds) movement was to reduce the share given to landlords to one third. In many areas the
 agitations turned violent, and landlords fled villages leaving parts of the countryside in the hands
of Kisan Sabha. After an angry response from the government, the movement began to retreat.
In this movement there was a greater class consciousness, concerns about individual rights, and
preponderance of economic issues, that often tended to fracture older community loyalties.

Mountbatten Attlee announced the latest date to withdraw as June 30, 1948. Mountbatten was appointed who
Plan, 1947 initially suggested Plan Balkan which was rejected by Nehru. Patel later suggested transfer of
power to two central governments obviating the need to wait for an agreement in the Constituent
assembly. Congress agreed to it hoping it would allow for some continuity in the bureaucracy and
army.

He put forth the plan of partition of India in 3 June 1947. Punjab & Bengla would be divided into
two parts with muslim & non muslim majority. Baluchistan had the right to determine which side
to join. The power would be transferred on 15 August 1947. Referendum were to be held in
NWFP, Sylhet (to join Assam or East Bengal). Legislative assembly of Sindh was to decide
whether to join India or not.

India The British Parliament passed the Indian Independence act on 18 July 1947. Partition on 15
Independence August. The act provided separate governor generals for the two dominions. Abolition of the post
Act, 1947 of secretary of state for India. Pending the adoption of new constitution, the administration of
the two dominions & the provinces would be carried on in accordance with the provisions of the
government of India act 1935 though special powers of the Governor General & the Provincial
governors would be ceased. Jinnah became the first governor general of Pakistan.

Work Done by Viceroy’s

Robert Clive Robert Clive became the Governor of Bengal in 1765. During his first tenure as a governor he
was known for his conquests and during his second tenure for his administrative reforms. He
was instrumental in securing diwani rights of Bengal.
The servants of the company were forbidden to receive any gift from Indians. They were
forbidden to indulge in private trade. He increased the salaries of the company's servants.
He set up a Fund known as Lord Clive's Fund with a view to help poor servants of the company
and widow's of those who died in service.
After receiving the Diwani (Civil) and Nizamat (criminal) rights from the Mughal emperor
Shah Alam II, Robert Clive introduced a new system called Dyarchy or Dual or Double
Government. According to this system, the British enjoyed all powers but no responsibility.
The Nawab was reduced to a position of all responsibility and no power.
In this system of Government, neither the Nawab, nor the English cared for the welfare of
the people. The Dual Government was finally abolished in 1772. Bengal was brought under the
direct rule of the company.

Hastings Reforms by Hastings

 Put an end to dual government. East India company took over administration of provinces.
Two courts of appeals namely Sadar Diwani Adalat and Sadar Nizamat Adalat were
established at Calcutta.
Belonged to Orientalist school. Founded Calcutta Madarsa and supported William Jones in the
formation of Asiatic Society of Bengal
A Board of Trade was set up to buy quality goods for the company. Company servants were
not allowed to carry on private trade.
A Board of Revenue was set up at Calcutta to look into the revenue administration. English
Collectors were appointed in every district
Introduced Farming System which proved to be a failure.
He was involved in territorial conquests with Marathas and Mysore. .
Cornwallis In 1793, Cornwallis introduced the Permanent Settlement of Bengal.
Cornwallis introduced a new administrative civil service system. The civil servants were
appointed to administer the British territories effectively in India. He introduced strict
regulations, raised their salaries and gave promotions on the basis of merit.
Created a permanent police force in India
Lord Cornwallis improved the judiciary. The collector was relieved of his judical duties. He
was responsible for revenue collection. Civil and Criminal Courts were set up at the district
level.
Cornwallis revived the old practice of making direct contact with the Indian merchants and
improved trade and commerce
He reorganized the Revenue Department. He established the Board of Revenue to supervise
the
work of the collectors