MECHANICAL PART

2.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE:

Whenever the vehicle is allowed to pass over the dome, it gets pressed

downwards. As the springs are attached to the dome, they get compressed and the

rack, which is attached to, the bottom of the dome moves down in reciprocating

motion. Since rack has teeth connected to gear there is conversion of reciprocating

motion of rack in to rotary motion of gears, but the two gears rotate in opposite

direction. So that shafts will rotate with certain RPM these shafts are connected

through a chain drive to the dynamos, which converts the mechanical energy into

electrical energy.

Now made to rotate a wheel in one direction by supplying power to shaft,

while other made to rotate freely on the shaft, as the free wheel is inserted in the

gears. We can insert a flywheel is mounted on the shaft when the main function is

to avoid energy fluctuation.

 LINE DIGRAM

2.2 CONSTRUCTION DETAILS:

The following theoretical data abstracted from the BANGALORE, where in
which the system is still utilizing. The various machine elements in POWER
GENERATION FROM SPEED BREAKERS are
1. Rack
2. Spur gear
3. Fly wheel
4. Bearings
5. Shaft
6. Springs
7. Electric dynamo
 A dome is mounted on four springs, to bottom of this dome a rack is clamped.
The rack has contact teeth on both the faces. It has connected to two gear wheels.
To rotate the gear wheels only in one direction and making them free in other
direction. We have inserted a free wheel in each gear. This free wheel and gear
assembly is mounted centrally. The fly wheel is also mounted on the same shaft.
The shaft is simply supported at both ends by providing ball bearings. Now a
dynamo is connected to each shaft by chain drive. This total assembly is arranged
in concrete pit.

1.2.1 RACK;
Material - Mild steel
Function - To change the translator motion in to rotary motion
Properties -Strength, Rigidity ,Resistance to shock loads ,Less wear and tear.
MANUFRACTURING PROCESS:
Required square rod is cut from the bar fit in the vice of milling machine id
to cut on teeth according to dimensions of the drawing. Gears at infinite no. of.
Teeth are called RACK. With the help of rack and pinion, we can convert
reciprocating motion in to rotary motion and vice versa.
VELOCITY RATIO:
Linear motion (V1) = r1 
Length of handle = L
Pitch of teeth on pinion = p
No.of. teeth on pinion = N
VELOCITY RATIO :
V.R = Distance moved by the effort / Distance Moved by load.
=TP/2∏L.
DESIGN OF RACK:
No. of teeth = 14
Size of rack = 80 x 80 x 650mm
Module = 8
Addendum = 12.56
Dedendum = 12.56
Tooth load (Wt) = 7134.94N

Rack and pinion in mesh Line diagram:

D
Module M = ---------- = d=mxt = 8 x 20 = 160 mm
T

160
R = ------ = 80 mm
2

Ra = r + addendum
 = 80 + (0.89 x 8)
= 86.4 mm
Outer diameter of gear wheel = 2x Ra
O.D. = 172.8 mm

Let us assume
No. of teeth on rack t = 14
From the fig
Length of path of contact KL=OK2-OL2
= (PO+LH) 2-(OPCOS Ø) 2
= LH=addendum
(80=6.4) 2-(80COS200) 2
=42.586mm =0.8 x 8 =6.4mm

Length of arc of contact= Length of path of contact/ cos Ø

=42.586/cos 200
=45.319mm
Minimum no.of teeth contact= Length of arc of contact/circular pitch
=45.319/( *8)
=1.8 teeth
=2 teeth = one pair
Angle turned by the pinion & wheel. When one pair of teeth is in contact

Angle turned by the gear wheel

 Length of are of contact x 360
= --------------------------------------------------
Circumference of gear

45.318 x 360
= ------------------------------
2 Ra

45.318 x 360
= ------------------------------ = 30.05
2x x 86.4

Length of rack
Circumference of gear = 2R
= 2 xn x 80
= 502.654 mm

Length of rack = 502+148=650mm

1.2.2. SPUR GEAR:

 In precision machines, in which a definite velocity ratio is of importance, the
only positive drive is by gears or toothed wheels. A gear drive is also provided,
when the distance between the driver and follower is very small.

CLASSIFICATION OF GEARS:
1. According to the position of axis of shaft.
a) Parallel b) Intersecting c) Non intersecting

2. According to peripheral velocity of gears.

a) Low velocity b) Medium velocity c) High velocity
3. According to type of gearing.
a) External gearing b) Internal gearing c) Rack and pinion
4. According to position of teeth
a) Straight b) Inclined c) Curved

TERMINOLOGY:
 PITCH CIRCLE - It is an imaginary circle, which by pure rolling action
would give the same motion as the actual gear.
 PITCH CIRCLE DIAMETER - it is the diameter of the pitch circle. The size
of gear is specified by the pitch circle diameter.
 ADDENDUM: It is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the
top of the tooth.
 DEDENDUM: It is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the
top of the tooth.
 PRESSURE ANGLE: It is the angle between the common normal to two
gears teeth at the point of contact and the common tangent at the pitch point
the standard pressure angles are 14 &1/2 0 and 20 0
 CIRCULAR PITCH: It is the distance measured on the circumference of the
pitch circle from a point of one tooth to the corresponding point on the next
tooth. Pc usually denotes it.
Pc = D/T
D = Diameter of pitch circle
T = No. of teeth on the wheel

 DIAMETRAL PITCH : It is the ratio of no. of teeth of the pitch circle

diameter in millimeter. 'Pd' denotes its.
Pd=T/∏D=/Pc [Pc=∏D/T]
T = No. of teeth
D = Pitch circle diameter.
 MODULE : It is the ratio of the pitch circle diameter in mm to the No.of
teeth. It is usually denoted by 'm'.
 m=D/T.
NOTE:
The recommended series of modules in Indian standards are 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2,
2.5, 3,4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40 and 50.

CONDITION FOR CONSTANT VELOCITY RATION OF GEARS -LAW OF

GEARING:
If D & D2 are pitch circle diameter of wheel 1 and 2 having teeth Ti and T 2
respectively. Then Velocity ratio = D1/ D2 = T2 / T1

STANDARD PROPORTIONS OF GEAR SYSTEM:

S.NO. FARTICULARS 20° STUB INVOLUTE SYSTEM
1. ADDENDUM 0.8 m
2. DEDENDUM 1m
3. WORKING DEPTH 1.60m
4. MINIMUM TOT AI DEPTH 1.80m
5. TOOTH THICKNESS 1.5708m
6. MINIMUM CLEARENCE 0.2m
7. FILLET RADIUS 0.4m
STANDARD MINIMUM NUMBER OF TEETH ON THE PINION
IN ORDER TO AVOID INTERFERENCE
SYSTEM OF GEAR TEETH MINIMUM NUMBER ON PINION.
20°STUB INVOLUTE 14
The no. of teeth on the pinion (Tp) in order to avoid interference may be obtained
from the relation:

2Aw
Tp = ___________________________________________________

G [1 + l/G(l/G + 2)sin2-l

G = TG/Tp = DG/DP

 = Pressure angle

GEAR MATERIALS:
The material used for the manufacture of gears depend up on the strength
and service conditions like wear, noise etc. The gears may be manufacture from
metallic or non metallic materials. The metallic gears with cut teeth are
commercially obtained by cast iron, steel and bronze. The nonmetallic materials
like wood etc cue used for reducing noise.
Cast iron widely used for gears to its good wearing properties, excellent
machinabitly and easy of producing complicated shapes by casting method.

PERMISSIBLE WORKING STRESS FOR GEAR IN THE LEWIS

EQUATION:
The permissible working stress (fw) in the lewis equation depends upon the
material for which as allowable static stress (f0) may be determined. The allowable
static stresses is the stress at the elastic limit of the material. It is also called the
basic stress. In order to accounts for the dynamic effects which becomes more
severe as the pitch line velocity increases the value of working stress is reduce.
According to the Barth formula,
The permissible working stress (fw = f0 x Cv)
Where f0 = Allowable static stress
 Allowable static stress for ordinary cast iron is 56
Allowable static stress for medium grade cast iron is 70
Allowable static stress for highest grade cast iron is 105

Cv = velocity factor The value's of the Cv are given as follows.

Cv = 3 / 3 + V, for ordinary cut gears operating at velocities up to
12.5m/s
= 4.5 / 4.5 + V, for care fully cut gears operating at velocities up
to 12.5 m/s = 6/6 + V, for very accurately cut and ground
metallic gears operating at velocities up to 20 m/s
= 0.75 / 0.75 + V, for precession gears cut with high accuracy and
operating velocities up to 20 m/s. [0.75 11 + V] + 0.25, for non-
metallic gears.
In the above expression, V is the pitch line velocity in m/s.

DESIGN OF SPUR GEARS:

Material used for gear = Cast Iron
Let us consider the module of gear 'm' = 8 mm
Pressure angle for heavy duty shock loads = 200 Stub involute
The minimum number of teeth for this pressure angle = 14
We consider the teeth on pinion 'T' = 20
Pitch circle diameter of pinion 'mxT' = 8x20= 160 mm
Radius = (8x20)/2 = 80mm
Tooth thickness = 1.5708 x 8= 12.566 mm
Face width of teeth for general purpose rough cut gears = 2PC to 3PC

Where Pc = circular pitch = ∏ m = 25.12 mm

Considering only statiscal tooth load,

Tangential load on teeth, Wt = f x b x n x m x y

Where, f = Stress developed in teeth

b = Face width
M = module
= Lewi's form factor
= 0.175 - (0.841) /20 for 20° stub involute
= 0.13295
f = fo x Cv
Where f0 = Statical working stress carried by material
= 50 N/mm2 for ordinary grade cast iron
Cv = coefficient of velocity.
= 6/(6+v) for ordinary cut gears having peripheral velocity
below 20 m/sec.
6 6
Velocity factor Cv = ----------------- = ------------------------ = 0.2543
6+v 6+17.54

0.841
Tooth form factor Y = .175 - ---------------
T
0.841
=0.175 - -----------
20
= 0.1329
 Service factor cs 1.25 (light shock 8-10 hours per day)
Apply lewi’s eqn
Tangential load acting on the tooth WT = f0 x Cv b x ∏ x m x y
= 105 x 0.2543x (10x8) x ∏ x 8 x 0.1329
= 7134.94 N
Dynamic load WD= WT +W1

P
Tangential load WT = ---------x Cs
V
500
= -------------x 1.25
17.59
= 35.25 N
And W1 =increment load due to dynamic action
21 v(b.c+ WT)
= -------------
21 v (b.c+ WT)

21x17.59(80x413+ 28.412)
= -------------
21x 17.59 (80x413+ 28.412)
=22.159KN
Now DYNAMIC LOAD=(22.159X1000)+35.25
=22.187 KN
Static load Ws = fe b ∏ m y
=84x80xпx8x0.1329
=22.445KN
Ws ≥WD so design is safe
From design as gear can take more than this it is safe:
POWER GENERATION FROM SPEED BREAKERS designed for Four
wheeler

SPECIFICATION OF GEAR:
Material = Cast Iron
Module = 8
Tooth thickness = 12.56 mm
Addendum = 6.4
Dedendum = 8
Pitch circle diameter = 160 mm
Number of teeth = 20
Face width = 80 mm
Bore diameter = 50 mm
Number of pinions = 2 nos.

DESIGN OF SHAFT FOR SPUR GEAR

Wt
Normal load Wn = -----------
CosØ
7134.94
= -------------
 Cos200
= 7592.844 N

Weight of the gear WG = 0.00118*T*b*m*m

=0.00118*20*80*8*8
=120.832N

Resultant load wR =  wn2 + wg2 + 2 wn wg Cos Ø

=  (7592.844)2 + (120)2 + (2x7592.84 x 120) cos 200

= 7706.48N

If the gear is overhung on the shaft, then the bending moment on the shaft due to
resultant load.

M = wR x X
= 7706.48 x 100
= 770648.669 N – mm
DG
torque T = WT x --------------
2
172.8
= 7134.94 x ------------
2
 = 616458.816 N – mm
Since the shaft is under the combined effect of both torsion and bending,
therefore we shall determine equivalent torque

Equivalent twisting moment

Te =  M2 + T2
=  (770648.669)2 + (616458.816) 2
= 986874.27 N – mm
Now diameter of the gear shaft is determined by using following relation.

Te = ----------- x  x dg3
16
16x986874.27
Dg = -------------------
 x 40
Dg = 50 mm
Diameter of shaft for spur gear = 50 mm

DESIGN OF KEYWAY
d1

 Max = L x w x  x -------------
2

Standard dimension for the shaft diameter d1 = 50 mm

 Width b = w = 14mm
Height h = t = 9 mm
Key way in shaft t1 = 5.5 mm( Depth)
(nominal) in hub t2 = 3.8 mm


 man = -----  d13
16

= ----- x 40 x (50)3
16
= 981747.70 N-mm
d1
 man = ----- L x w x  x ----
2
981747.70 x 2
--------------------- = L
14 x 40 x 50
L = 70.12 mm
L = 70mm < 160 mm (max)
Parallel key 14x9x70 IS : 2048 – 1962

1.2.3 FLY WHEEL:

The primary function of a fly wheel is to act as energy "Accumulator'
Simply it reduces the 'fluctuation' of speed.
LOCATION:
It is interposed between the source of energy and the place where it is needed.
DESCRIPTION:
When the supply of energy does not vary and continuous in the same
manner, It does not demand for energy. It will absorb energy when demand is less
than the supply of energy and will give out energy when the demand is more than
the energy being supplied.

REQUIREMENT OF FLY WHEEL IN OUR DESIGN:

In our design we are not getting the continuous energy from the rack and we
are applying shock loads to the pinion and this energy is not constant throughout
the cycle.
So as to eliminate or overcome this shock loads we are using the flywheel to
supply constant energy to the dynamo.

ADVANTAGES:
1. It is a device, which acts as energy redistributors.
2. This will result in a great reduction in the size and cost of power source.
3. The action is continuous from cycle to cycle.

APPLICATIONS OF FLY WHEEL:

Flywheels are used in IC engines, punching presses, steering machines,

riveting machine, crushers, hammering machines.

MATERIAL USED:
 Material used for manufacturing of flywheel is cast iron.

COEFFICIENT OF FLUCTUATION OF SPEED:

The difference between tile maximum and minimum speeds during a cycle is
called the "maximum fluctuation of speed". The ratio of a maximum fluctuation of
speed to the mean speed is called "co-efficient of fluctuation of speed". It is
denoted by Cs.
Cs = 2(N1N2) / (N1+N2) In terms of speed

ENERGY STORED IN FLY WHEEL:

Kinetic energy of fly wheel, E = ½ I 2
Since I = m k2, E = ½ I k2 2
As speed of flywheel changes from <ox to a>2 the maximum fluctuation of
energy.
ΔE = maximum KE - minimum KE
= I 2 Cs
= m k2 2 Cs
= 2ECS
Where I = moment of inertia of fly wheel about the axis
M = mass of fly wheel in Kg
K = radius of gyration of fly wheel in meters
 = mean angular speed in rad/sec.
 Cs = co-efficient of fluctuation of speed.
STERSS IN FLY WHEEL RIM:
The major portion of the mass or weight of flywheel of flywheel is
concentrated at the RIM.
The following stresses are induced in the rim of flywheel.
1. Tensile stress due to centrifugal force
2. Tensile bending stress caused by the restraint of the arms
3. Shrinkage stress due to unequal rate of cooling of casting.

TENSILE STRESS DUE TO CENTRIFUGAL FORCE:

f, = ρ R2  2

= ρV2 (Where V = R)

ρ = density of fly wheel material

fr = tensile or hoop stress
R = mean radius of fly wheel

 = angular speed of fly wheel

V = linear velocity of fly wheel

TENSILE BEINGING STRESS CAUSED BY RESTRAINT OF THE ARMS:

fb = (19.74 x ρ x V2 x R) / n2 x t
Where n = number of arms
t = thickness of rim
fb = bending stress

STRESS IN FLY WHEEL ARMS:

1. Tensile stress due to centrifugal force
ft= y4 x P x V2
2. Bending stress due to the torque transmitted
fB = M/Z = T/RQZ (R-r)

M = maximum bending moment

Z = section modulus
T = mum torque transmitted
R = mean radius
n = number of arms
r = radius of the hub

DESIGN OF FLY WHEEL ARMS:

The cross section of the arms is usually elliptical with major axis as twice
the minor axis. It is design for maximum bending moment.
Therefore Z = II / 32 x b1 x a1
Where a1 = major axis
b1 = minor axis
Maximum bending moment
M = T/r n(R-r)
Maximum bending stress
B = M/Z = T/R n Z (R-r)

By assuming a1 = 2 x b1 the dimensions of arms may be obtain by above equation.

The smaller flywheels (less than 600mm diameter) are not provided with
arms. They are made with web type with holes in the web to facilitate
handling

DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR FLY WHEEL:

The material used is cast iron.

We know the fluctuation of energy of the fly wheel = ΔE=l/2 2.

Where, N = number revolutions per minute.

= 500 rpm.

 = 52.35 rad / sec.

 Fluctuation of energy of the fly wheel = ΔE =1/2 I2

ΔE = mv2 Cs
= 18.246 x (17.59) 2 x 0.020
= 112.91 N – m
 The stress developed in fly wheel f1 = ρV 2
= 7260x(17.59) 2
f1 = 2.246Mpa
ρ = density of material in kg / m
Pv = Ft/p
V =  D N/60
D = (v x 60) (n x N)

As our diameter below this the design of fly wheel rim diameter is safe.

DESIGN OF FLY WHEEL RIM:

Assuming the flywheel having as cross section of rectangle with breadth
twice that of thickness.

B = 2t
m = 2 R x b x t x p
m = 2 R x 2t2 x p

t2 = (m/4RnP)

1.2.4 BEARINGS
A bearing is a machine element, which supports another machine element. It
permits a relative motion between the contact surface, while carrying the load. In
this automobile gearbox roller bearings are adopted. The ball or roller bearings
consists of an inner race, which is mounted on the shaft or journal, and the outer
race, which is carried by the housing or casing. In between the inner and outer race
there are balls or rollers. A No. of balls or rollers are used and these are helped at
proper distance by retainers so that they do not touch each other. The retainers are
this strip and usually in two parts, which are assembled after the ball bearings are
used for light loads and roller bearings are used for heavier loads.

Bearings are classified as:

1. Depending upon the direction of load to be supported
 Radial bearing:- The loads act perpendicular to the direction of the motion of
the moving elements.
 Thrust bearing:- The load acts along the axis of rotation

2. Depending upon the nature of contact.

 Sliding contact bearing:- The sliding takes place along the surface of contact
between the moving elements and fixed elements. The sliding contact
bearings are also know as plain bearings.
 Rolling contact bearings:- The steel balls or rollers are interposed between
the moving and fixed elements the balls offer rolling friction at two points
for each ball or roller.

Standard dimensions and designation of ball bearing:

The dimensions that have been standardized on an international basis. These
dimensions are functions of the bearing bore and the series of bearing. The
standard dimensions are given in millimeters. There is no standard for the size and
the No. of balls.
The bearings are designated by a number. In general the number consists of
at least three digits additional digits or letters are used to indicate special feature.
EXAMPLE:- Deep groove, filling notch etc.
The last three digits give the series and the bore of the bearing. The last two digits
from 04 onwards.
When multiplied by 05, give the bore diameter in millimeters. The third form of
the last digit designates the series of the bearings. The most common ball bearings
are available in four series as follows:
1. Extra light (100)
2. Light (200)
3. Medium (300)
4. Heavy (400)

EXAMPLE:
If the bearing is designated by a number 305, it means that the bearing is of
medium series whose bore is 05 x 5 i.e. 25mm
MATERIALS:
Since the rolling elements and the races are subjected to high local stresses
of varying magnitude with revolution of the bearing. Therefore the material of the
rolling element should be of high carbon quantity. The balls are generally made of
high carbon chromium steel. The material of both the balls and races are Heat
Treated to give extra hardness and toughness.
The balls are made by hot forging on hammers from steel rods, they are then
heat treated, ground and polished. The races are also formed by forging and then
heat treated, Ground and polished..

DESIGN PROCEDURE:
They should have to bear radial as well as lateral load. Ball bearings are
used. As the load is medium and diameter of the bore is 38.
The ball bearings are specified by = 307
When 3 represents medium series
07 X 5 gives the bore diameter
For our project pillow block bearings are used and bearing number is 6310
These are brought from the out side according to our requirements

.2.5 SHAFT:
A shaft is a rotating element, which is used to transmit power from one place
to another. The power is delivered to the shaft by some tangential force and the
resultant torque or tensional moment set up within the shaft permits the power to
be transferred to various machines linked up to the shaft, in order to transfer the
power from one shaft to another the various members such as pulleys, gears etc,
are installed on it. These members causes the shaft to bending. In other words we
may say that a shaft is used for the transmission of torque and bending. The various
members are mounted on the shaft by means of keys or splines.

MATERIALS USED:
The material used for ordinary shafts is mild steel where high strength is
required. An alloy steel such as nickel, nickel chromium or chrome vanadium steel
is used.

MANUFACTUREING TECHNIQUE:
Shafts are generally formed by hot rolling and finished to size by cold awing
or turning.
There are two types of shafts:
a. Transmission shaft
b. Machine shaft.
TANDARD SIZE OF SHAFT:
25 mm to 60 mm with 5 mm step
60 mm to 110 mm with 10 mm step
110 mm to 140 mm with 15 mm step
140 mm to 500 mm with 20 mm step

STANDARD LENGTH OF THE SHAFT:

5 meters
6 meters
7 meters
STRESS IN SHAFT:
Shear stress due to transmission of torque. Combined torsion and bending.
Bending stress due to the force acting up on the machine element like gears,
pulleys etc. As well as due to the weight of the shaft itself.

DESIGN OF SHAFTS:
The shaft may be designed on the basis of strength & rigidity

Shaft subjected to twisting moment or torque only:

Where the shaft is subjected to poor twisting moment then diameter of
shaft.
T/J = fs/R
T = Twisting moment or torque acting upon the shaft.
J = Polar moment of inertia of cross sectional area about the access
of rotation in mm4
fs = Torsion shear stress NI mm2 or KNI mm2
R = Distance from neutral axis to the outer most layer mm or M
So for solid shaft required torque:
T =  /16 fs d3
D = diameter of the shaft

For hollow shaft

T = /16fs (d40 - d4i) / d0

do = outer diameter
di = Inner diameter

Shaft Subjected to Bending Moment:

When the shaft is subjected to a beading moment then the Maximum stress
is given in bending equation M/I = fb / Y
M = Bending moment in N-M or N-mm
T = Moment of inertia of cross sectional area about it's axis of
rotation in mm
f b` = Bending stress in N/mm2 or KN/mm2 Y = Distance from neutral
axis to the outer most layer
For solid shaft (M) =  / 32 x fb x d3
d = diameter of the shaft
For hollow shaft (M) =  / 32 x fb x (1-k4) x
do = outer diameter
K = ratio of diameter = d1=/d0
Shaft subjected to combined twisting moment and bending moment.

When the shaft is subjected to combine twisting moment and bending

moment then the shaft must be designed on the basis of two moments
simultaneously various theories have been they are subjected to various types of
combined materials. The following two theories are important from the subject
point of view.
1. Maximum hear stress theory or Guest theory is used for ductile materials.
2. Maximum normal stress theory or Rankines theory is used for brittle
materials.

According the to maximum shear stress theory the maximum shear stress:
fs (max) = ½  (fh2 +4fs2)
Expression  (M2 +T2) known as equivalent twisting moment denoted by Te

The equivalent twisting moment may be defined on that twisting moment

which when acting alone produces tile same shear stress (fs) as the actual twisting
moment by limiting the maximum shear stress [fs (max)] equal to the allowable
shear stress (fs) for the material.
T0 =  M2+T2=/16xfsd3

ACCORDING TO MAXIMUM NOR MAL STRESS - THEORY:

½ (m +  M2+T2 )

The expression [1/2 (M+VM2+T2 )] is known as equivalent bending moment

and is denoted by Me the equivalent bending moment may be defined as that
moment which when acting alone produces the same tensile or compressive stress
(f0) as the actual bending moment by limiting the maximum normal stress
[fo(max)] equal to
 Me=l/2(M + VM2+T2)
Me =n/32xfbxd3
Shaft subjected to axial load in addition to combined to torsion and bending
loads:
When the shaft is subjected to an axial load (f) in addition to torsion and
bending loads as in propeller shafts and shafts for driving worm gears then the
stress due to axial load must be added to bending stress (fb)
Me =∏/32 x fb x (l-k4) x do3
DESIGN OF SHAFTS ON THE BASIS OF RIGIDITY:
Some times the shafts are to be designed on the basis of rigidity. We shall
considered the following two types of rigidity.
1. Torsional rigidity
2. Lateral rigidity

TORSIONAL RIGIDITY:
The tensional rigidity is important in the case of transmission shafts
deflection 2.5° to 3°/m. length may be used as limiting value they widely used
deflection for the shaft is limited to 1 degree in length equal to 20 times the
diameter of the shaft.

The torsional deflection may be obtained by using the T/J = G 9 /L.

Ø = TL/JG
Ø = Torsional deflection or angle of twist in radians
T = twisting moment or torque on the shaft
J = polar moment of inertia of the cross sectional area about the
axis of rotation.
= /32d4 for solid shaft.
 =  /32(d40 -d4) for hollow shaft.
G = Modulus of rigidity for the shaft material.
LATERAL RIGIDITY:
It is important in case of transmission, shaftening and running at high speed
where small lateral rigidity is also important for maintaining proper bearing and
clearances an for correct gear teeth alignment if the shaft is of uniform cross-
section then the lateral deflection of a shaft may be obtained by using the
deflection formulae as in strength of materials. But when the shaft is of variable
cross-section then the lateral deflection may be determined from the fundamental
equation for the elastic curve of a beam.
I,e. d2y/dx2 = M/ EI.

DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR SHAFT:

Shaft is always designed based on both strength and rigidity.
We assume that length of the shaft necessary = 200mm
The shaft is loaded in a simply supported position. Here the bending is due
to the load of gear, flywheel and the twisting is due to torque produced when the
vehicle passes over the dome.
The material selected for shaft is milk steel
Shaft used for gears.
a) Normal load due to gear acting on shaft WN =WT / Cos Ø
= 7134.94 / Cos 20
= 7592.844 N
b) Weight of the gear = 0.00118 x TG x b x m2 N.
Where Tc = Number of teeth on gear
b = Face width
 m = Module
Weight or the gear = 0.00118 x 20 x 80 x 82
We = 120 N.
The resultant load acting on shaft = WR
=  WWN + WG +2 x WN x WG x cos Ø
=  (7592)2 +(120)2 +2x7592x120xcos20
= 7706.48N.
If the gear is overhung on the shaft, then the bending moment on the shaft due to
resonant load.

M = we X x
= 7706.48 x 100
= 770648.669 N – mm
DG
T = WT x --------------
2
172.8
= 7134.94 x ------------
2
= 616458.816 N – mm
Equivalent twisting moment
Te =  M2 + T2
=  (770648.669)2 + (616458.816) 2
= 986874.27 N – mm
 
Te = ----------- x  x dg3
16
16x986874.27
dg = -------------------
 x 40
dg = 50 mm
Diameter of shaft for spur gear = 50 mm

SPECIFICATION OF THE SHAFT:

Length of the shaft = 800mm
The material used = mild steel
Diameter of the shaft = 50mm
No. of shafts = 4
1.2.6 SPRINGS
A spring is defined as an elastic body whose function is to distort when
loaded and to recover its original shape when the load is removed.
PURPOSES & APPLICATIONS:
 To cushion, absorb or control energy due to either shocks or vibration as in
our spring railway buffers, air craft, landing gears, shock absorbers and
vibration dampers.
 To apply forces, as in brakes, clutches and spring loaded valves
 To control motion by maintaining contact between two elements as in cams
and followers.
 To measure forces, as in spring balances and engine indicates.
TYPES OF SPRINGS:
These are mainly:
1. Helical springs
2. Torsion springs
3. Involute spring
4. Conical casting laminated or leaf spring We are using Helical compression
springs.

HELICAL COMPRESSION SPRINGS:

These are mainly intended for compressive or tensile loads. In a closely
coiled helical spring the Helix angle is very small (<10°).
The major stresses produced in helical springs are shear stresses due to
twisting. The load applied is parallel to (or) along the axis.
In open coiled helical springs the helix angle is large i.e., the spring wire
coiled in such a way that there is no gap between two consecutive turns therefore
application of these types is limited.

MATERIALS FOR SPRINGS: The material for spring should have high
fatigue strength, high ductility, high resilience and it should be creep resistant.
 0.9% - 1.0% carbon is common material for springs.
 Steel with 0.85% - 0.95% carbon and 0.3% - 0.4%
 3. Manganese is used for longer sized springs.
 Alloy steels such as chrome - vanadium and silicon manganese steels are
used for better grade springs.
 Chrome steel, phosphorus bronze and Monel metal (nickel alloy) can also be
used in special cases, to increase corrosion resistance and temperature
resistance.

Parameters and Geometric Dimensions of a Cylindrical Spring

  (wire dia.), d
 (outside dia.), D2
 (inside dia.), D1
 (mean dia.), D
 (pitch), p
 (pitch angle), Ø
 (free length), Lf

STRESS IN SPRINGS:
Consider a helical spring made of circular wire diameter, 'd' mm. Pitch of
spring is very small.
The action of load "W" tends to twist the wire there by causing torsional
shear stresses in the wire. Such springs are designed for torsion. Neglecting effect
of bending and direct shear.
Let, W = axial load
R = mean radius of coil
 d = diameter of coil wire

Stress can be calculated by using torsion equation, .

T/J = fs/R
Fs = TR/J = T/Zp
Where , Zp = section modulus = /16xd
T = torque transmitted by the spring = WxR
Shear stress induced, fs = 16 WR/nd3

COMPRESSION SPRINGS:

Terms used in connection with springs are

1. Solid Length:
When compression spring is compresses until the coils come in contact with
each other then the spring is solid.
Solid length of spring, Ls
Total number of coils, n
Diameter of wire, d
2. Spring Index:
The spring is defined as the ratio of mean diameter of the coil to diameter of
wire.
Spring Index, C =D/d
Where, D = mean diameter or coil
d = diameter of wire
3. Pitch:
Pitch at the coil is defined as the axial distance between adjacent coils in
uncompressed state.
 Pitch at the coil, P = tree length / n1 - 1
(or)
P = L1 - Wn1 + d
Where L1 = tree length at spring
Ls = solid length as spring
N1 = total number of coils
d = diameter of wire
A variety of end treatments or Types of ends

Both ends plain

Square end ground ends

The end turns are squared and then ground perpendicular to the helix axis.
 Close and ground ends

Design of spring wire

4C – 1 0.615
Wahl’s factor K = _________ x________ = 1.31
4C -4 C
We know that
8wc
 = Kx ------------

d2

D2 = 1.31x8x13x103x5
______________________
  X280
D2 = 774.5
D = 27.82mm

D = 28 mm

Mean diameter d = cxd = 5x28 = 140 mm

Let us assume number of turns n=7
For square and ground ends n1 = n+2= 7+2=9

Square and ground ends

Deflection of spring

64WR 3 n 64  13  103  353  5

    34mm
Gd 4 8 10 4  (16) 4

Free length of the spring

l f  (n1  d )    (0.15 )  (7  28)  29  (0.15  29)  229.35mm

Pitch of the coil

 free length 229.35
p   38mm
n 1
1
7 1

1.2.7. CHAIN DRIVES

Relation b/w pitch and pitch circle diameter

ϴ
Pitch of chain p = d sin -------
2
360o
ϴ = --- ------
T
 180
P = D sin ---------
T

Sprocket outside diameter Do = D + 0.8d1

D1 = dia of chain roles
N1 T2
V.R. = ----------- = -----------
N2 T1

N1 & T1 for smalles sprocket

N2 & T2 for large sprocket

 DN
Avg velocity V = --------
60
 TPN
= --------------
60

 Bush rolles chain

 Factor of safety for chain drives
Wb
F.S. = --------
W

Tangential driving force acting on the chain

Ft = ------------

Centrifugal tension fc = mV 2

Temion in the chain drive due to sagging

fs = kmgx

m = mass of chain in kg / m length

K = 2 to 2.6 (or) ϴ < 40o

= 1 to 1.5 ϴ> 40o

Power transmitted by chains on the basis of bearing load

 WbxV

P = ---------------- n = factor of safety

N x Ks

Ks = K1 X K2 X K3

On the basis of bearing sticks

fb x A x V

P= ------------------------

Ks

1. Load factor K1 = 1.5 for heavy shock loads

2. Lubrication factor K2 = 1.5 for periodic lubrication
3. Rating factor K3 = 1 for haves per day.

Number of teeth on the smaller (or) driving sprocket (or) pinion

dN d = pitch circle dia for smaller

V max = ----------- m /s

No. of teeth on sprocket T1 = 29

Variation of speed = 1.6 %.

For 17 teeth V.R = 2.48

T2

V.R. = ---------- = 2.48

T1

T2 = 2.48x 29 = 72 teeths.

Principal dimension of tooth profile

1. Tooth flank radices re = 0.008 d1 (T2 + 180) mar

= 0.12 d1 (T+2) min

D1 = Roller dia

T = No. of teeth

2. Roller seating radies (R1)

R1 = 0.505 d1 + 0.069 3 d1

= 0.505 d1

3. Roller seating angle

90o
 = 140o - ---------
T

90o
= 120o - ---------
 T

4. Tooth height above pitch polygon (ha)

90o

Ha = 0.625 p – 0.5d1+ ---------

= 0.5 (p – d1)
5. Pitch circle diameter

P 180

D = ------ = p coses ---------

Sing (180) T

Length of chain drive

L=∏(r1 + r2)+2x+ (r1 - r2)2 /x

where x =30 to 50 times pitch

at ISO chain number 06B pitch=9.525mm

x= 40*9.525=381mm

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF CHAIN DRIVES

 The chains are mostly used to transmit motion and power from one shaft to
another, when the centre distance between their shafts is short such as in
bicycles, motor cycles, agricultural machinery, conveyors, rolling mills, road
rollers etc.

 The chains may also be used for long centre distance of upto 8 metres. the
chains are used for velocities up to 25 m / s and for power upto 110 kw.
in some cases, higher power transmission is also possible

1.2.7 ELECTRIC DYNAMO

It is well known that whenever electric current flows through a conductor a

magnetic flux is immediately brought 10 existences in the space surrounding the
conductor. We say that when the electrons are under motion they produce magnetic
field. The converse is also true, i.e., when a magnetic field embracing a conductor
moves relative to the conductor, it produces a flow of electrons.
This the phenomenon used in the dynamo. This EMF is produced is known
as electro magnetically induced emf. These are based on "faraday's laws of
electromagnetic induction". They are
1. FIRST LAW : when ever a conductor cuts across magnetic lines of flux an
E.M.F is induced in it.
2. SECOND LAW: the magnitude of induced E.M.F. is equal to the rate of
change of flux.

DYNAMO:
It is a device, which converts mechanical energy into power energy. The
dynamo mainly consists of the following parts:
They are :
1. A magnets
2. A conductor

WORKING:
Imagine the coil is rotating in clockwise direction as the coil continues
rotating further the rate of change of flux linkage and hence E.M.F. induced in it
6
increases till position is reached. Where = 90. Here the coil plane is horizontal
i.e., parallel to the lines of flux as seen the flux linked with the coil is minimum,
but rate of change of flux linkages or rate of flux cutting is maximum. Here
maximum E.M.F. is induced in the coil when this position.
In the next quarter revolution i.ei from 90° - 180°. The flux linked with the
coil gradually increases but the raise of change of flux decreases. * Hence the
induced e.m.f. decreases gradually till it in position half of the coil it is reduces to 0
values.
So we find that in the final half revolution of the coil no e.m.f. is induces in
it when in positional. Maximum e.m.f. is induced when in position 3 & no e.m.f. is
induced when in positions. The direction of this induced e.m.f. can be found buy
applying Flemings right hand rule. Which give direction? Hence the direction of
current flow is ABMLCD. The current through the load resistance R flows from M
to L during the first revolution of the coil.
In the next half revolution i.e., from 1800 to 360° the variation in the
magnitude is of e.m.f. are similar to those in the first half revolution. Its value is
maximum when coil is in position 7 and minimum when it is in position 1. But it
will be found that the direction of the induced current is from D to C & B to A.
Hence the form of current flow is along DCLMBA which is just the reverse of the
previous direction of the flow of the current.