 Testosterone-responsible for the
deeping of the voice for male and
Organ System Overview
1. Integumentary
-forms the external body covering.
-protects deeper tissue from injury.
-synthesize vitamin D.
-location of cutaneous nerve
receptors.
 Melanocytes – responsible for the
production of melanin.
2. Skeletal System
-protects and support body organs.
-provide muscle attachment for
movement.
-site of blood cell formation.
-stores minerals.
 RBC – Erythrocytes: Erythropoiesis
 Bone marrow-responsible for the
production of RBC, WBC and
Platelets.
 99% of Calcium ca be found in our
bones and 1% is in our blood.
 Bone demineralization-bone loses
calcium.
 Epiphyseal plates-responsible for the
growth of our bone.
 Femur-large bone in thigh.
3. Muscular System
-allows locomotion.
-maintains posture.
-produces heat.
4. Nervous System
5. Endocrine System
-secretes regulatory hormones.
-responsible for growth,
reproduction, metabolism.
 ductless system.
 Exocrine-more ducts contain e.g.
tear ducts and salivary ducts.
hair growth.
 Estrogen-responsible for the growth
of mammary glands for female.
6. Cardiovascular System
-transports materials in body via
blood pumped by heart: Oxygen,
Carbon Dioxide, Nutrients, Wastes.
 Heart-pumps oxygenated blood;
serves as the pumping organ.
7. Lymphatic System
-returns fluids to blood vessels.
-disposes of debris.
-involved in immunity.
 Lymph nodes
8. Respiratory System
-keeps blood supplied with oxygen.
-removes carbon dioxide.
 Lungs-helps to keep blood supplied
with oxygen.
9. Digestive System
-breaks down food.
-allows for nutrient absorption into
blood.
-eliminates indigestible material.
 Bile-gives color to the body.
10. Urinary System
-eliminates nitrogenous wastes.
-maintains acid-base balance
-regulation of materials such as
water and electrolytes.
 30-40cc of urine per hour.
 When it reaches 500cc, the urge to
urinate comes.
 The faster the urethra, the faster you
get want to urinate.
11. Reproductive System
-production of offspring.
The Human Body – All -chemical for energy cell building:
carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins,
Orientation minerals.
 Anatomy-study of the structure and -vitamins A, D, E and K are fat soluble.
shape of the body and its parts. -vitamin A plays a key role in
 Physiology-study of how the body maintaining your vision. Without it,
and its parts work or function. you would go blind.
-vitamin D is produced by your skin
when it's exposed to sunlight. It is
best known for its beneficial effects
Necessary Life Functions:
on bone health, and deficiency
 Maintain Boundaries makes you highly susceptible to bone
 Movement fractures.
-locomotion -As a powerful antioxidant, vitamin E
-movement of substances protects your cells against premature
 Responsiveness aging and damage by free radicals.
-ability to sense changes and react. - vitamin K plays a key role in blood
 Digestion clotting. Without it, you would run
-break-down and delivery of the risk of bleeding to death.
nutrients.
-mastication-medical term for  Oxygen
chewing. -required for chemical reactions.
-hunger pangs-state of getting -ketones-fuel of the body; need to be
hungry. balanced; product of fat metabolism.
 Metabolism -ketosis-metabolizing fats.
-chemical reaction within the body.
-produce energy; making body
structures. Survival Needs:
 Excretion  Water
-elimination of wastes from -60 to 80% of body weight.
metabolic reactions. -provides for metabolic reactions.
-sensible water loss-water from the  Stable body temperature
body that can be measured e.g.  Atmospheric pressure must be
urine. appropriate.
-insensible water loss-water from the  Homeostasis
body that can’t be measured e.g. -maintenance of stable internal
sweat/talk. environment; a dynamic state of
 Reproduction equilibrium.
-production of future generation. -must be maintained for normal body
 Growth function and sustain life.
-increasing of cell size and number.
 Nutrients
  Homeostatic imbalance
-a disturbance of homeostasis results
in disease.
 Stimulus
-reaction to something e.g. sad,
happy, mad, scared.
 Maintaining Homeostasis
-the body communicates through
neural and hormonal control
systems.
 Receptor
-responds to changes in the
environment (stimuli)
-sends information to control center.
 Control center
-determines set point.
-analyzes information.
-determines appropriate response.
 Effector
-provides a means for response to
the stimulus.
Feedback Mechanism
1. Negative Feedback
-includes most homeostatic control
mechanisms.
-shuts off the original stimulus, or
reduces its intensity.
-works like a household thermostat.
2. Positive Feedback
-increases the original stimulus to
push the variable farther.
-in the body, this only occurs in blood
clotting and birth of a baby.
The Language of Anatomy
-Special terminology is used to prevent
misunderstanding. Exact terms are used for:
1. Position
2. Direction
 Dorsal - location referring to the back or
upper side of an organism or parts of an
organism.
 Ventral - on or relating to the underside
of an animal or plant; abdominal.
 Lateral - more distant to the body
midline. In the anatomical position, the
radius is lateral to the ulna. A simpler
example is the "thumb" is lateral to the
"pinky."
 Medial - closer to the midline; on the
inner side. The sternum (breast plate) is
medial to the clavicle (shoulder bone).
 Superior - above, towards the cephalic
(head) end. The cranial cavity (head
cavity) is superior to the scapula
(shoulder blade).
 Inferior - below, towards the plantar
(foot) end. The patella (knee cap) is
inferior to the femur (thigh bone).
 Anterior - towards the front of the body.
The sternum is anterior to the spine. Also
known as ventral, but this term is not as
common in human anatomy.
 Posterior - towards the rear/backside of
the body. The fibula is posterior to the
tibia. Also known as dorsal, but this term
is not as common.
 "Oblique sections" - separates top from
bottom at a diagonal. This term is
common.
 Superficial - closer to the skin, nearer the
body surface. Skin is superficial to the
organs.
 Deep - further from the body surface.
In the limbs, the following terms are also
used:

 Distal - further from the limb's

attachment to the trunk (where 'trunk'
refers to the 'torso' of the body: the
body minus the head, neck, and limbs).
 Proximal - nearer to the limb's
attachment to the trunk. The humorous
is proximal to the radius.
 Intermediate- in between two
structures. The nose is intermediate to
the eyes.

3. Regions

4. Structures
Cellular Physiology: Membrane Two common forms of Active
Transport Transport:
 Membrane Transport 1.Solute Pumping
-movement of substance into and
-amino acids, some sugars and ions are
out of the cell.
transported by solute pumps.
Transport is by two basic methods: -ATP energizes protein carriers, and in most
1. Active Transport concentration gradients.
-no energy is required 2. Bulk Transport
-transport substances that are unable to
pass by diffusion.  Exocytosis-moves materials out of
-they may be too large the cell
-they may not be able to dissolve in that -material is carried in a membrane
fat core of the membrane. vesicle.
-they may have to move against a -vesicle migrates to plasma
concentration gradient. membrane.
2. Passive Transport -material is emptied to the outside.
-the cell provides metabolic energy.  Endocytosis-extracellular substances
are engulfed by being enclosed in a
Passive Transport Processes: membranous vesicle.
1. Diffusion
Types of Endocytosis:
-particles tend to distribute themselves
evenly within a solution. 1.Phagocytis- cell eating
-movement is high concentration to low
2. Pinocytis- cell drinking
concentration, or down a concentration
gradient.  Solution
-homogenous mixture of two or
Types of Diffusion: more components.
a) Simple Diffusion  Solvent
-unassisted process. -dissolving medium.
-solutes are lipid-soluble materials or  Solutes
small enough to pass through -components in smaller quantities
membrane pores. within a solution.
b) Osmosis  Intracellular fluid
-simple diffusion of water. -nucleoplasm and cytosol
-highly polar water easily crosses the  Interstitial fluid
plasma membrane. -fluid on the exterior of the cell.
c) Facilitated diffusion
-substances require a protein carrier
for passive transport.
Cell Life Cycle
 Interphase
-cell grows; cell carries on metabolic
processes.
 Cell Division
-cell replicates itself.
-function is to produce more cells for
growth and repair processes.
 DNA Replication
-genetic material duplicated and
readies a cell for division into two
cells.
-occurs toward the end of
interphase.
-DNA uncoils and each side serves as
a template.
Events of Cell Division:
1. Mitosis
-division of the nucleus; results in the
formation of two daughter nuclei.
2. Cytokinesis
-division of the cytoplasm; begins when
mitosis is near completion
-results in the formation of two daughter
cells.
Stages of Mitosis:
1. Interphase
-no cell division occur; the cell carries out
normal metabolic activity and growth.
2. Prophase
-first part of cell division; centromeres
migrate to the poles.
3. Metaphase
-spindle from centromeres are attached
to chromosomes that are aligned in the
center of the cell.
4. Anaphase
-daughter chromosomes are pulled
toward the poles.
-the cell begins to elongate.
5. Telophase
-daughter nuclei begin forming.
-a cleavage furrow (for cell division)
begins to form.
Protein Synthesis
 Gene
-DNA segment that carries a
blueprint for building one protein.
 RNA
-is essential for protein synthesis.
Functions of Protein:
1. Building materials for cells
2. Act as enzymes (biological catalysis).
Role of RNA:
1. Transfer RNA (Trna)
-transfers appropriate amino acids to the
ribosome for building the protein.
2. Ribosomal RNA (Rrna)
-helps form the ribosomes where
proteins are built.
3. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
-carries the instructions for building a
protein from the nucleus to the
ribosome.
Transcription and Translation
 Transcription
-transfer of information from DNA’s
base sequence to the complimentary
base sequence of mRNA.
 Translation
 -base sequences of nucleic acid is
translated to an amino acid
sequence.
-amino acid are the building blocks of
proteins.
Body Tissues
 Cell
-are specialized for particular
functions.
 Tissues
-groups of cells with similar structure
and function.
Four primary types of Tissues:
1. Epithelium/Epithelial Tissues
-found in different areas; body
coverings; body linings; glandular tissue.
-cell fits closely together; avascular (have
no blood supply).
-tissue layer has one free surface.
-the lower surface is bound by a
basement membrane.
-regenerate easily if well nourished.
-functions: protection, absorption,
filtration, secretion.
Simple Epithelium:
1. Simple Squamous
-single layer or flat cells.
-usually forms membranes.
-lines in the body cavities.
-lines lungs and capillaries.
2. Simple Cuboidal
-single layer of cube-like cells.
-common in glands and their ducts.
-forms walls of kidney tubules.
-covers the ovaries.
3. Pseudostratified
-single layer, but some cells are shorter
than others.
-often looks like a double cell layer.
-sometimes ciliated, such as in the
respiratory tract.
-may function in absorption or
secretion.
Stratified Epithelium:
1. Stratified Squamous
-cells at the free edge are flattened.
-found as a protective covering where
fiction is common.
-location: skin, mouth, esophagus
2. Stratified Cuboidal
-two layers of cuboidal cells.
3. Stratified Columnar
-surface cells are columnar, cells
underneath vary in size and shape.
 Stratified cuboidal and columnar
-rare in human body.
-found mainly in ducts of large
glands.
4. Transitional Epithelium
-shape of cells depends upon the amount
of stretching.
-lines organs of the urinary system.
Glandular Epithilium
 Gland
-one or more cells that secretes a
particular product.
Two major gland types:
1. Endocrine Glands
-ductless; don’t have point of exit; it
flows with blood instead.
-secretions are hormones.
2. Exocrine Glands
-empty through to the epithelial
surface.
 -include sweat and oil glands.
Connective Tissue
 Connective Tissue
-found everywhere in the body.
-includes the most abundant and
widely distributed tissues.
Functions of Connective Tissue:
1. Binds body tissues together.
2. Supports the body.
3. Provides protection.
 Variations in blood supply
-some tissue types are well
vascularized.
-some have poor blood supply or are
avascular.
 Extracellular Matrix
-non-living material that surrounds
living cells.
Two main elements of cellular matrix:
1. Ground substance
-mostly water along with adhesion
proteins and polysaccharide molecules.
2. Fibers
-produced by the cells.
-three types: collagen fibers, elastic
fibers, reticular fibers.
 Bone (osseous tissue)
-it is composed of bone cells in
lacunae (cavities), hard matrix of
calcium salts, and large numbers of
collagen fibers.
-used to protect and support the
body.
 Hyaline Cartilage
-most common cartilage.
-composed of abundant collagen
fibers and rubbery matrix.
-entire fetal skeleton is hyaline
cartilage.
 Elastic Cartilage
-provides elasticity.
-examples: supports the external ear.
 Fibrocartilage
-highly compressible.
-examples: cushion-like discs
between vertebrae.
Types of Connective Tissue:
1. Dense Connective Tissue
-main matrix element is collagen fibers.
-cells are fibroblasts.
-examples: tendons and ligaments.
 Tendon- attach muscle to bone.
 Ligaments- attach bone to bone.
2. Areolar Connective Tissue
-most widely distributed connective
tissue.
-soft, pliable tissue.
-contains all fiber types.
-can soak up excess fluid.
3. Adipose Tissue
-matrix is an areolar in which fat globules
predominate.
-many cells contain large lipid deposits.
-functions: insulates the body; protects
some organs; serves as a site of fuel
storage.
4. Reticular Connective Tissue
-delicate network of interwoven fibers.
-forms stroma (internal supporting
network) of lymphoid organs such as
lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow
  Blood
-blood cells surrounded by fluid
matrix.
-fibers are visible during clotting.
 -functions as the transport vehicle
for materials.

Notes:
 Biconcave-shape of the RBC.
 Symphysis pubic-where the pubic
hair grows.
 Flagellum should proportional to the
head for the sperm to move properly.
 Semi-permeable membrane-only
selected cells are allowed to pass.
 Permeable membrane-all cells are
allowed to pass.
 Impermeable membrane-no cells are
allowed to pass.
 Exocytosis-bring it out of the cell.
 Endocytosis-bring it inside the cell.
 Growth and replication of the cells is
the reason why every time our skin
get some scars, it heals itself
spontaneously.
 Coitus-medical term for sex.
 Chemotherapy-can also kills normal
cells aside from killing partially the
cancer cells.
 Mucus-slime-like fluid that can be
found in the intestine (for instance).
 Two sweat glands are Apocrine (have
a distinct smell) and Eccrine (palm
sweat).
 Fibroblasts-build up matrix.
 Fibroclasts-break down matrix for
modeling.
 Spleen-cemetery of red blood cells
(RBC last only for 20 days).
Cells and Tissues
 Carry out all chemical activities
needed to sustain life.
 Cells are the building blocks of all
living things.
 Tissues are groups of cells that are
similar in structure and function.
 Cells are not all the same.
 All cells share general structures.
 Cells are organized into three main
regions: nucleus, cytoplasm, plasma
membrane.
Cell Diversity:
1. Cell that connect body parts
-fibroblasts and erythrocytes
2. Cells that cover and line the body organs
-epithelial cell
3. Cell that move organs and body parts
-skeletal muscle cell and smooth muscle
cell.
4. Cell that stores nutrients
-fat cell
5. Cell that fights disease
-macrophage cell
Organelles:
1. Nucleus
-control center of the cell.
- contains genetic material (DNA).
-three regions: nuclear membrane,
nucleolus, chromatin.
1. Nuclear Membrane
-barrier of nucleus.
-consists of a double phospholipid
membrane.
-contain nuclear pores that allow for
exchange of material with the rest of the
cell.
2. Cytoplasm
-material outside the nucleus and inside
the plasma membrane.
 Cytosol
-fluid that suspends other elements.
 Organelles
-metabolic machinery of the cell.
 Inclusions
-non-functioning units.
Cytoplasmic Organelles:
a) Cytoskeleton
-network of protein structures that
extend throughout the cytoplasm.
-provides the cell with an internal
framework.
-three different types: microfilaments,
intermediate filaments, microtubules.
b) Centrioles
-rod-shaped bodies made of microtubules.
-direct formation of mitotic spindle during
cell division.
c) Endoplasmic Reticulum
-fluid-filled tubules for carrying
substances.
Two types of Endoplasmic Reticulum:
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
-studded with ribosomes.
-site where building materials of
cellular membrane are formed.
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
-functions in cholesterol synthesis
and breakdown, fat metabolism, and
detoxification of drugs.
d) Mitochondria
-“powerhouses” of the cell.
-change shape continuously.
-carry out reactions where oxygen is
used to break down food.
-provides ATP for cellular energy.
e) Golgi Apparatus
-modifies and packages proteins.
 -produces different types of packages 5. Nucleoli
such as secretory vesicles, cell -nucleus contains one or more nucleoli
membrane components, lysosomes. -sites of ribosome production.
f) Ribosomes -ribosomes then migrate to the
-made of protein RNA cytoplasm through nuclear pores.
-sites of protein synthesis.
-found at two locations: a. free in the
cytoplasm and b. attached to rough
endoplasmic reticulum.
g) Lysosomes
-contain enzymes that digest non-usable
materials within the cell.
h) Peroxisomes
-membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes.
-detoxify harmful substances.
-break down free radicals (highly
reactive chemicals).
-replicate by pinching in half.
3. Chromatin
-composed of DNA and Protein.
-scattered throughout the nucleus.
-chromatin condenses to form
chromosomes when the cell divides.
4. Plasma membrane
-barrier for cell contents.
-double phospholipid layer: hydrophilic
heads and hydrophobic tails.
-other materials in plasma membrane:
protein, cholesterol, glycoproteins.

 Microvilli
-finger-like projections that increase
surface area for absorption.
 Membrane junctions
-tight junctions
-desmosomes
-gap junctions
 Selective Permeability
-the plasma membrane allows some
materials to pass while excluding
others.
-this permeability includes
movement into and out of the cell.