JULY 2019

Better Welding of Aluminum

• Fabricating Fishing Boats
• Fume and Dust Capture
• Selecting Shielding Gases
• Tips for Better Practices

PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING
AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
July 2019 • Volume 98 • Number 7 CONTENTS
FEATURES
34 Missouri City Reels in Title of ‘Aluminum Fishing
Boat Capital’ 34 40
Welders in a small Missouri city build lightweight,
durable, high-quality aluminum fishing boats
C. Weihl

40 Better Welding of Aluminum

Through advances in welding processes, filler
metals, and automation, companies can find ways
to maximize quality without compromising
productivity when welding aluminum
M. D. Carriere and V. Gulsen

44 Choose Wisely When Welding Aluminum

These tips will help you select the best shielding
gases for your aluminum welding application
F. Schweighardt 52
48 Marine Manufacturer Reduces Aluminum
Welding Rework
This fabricator met its goal of reducing rework
and improving productivity through swapping
out its welding power sources — A. Pfaller

52 It’s ‘Al’ Good in the Hood

Here are suggestions to help you select systems
for proper capture and filtration of aluminum
dust and fume — M. Meyer

55 Remembering John M. Stropki Jr.

Reflections on the life and career of the former
Lincoln Electric CEO

WELDING RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT

187-s Laser-Enhanced Short-Circuiting Metal
Transfer in GMAW
Spatter was nearly eliminated and the transfer
frequency was precisely controlled when using
pulsed laser irradiation — S. J. Chen et al.
194-s Dynamic Behavior of Solder Filling during
Ultrasonic Soldering
A high-speed camera was used to visually observe
dynamic behavior of solder filling in a nonwetting
joint capillary under ultrasonic agitation
Z. Xu et al.
202-s Undercut Formation Mechanism in Keyhole
Plasma Arc Welding
This study suggests undercut formation is caused
by irregular fluid flow and uneven energy
distribution of the weld pool — A. V. Nguyen et al.

JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 3

DEPARTMENTS
6 Editorial 56 Coming Events
8 AWS at 100 59 Certification Schedule
10 Press Time News 60 Welding Workbook
12 International Update 61 Society News
14 News of the Industry 64 Member Profiles
18 Business Briefs 68 Tech Topics
20 Stainless Q&A 72 Section News
24 RWMA Q&A 89 Guide to AWS Services
26 Book Review 90 Personnel
28 Product & Print Spotlight 93 Classifieds
32 Centennial Stories 94 Advertiser Index On the cover: G3 Boats is one of
four boat manufacturers based
in Lebanon, Mo. Pictured is the
all-aluminum, all-welded Bay
20 DLX. (Courtesy of G3 Boats.)

OFFICERS WELDING JOURNAL

President Thomas J. Lienert
Consultant
Vice President Robert W. Roth
RoMan Manufacturing Inc.
Vice President W. Richard Polanin
WRP Associates
Vice President Dennis K. Eck
Praxair Distribution Inc.
Treasurer Carey Chen
Cincinnati Incorporated
Interim Executive Director Ray W. Shook
American Welding Society
DIRECTORS
T. Anderson (At Large), ITW Welding North America
R. Ashelford (Dist. 13), Rock Valley College
J. R. Bray (Past President), Affiliated Machinery Inc.
T. Brosio (Dist. 14), Major Tool & Machine
J. Burgess (Dist. 8), General Electric
D. A. Desrochers (Dist. 1), Old Colony RVTHS
D. L. Doench (At Large), Hobart Bros. Co.
D. A. Flood (Past President), Tri Tool Inc.
K. Fogleman (Dist. 16), Consultant
P. H. Gorman (Dist. 20), Retired
M. Hanson (Dist. 15), Consolidated Precision Products
L. Heckendorn (Dist. 7)
R. L. Holdren (At Large), ARC Specialties
T. Holt (Dist. 18), Tech Corr USA Management
J Jones (Dist. 17), Harris Products Group
M. Krupnicki (Dist. 6), Mahany Welding Supply Co. Inc.
D. Lange (Dist. 12), Northeast Wisconsin Tech. College
S. Lindsey (Dist. 21), City of San Diego
S. M. McDaniel (Dist. 19), Big Bend Community College
D. K. Miller (At Large), Lincoln Electric
S. Moran (Dist. 3), American Hydro Corp.
R. Purvis (Dist. 22), Purvis Welding Inspection
S. Raghunathan (At Large), Saudi Aramco
H. Record (Dist. 5), Townley Foundry & Machine
M. Sherman (Dist. 10), SW&E LLC
L. E. Showalter (Dist. 4), Newport News Shipbuilding
M. Skiles (Dist. 9), Airgas Inc.
W. J. Sperko (At Large), Sperko Engineering Services
K. Temme (Dist. 2), Matrix NAC
P. I. Temple (Dist. 11), Welding Consultant
Publisher/Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen
Editorial
Sr. Editor Cindy Weihl
Features Editor Kristin Campbell
Associate Editor Katie Pacheco
Assistant Editor Roline Pascal
Peer Review Coord. Lea Owen
Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
Design and Production
Production Manager Zaida Chavez
Assistant Production Manager Brenda Flores
Manager of International Periodicals and
Electronic Media Carlos Guzman
Advertising
Media Sales Executives Jeff Rhodes
and Kim Daniele
Production Specialists Megan Lebo
and Amy Gosen
Subscriptions
Subscriptions Representative Thomas Lira
tlira@aws.org
MARKETING ADVISORY COUNCIL
(MAC)
D. Doench, Chair, Hobart Brothers Co.
A. Sepulveda, Vice Chair, Hypertherm Inc.
S. Samuels, Secretary, American Welding Society
D. Brown, Astaras Inc.
C. Coffey, The Lincoln Electric Co.
D. DeCorte, RoMan Mfg. Inc.
D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash Compressed
S. Molenda, ESAB Welding & Cutting
M. Muenzer, ORS Nasco
W. Newell Jr., Euroweld Ltd.
N. Schmid, Weiler Abrasives Group
S. Smith, Weld-Aid Products
D. Wilson, Wilson and Associates
C. Chen, Ex Officio, Cincinnati Incorporated
S. Fyffe, Ex Officio, Astaras Inc.
L. Kvidahl, Ex Officio, Ingalls Shipbuilding
T. Lienert, Ex Officio, Consultant
S. Moran, Ex Officio, American Hydro Corp.
R. Polanin, Ex Officio, WRP Associates
R. Roth, Ex Officio, RoMan Mfg. Inc.
R. W. Shook, Ex Officio, American Welding Society
Y. M. Zhang, Ex Officio, University of Kentucky
AWS Promotes Diversity
AWS values diversity, advocates equitable and
inclusive practices, and engages its members and
stakeholders in establishing a culture in the
welding community that welcomes, learns from,
and celebrates differences among people. AWS
recognizes that a commitment to diversity, equity,
and inclusion is essential to achieving excellence
for the Association, its members, and employees.
Welding Journal (ISSN 0043-2296) is published monthly
by the American Welding Society for $120.00 per year in the
United States and possessions, $160 per year in foreign
countries: $7.50 per single issue for domestic AWS members
and $10.00 per single issue for nonmembers and $14.00 sin-
gle issue for international. Not available for resale in either
print or electronic form. American Welding Society is located
at 8669 NW 36 St., # 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672; telephone
(305) 443-9353. Periodicals postage paid in Miami, Fla., and
additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send address
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Readers of Welding Journal may make copies of articles
for personal, archival, educational or research purposes, and
which are not for sale or resale. Permission is granted to
quote from articles, provided customary acknowledgment of
authors and sources is made. Starred (*) items excluded
from copyright.
Copyright © 2019 by American Welding Society in both
printed and electronic formats. The Society is not responsible
for any statement made or opinion expressed herein. Data
and information developed by the authors of specific articles
are for informational purposes only and are not intended for
use without independent, substantiating investigation on the
part of potential users.

4 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019

EDITORIAL
RWMA Reflects on Its History while
Admiring AWS’s 100th Year
The Resistance Welding Manufacturers
Alliance (RWMA), an industry partner of the
American Welding Society (AWS), is honored
to be a part of the Society in its 100th year.
Much has been written about this centen-
nial year, and much has already been said
about the AWS, including its rich history, the
impact it has made, as well as the services it
provides to the welding industry, and it
should be proud of these accomplishments.
What may not be as well known is that the
RWMA has its own long-standing history in
Matt Post the welding industry and continues to grow,
RWMA Chair advancing its core missions as a part of the
AWS.
Founded in 1935, the RWMA has been fo-
cused on standards for welding machines
and materials, educating the manufacturing
industry on the latest technologies and ad-
vancements, as well as promoting the resist-
ance welding process. The RWMA was
formed out of necessity as the use of resist-
ance welding increased in the quickly grow-
ing automotive industry.
Resistance welding was not exactly a new
technology when the RWMA was formed.
The process had already been proven and
patented nearly 50 years earlier by Elihu
Thompson in 1886 as “electric welding” and
had slowly worked its way into manufactur-
ing segments during the growth of industry
“The AWS and in America. By the first decade of the new
the RWMA both century, various disciplines of resistance
welding, including spot, butt joint, and seam
have much to cele- welding, were being widely applied to metal
brate this year, and joining applications.
we will continue to By the 1930s, resistance welding had
work together to proven to be a highly reliable, widely applied,
support the and low-cost method of joining metals, but
had not yet been standardized by the equip-
manufacturers and ment or component manufacturers building
industries involved welding machines for the high-volume appli-
in metal joining.” cations now facing the industry. The Resist-
ance Welders Manufacturing Association, as
it was first called, worked as a collective of
member companies to establish those need-
ed standards. To this day, the RWMA contin-
ues to provide that same level of standard as
well as promoting new developments and ed-
ucating the resistance welding workforce.
Today, the Resistance Welding Manufac-
turers Alliance is an active network of indus-
try professionals that advances resistance
6 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
welding technologies, supports the highest
technical standards for the industry, and
shares best practices amongst all its mem-
bers to shape the future of our industry for
the next generations. The RWMA continues
to support the resistance welding manufac-
turing community through documented
processes, standards, new advancements,
and education.
For many years, the RWMA has provided
to the industry the Emmett A. Craig Resist-
ance Welding School that has been the
benchmark for resistance welding education.
It continues to grow and is held at FABTECH
each year, both in the United States and
Mexico, and is expanding to regional
locations.
In addition, we are working with AWS to
support and promote both online education-
al opportunities and the new Certified Re-
sistance Welding Technician (CRWT) pro-
gram (aws.org/certification/page/certified-
resistance-welding-technician).
The CRWT is a spark for a new generation
of knowledgeable resistance welding person-
nel in the metal joining community. The cer-
tification will become the first of its kind for
those who operate, maintain, and support
resistance welding equipment in plants
throughout our industry.
With the RWMA and AWS working to-
gether, the BETA test portion of the CRWT
was completed at the end of April. We have
planned promotion for the introduction of
the training and testing by early 2020. It has
been a long journey developing the CRWT
program, but the launch is in sight for a pro-
gram we all believe will greatly benefit man-
ufacturing companies, the resistance welding
workforce, and our industry for years to
come.
The AWS and the RWMA both have much
to celebrate this year, and we will continue to
work together to support the manufacturers
and industries involved in metal joining.
Staying true to our core mission, the Resist-
ance Welding Manufacturers Alliance will
provide our member companies with the
highest standards, continue to promote the
resistance welding process, and will always
strive to educate and increase the knowledge
of the resistance welding workforce and the
welding industry. WJ
AWS AT 100

In celebration of the American

Welding Society’s 100th anniversary,
here are some historical highlights of
the Society and industry. In this issue,
we feature the 1990s.

1990 1993
An important step in this country’s attempt to curb acid On Space Shuttle En-
rain took place on November 15, 1990, when President deavor Mission STS-57,
George H. W. Bush signed new amendments into the Clean pilot Brian Duffy sol-
Air Act that would dered 46 connections
force the owners of on a printed circuit
110 coal-burning board in space. Weld-
power plants using ing’s biggest role in the
high-sulfur coal to fabrication of the Space Shuttle was welding of the liquid
generate electricity to oxygen and liquid hydrogen fuel tanks.
reduce the emission
of sulfur dioxide from
their plants. Shown 1994 and 1995
here is the flue gas
desulfurization outlet The 1994 Northridge earthquake in California and the
duct at Lower Col- January 1995 earthquake centered in Kobe, Japan, saw
orado Authority between them thousands of casualties in lives lost and in-
Fayette Power Project juries as well as billions of dollars in property damage. This
3. The size of a gymnasium, the interiors of this structure brought about work on how to best repair damaged welded
were lined with 50,000 sq ft of Hastelloy® Alloy C-22 sheet structures as well as presented motivation for researchers
panels. In a technique known as “wallpapering,” gas metal to improve engineering of welded-steel structures for the
arc welding was used in the short-circuiting transfer mode future.
to attach the panels to the walls of the ductwork.

1999
1991
The $3 billion Alliance Pipeline was the largest construc-
Friction stir welding was developed and experimentally tion project in North America at the end of the decade. It
proven at The Welding Institute in the United Kingdom. The marked several advances in pipeline construction in the
process and variants such as friction stir spot welding and United States when mechanized welding and ultrasonic test-
friction stir processing ing debuted as primary pipeline construction techniques. WJ
are used for industrial
applications such as
shipbuilding, aerospace,
automotive, robotics,
and computers. One key
benefit was that it al-
lowed welds to be made
on aluminum alloys that
weren’t readily fusion
arc welded. These days,
the process is being used
for other materials be-
side aluminum. Learn about 2000–2009 in the August Welding Journal.

8 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019

PRESS TIME NEWS
Ray W. Shook Returns to AWS as
Interim Executive Director
The American Welding Society’s (AWS’s) board of direc-
tors has appointed former Executive Director Ray W. Shook
as interim executive director effective immediately.
Shook succeeds Matthew Miller, former executive director
and CEO of AWS, who has recently resigned to pursue other
career opportunities. The AWS board of directors and staff
wish Miller well with his future endeavors.
Shook retired after 15 years of exemplary service as execu-
tive director to AWS, and subsequently served as executive di-
rector emeritus. As interim executive director, Shook will lead
the AWS organization until a suitable successor for Miller has
been identified. The AWS board of directors and staff, as well
as Shook, are committed to a thorough process that will result
in a successful transition of leadership at AWS.
Linear Friction Welding Machine
Operational at LIFT in Detroit, Mich.
Manufacturing Technology Inc. will run and maintain the lin-
ear friction welding machine at LIFT’s facility in Detroit, Mich.
What’s claimed to be the first and only linear friction weld-
ing machine capable of full-sized part development in North
America is now fully operational and ready for project work at
Lightweight Innovations for Tomorrow (LIFT), a national
manufacturing facility operated by the American Lightweight
Materials Innovation Institute, in Detroit, Mich.
It’s also claimed the machine, built and installed by Man-
ufacturing Technology Inc. (MTI), South Bend, Ind., has the
largest tooling capacity of any linear friction welding ma-
chine in the world. This allows for the production of the
largest full-scale parts available.
Currently, linear friction welding technology is used in
aerospace to achieve lightweighting blisks and integrally
bladed rotors to aircraft engines. With the machine being
available for R&D, LIFT and its partners will explore how
this technology could benefit other industries, specifically
automotive and defense.
MTI and LIFT will have shared capacity of the machine.
Sinclair Ranked No. 1 College in the
Nation for Vocational Training
Sinclair College, Dayton, Ohio, was recently ranked No. 1
10 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
in the nation to provide vocational training programs. The
research study, conducted by Real Work Matters, assessed
more than 711 colleges nationwide.
Using the most recent data from the National Center for
Education Statistics’ Integrated Postsecondary Education
Data System and the U.S. Department of Education’s College
Scorecard, the study looked at attendance cost; number of
associate degree and undergraduate certificate programs of-
fered; percentage of undergraduate students enrolled in any
distance education class; full- and part-time retention rates;
graduation rate; percentage of students working and not en-
rolled six years after entry; flexibility and student services;
and mean annual earnings for students working ten years
after entry.
“Over the years, Sinclair has seen an increasing number of
students entering the workforce and filling in-demand jobs
because of our strong focus on work-based training pro-
grams,” said Steve Johnson, president at Sinclair College.
“We’ve invested in apprenticeship and internship programs
because our students have made it clear that they want to
spend less time in school and more time gaining actual work
experience. This is a national effort, and it’s exciting that Sin-
clair is a leading example for other colleges across the nation.”
Exploring Steel-Aluminum Laser
Welding for Shipbuilding
In a joint re-
search project,
“Laser beam weld-
ing of steel to alu-
minum for use in
shipbuilding,” the
Laser Zentrum
Hannover e.V.
(LZH) in Germany
has developed a
laser-based joining
process for thick
mixed joints with
its partners.
Laser welding of steel on aluminum, Ship hulls made
with high sheet thicknesses for ship- of steel and alu-
building, is shown. (Photo: LZH.) minum alloy super-
structures are pri-
marily used in
yacht construction. Such material combinations reduce the
overall weight and lower the ship’s center of gravity. Via an
adapter, the two different metals are joined securely and
with a high mechanical load capacity. The LZH and nine
partners have developed a laser welding process, with inte-
grated welding depth control, to manufacture such adapters
quickly and flexibly.
Under static load during tensile-shear testing, the
adapter pieces manufactured in this way achieve similar
strength values to the explosion-proofed adapters. For ex-
ample, the yield strength of the welded aluminum alloy is
exceeded by 52%. In future research activities, this is impor-
tant not only to achieve a high load capacity, but also a high
deformability of the adapter pieces. WJ
INTERNATIONAL UPDATE
Sol y Sol of Spain Trains 12 Kenyans
as First-Level Welders
Kenyan welders pose with (first row, second from left) Sol y
Sol Managing Director Ángela Lázaro and (center) Santa
Olalla Mayor Pedro Congosto.
Soluciones Industriales y Soldadura (Sol y Sol), Santa
Olalla, Toledo, Spain, a welding training and consulting com-
pany as well as an American Welding Society (AWS) Interna-
tional Agent, has trained a group of 12 welders from Kenya
as first-level welders. Mayor of Santa Olalla Pedro Congosto
came out to support the group of welders and praised the ac-
tivities of Sol y Sol.
In an effort to ease the skills shortage that forces the
country to hire foreign welders for their national gas and oil
companies, Kenya’s government has invested in welders’ ed-
ucation and international certification. As an International
Agent of AWS in Europe, Sol y Sol has trained welding pro-
fessionals from all over the world in the AWS Accredited
Test Facility (ATF) located in the Industrial Area of the mu-
nicipality for more than ten years.
The welders received initial training on plate in Kenya
prior to receiving advanced training at the facility for two
weeks. An educator instructed them on more advanced tech-
niques to weld American Petroleum Institute quality pipe
for gas and oil pipelines and tubes.
“We are honored because these welders and their manag-
er indicated they had been looking around the world for the
right training for their welders,” said Ángela Lázaro, AWS in-
ternational agent and ATF representative. “The experience
and ability they gained during the short training with us in
our ATF facility was far beyond the objectives they achieved
during longer training in other facilities before coming.”
The 12 welders will continue practicing in their country
as AWS Certified Welders. — Roline Pascal, assistant editor
CenterLine Recognized as One of Canada’s
Best Managed Companies
CenterLine (Windsor) Ltd., specializing in advanced au-
tomation processes and technologies, was recognized for
overall business performance and sustained growth with the
Canada’s Best Managed Companies Gold Standard Requali-
fied winner designation. The award winners are Canadian
owned and managed companies demonstrating strategy, ca-
pability, and commitment to achieve sustainable growth.
“CenterLine is very proud of this award because it recog-
12 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
nizes the hard work, dedication, and skill of our staff along
with the strength and consistency of our business strate-
gies, systems, and corportate values,” said CenterLine
(Windsor) Ltd. CEO Michael Beneteau.
FABTECH Mexico 2019 Brings Cutting-Edge
Technologies to Monterrey
With nearly 156,000 net sq ft of exhibit space, FABTECH Mex-
ico, held May 7–9, welcomed nearly 500 exhibiting compa-
nies and more than 11,000 attendees.
FABTECH Mexico, Latin America’s leading manufactur-
ing event for metal forming, fabricating, welding, and fin-
ishing, welcomed nearly 500 exhibiting companies and
11,090 attendees to Monterrey’s Cintermex on May 7–9.
The three-day show provided visitors the opportunity to
view live product demonstrations, meet with industry ex-
perts, and attend educational sessions covering automation,
welding, cutting, forming, stamping, finishing, and fabricat-
ing for all facets of metal manufacturing.
“FABTECH Mexico 2019 was a success. Corporate execu-
tives and owners made up over 34% of the attendance, and
equipment was purchased directly off the show floor,” said
Matthew Rubin, director of expositions, American Welding So-
ciety. “This show is a very important business platform for our
attendees and exhibitors, and we are thrilled to keep delivering
a quality show to both sides. The range of industrial segments
represented is impressive and is a contributing factor in mak-
ing FABTECH Mexico the largest of its kind in Latin America.”
The next event will be held May 12–14, 2020, in Mexico
City. To learn more about FABTECH Mexico, visit
mexico.fabtechexpo.com.
Kemppi Acquires Italian Trafimet Group
Kemppi, Lahti, Finland, a manufacturer of welding equip-
ment, has acquired Italian welding torch manufacturer
Trafimet Group S.p.A. Both companies will continue as sep-
arate businesses after the acquisition.
“Kemppi has a strong growth strategy and the acquisition
is a natural part of that. The businesses and competencies of
the two companies complement each other well and
Trafimet’s product range strengthens Kemppi’s position es-
pecially in the aftermarkets of the welding business,” said
Kemppi Oy CEO Ville Vuori. WJ
NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY
‘Tis the Season for Welding Contests
Horry-Georgetown Technical College Welding Student Ethan
Johnson placed first in Category 4 at the 37th Annual South
Carolina Technical College Welding Competition.
Just before the summer, months after welding students
began practicing their techniques at the start of a school
year, you know it’s competition time.
Horry-Georgetown Technical College (HGTC), Conway,
S.C.; Springfield-Clark Career Technology Center, Springfield,
Ohio; the Pelican Chapter of Associated Builders and Contrac-
tors Inc., Baton Rouge, La.; Georgia’s high school Beta clubs;
and Kilgore College (KC) in Texas have hosted events. De-
tailed below are highlights of their contests.
• Ethan Johnson of HGTC won first place in Category 4 at
the 37th Annual South Carolina Technical College Welding
Competition on April 18 and 19 at HGTC. He was one of
nine students in his category, and one of 50 students from
ten technical colleges from South Carolina to compete.
Three HGTC students also participated. Brian Pugliese
finished fifth place in Category 2, Cameron Thompson fin-
ished sixth place in Category 3, and Alex Dawson finished
ninth place in Category 5.
All four competitors will graduate with an Advanced
Welding Technologies Certificate at the end of the summer.
• “The 7th Annual Welding Rodeo at Springfield-Clark
Career Technology Center in Springfield, Ohio, was a huge
At the Springfield-Clark Career Technology Center’s 7th An-
nual Welding Rodeo, first place went to a bow and arrow
made by (from left) James Beverly, Kyle Kinder (holding this
piece), Daren Perez, Adam Jones, and Evan Shaw. Also shown
is a beautifully crafted headpiece featuring many feathers.
14 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
success,” said Welding and Fabrication Instructor Brian
Sheward.
This western-themed rodeo took place on April 26. Art
was made from scrap metal donated by local companies.
First place went to a bow and arrow, and second place was
awarded to a covered wagon.
“The auction raised $3762!” Sheward said. Welding stu-
dents will present a $500 check to Honor Flight of Dayton,
which will pay for one veteran’s trip to Washington, D.C.
Two $500 scholarships were awarded to Anthony Kimble
and Grant Hodson to continue their welding education.
• The Pelican Chapter of Associated Builders and Con-
tractors Inc. has hosted its annual high school craft cham-
pionship in welding, carpentry, and electrical for local high
school students at its Baton Rouge Training Center in
Louisiana. More than 100 local eleventh and twelfth graders
training to be welders, electricians, and carpenters compet-
ed against one another to show their skills, claim trophies,
and win prizes. The competition consisted of a classroom
test and a hands-on component.
A contestant shielded metal arc welds at the Pelican Chap-
ter of Associated Builders and Contractors Inc. 2019 high
school craft championships. (Credit: ABC Pelican.)
The winners for welding individuals in first, second, and
third place were as follows: Brennan Oubre, Livonia High
School; Tristan Acosta, St. Amant High School; and Trey
Hebert, St. Amant High School. The welding team winners,
also in first, second, and third place, were St. Amant High
School, Livonia High School, and Live Oak High School.
• At Putnam County High
School, Eatonton, Ga., Dual-
Enrollment Student Annabell
Sapp put new welding skills to
the test for the 80th Annual
Senior Beta Convention held
earlier this year for Georgia’s
high school Beta clubs. She
Annabell Sapp shows off her
metal roses that earned first
place in the 80th Annual Senior
Beta Convention earlier this
year.
won first place. Sapp made metal roses for her submission to
the Sculpture Division 1 competition, a skill learned in her
welding studies course at Central Georgia Technical College.
“I enjoy designing artwork and then creating that art
with my hands,” Sapp said.
• Jose Landin from Longview High School earned the top
prize at the fourth annual High School Welding Contest on
April 12 at KC. This event, sponsored by the KC welding
technology program and the KC Welding Club, had high
school students competing from ten area school districts.
Landin won a $1500 KC scholarship thanks to Eastman
Chemical Co., a $1000 scholarship from District 17 of the
American Welding Society, a welding machine cutting rig,
and a welding mask. Second place went to David Luna from
Pictured during the fourth annual High School Welding Con-
test at Kilgore College are (from left) Michael George (repre-
sentative from Gas & Supply), Jose Landin (first place), David
Luna (second place), Luis Castro (third place), Charli Marcan-
tel (fourth place), and Marvin Cruz (fifth place).
Pittsburg High School. Luis Castro from Longview High
School earned third place. Fourth place was awarded to
Charli Marcantel from Kilgore High School. Marvin Cruz
from Longview High School captured fifth place.
Reporter Takes Up Welding for a
Good Cause
Welding was recently the star attraction on Keeping up
with Chris. This series, where Reporter Chris Van Vliet goes
on many adventures, airs on the entertainment news show
In this screenshot of the Keeping up with Chris welding seg-
ment, Applied Welding Technology Instructor James Scott
(left) teaches the trade to Reporter Chris Van Vliet. The video
is available through wsvn.com.
JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 15
Deco Drive through WSVN Channel 7 in Miami, Fla.
“If you’ve ever flown in a plane, driven in a car, or sat in a
chair, you can thank a welder for that,” Van Vliet said at the
start of the show. “But the American Welding Society says
that by 2022, we’re going to need 450,000 welding profes-
sionals! So with that said, I grabbed a welding helmet to see
what it takes to have a career in welding.”
During a taped segment at McFatter Technical College,
Davie, Fla., Applied Welding Technology Instructor James
Scott, who’s also an American Welding Society Certified
Welding Inspector, patiently guided Van Vliet through the
process. Along the way, the men talked about this emotional
experience.
Donning personal protective equipment, Van Vliet used Production will be anchored by the nearly billion-dollar con-
an oxyfuel torch to cut steel. In addition, he kept a positive tract Vigor was awarded to build the U.S. Army’s new landing
attitude throughout the tedious process of trying to strike craft over the next ten years. (Credit: Vigor.)
an arc to begin shielded metal arc welding.
“You just did, from start to finish, a weld without extin- landing craft, Maneuver Support Vessel (Light) or MSV(L).
guishing or sticking, so that’s a monumental experience,” This contract represents the largest award in the compa-
Scott said after Van Vliet’s attempts paid off. ny’s history, with a total value of nearly $1 billion over ten
This 3-min video is at wsvn.com/entertainment/chris- years and hundreds of family-wage jobs. Vigor expects to
learns-to-weld-at-mcfatter-technical-college-in-davie/. eventually employ about 400 workers at the site and will be
investing millions in capital upgrades and equipment.
Other programs to be constructed at the site will include
Vigor Selects Site for All-Aluminum production of the Combatant Craft Medium for the U.S.
Navy as well as for U.S. allies, the Response Boat-Medium
Fabrication Facility for the U.S. Coast Guard and export market, Vigor’s Fast In-
terceptor, aluminum fast ferries, and commercial workboats.
Vigor has entered an agreement to take over the former The company’s aluminum marine work is currently per-
home of Christensen Yachts in Vancouver, Wash., following formed primarily in Seattle, Wash., and Clackamas, Ore.,
a search for the best location to build the U.S. Army’s new which will phase out as work is moved to the Vancouver site.

16 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019

ORNL, Lincoln Electric to Advance Metal
Additive Manufacturing Technology
Tom Matthews, senior vice president, technology and R&D,
Lincoln Electric (left), and Thomas Zacharia, director of
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, celebrate their continued
agreement regarding collaboration on large-scale, robotic
additive manufacturing technology.
Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), Oak Ridge,
Tenn., and Lincoln Electric, Cleveland, Ohio, are continuing
to collaborate on large-scale, robotic additive manufacturing
technology at the Department of Energy’s Advanced Manu-
facturing InnovationXLab Summit. The agreement builds on
their previous developments by extending additive technol-
ogy to new materials, leveraging data analytics, and en-
abling rapid manufacture of metal components in excess of
100 lb/h. These developments will also focus on increasing
throughput while lowering costs and improving the quality
of large-scale, additively manufactured metallic structures
essential for multiple industrial applications.
“Working with Lincoln Electric is an important step in
advancing manufacturing in the U.S.,” said Moe Khaleel,
ORNL associate laboratory director for energy and environ-
mental science. “Approximately 60-80% of molds for the
manufacturing of metallic components are produced over-
seas. With this new collaboration, U.S. manufacturers will be
able to showcase their ability to manufacture tools, dies, and
molds additively with reduced costs and lead times while
maintaining speed and a quality build.”
Robotic Welding Unit in Operation
at Buckeye Career Center
A piece of equipment being used to expand manufactur-
ing training in Tuscarawas Valley is now operational at Buck-
eye Career Center, New Philadelphia, Ohio.
A $109,623 Lincoln Electric robotic welding unit now sits
in the welding lab at the center. It was acquired, in part, by a
grant that was awarded to the Multi-County Advanced Manu-
facturing Corridor workgroup, in addition to local contribu-
tions.
A second round of funding will allow the center to pur-
chase a new computer numerical control plasma cutting sys-
tem and a Fanuc fenceless robot trainer, with Kent State
University at Tuscarawas purchasing other necessary train-
ing devices.
— continued on page 91
JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 17
BUSINESS BRIEFS
Alcoa and United Steelworkers Union Extend
Labor Agreement for Five Locations
Alcoa Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa., a global provider of bauxite,
alumina, and aluminum products, has agreed to extend the ex-
isting labor contract with the United Steelworkers to reach a
new multiyear labor agreement covering approximately 1700
active employees at five U.S. locations.
Employees represented by the United Steelworkers will
continue to work under the terms of the extended contract at
the following five sites: Warrick Operations in Indiana; Masse-
na Operations in New York; Gum Springs in Arkansas; We-
natchee Works in Washington; and Point Comfort in Texas.
Most of those employees represented by the United Steel-
workers work at Warrick Operations’ aluminum smelter and
rolling mill and at the Massena Operations smelter. The Point
Comfort alumina refinery and the Wenatchee Works alu-
minum smelter are both curtailed.
General Motors Invests $300 Million,
Adds 400 Jobs at Michigan Plant
Chevrolet Bolt EV and Sonic vehicles are assembled at the
General Motors Orion plant in Michigan. (Photo by Jeffrey
Sauger for Chevrolet.)
General Motors (GM), Orion Township, Mich., has invested
$300 million in its Orion Township assembly plant to produce
a new Chevrolet electric vehicle that will bring 400 new jobs to
the plant. The investment adds to the company’s commitment
to invest $1.8 billion in its U.S. manufacturing operations, cre-
ating 700 new jobs and supporting 28,000 jobs across six
states.
The new Chevrolet electric vehicle (EV) will be designed
and engineered off an advanced version of the current
Chevrolet Bolt EV architecture.
“We are excited to bring these jobs and this investment to
the U.S.,” said GM Chairman and CEO Mary Barra. “This new
Chevrolet electric vehicle is another positive step toward our
commitment to an all-electric future. GM will continue to in-
vest in our U.S. operations where we see opportunities for
growth.”
Weiler Abrasives Receives People’s Choice
Innovation Impact Award
Weiler Abrasives, Cresco, Pa., a provider of abrasives,
18 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
Weiler Abrasives was recognized for its “Leading a Warriors
Charge” campaign at the 2019 Industrial Supply Association
Convention.
power brushes, and maintenance products, has received the
People’s Choice Innovation Impact Award at the 2019 Indus-
trial Supply Association Convention on April 8.
The award, which honors manufacturers that bring innova-
tive products or services to the industrial maintenance, repair,
operations, and production channel, is in recognition of the
“Leading a Warriors Charge” campaign the company launched
in May 2018. The campaign supports Workshops for Warriors,
a nonprofit school providing machining and welding training
to veterans, wounded warriors, and transitioning service
members with the mission to “Rebuild American Manufactur-
ing One Veteran at a Time.”
The “Leading a Warriors Charge” campaign includes print
and digital advertising, video, distributor showroom displays
and promotions, tradeshow signage, and a website where visi-
tors can donate and read about success stories from Work-
shops for Warriors’ graduates. To date, the campaign has
helped raise more than $77,000 for the school.
Metal Supermarkets Opens Newest Store
in Tampa, Fla.
Metal Supermarkets, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada, a
supplier of small-quantity metals, opened its 92nd store at
4414 N. 56 St. in Tampa, Fla. Metal Supermarkets Tampa
(East) provides customers with access to any metal, cut to
size and ready fast, with no minimum order quantity.
“Metal Supermarkets Tampa East is now our second store
in the Tampa area,” said Metal Supermarkets President and
CEO Stephen Schober. “With an increased presence, more
businesses and consumers can take advantage of the speed,
variety, and convenience that Metal Supermarkets offers
when shopping for metal.”
Additional News
• Industrial Magnetics Inc., Boyne City, Mich., an indus-
trial magnet products provider, has acquired Clamp Manu-
facturing Co., South El Monte, Calif., founders of the Kant-
Twist® clamp and No-Mar® hammer product lines.
• CPI Aerostructures Inc., Edgewood, N.Y., a supplier of
aircraft structures and systems, has bought Air Industries
Group, Hauppauge, N.Y., a manufacturer of precision equip-
ment asssemblies and components for aerospace and de-
fense prime contractors. WJ
STAINLESS Q&A
BY DAMIAN J. KOTECKI

Q: We want to fillet weld 304H

stainless steel attachments to a
310 stainless steel shell. Since
we had both E308H-16 and E310-
16 electrodes for other parts of
the job, we tried both electrode
types for procedure and perform-
ance qualification. We experi-
enced some crater cracking with
both electrode types. Can we
make a better electrode choice?

A: This situation lends itself to analy-

sis using the WRC-1992 diagram. Use
of the diagram involves plotting the el-
ements that promote ferrite (the
chromium-equivalent elements) along
the horizontal axis and the elements
that promote austenite (the nickel-
equivalent elements) along the vertical
axis. Then a given composition is plot- Fig. 1 — WRC-1992 diagram for the case of first-pass welding 304H to 310 with
ted within the diagram at a point cor- E308H-16 electrodes.
responding to its chromium and nickel
equivalent. For the case of joining two
base metals with a different filler met- base metal. Then a second tie line is location of the first-pass weld metal,
al, the two base metals are plotted drawn from this synthetic base metal one proceeds along the second tie line
first, and a tie line is drawn connecting to the undiluted filler metal composi- from the filler metal composition to-
the two compositions. For the case of tion on the diagram. ward the synthetic base metal compo-
equal dilution into the weld metal, the All possible mixtures of the filler sition a distance equal to the percent
midpoint of this tie line corresponds metal with the synthetic base metal lie dilution. For shielded metal arc weld-
to what might be termed a synthetic along this second tie line. To find the ing (SMAW), typical dilution is about

Table 1 — Typical Compositions, Chromium Equivalents, Nickel Equivalents, and FN for the Base Metals, Filler Metals, and Weld Metals

Material Composition, wt-% Chromium Nickel FN

Equivalent Equivalent
Cr Mo Nb Ni C Cu N

304H 18.5 0.2 0.02 9.5 0.07 0.2 0.03 18.71 12.60 2.6

310 24.5 0.2 0.02 20.0 0.07 0.2 0.08 24.71 24.71 0

Synthetic base metal 21.5 0.2 0.02 14.75 0.07 0.2 0.055 21.7 18.35 0
(50% 304H, 50% 310)

E308H-16 19.0 0.2 0.02 9.5 0.06 0.2 0.06 19.21 12.85 3.3

70% E308H-16, 19.75 0.2 0.02 11.08 0.063 0.2 0.059 19.96 14.50 1.9
30% synthetic base metal
(First-pass weld metal)

E308L-16 19.0 0.2 0.02 9.5 0.03 0.2 0.06 19.21 11.80 6.7

70% E308L-16, 19.75 0.2 0.02 11.08 0.042 0.2 0.059 19.96 13.76 3.3
30% synthetic base metal
(First-pass weld metal)

E309L-16 22.8 0.2 0.02 12.5 0.03 0.2 0.06 23.01 14.80 10.8

70% E309L-16, 22.41 0.2 0.02 13.18 0.042 0.2 0.059 22.62 15.86 6.1
30% synthetic base metal
(First-pass weld metal)

20 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019


Fig. 2 — WRC-1992 diagram for the case of first-pass welding 304H to 310 with
E308L-16 electrodes.
30%, comprising 15% from each of the
two base metals. Then 30% of the dis-
tance along the second tie line from
the undiluted filler metal composition
toward the synthetic base metal com-
position gives the anticipated first-
pass weld metal composition. Then
the diagram provides a predicted fer-
rite number (FN) and a predicted so-
lidification mode for the first-pass
weld metal.
The diagram is divided by three
dashed lines into four solidification
Fig. 3 — WRC-1992 diagram for the case of first-pass welding 304H to 310 with
E309L-16 electrodes.
modes, as can be seen in Figs. 1, 2, and
3. Above and to the left of the top left
(blue) dashed line, the solidification
mode is essentially 100% austenite (A
solidification mode), which is sensitive
to solidification cracking. Proceeding a
little downward and to the right of
this first dashed line is a second
(green) dashed line. All compositions
between the blue and green dashed
lines solidify as primary austenite with
austenite/ferrite eutectic (AF solidifi-
cation mode), which is also sensitive
to solidification cracking. Proceeding
downward and to the right of the sec-
ond dashed line is a third (light green)
dashed line. All compositions between
the green dashed line and the light
green dashed line solidify as primary
ferrite with ferrite/austenite eutectic
(FA solidification mode), which is very
resistant to solidification cracking. Fi-
nally, below and to the right of the
light green dashed line, all composi-
tions solidify as essentially 100% fer-
rite and austenite only forms by solid-
state phase transformation (F solidifi-
cation mode), which is resistant to so-
lidification cracking but not as resist-
ant as the FA mode. The F solidifica-
tion mode is not applicable to the joint
under discussion.
Undiluted weld metal from E310-
16 electrodes is generally fully
austenitic (A) and actually plots out-
side (above) the diagram. That means
the weld metal solidifies as fully
austenitic and is therefore sensitive to
solidification cracking. Dilution with
310 base metal and 304H base metal
will not change that solidification
mode. A crater crack is generally a so-
lidification crack. This can sometimes
be overcome by pausing at the weld
stop to fill (even overfill) the crater,
but there still may be solidification
cracking within the weld metal, likely
at the root in a fillet weld.
Undiluted weld metal from E308H-
16 electrodes generally solidifies as
primary ferrite (FA), but the ferrite
content of that weld metal is generally
less than 5 FN. Dilution from 304H
and 310 will generally modify the so-
lidification mode from FA to AF. That
solidification mode is also sensitive to
solidification cracking. Table 1 pro-
vides typical compositions for 304H
base metal, 310 base metal, E308H-16
filler metal, and a first-pass weld de-
posit with typical 15% dilution from
each base metal into the first pass.
Only the elements that enter into the
calculation of the chromium equiva-
lent or nickel equivalent are included
in Table 1. While not deliberate alloy
additions to these electrodes and base
metals, tramp molybdenum, copper,
niobium, and nitrogen at levels ap-
proximately equal to those shown in
Table 1 are typical of all of these mate-
rials. Figure 1 depicts this situation on
the WRC-1992 diagram and indicates
AF solidification mode for the first
pass.
The most desirable solidification
mode for resistance to solidification
JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 21
cracking is FA. Due to the dilution
from the fully austenitic 310 into the
weld metal, filler metal with a higher
undiluted FN than that typical of
E308H-16 is more appropriate to ob-
tain FA solidification in the first pass.
There are two (and many more) com-
monly available filler metals that can
do this. E308L-16 is very similar to
E308H-16, except that the lower car-
bon content causes a higher FN to
form in the undiluted weld metal.
Then with dilution from the 304H and
310 base metals, the first weld pass
should solidify as FA. Table 1 includes
a typical E308L-16 undiluted weld
metal composition, along with calcu-
lated first-pass weld metal composi-
tion with 15% dilution from each base
metal and calculated FN from the
WRC-1992 diagram. The situation is
depicted in Fig. 2, and FA solidifica-
tion for the first pass can be seen.
The most commonly selected elec-
trode for joining 304H to 310 is proba-
22 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
bly E309L-16. This electrode generally
provides higher FN in undiluted weld
metal, typically greater than 10 FN.
However, the dashed line that sepa-
rates FA from AF solidification mode
is tilted relative to the iso-ferrite lines
so that more ferrite is necessary to in-
dicate FA solidification with this elec-
trode than with the E308L-16 elec-
trode. Table 1 includes a typical
E309L-16 undiluted weld metal com-
position, along with calculated first-
pass composition with 15% dilution
from each of the two base metals and
calculated FN from the WRC-1992 Di-
agram. The situation is depicted in Fig.
3, and FA solidification for the first
pass can be seen.
From this discussion, it should be
apparent that E308L-16 and E309L-
16 electrodes are equally likely to pro-
vide first-pass weld metal in joining
304H to 310 that is resistant to solidi-
fication cracking, while E308H-16 and
E310-16 electrodes are not likely to
provide first-pass weld metal that is
resistant to solidification cracking. Ei-
ther E308L-16 or E309L-16 electrodes
would be an appropriate choice. WJ
DAMIAN J. KOTECKI is president, Damian
Kotecki Welding Consultants Inc. He is
chair of the AWS A5D Subcommittee on
Stainless Steel Filler Metals, and member
of the D1K Subcommittee on Stainless
Steel Structural Welding and WRC
Subcommittee on Welding Stainless Steels
and Nickel-Base Alloys. He is a past chair
of the A5 Committee on Filler Metals and
Allied Materials, past treasurer of the IIW,
and served as AWS president (2005–2006).
Questions may be sent to Damian J.
Kotecki c/o Welding Journal, 8669 NW 36
St., # 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672, or via
email at damian@damiankotecki.com.
RWMA Q&A
Q: What is the advantage of con-
verting from alternating current
(AC) single phase power to mid-
frequency direct current (MFDC)
for resistance welding?
A: In a recent installation, a customer
needed to start production on a large
electroforging line. The original single-
phase welding machines are around
3000 kVA. The weld current supplied
ranges from 160 to 180 kA off a single
phase line. The power company object-
ed to this type of installation in the lo-
cality and refused to supply power to
the plant. The expected demand would
be around 3333 A during welding. In
addition, the typical current draw in
this application was expected to last 2
to 3 s.
A system was proposed to convert
the single-phase 3000-kVA alternating
current (AC) welding machine to a
2580-kVA mid-frequency direct cur-
rent (MFDC) machine. Taking advan-
tage of the scalability of the MFDC in-
verters, four large inverters were
matched for 4–645 kVA transformers.
Producing 160 kA using a single
phase on a 10-V secondary draws 3333
primary amps off the single phase.
The MFDC inverter main breaker is
1600 A. Currents used to produce
welds are 1540 A.
With the original AC machine, the
power company would see a 3333-A
peak draw (unbalanced single phase).
With the MFDC machine, the pow-
er company sees a 1540-A peak draw
per phase (balanced three phase).
Significant power savings were de-
rived from power conversion to MFDC
— Fig. 1. Current was drawn from
three phases equally — Fig. 1(1). Pow-
er conversion increased voltage to the
transformer from 480 to 650 V — Fig.
1(2). The transformer turns ratio
could increase to use lower primary
currents.
Another advantage includes con-
verting from AC to MFDC on a nut
weld application to shorten weld time
— Fig. 2. The application required
welding nuts with small projections to
a hot stamped sheet. Because the AC
machine normally took 8 to 12 cycles
to make a weld, AC was deemed inade-
quate for the process. By the time the
necessary heat was generated, the pro-
jections were deformed and inefficient
24 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
BRIDGE RECTIFIER IGBT
L1
L2
L3
Incoming Voltage Across
Power the Capacitor
Fig. 1 — MFDC stages: (1) Three-phase power feed at 480; (2) 650-V DC is present at
the capacitor bank; (3) 650-V AC 1000 HZ is fed to the primary MFDC supply; (4) cur-
rent is diverted through diodes to produce DC output.
in the current reduced penetration.
The customer converted the single-
phase 100-kVA AC welding machine to
a 170-kVA MFDC. The new 170-kVa
transformer produced higher currents
on the same machine — Fig. 3. More
importantly, the high rate of heat in-
put produced better welds in a shorter
weld time. Fast heat input improved
weld penetration on a projection weld.
The welds are now made in 60 to 75
ms (less than five cycles).
Using 207 A per phase, 18-kA welds
were made. In contrast, the old AC ma-
chine would produce the same welds
using up to 375 A off a single phase,
which is a significant reduction in am-
perage draw.
Replacing the AC with an MFDC in-
verter, the circuit breaker became 160
instead of 200 A. As an additional ben-
efit, a lower cost in copper and instal-
lation infrastructure was obtained.
With the original AC machine, the
power company sees a 375-A peak
draw (unbalanced single phase).
With the MFDC machine, the pow-
er company sees 144-A peak draw per
phase (balanced three phase).
Benefits of MFDC Output
Over the last ten years, many im-
provements in power applications
have evolved around MFDC use.
1) Accurate real-time current reg-
ulation. Mid-frequency direct current
BY BILL MORAN
IGBT
WELD
WELD HEAD
TRANSFORMER
Transformer Primary Transformer
Welding Voltage Secondary Voltage
Fig. 2 — High rate of heat input helps
shorten weld time. It is possible and
sometimes necessary to produce
complete welds well within one cycle.
systems use very fast processors. A
well-controlled output guarantees the
amount of current is precise and does
not overshoot. Current regulation oc-
curs in real time. During the weld,
within half of a millisecond, current is
measured as it rises. The control stops
the current flow when the target is
reached (see pink area in Fig. 4).
By contrast, AC systems take at
least 8.3 ms to evaluate the last half
cycle and correct the next one. In
many cases, AC welds are necessarily
longer to ensure regulated current
targets are reached (see blue area in
Fig. 4).
The high rate of heat input im-
proved the outlook for applications
that are affected by heat. The heat-
affected zone can be significantly re-
duced when welding with very high
currents for much lower weld time.
Welds performed in 20 to 50 ms are

Fig. 3 — Single-phase transformer vs. MFDC power supply.
Fig. 4 — Millisecond switching gener-
ates very fast response and great ac-
curacy often well before the AC first
half cycle starts.
not unusual. Most of the energy is
used to fuse the welded material with
little time to dissipate onto the rest of
the welded part. In some cases, welds
can occur so fast the part can be
picked up by bare hands.
Some applications using expensive
capacitor-discharge systems can now
be implemented using MFDC. The
high rate of heat input can be pro-
duced on target in very short times.
Further benefits are derived in that
annealing in-process can be added
when required on some materials. A
postheat can be applied as postprocess
or in addition to the weld sequence, if
practical.
2) Direct current (DC) power
output. Since DC output is present,
the reactance caused by AC is no
longer an issue. Better power factor
(near unity), is also present, further
improving the efficiency in a MFDC
welding machine.
3) Better electrode life. A side
benefit of DC is that the peak current
is the same as the root-mean-square
(RMS) current. In contrast, AC peaks
on the secondaries are higher or, at
times, twice the RMS. Peak AC can
cause electrode deterioration at a
faster rate than MFDC.
4) Millisecond timing. Since weld
time is programmed in milliseconds, it
is easy to estimate (i.e., 1000 ms = 1
s). It is difficult to tell how long six cy-
cles is, whereas it is easy to see 100 ms
is one-tenth of a second.
5) Flexibility in power output.
Weld time can be programmed in 3, 4,
or 5 ms. In a recent application, the
material welded, being foil-thin, could
not withstand more than 1200 A in
one cycle. Seam welds were successful-
ly made using 3 to 5 ms pulses, sepa-
rated by 3 to 5 ms cool times. These
welds were performed using a machine
capable of 30 kA. The machine needed
to be able to produce welds on light
and heavy materials.
Alternatively, some systems can be
made to operate at a lower power rating
to size the MFDC system as a lower tap.
A virtual tap change can be implement-
ed using a configuration change.
6) Power cost savings. The follow-
ing details power cost savings due to re-
ductions in current demand: 1) power
factors below 0.9 (the power company
assesses fines for poor power factor in
the plant); 2) peaks in some cases can
reach up to 50% (the power company
charges for peak demand); and 3) ener-
gy use energy consumption kW.
Conclusion
Although converting to MFDC is
not a low-cost option — controls and
transformers cost about twice as much
as AC — the gains observed in power
use as well as, in many cases, the im-
proved weld quality and scrap reduc-
tion offset the additional costs.
Significant power savings on new
installations are possible, as well as
improved weld quality, current regula-
tion, and monitoring options. Addi-
tionally, there is a growing library of
applied experience using MFDC. Ap-
plications in resistance heating of
bars, springs, and other metals are
possible by using a customized variant
of the standard system. Applications
of continuous seam, large ring projec-
tions are now common as well. WJ
BILL MORAN is technical sales manager at
ENTRON Controls LLC, Greer, S.C., and an
active member of the RWMA. Send your
comments and questions to Bill Moran
c/o Welding Journal, 8669 NW 36 St.,
#130, Miami, FL 33166-6672, or via email at
bill.moran@entroncontrols.com.
Do You Have a Resistance
Welding Question?
Email your submission to the
Welding Journal’s Assistant Editor
Roline Pascal at rpascal@aws.org so
she can forward it to the RWMA Q&A
authors. You may also send it to her
attention at
Welding Journal Dept.
8669 NW 36 St., #130
Miami, FL 33166
Items can also be sent via
fax to (305) 443-7559.
Your resistance welding question
may be chosen for this bimonthly
column and help other individuals
better understand how to solve a
particular problem.
JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 25
BOOK REVIEW
At Your Best Playbook
Series Centers on
Welders
Juan Carosso, the author of At Your
Best as a Welder, has divided this text
into the following three parts:
• Part 1, “At Your Best Fundamen-
tals: The Rules of the Game” covered
in Chapters 1–3;
• Part 2, “At Your Best as a Welder:
Becoming a World-Class Player” de-
tailed in Chapters 4–8; and
• Part 3, “At Your Best as a Small
Business: Building a World-Class Fran-
chise” featured in Chapters 9–14.
Parts 1 and 3 appear to be written
as generic texts, so that they can be
used for any craft. The author uses the
term craftsman and omits the word
welder throughout the chapters in
these two parts.
The chapters in Part 1 are a sales
pitch for the At Your Best series.
The chapters in Part 3 include dis-
cussions about starting a small busi-
ness, how to operate a successful small
business, how to attract customers,
etc. If you want to start a small busi-
ness of your own, these chapters may
be able to help. However, a welder
welds. He or she is not a salesperson,
inspector, or manufacturer. He or she
welds, and can become a business-
man/woman, but then the title of this
book should be At Your Best as a Weld-
ing Business Owner.
Concerning writing style, the au-
thor tends to use many lengthy and
run-on sentences. As an example, in
Chapter 8, there are sentences with
more than 25 words. The use of run-
on sentences increases reading diffi-
culty. If the author intends to have a
second edition, he should pay atten-
tion to sentence length.
Additionally, there is no index. You
can use the table of contents, but it is
thin. For example, Chapter 8 has only
one entry. An index would be helpful in
finding the answers to the many ques-
tions the author poses on the rear cov-
er of the book, such as the following:
• What does a career as a welder
look like?
• Why should you consider becom-
ing a welder?
• How do you become a successful
craftsman as a welder?
• How much can you make as a
welder?
26 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
BY AUGUST F. MANZ
The author attempts to use Ameri-
can Welding Society (AWS) terminolo-
gy. In Chapter 5, he lists the most
common processes as follows: “OFW
(gas), SMAW, GMAW, FCAW, GTAW,
SAW (arc), MIG and TIG,” but he does
not explain the meaning of the abbre-
viations. Additionally, his listing of
GMAW and GTAW, along with MIG
and TIG, makes this book reviewer
question his actual knowledge of weld-
ing. Welders know gas metal arc weld-
ing (GMAW) includes metal inert gas
(MIG) and gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) includes tungsten inert gas
(TIG).
The author’s discussion of welder
certification and related topics also
leaves much to be desired, especially
At Your Best as a Welder by Juan when it comes to AWS programs. In
Carosso, Skyhorse Publishing Inc., 307 the next version of this text, the au-
W. 36th St., 11th Floor, New York, N.Y., thor should seek the aid of a knowl-
10018. Copyright 2018 by Juan Carosso. edgeable editor.
ISBN: 978-1-5107-4397-7; eBook ISBN: The bottom line: This book could
978-1-5197-4404-2. Cost: U.S. $14.99/ help a welder to decide if he or she
Canada $19.99. Pages: 253. wants to become a business owner
with salesmen/women and so forth. It
It would also be helpful if the ques- is not written for a sole proprietor
tions were followed by information on welder. WJ
where the answers could be found.
The chapters in Part 2 relate to be-
coming a welder. Chapter 4 discusses
welders, cutters, brazers, and solderers
AUGUST F. MANZ is an AWS Fellow
but does not mention becoming a based in Union, N.J.
small businessman or salesman.
Looking for a Welding Job?
The American Welding Society has enhanced its Jobs In Welding website
at jobsinwelding.com.
The redesigned career portal includes additional capabilities for
companies seeking workers and individuals looking for jobs.
Through relationships with many job boards and distributors, it offers
direct access to more than 88% of the welding-related jobs posted on the
Internet.
Users may seach various openings for welders, Certified Welding
Inspectors, engineers, technicians, and managers/supervisors.
In addition, the website contains the following highlights:
• The home page displays featured welding jobs along with the
companies looking to fill them and city/state locations.
• The job seeker section connects individuals to new career opportunities
by allowing them to post an anonymous résumé, view jobs, and make
personal job alerts. This area has résumé tips, certification information, and a
school locator.
• The employer area enables association with qualified applicants.
Résumés, job postings, and products/pricing options may be viewed here.
Visit the website to create or access job seeker and employer accounts.
PRODUCT & PRINT SPOTLIGHT
AWS Curriculum Streamlines
Welding Education
The American Welding Society
(AWS) Fundamentals of Welding cur-
riculum features print and digital edu-
cational resources and learning tools
designed for welding instructors and
students at the high school and tech-
nical college level. Offering approxi-
mately 580 contact hours, the curricu-
28 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
Emphasis on Aluminum
lum consists of the following compo-
nents: Fundamentals of Welding text-
book; Fundamentals of Welding lab
manual with more than 100 activities;
100+ lesson plans; 12 classroom
posters; 74 online modules; 18 in-
structional videos; and instructor re-
sources, including PowerPoint presen-
tations, student assessment checklists,
Health and Safety Fact Sheets, and
standard welding procedure specifica-
tions. All components of the curricu-
lum package align with the governing
standards of the AWS SENSE program,
and were created and reviewed with
subject-matter experts and welding
education professionals.
American Welding Society
aws.org
(888) 935-3464
Aluminum Grinding Wheel
Prevents Clogging and Loading
The Aluminator T27 cotton-fiber
wheel grinds aluminum without clog-
ging or loading. In contrast, bonded
wheels can overheat the metal and
cause chips of aluminum to embed
into the grinding wheel. In such cases,
there will be no grit exposed, only de-
posits of aluminum on the face of the
wheel. To prevent this issue, a wax or
grinding aid is typically needed. The
cotton-fiber grinding wheel eliminates
clogging and loading without the need
for wax or grinding aids because the
wheel naturally breaks down as heat is
generated, resulting in constant sharp
grit being exposed to the aluminum
workpiece. It also offers increased
grinding action, improved surface fin-
ishing, smooth operator control, and
long life with less noise, less vibration,
and safer operating conditions. The
cotton-fiber grinding wheel provides
36 grit and comes in 4.5, 5, and 7 in.
diameters.
Rex-Cut Abrasives
rexcut.com
(800) 225-8182
Epoxy Adhesive Provides
Quick, Tack-Free Bonds
The 10-3041 toughened, industrial-
grade epoxy adhesive forms tack-free
structural bonds within 30 min for
high lap-shear strength, high peel
resistance, and impact endurance. The
low-odor epoxy cures under a range of
temperatures and humidity levels for a
variety of plastics and metals. Within
4 h, a 3000-lb/in.2 lap shear strength and once fully cured, it is resistant to a
(aluminum to aluminum) is achieved, range of chemicals and solvents. Of-

Waterjet Cutting Machine

Designed for Desktops

Ideal for prototyping and low-

volume manufacturing, the WAZER
desktop cutting machine cuts alu-
minum, steel, titanium, glass, stone,
tile, and carbon fiber. Its compact,
contained, and fully enclosed design
makes it safe, clean, and quiet to oper-
ate. It offers cost and space savings
over larger, traditional machines, mak-
ing it accessible to small businesses
and schools that want to produce de-
signs without having to send out proj-
ects to be made by an external water-
jet service. Capable of cutting most
materials, its high-velocity jet utilizes
a combination of high-pressure water
and sand-like abrasive particles to cut
through the workpiece, achieving a
high level of digital precision. It has a
cut area of 12 × 18 in. and can cut up
to ½-in. aluminum and ¼-in. mild
steel. It also comes with a free web-
based software called Wam to help
users quickly go from designing to cut-
ting. Easy to set up, the cutting ma-
chine doesn’t require special electrical
or water requirements, just two out-
lets (110 V alternating current/60 Hz),
a water source (a sink or a hose pipe),
and a drain.

WAZER Inc.
wazer.com

JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 29

fering higher heat performance than
most fast-setting epoxies, it also acts
as an electrical insulator, making it
suitable for many electronic bonding
applications. For easy and quick appli-
cation, the medium-viscosity epoxy is
packaged in the TriggerBond® dispens-
ing system.
Epoxies, Etc.
epoxies.com
(401) 946-5564
Roller Hemmer Facilitates
Automotive Lightweighting
Designed for the new generation of
electric, hybrid, and traditional light-
weight vehicles, the Smart Hemmer
enables automakers to join dissimilar
materials using a cold process that
grants complete control. The compact
and symmetrical roller hemmer fea-
tures two flexible rollers, one of which
(linear roller) can automatically disen-
gage when encountering obstacles or a
curved path. As a result, the roller
hemmer can perform curved path
hemming and manage complex angles
as part of a single, continuous process.
It is able to maintain a constant hem-
ming thickness even when encounter-
ing multiple layers of dissimilar mate-
rials. Additionally, its Industry-4.0-
compliant hemming head offers high
reliability, inherent flexibility, and
complete process control while ensur-
ing the geometric uniformity of the as-
sembled parts.
Comau LLC USA
comau.com
(888) 888-8998
30 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
Report Analyzes the Global
Aluminum Brazing Sheets
Market
Aluminum Brazing Sheets Market In-
sights 2019, Global and Chinese Analysis
and Forecast to 2024 evaluates the cur-
rent state of the global aluminum
brazing sheets industry, with a focus
on the Chinese market, for 2014–
2024. The 145-page report provides
key statistics on the market status of
manufacturers to offer guidance and
direction for companies and individu-
als interested in this industry. Organ-
ized into three key segments, it covers
competitors, product type, and end
use/application. The competitor seg-
ment includes company profiles; main
business information; strengths, weak-
nesses, opportunities, and threats
analysis; sales, revenue, price, and
gross margin; and market share for at
least 12 companies, including UACJ
Corp., Nippon, Navard Aluminum,
Lucas-Milhaupt, Fusion, and SRA Sol-
der. The product-type segment is sepa-
rated according to the following crite-
ria: under 200˚C, 240˚–290˚C, 280˚–
380˚C, and other. The end use/applica-
tion segment is comprised of automo-
bile heat exchangers as well as torch,
induction, and furnace brazing.
MarketDesk
marketdesk.us
(857) 598-2522
Virtual Reality Welding
Simulator Teaches GTAW
The VRTEX® virtual reality welding
training simulator helps welders learn
how to perform gas tungsten arc weld-
ing (GTAW) fast and efficiently while
driving down material costs. With re-
alistic graphics and accurate sounds,
the VRAW™ (Virtual Reality Arc Weld-
ing) experience offered by the simula-
tor transfers into real-world, hands-on
welding training. Its weld pool, includ-
ing discontinuities, is accurate as well
as visually and audibly responsive to
operator behavior. Tailoring the train-
ing to the student, the operator can
perform welds with or without a filler
metal on a variety of metals, including
mild steel, aluminum, and stainless
steel. The simulator also allows
schools or training centers to train two
welders at the same time from one
machine, each independently perform-
ing welds using different processes,
coupons, joints, and welding proce-
dure specifications.
The Lincoln Electric Co.
lincolnelectric.com
(216) 481-8100
Report Forecasts Growth for
the Global Aluminum Welding
Wire Market
Global Aluminium Welding Wire Mar-
ket Growth 2019–2024 posits that this
market will register a 6.7% compound
annual growth rate of revenue, reach-
ing a global market size of $430 mil-
lion by 2024, an increase from $290
million in 2019. This increase is credit-
ed to the growing demands in the au-
tomotive and shipbuilding industries.
Additionally, the 159-page report de-
scribes the aluminum welding wire
market as having a high concentration,
with major manufacturers located in
North America and Europe. It lists
ESAB as the world leader, holding 23%
of the market share in 2017. However,
it finds that consumption in this mar-
ket was led by Asia Pacific in 2017. Di-
viding the aluminum welding wire
market into three segments (pure alu-
minum, aluminum-magnesium alloy,
and aluminum-silicon alloy), it also
identifies aluminum-magnesium alloy
welding wires as capturing 53% of the
2017 market. This amount is predict-
ed to gradually increase in the future.
360 Research Reports
360researchreports.com
(424) 253-0807
Free Guide Unveils Best
Practices for Avoiding
Aluminum Weld Cracking
Guide for Aluminum Welding teaches
welders how to produce crack-free
— continued on page 92
CENTENNIAL STORIES

Space Force Inspires Futuristic Thoughts and

Reflections of the Past for Retired Welder
As part of our celebration of the American Welding Society’s
centennial, the Welding Journal plans to tell the stories of
events and people from the Society’s past, as well as those
who may contribute to its future. In this issue, we reminisce
on Kenneth Jones’s welding career and discuss his vision of
opportunities for future military welders.

Last summer President dabbled in different trades, including electrical and automo-
Donald Trump announced his tive, before deciding on welding, which he really enjoyed.
plans to form a sixth, inde- “We had six hours of class a day, four of those were weld-
pendent military service ing in the shop and the other two in related subjects like the-
branch — the Space Force. Its ory, metallurgy, math, safety, and so forth,” he recounted.
job would be to undertake mil- At the end of his senior year, Jones had 2000 h of weld-
itary space operations. ing training and had already been working as an apprentice
For Kenneth V. Jones, a welder at a local steel mill in Warren, Ohio.
Vietnam veteran, retired “I was really fortunate to be working and making as much
welder, and past chair and money as my dad while I was still in high school,” said Jones.
treasurer of the American Although he was enjoying his welding job at the mill, he
Welding Society (AWS) Ma- was aware he would eventually have to deal with the Viet-
honing Valley Section, the idea nam War draft, so he joined the U.S. Marine Corps. Despite
seems like the type of forward listing his welding skills and interest in welding on a ques-
thinking the United States and tionnaire given to him by the Marines when he joined, he
Mahoning Valley Section the welding industry should was handed a rifle and sent to Vietnam at the end of boot
Past Chair and Past be considering. camp.
Treasurer Kenneth Jones “As a veteran of the armed When he returned home from the war, he went back to
is seen standing on the services, I belong to a chat fo- the welding job at the steel mill and stayed there for the
platform to an elevator rum with other veterans and next 19 years as a welder before being promoted to a main-
frame being erected in brought the subject up in a tenance planner for ironworkers and welders. He stayed in
1973. thread. The reaction I got was that position for the next 19 years before leaving to work as
surprising, most thinking it a manager for Diamond Steel Construction in Youngstown,
was a bad idea and that it Ohio. During his years in the industry, Jones joined the
could be handled with the Air Force. My first thought was, AWS, and within two years was asked to serve on the Ma-
‘Wasn’t the Air Force first started as the Army Air Corps?’” honing Valley Section board. He served as chair from 1992
The United States Air Force is the youngest branch of the to 1995 and again from 2000 to 2001. Additionally, he held
U.S. Armed Forces and was initially formed as part of the the Section’s treasurer position for approximately 17 years.
U.S. Army in 1907, before being established as a separate This spring, he attended what he believes was his 30th Dis-
division with the passing of the National Security Act of trict 10 Conference and quite possibly his last.
1947. The Air Force serves as the aerial and space warfare “I’m happy to see younger people getting involved in the
branch of the U.S. Armed Forces. Sections, and I was happy to see younger people at the Dis-
Jones thinks it’s time others see the value in what a sixth trict Conference who are stepping into leadership positions
military branch could bring to both the United States and because for a long time we were having a hard time attract-
the welding industry. ing younger people,” he said.
“There are so many positions available for welders in the The next generation of welders is what has Jones excited
armed forces, imagine the opportunities for one in the Space about a possible Space Force.
Force. Imagine being a welder or welding engineer responsi- “If you think about how forward thinking it was to send a
ble for maintaining or altering equipment needed to fulfill a guy underwater to weld a hole on the side of a ship — it
space mission. Maintenance on aircrafts, transportation took technology into the direction of underwater welding —
equipment, repairs, and so on is necessary for active mili- imagine what it would be like to start welding in space,” he
tary installations and foward units,” he continued. said.
The future of the welding industry is important to Jones
who began brazing in his grandfather’s lawn mower repair — continued on page 92
shop when he was 13 year old. As he got into high school he

32 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019



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 Missouri City Reels in Title of
‘Aluminum Fishing Boat Capital’
Lebanon, Mo., manufacturers produced 50,000 boats in 2018
A
hhhh... it’s summer! Time to pack
up your winter clothes and get
ready for barbecues, fireworks,
and — if you’re one of the 141.6 mil-
lion Americans who go boating each
year — hit the water.
Boat sales are the highest they’ve
been in a decade. In May, the National
Marine Manufacturers Association
(NMMA) reported that U.S. powerboat
sales were about 276,000 units in
2018, up four percent over the previ-
ous year. The trade association claims
that was the highest level of recre-
ational boat sales in 11 years, and
that’s good news to the boat builders
in Lebanon, Mo. The Laclede County
city of just over 14,000 people is con-
sidered to be the “aluminum fishing
boat capital of the world.”
Aluminum is considered an advan-
tageous material in boatbuilding. It is
lightweight, has good fatigue strength,
and good corrosion resistance.
According to Brian Thompson,
president and CEO of Lebanon Re-
34 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
BY CINDY WEIHL
The Lowe 22-ft bay boat is part of the company’s
proprietary all-welded, ultrawide Mod-V hull.
gional Economic Development Inc.
(REDI), the city is producing around
50,000 boats annually — with the ma-
jority being aluminum fishing boats,
some pontoons, and a few canoes.
Lebanon’s Boatbuilding
Legacy
The NMMA reports that 95% of
boats sold in the United States are
made in the United States. Take a drive
through Lebanon on Interstate 44 and
rows of boats wrapped in plastic and
awaiting shipment make it clear the
city is responsible for a large percent-
age of that figure.
The first boat manufacturer in
Lebanon was Appleby Boats in 1960,
and that paved the way for the four
boat manufacturers that currently call Fig. 1 — The late J. B. Appleby and his
Lebanon home — Lowe Boats, G3 son-in-law Carl Lowe were in the boat
building business together for nearly
Boats, Tracker Marine, and Landau a decade before Lowe started his
Boats. Osagian Canoes is also based own company.
there.
 Fig. 2 — A G3 employee (left) loads a roll of aluminum Alloy 5052 onto a forklift. He will take that to the decoiler machine (right)
where it will be flattened. From there, it will go to a plasma cutting machine, where different shapes for the construction of the
boats are cut with accuracy.
Two of those companies, Lowe
Boats and G3, started as a family affair
dating back to the late J. B. Appleby,
who started Appleby Boats. Carl Lowe,
who married Appleby’s daughter Di-
ane in 1959, went to work for his fa-
ther-in-law as a general manager. In
1964, Standard Industries of New
York bought Appleby Manufacturing,
but the company continued to be oper-
ated by Diane and Carl under the Ap-
pleby name. By 1967, the company
was the world’s largest aluminum boat
maker — Fig. 1.
The Lowes continued to operate the
company until 1971, when they left and
created Lowe Line to build jon boats and
canoes. In 1975, the company started
building bass boats and by 1979 they
were making pontoons. In 1981, the
company changed its name from Lowe
Line to Lowe. As the company contin-
ued to grow its reputation of building
affordable boats and pontoons, it
caught the eye of Outboard Marine
Corp., which purchased it in 1988. Lowe
would continue expanding its product
line over the next decade and was pur-
chased by Genmar Holdings in 2001,
and again by the Brunswick Corp.,
which still owns it today, in 2004.
The Lowe family business didn’t
end with Lowe Boats. Diane and Carl’s
son, Brent, went on to open his own
boat plant in Lebanon — Generation
3, a nod to being the third generation
of his family to set up a boat company
in the city. The name was shortened to
G3 when the company was sold to
Yamaha Motor Corp. in 1997.
Quality Materials for
Quality Products
Both G3 and Lowe use Aluminum
Alloy 5052 in the construction of their
boats. Primarily alloyed with magne-
sium and chromium, 5052 has good
workability, medium static strength,
high fatigue strength, good weldabili-
ty, and very good corrosion resistance,
especially in marine atmospheres.
The two companies use the high-
quality marine grade alloy with a tensile
strength of 34,000 lb/in.2 and H-34
hardness. For G3, any aluminum that
does not meet the company’s high qual-
ity control standard is turned down.
Aaron Waterman, marketing man-
ager at G3, explained that quality is
the most important thing to the com-
pany throughout the entire boat build-
ing process.
“Everything is about quality here,”
said Waterman. “It’s not about the
amount produced, we don’t pay to
push it down the line. We make it
right, and if it’s not right, we scrap it.”
The company recycles all scrapped
aluminum so that nothing goes to
waste.
Fabricating Aluminum
Fishing Boats
Designing Boats
G3 and Lowe both employ in-house
engineering teams that design and
test boats. They are also responsible
for redesigning and drawing up new
models. Once a boat prototype has
been approved, it is built and taken
out on a lake for a pilot run. After any
necessary changes have been made
and the boat passes all quality and
safety inspections, it is time to get
production started.
“Our engineers are in-house and
you see them out on the line a lot.
They’re not just in an office. You see
them out on the floor walking around,
especially when it’s a new model,” said
Waterman.
Manufacturing Begins
Aluminum is delivered to the boat
manufacturers in rolls, which then go
through a decoiler to flatten out the
sheets — Fig. 2. From there, it goes to a
plasma cutting machine to ensure every
specific pattern is cut exactly the same.
Construction moves on to the hull
break, which is one of the most critical
operations. A press break machine
bends the sheet material to create the
shape of the hull, which is the body of
the boat. If the hull is not broken cor-
rectly, it cannot be corrected down the
line and must be scrapped — Figs. 3
and 4.
Ribs Crucial to Structural
Strength
While the bow (front of the vessel),
stern (back of the vessel), and hull are
JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 35
being welded to create what is now
beginning to look like a boat, else-
where in the fabrication shop, the ribs
(frames that support the hull and give
the boat its shape and strength) are
being cut and readied — Fig. 5.
Waterman said G3 purchases soft
metal for the rib material so that it is
malleable. It is then baked in an oven
at more than 350 deg for 12 h before
being put in a boat. The heating
process makes it more rigid. Quality
control personnel check the temper
hardness of the ribs before and after
baking so hardness is ensured.
The ribs are placed either trans-
verse or parallel (depending on the
model) to the bottom of the hull and a
hydraulic press forces the rib down to
meet the jig below it. This is done so
that the boats come out uniform every
time. The ribs are then welded in place
using gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
— Fig. 6. Fig. 3 — Two Lowe employees are seen at a press break machine where they are
bending the hull of a fishing boat.
Ribs are such an important part of
a boat’s structure that at G3 only the
most skilled welders perform the cru-
cial process — Fig. 7.
“Some would say we overbuild and
overweld our boats, but that’s why
they are built to last,” said Waterman.
“The welds you don’t see once the
flooring and decks are put on are as
good as the ones you do see.”

Leak Checks and Meeting

Industry Safety Standards
Next in the boat-building process is
checking for leaks.
“Every boat comes in the water test
tank. We verify the center keel doesn’t
leak and that there are no weld burn-
throughs,” said Lowe Boats Director of
Product Development Bob Mallman.
At G3, the boats are tested for 5
min under pressure (10 min for their
Deep V line) and a rubber mallet is
used to disturb the interior of the boat
for location of possible leaks no matter
how minor.
G3 uses a two part, rigid urethane
flotation foam on the floor of its boats
for floatation and a quieter ride, while
Lowe uses a polyurethane closed cell
foam, which is denser than most com-
mon foams and formulated for
strength, insulation, and efficiency.
The U.S. Coast Guard mandates
that all boats up to 20 ft in length be
able to maintain equal and level flota-
tion. Both G3 and Lowe meet or ex-
Fig. 4 — Plasma arc cut hulls are piled up and awaiting the next process at G3’s fab-
ceed all industry set standards. rication facility.

36 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019

 Painting Perfection
Once the boats have passed all safe-
ty tests and weld inspections, it’s time
to get them ready for painting. Boats
at both G3 and Lowe are hand-sanded,
and then put through an acid wash to
remove any scuffs, oil, or aluminum
pieces. They are then put through a
drying booth to make sure all moisture
is removed.
Lowe uses zirconium-based wash
chemicals in their paint process. A fin-
ish coating of high-grade polyurethane
enamel is electrostatically applied for
superior adhesion and then slowly
oven baked at 180 deg for a lasting
high-gloss appearance. The company
claims the resulting finish is highly
durable and won’t flake off, orange
peel, or experience pinholes.
G3 boats are primed, painted, and
Fig. 5 — A welder at Lowe uses 4943 filler metal to gas tungsten arc weld the
seams of a hull. Meanwhile, another welder uses gas metal arc welding to secure
baked in an industrial infrared oven at
the center keel (central beam running the length of the bottom of the boat). 140 deg for maximum finish and hard-
ness. Mil gauge tests indicate the thick-
ness of paint and ensure the proper
amount was used. The boats are chemi-
cally treated before painting so the
baked on urethane will last for years. If
a boat calls for a two-toned paint job,
the area requiring a second color is com-
pletely re-sanded or scuffed before the
second coating is applied.

The Finish Line

Once the boats are painted, it is

time to add all controls, switches, con-
soles, flooring choice, furniture, the
motor, and all accessories the boats re-
quire. All boats are given a final test
for quality assurance, electrical,
plumbing, and fuel systems.
Once the boats have passed all qual-
ity tests at G3, they are plastic
wrapped in a cover that allows for re-
moval and reuse. Both G3 and Lowe
make sure their boats are properly
wrapped to keep them clean and
weatherproof. They are then ready to
be shipped to dealers across the coun-
try and around the world.

Welders Essential to
Boatbuilding Industry
At the heart of Lebanon’s success in
the boat building industry is craftsman-
ship. It is said that Appleby and the
Lowes brought together a close-knit,
Fig. 6 — The GMAW process is used by a welder at G3 to secure the ribs to the bot- family business atmosphere, which led
tom of the boat. to a pool of skilled workers in Lebanon.

JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 37

 On the Lowe website (loweboats.com),
Carl Lowe is quoted as saying, “We
brought in local people and trained
them on-site. We didn’t bring many
people in from outside the area. An ex-
perienced welder shows a beginner the
technique after working many hours.
The beginner practices — on his own
time — by welding scrap metal. When
he gets good enough, he goes on the
line. Interestingly, boys who had
worked at something which requires
manual skills — shoeing horses or
playing a musical instrument — often
made the best welders.”

Building an In-House Welder

Workforce
Training welders in-house is still
common practice at G3 and Lowe. In a
city of 14,474 people according to the
2010 census, the marine industry is a Fig. 7 — Welds are seen on the bottom of a G3 Gator Tough jon boat.
major employer and trained welders
can be hard to find.
Nathan Wallander, a production su-
pervisor at Lowe, said many of their
welders are trained in-house, as was he.
“I started as an assembler six
months after I graduated high school,”
he recalled. “I taught myself to TIG
and MIG weld and eventually became a
welder, then a team lead, and recently
a production supervisor.”
Wallander has been employed at
Lowe for 18 years.
Welder training courses are offered
at both Lowe and G3 a few times a
year and are open to all employees.
“I’ve taken the welding class,” said
Waterman, the G3 marketing manager.
G3 Production Supervisor Donnie
Fellers said that even though the class
is only offered a couple of times, many
of his own employees often use their
lunch and break times to practice
welding in hopes to one day take on a
welder position.
Welders are a hot commodity in
Lebanon. Out of 352 employees at
G3, 55 of them are welders. Over at
Lowe, 58 of its 297 employees are
welders.
“An 18-ft boat has about 220 ft of
welding in it. That’s about three-
fourths the length of a football field,”
said Fellers. “That’s a lot of welding.”

Top Employers

The companies also work with local

schools to attract welders and try to Fig. 8 — G3 employees apply Mossy Oak camouflage patterns inside a paint booth.
maintain competitive pay and benefits

38 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019


Source: National Marine Manufacturers Association.
in order to not only attract, but also
retain them.
The two boat manufacturers make
the top ten list of largest employers in
Lebanon, according to data from
REDI. Tracker Marine and a manufac-
turer of electrical marine components
are also on the list.
“The boat building industry has
changed in Lebanon, Missouri —
termed the aluminum boat capital of
the world — because there are so
many boat companies lobbying for
good laborers and welders,” said Bever-
ly Ramsey, Lowe marketing manager.
A Growing Industry
As the boating industry continues
to thrive, it is good news for boat man-
ufacturers and workers in Lebanon.
NMMA figures show that sales of new
boats and boating expenditures have
been on a consistant upward climb for
years.
“As millions of Americans head to
the water this summer, marine manu-
facturers and dealers are preparing for
the busy selling season that coincides
with peak boating months. With con-
sumer confidence high, unemploy-
ment low, wages on the rise, and inter-
est rates holding level, we anticipate
the recreational boating market to re-
main healthy in the year ahead with
modest growth up to 2% in new
powerboat unit sales of 2019,” said
NMMA President Thom Dammrich.
A Boat for Every Interest
With hundreds of boat dealers
across the United States, Canada, and
as far away as Australia, both G3 and
Lowe each offer more than 100 models
of boats covering all price points. G3
boats can range from an MSRP of
$950 for a 1036 jon boat to $90,000
for a 26-ft Diamond Elite pontoon
with a Yamaha F300. Lowe has a 10-ft,
riveted jon boat for as low as $730
to a pontoon with a Mercury 300-hp
engine for $57,472 plus optional
accessories.
Lowe’s best selling fishing boat is
the Stinger 175C bass boat and its best
selling pontoon is the SS210 Walk-
thru.
Meanwhile G3’s best-selling models
include the 17-ft Sportsman fishing
boat and the 20-ft cruiser model
pontoons.
Family Values Backed by
Corporate Support
Being currently owned by large
companies has been beneficial to the
two boat makers that started out as a
family legacy to Appleby Boats. The
Brunswick Corp. purchasing Lowe has
allowed for facility expansions, a grow-
ing product line, and more modern
equipment. Mallmann, Lowe’s director
of product development, said new
technology is allowing the company to
build more boats more quickly.
The values remain the same as
when Diane and Carl Lowe started
their company back in 1971.
“We are still seeing Lowe employees
building quality boats with passion.
Most of the people at Lowe are long-
time boaters and fishermen and
women,” said Ramsey.
Roger Bills, marketing director of
G3, which is owned by Yamaha Boat
Co., agrees that corporate support
and local talent is at the heart of
Lebanon’s boat building industry and
his company.
“At G3 we have the stability of a big
company, but a family of midwestern-
ers and hardworking craftsman that
take pride in what they do,” he said. WJ
CINDY WEIHL (cweihl@aws.org) is senior
editor of the Welding Journal
JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 39
Better Welding of Aluminum
Learn the answers to four important
questions on this subject
A
luminum and its alloys are high-
ly suitable for many manufactur-
ing applications. Aluminum al-
loys have been used extensively in the
aerospace industry since its inception.
They were also broadly accepted in
other industries, such as automotive,
truck and trailers, shipbuilding, pack-
aging, building and architecture, high-
40 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
Welders manually weld aluminum truck frames.
pressure gas cylinders, and many oth-
ers — see lead photo and Fig. 1. Pri-
mary reasons for the use of aluminum
alloys in various industries are superb
strength-to-weight ratio and corrosion
resistance. This is beneficial for most
applications within the industry seg-
ments described above.
Pure, unalloyed aluminum is a soft
BY MIKAEL D. CARRIERE
AND VOLKAN GULSEN
and ductile metal and, therefore, is not
strong enough for most structural ap-
plications. Elements such as copper
(Cu), manganese (Mn), silicon (Si),
magnesium (Mg), and zinc (Zn) are
the main alloying elements added to
pure aluminum to create alloys with
increased mechanical properties —
Fig. 2.

Fig. 1 — A welder works on an aluminum boat hull.
Fig. 2 — This chart highlights aluminum, along with Cu, Mn, Si, Mg, and Zn, which are
the main alloying elements added to pure aluminum to make alloys with increased
mechanical properties.
There are significant differences be-
tween aluminum alloys and steel alloys
that need to be recognized and consid-
ered as part of the design process.
These include the following:
• Some aluminum alloys are heat-
treatable and some are not, while al-
most all steels are heat-treatable.
• Some aluminum alloys are not
weldable using typical arc welding
practices, such as gas metal arc weld-
ing (GMAW) and gas tungsten arc
welding (GTAW). However, almost any
steel can be fusion welded if the opera-
tor takes the necessary precautions.
• Aluminum welds, including the
weld metal and heat-affected zone
(HAZ), are usually less strong in com-
parison to the parent material. In
steels, welds are usually at least as
strong as the base material.
• Aluminum strength and ductility
are not compromised at low tempera-
tures because the ductility increases as
the temperature decreases to cryo-
genic levels. Steels become more brit-
tle with the temperature decrease.
Most aluminum alloys can be joined
by arc welding — Fig. 3. However, cer-
tain aircraft-grade aluminum and oth-
er special alloys are unweldable using
conventional methods. Due to alu-
minum’s oxide layer, a positive polari-
ty is needed to break up the surface to
ensure a proper weld. Aluminum weld-
ing typically creates a softened region
in the weld metal and HAZ. Occasion-
ally, a heat-treatment process may be
implemented when possible to recover
some mechanical properties. There are
Fig. 3 — A welder uses his skills to
weld an aluminum plate.
other welding processes aside from
traditional arc welding that can be
used for aluminum, including friction
stir, laser, and ultrasonic welding.
The following four questions ad-
dress important considerations for the
proper welding of aluminum.
1. What processes should be
used for better welding of
aluminum and its alloys?
With aluminum usage increasing
across many industries, manufacturers
need to consider the common ways to
join these materials. The welds should
be performed in a way that will maxi-
mize quality without compromising
productivity.
Gas tungsten arc welding is general-
ly the preferred process for delivering
the highest quality welds. This process
uses a nonconsumable tungsten elec-
trode to melt the base metal. Depend-
ing on the base material and applica-
tion, filler metal may be added. Filler
metal is added independently, and
does not transfer any metal across the
arc. With proper use of technique and
proper cleaning of the base material,
this process offers very low porosity
levels. Other advantages of GTAW
are exceptional heat input control,
smooth weld bead surfaces, no spatter,
and reduced fume generation. Consid-
ering these benefits, the process lends
itself very well to the aerospace indus-
try, where high quality is extremely
JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 41
important. The downside to GTAW is
very low filler metal deposition rates,
as well as generally slow travel speeds.
It’s a process that doesn’t lend itself to
a high-production environment.
Fortunately, many advancements
have been made to GMAW technolo-
gies. Gas metal arc welding is now a
popular option when quality and pro-
ductivity are imperative. The major
difference with this process is that the
electrode is fed constantly, and con-
sumed across the arc into the base
metal. However, aluminum is a soft
metal, and wire feed can be challeng-
ing. For optimal feeding, aluminum
feeders should use U-groove drive
rolls, proper plastic wire guides, non-
steel liners, and the correct inner di-
ameter contact tips. Aluminum
GMAW is comparably more productive
than GTAW as long as the correct pa-
rameters and processes are used to
avoid incomplete fusion or porosity.
Ultimately, the decision is based on
the user’s requirements and priorities.
If productivity takes a back seat to
weld quality, then GTAW may be the
way to go. If you need high produc-
tion, or a balance of both, then consid-
er GMAW.

2. When should you consider

automation?

Automating the aluminum welding

process can improve productivity, and
significantly increase output without
modifying the workforce. In addition,
the consistency and reliability of the
automation process can help decrease
the costs related to rework, repair, and
overwelding.
With various automation solutions
available, determining the applicability
and choosing the right solution re-
quires a detailed analysis of the cur- Fig. 4 — Robotic welding of an aluminum frame.
rent welding application.
See the sidebar for welding applica-
tion analysis. Consider this when re- viding post-sale service and ongoing ple filler metals can be used. For exam-
viewing the full range of capabilities technical support for both the au- ple, you can weld with the commonly
available from potential automation tomation system and the welding used base material, Alloy 6061, using
suppliers. process itself. the two main welding filler metals
It’s best to look for a full-solution available in the market, 4043 and
package for aluminum welding au- 5356. There are various other alloys
3. So far we have discussed
tomation, because the system needs to that can be used, but for the sake of
be designed around the welding arc, automation equipment. How this discussion, we’ll focus on 4043
the most critical component. In addi- about filler metals? and 5356.
tion, full-solution providers are experi- The frequently used 4043 filler
enced at analyzing the application, The alloy that’s being welded and metal has a couple advantages over
providing the full package, including the service condition of the final weld- 5356. Because 6061 has a higher
the ideal filler metal, integrating the ment will help determine the proper cracking sensitivity than many other
automation in the workflow, and pro- filler metal. In some scenarios, multi- base metal alloys, using 4043 can help

42 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019

reduce the likelihood of cracking. It
has a higher fluidity and a chemical
composition that’s very different from
the base alloy. The other advantage of
Welding Application Analysis
4043 is the aesthetics of the weld. It
produces less soot around the weld
and results in a shinier weld face ap- Welding application analysis covers the following:
pearance than 5356. Some limitations
with 4043 include the relatively low • Workflow of the facility. Identify bottlenecks and
ductility and the shear strength of the challenges before, during, and after the welding process.
weld when making fillet welds. The Floor layout and labor availability also need to be considered.
difference in groove strength between
the two alloys is not significant be-
cause the weakest link of a 6061 • Part geometry. Are parts suitable for automation? Is the
groove weld using either filler metal is fitup repeatable?
the HAZ of the 6061. For post-anodiz-
ing color matching on 6061 base mate- • Joint design. Determining the fixture and the positioners
rial, avoid using 4043. needs.
On the other hand, some advan-
tages of 5356 while welding on 6061
would include increased shear • Production requirements. Short welds of more parts, or
strength and ductility, as well as in- longer welds of fewer parts?
creased productivity. It has a higher
electrical resistivity than 4043. This • Welding process requirements. Which process? GTAW?
means that for a given current, the
wire feed speed of 5356 is increased.
GMAW? Power source?
When you compare 4043 wire feed
speed at 200 A with 5356 wire feed
speed at 200 A, you see an increase of
approximately 33% in the deposition
rate with the latter. This also makes
ductivity, applications with high-am- groups, including 7xxx, 2xxx, and even
welding out of position easier with
perage processes that use larger than some 8xxx, all face similar arc welding
5356. Because 4043 tends to be more
traditional diameters (d > 1.6 mm [11⁄ 6 challenges. The same alloying ele-
fluid and used for uphill welds, espe-
in.]) are likely to increase. On thin alu- ments that give these materials their
cially when using constant voltage, it
minum materials (t < 3 mm [~ 18⁄ in.]), excellent strength also result in severe
has a greater tendency toward unac-
modern waveforms are pushing travel cracking issues in the weld. Further-
ceptable weld profiles, as well as un-
speeds to an excess of 100 in./min. more, the HAZ degradation of high-
dercutting at the toes of the weld.
The need for productivity in combi- strength aluminum alloys often render
One other factor that should be
nation with a shrinking workforce is their initial purpose obsolete.
considered is the stiffness of the alloy.
pushing the trend toward increased Recent developments in new alloys,
The 5356 filler metal is stiffer than
automation for aluminum welding. heat treatments, and particle modifi-
4043 when comparing the same diam-
The automotive industry has been us- cations will eventually make the weld-
eter of wire. This tends to help feed-
ing flexible automation, for welding ing of these alloys possible without
ing, especially if using a push-only gun
aluminum, for decades. As automation sacrificing strength or inducing cracks.
instead of a push-pull.
becomes easier to implement, the Diversification of existing filler metals
adoption rates in aluminum welding is also increasing, as manufacturers
4. What’s the future of the industries like process, truck/trailers, are producing more alloys like 5556,
aluminum welding industry? and general fabrication are increasing 5554, 4145, and various other uncom-
accordingly. Aside from traditional mon fillers. The need for unconven-
As various industries face rigorous flexible robotics, hard automation sys- tional and unique aluminum alloys will
requirements for lightweighting, alu- tems like gantries for long aluminum become increasingly necessary with
minum usage is likely to increase welds on joggle joints are drastically specialized applications of cold-wire
across the board. Industries attempt- improving productivity — Fig. 4. and hot-wire laser, and additive manu-
ing aluminum fabrication that have facturing of whole parts. WJ
traditionally welded steel will en- Ending Thoughts
counter additional challenges on top of
those that already exist. In high-pro- Aluminum has traditionally been
duction environments like transporta- used for its high strength-to-weight MIKAEL D. CARRIERE (mikael_carriere@
lincolnelectric.com) is the technical
tion, productivity is the name of the ratio, but never in applications where services manager, and VOLKAN GULSEN
game. A variety of methods have been strength of steel is required. High- (volkan_gulsen@lincolnelectric.com) is the
aimed at achieving fast, cosmetic, and strength aluminum alloys with me- business development manager with The
structurally sound aluminum welds. chanicals approaching steel have exist- Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, Ohio.
Due to aluminum’s high thermal con- ed for decades. Some common alloy

JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 43

 Choose Wisely When
Welding Aluminum

Fig. 1 — Aluminum is a popular material in general industrial applications due to its lightweight strength and corrosion resistance,
making it a suitable material for helping to lower vehicle emissions.

D
ue to its lightweight strength and corrosion resistance, aluminum is a pop-
Material condition ular material in general industrial applications — Fig. 1. These characteris-
and shielding gas tics make aluminum a desirable material when the reduction of weight
leads to lower vehicle emissions. As a result, it is an ever-increasingly sourced
selection are key component of fuel-efficient road transportation. There are numerous aluminum
chemical compositions, each designed for a particular service condition and
considerations for structural load.
successful Many applications require joining the aluminum, and often the joining
method of choice is welding. There are a number of welding processes suitable
aluminum joining for joining aluminum. Two of the most common are gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) and gas metal arc welding (GMAW).
While there are a number of variables involved with welding aluminum, there
are two in particular that will be addressed in this article: shielding gas and ma-
terial condition. Shielding gas can impact the width of the bead as well as the
depth of penetration in certain specific instances. Material condition affects a
number of preparation and joining steps.

BY FRED SCHWEIGHARDT Rethinking Your Shielding Gas Selection

Shielding gas is a necessity when welding aluminum. Gas suppliers often see
that the selection of gas is driven by ease of use, heat-input needs, and cost. The
thermal conductivity of aluminum is such that thicker or heavier sections re-
quire a high heat input to satisfactorily join the metal — Fig. 2.
We see many customers choosing to add helium to their normal shielding gas,
for example, 100% argon. Adding helium forces the constant-current power sup-

44 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019


Fig. 2 — Welding thicker or heavier aluminum sections requires a high heat input to
satisfactorily join the metal.
ply to deliver more voltage, which will
add heat. This works quite well, except
for the cost of the shielding gas. Heli-
um is more costly than argon, so sig-
nificant additions such as 50% or even
75% helium content gets expensive.
While demand for helium, a nonre-
newable resource, has been steadily
growing in different applications, the
worldwide availability of this product
continues to be extremely tight. In ad-
Fig. 3 — When welding aluminum, it is necessary to remove as much oxide as
possible to allow the arc to deliver its heat to the weldment properly. This can be
done with scraping, grinding, or brushing, but care must be taken to not embed the
oxides deeper into the base metal.
dition, with demand exceeding the
global available supply, prices have
steadily increased.
One way to gain the benefits of he-
lium without the cost is to use small
additions of nitrogen in the argon
shielding gas. For example, the addi-
tion of 600 PPM of nitrogen to argon
for GMAW delivers effects similar to
adding ~30% helium to argon. Adding
nitrogen to aluminum creates alu-
minum nitrides, which are highly
emissive (because the surface more ef-
ficiently emits thermal energy) and
can deliver similar results as helium
blends at a reasonable price.
Shielding gas purity is another key
consideration, as using poor quality
gases can contaminate a weld quickly.
Maintaining a high standard of quality
is crucial when welding aluminum.
One way to ensure quality is to adhere
to the American Welding Society
(AWS) A5.32, Specification for Welding
Shielding Gases, or follow the require-
ments in AWS D1.2, Structural Welding
Code — Aluminum.
For pure argon, AWS A5.32 requires
less than 40 PPM of moisture, which
should be taken as an absolute maxi-
mum. For argon, AWS D1.2:2008 re-
quires 99.997% global purity and a
10.5 PPM moisture limit. In the 2014
edition, these values are 99.99% and
40 PPM. Be aware that this may not be
pure enough. For best results, a shield-
ing gas product with less than 3 PPM
of moisture and 5 PPM of O2 content
is recommended.
Key Takeaways
The following shielding gas sugges-
tions can enable better welding of
aluminum:
• Consider using nitrogen instead
of helium in your shielding gas mixes
when welding aluminum.
• Gas purity should be maintained
to AWS standards; a shielding gas
product with less than 3 PPM of mois-
ture and 5 PPM of O2 content is
recommended.
Controlling Material
Conditions
Aluminum’s well-known resistance
to corrosion is due to a very thin layer
of aluminum oxide (Al2O3), which pro-
tects the underlying base metal. This
is a useful property, but is not without
some additional concerns. The oxide
layer is tenacious, but unfortunately,
aluminum melts at ~1100°F and the
oxide layer melts at ~3700°F. When
welding, it is necessary to remove as
much oxide as possible to allow the arc
to deliver its heat to the weldment
properly.
Cleaning off this oxide can be done
by scraping, grinding, or brushing, but
care must be taken to prevent overly
rough surface preparation from em-
JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 45
bedding the oxides deeper into the
base metal — Fig. 3. Additionally,
sheared aluminum must be carefully
checked to ensure the edge is not
“smeared” with trace deposits from
tools, trapping oxides and other con-
tamination on the edge to be welded.
For the highest quality welds, it is
recommended to wipe the weld area
with an approved solvent that removes
any residual oils and water. Isopropyl
alcohol is commonly used for this pur-
pose, as it is an excellent solvent for
nonpolar compounds, as well as a rapid
drying agent to help remove water.
While welding aluminum, the pres-
ence of water or moisture of any kind,
and hydrocarbons, is a significant
problem as they decompose into hy-
drogen in the welding arc. Aluminum
is susceptible to porosity due to the
difference in solubility of hydrogen in
molten and solid aluminum.
Moisture contamination can occur
in inconspicuous ways. Simply moving
a piece of aluminum from a cool, air-
46 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
conditioned space to a humid shop en-
vironment can cause condensation to
form on the surface of the metal. Even
worse, aluminum oxide readily absorbs
moisture, making it even more diffi-
cult to eliminate the source of the
hydrogen.
Grinding residue from carbon steel
can also become embedded in the sur-
face, causing problems in welding, as
well as in the finished product service
life.
Key Takeaways
The following suggestions about
material control can enable better
welding of aluminum:
• If any sort of machining opera-
tion is used to prepare the base metal,
remove any residual lubricants.
• Carefully check sheared alu-
minum to ensure the edge is not
“smeared,” trapping oxides and other
contamination on the edge to be
welded.
• When preparing to weld alu-
minum, store raw material properly,
preferably indoors.
Summary
While there are far more variables
involved in the successful use and join-
ing of aluminum, material condition
and proper selection of shielding gas
are among the most important. How-
ever, some of the least obvious root
causes can lead to significant welding
problems. Careful cleaning and prepa-
ration of base metal is critical to any
aluminum welding effort, and a rea-
soned selection of shielding gas can
make the process far more robust, re-
duce porosity, and add the needed en-
ergy to the welding arc. WJ
FRED SCHWEIGHARDT (fred.schweighardt@
airgas.com) is national project leader,
advanced fabrication technologies, Airgas,
an Air Liquide company, Houston, Tex.
Marine Manufacturer Reduces Aluminum
Welding Rework

Fig. 1 — G. G. Schmitt reduced aluminum scrap due to rework by 10 to 11% with a switch to inverter-based GTA welding machines.
Operators experience much less tungsten spitting and flare-ups with these machines compared to what they previously used.

A switch to easier-to-use
M
etal fabrication for the marine industry demands high quality and
attention to detail. Boat ladders, handrails, and tuna towers must
gas tungsten arc welding not only have a flawless appearance, but they also require durability
and strength to withstand constant corrosive environments and the rough-
machines has allowed est conditions.
A manufacturer of stainless steel and aluminum marine hardware, G. G.
G. G. Schmitt & Sons to Schmitt & Sons, Lancaster, Pa., has built its reputation with high-quality
deliver higher weld quality products and specialized design. They serve some of the country’s largest
original equipment manufacturers as well as boutique specialty boat
builders.
“Our customers are building anywhere from 100 units a year to 5000
units a year,” said G. G. Schmitt Vice President Kurt Bender. “We’re support-
BY ANDREW PFALLER ing their production lines, and we don’t stop a production line. On-time de-
livery is critical, and as the economy and industry have improved over the
years, it’s more and more critical.”
As boat builders have rebounded from the 2008 recession, the company
has undergone substantial growth. The marine industry is also trending to-
ward custom designs and specialization, as more buyers want to purchase a
boat that reflects their preferences. These changes spurred G. G. Schmitt to
look at its welding operation, with a goal of reducing rework and improving
productivity to keep pace with the expansion.

48 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019

 “The marine industry is booming,
and we try to meet our customers’ de-
mands at all times,” said Seth Holl,
general manager of the aluminum di-
vision. “It’s difficult sometimes, but
that’s what drives us to be better than
our competition.”
After testing several options, a
switch in welding power sources saved
significant time for the company —
cutting hours of rework and additional
welding passes on some parts — while
also delivering high weld quality and
ease of use.

Staying on Top
Family-owned since launching in
1951, G. G. Schmitt has an 80,000-sq-
ft manufacturing facility in Sarasota, Fig. 2 — The welding power sources used by G. G. Schmitt offer AC waveforms that
Fla., and a newly opened location in provide a fast freezing pool, deep penetration, and faster travel speeds, allowing the
Summerville, S.C. company to improve productivity and efficiency in the welding operation.
The company’s Sarasota facility of-
ten has 800 to 900 jobs underway on This focus on having the most effi- finish, and bright dip anodized (BDA).
any given day in both the stainless cient equipment and processes includes Bright dip anodizing adds a special
steel and aluminum divisions. Smaller the company’s welding operation. coating that enhances the glossy ap-
projects can take 4 h to complete, pearance of aluminum for cosmetic ap-
while larger projects, like a custom plications, resulting in a very reflective
tuna tower, can take three weeks. The Challenges of Welding surface. To avoid scratching or damag-
Each project starts with the design Anodized Aluminum ing BDA aluminum during welding,
and engineering department, from operators often change their tech-
conceptual design and engineering to Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) nique slightly to ensure the cups are
prototypes and part production. and fabrication in the aluminum divi- farther off from the material surface.
“A lot of other metal fabricators sion involves mostly custom extru- “Welding anodized is a little bit more
don’t have the engineering and proto- sions and pipes that range from Sched- difficult,” said Holl. “It has to stay
type depth that we have,” said Richard ule 40 to 80, with wall thicknesses bright, with perfect finish and polish.”
Strauss, director of technical sales and from 0.109 to 0.276 in. G. G. Schmitt If the welding machine “arcs out” or
marketing. “We work hard with boat works with many types of aluminum flares up, it can cause spatter, which
manufacturers to develop and design round pipe, including no finish, mill can leave marks on the surface of the
unique products to set them apart.”
Producing smaller volumes of parts,
rather than high-volume, repetitive
parts, has challenged the manufactur-
er to find efficiencies in tooling and
production. For example, a five-axis
computer numerical control (CNC)
laser table has the capability to cut
sheets and plates as well as long tube
and pipe, saving considerable time
over manual milling and cutting. The
company also has one of the largest
CNC benders in the marine industry.
Material bending that previously took
20 min per part can be done in sec-
onds with the machine.
“With all the challenges today,
equipment is certainly a focus —
equipment and support from the man-
ufacturer,” said Bender. “It’s critical to
our business plan moving forward to
Fig. 3 — After testing several options, a switch to Miller Dynasty® 400 GTA welding
continue to concentrate on new tech- machines has saved G. G. Schmitt & Sons significant time, cutting hours of rework
nologies and new machinery for our and additional welding passes on some parts, while also delivering high weld quality
manufacturing.” and ease of use.

JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 49

 BDA material. Any scratches or blem-
ishes mean that leg must be cut out
and replaced, without damaging other
sections of the part. This rework
process could take several hours and
cost hundreds of dollars each time.
“It’s expensive,” said Holl. “You
have to cut the leg out, replace it, then
you can’t scratch what you’re cutting
out on the rest of the product.”
Reduced Rework and Scrap
As G. G. Schmitt evaluated new
welding equipment for its expansion, it
was also important to invest in ma-
chines that offered benefits for welding
BDA aluminum to help reduce the time
and money spent on rework and scrap.
The welding machines previously
used by the company were trans-
former-based machines that flared up,
which meant a lot of rework on BDA
aluminum.
The company switched to inverter-
based Dynasty® 400 GTA welding ma-
chines from Miller. The machines use
Blue Lightning™ high-frequency arc
starter technology and refined arc-
starting routine, which deliver more
consistent noncontact starts and
greater reliability compared to tradi-
tional equipment.
“You don’t take the chances to ruin
a part,” said Pedro Medina, assistant
plant manager.
The switch immediately reduced
scrap rework by 6 to 8% for the com-
pany, a payback that continues to in-
crease. The company is starting to see
10 to 11% less scrappage of the BDA
aluminum associated with tungsten
spitting and flare-ups — Fig. 1.
With independent amplitude/
amperage control, electrode positive
and electrode negative amperages can
be set independently. This allows the
welding machines to precisely control
heat input to the work and electrode.
In addition, extended alternating cur-
rent (AC) balance controls the amount
of oxide cleaning (amperage time in
electrode negative), which is essential
for high-quality welds on aluminum.
“You’re always going to get the best
results,” said Medina. “Your weld is go-
ing to look good.”
Greater Efficiency and
Productivity
Alternating current waveforms pro-
vide a fast freezing pool, deep penetra-
50 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
tion, and faster travel speeds, allowing
G. G. Schmitt to improve productivity
and efficiency in the welding opera-
tion — Fig. 2.
“You want to make that weld look
nice,” said Medina. “You pretty much
do your first filling and you’re done
with it.”
The fast travel speeds allow the
company’s welders to complete proj-
ects more quickly so they can move on
to the next job.
“I can achieve faster welds, and the
quality is a lot better,” said Cesar
Jaramillo, who’s been a welder with
the company for seven years. “I can ad-
just my amperage to make my welds
cleaner, as well. I saw a huge improve-
ment in the quality of my welds.”
The ability to save up to nine pro-
gram memories in each machine also
helps the company’s welders save sig-
nificant time. If operators go from
welding thin 16-gauge material to
welding something much thicker, they
can press a button to change to a dif-
ferent set of preprogrammed parame-
ters. In addition to saving time, this
also helps ensure welders are using the
proper preset parameters.
“In the marine industry, welders are
a lot of times on their backs, on their
knees, standing up, on the ladder.
When you start going back and forth
— time becomes a factor,” said Holl.
“With these settings, it’s really de-
creased that time.”
A Growing Operation
As G. G. Schmitt looks to the future
and continued growth, it needs weld-
ing equipment that helps improve pro-
ductivity and efficiency while also re-
ducing scrap and rework.
In selecting and implementing the
new GTA welding machines in the op-
eration, G. G. Schmitt worked closely
with Miller to choose the right solu-
tion, train welders on the new equip-
ment, and optimize the systems for
the company’s specific applications —
Fig. 3.
“That’s what we look for to help in-
crease our productivity,” said Holl. WJ
ANDREW PFALLER
(Andrew.Pfaller@millerwelds.com), CWI,
is segment manager, TIG Solutions,
Miller Electric Mfg. LLC.
 It’s ‘Al’ Good in the Hood
Fume is a byproduct of the
aluminum welding process
that must be removed from
the welder’s breathing zone.
This guide will help you determine the
right capture method when working
with aluminum
W
hen welding or grinding alu-
minum, one must be mindful
of the general lung irritants
and hazards the dust and fumes pres-
ent. As it relates to your air filtration
systems and dust collectors, it’s impor-
tant to make the distinction between
fumes and dust and what you’re trying
to collect with your filtration equip-
ment. Though your operation may
have several metalworking processes
going on in your facility, the distinc-
52 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
tion between fume and dust is critical.
It will drive the process for proper fa-
cility and substance testing, guide sys-
tem design, and provide direction for
proper filter media selection.
As many industries move toward
lightweighting and more regulations are
set for Corporate Average Fuel Economy
(Ref. 1), we’re seeing more system de-
sign requests in manufacturing facilities
for the proper capture and filtration of
aluminum dust and fume.
BY MIKE MEYER
Because the particulate is so small,
the fumes and dust will go wherever
the air takes them. So, make-up air
systems producing disturbing air cur-
rents within the facility are important
considerations when designing sys-
tems because the air forces pushing
the particulate are much stronger than
those extracting them from the air.
Manufacturers must calculate the im-
pact of these make-up air systems
when designing proper ventilation and
filtration systems.
Frank Armao, president of Alu-
minum Consulting Inc., stated, “In
terms of being concerned about car-
cinogens, those manufacturing with
aluminum are in pretty good shape.
There is manganese in 0.5 to 1%
fumes in some aluminum alloys. I’ve
run hundreds of robotic cells and alu-
minum projects. The danger isn’t as
significant as with steel. Aluminum
fumes are still an irritant and a bit un-

Fig. 1 — Aluminum dust is easily visible, can collect on surfaces, and is highly com-
bustible.
sightly because of the white plume
created by the weld. When it comes to
weld fume concerns, aluminum fumes
are considered less harmful than oth-
er, more heavily regulated metals —
nonetheless, they are lung irritants
and generally not pleasant — but have
not been proven to be more carcino-
genic than other metals commonly
used for welding.”
Dust or Fume
Dust is a very generic term. Dust is
simply a particle of solid matter that
may or may not be airborne. Fumes
are tiny particles that are thermally
generated by gas condensation of vola-
tized molten metals. They are always
airborne and affect the lower regions
of the respiratory tract.
Aluminum dust (Ref. 2) is typically
generated from grinding applications
as fine metal particulate that flies into
the air. It’s clearly visible, can collect
on surfaces easily, and is highly com-
bustible — Fig. 1. Aluminum dust con-
trol is regulated by the National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA) 652,
Standard on the Fundamentals of Com-
bustible Dust, revised in 2019 (Ref. 3)
Fig. 2 — Particle sizes in microns for a variety of substances, including weld fume.
and NFPA 484, Standard for Com-
bustible Metals (Ref. 4). Your dust col-
lection system design should comply
with these standards and appropriate
filters should be selected.
If your manufacturing operation is
incorporating a new process or revis-
ing a previous process that requires
grinding aluminum, a dust hazard
analysis (DHA) must be performed to
understand the combustibility of the
dust through a specific ASTM test
methodology found in ASTM
E1226–12a, Standard Test Method for
Explosibility of Dust Clouds (Ref. 5).
As an oxidized particle, aluminum
weld fume may not require a DHA.
However, aluminum weld fumes are still
submicron particles and may contain
some of the same OSHA-regulated,
harmful substances found in other met-
als, such as magnesium or silicon. This
is because when we’re welding with alu-
minum, it’s usually in alloy form con-
taining a general mixture of metals con-
tributing toward the overall fume make-
up. Since aluminum fumes are oxidized
from the welding process, they typically
are no longer combustible. OSHA pro-
vides limits for substances of all types.
Particle sizes of some common sub-
stances are listed in Fig. 2.
Aluminum welding creates ozone
(O3) and weld fume as byproducts that
must be removed from the employee’s
breathing zone (see lead photo). When
determining appropriate system de-
sign and filter types, and to design a
proper system and the appropriate fil-
ter media, it’s important to under-
stand the chemical makeup of the alu-
minum alloy as well as any coatings on
the welded part to determine the over-
all makeup of the fume.
Aluminum Alloys and
Coatings
For a full list of aluminum alloys and
the distinctions between them, please
refer to Aluminum Alloys 101 from the
Aluminum Association (Ref. 6).
A common alloy used across many
industries is 6061. This alloy contains
mostly aluminum with secondary ele-
ments of magnesium and silicone. We
normally see aluminum welded using
the gas metal arc and gas tungsten arc
processes, with the former producing
substantially greater volumes of fume
with that noticeable white plume. It
evaporates and condenses into a metal
fume containing whatever is in the al-
loy, in the oxide form. Those oxides
aren’t necessarily carcinogens, but
they are indeed lung irritants and
harmful when overexposed.
Coatings and surface treatments on
aluminum welded parts also impact
system design as well as filter media
selection and configuration.
System Design and Filter
Selection
Effective system design always be-
gins with determining your air-quality
JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 53
 Fig. 3 — A ventilation matrix such as this can help you decide
what types of dust and fume removal systems you need.
goals. From there, a careful assess-
ment of facility and process variables
will drive system design and filter me-
dia selection.
Engineering studies and services
will help you decide the right type of
filtration equipment to select for the
application. There are four methods to
choose from when determining the ap-
propriate system.
First, you must decide between ex-
hausting and filtration and then be-
tween ambient and source capture
methods. When displayed visually, as in
Fig. 3, it’s somewhat of a simple deter-
mination. Most holistic solutions in-
volve a combination of several methods.
Aluminum dust collection applica-
tions, especially those with larger vol-
umes of dust, may require the use of a
deflagration system (Fig. 4) and in-
clude duct runs to collectors outside of
the building. A deflagration system is
designed to minimize potential dam-
age in case of a fire or explosion inside
the collector and prevent flames from
spreading back into the facility.
For aluminum weld fume applica-
tions, the process is still producing
submicron particles, and disturbing
room airflow currents will dictate
where the particles float in a facility;
therefore, it’s important to employ
system design principles and ventila-
tion systems to capture and filter the
fumes properly.
System designs to capture alu-
54 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
Fig. 4 — The purpose of a deflagration system is to minimize
damage in case of a fire or explosion inside the collector.
minum weld fumes typically follow the
same principles as any other welded
material. The particles produced, be-
ing submicron, would require follow-
ing the same guidelines because they
essentially have no mass. Filtration of
metal fume is different than other
dusts because of the particle size. For
example, it takes hundreds of these
particles lined up to equal the width of
a human hair. Van der Waals forces, or
electrical attraction, affects the move-
ment of these particles through filtra-
tion media.
As related to filter media selection,
if someone is welding an aluminum al-
loy and the particulate is dry and sub-
micron, a nanofiber filter would likely
be used. However, if the company is
welding an aluminum part with some
sort of surface treatment or coating on
the part itself, thus producing an oily,
submicron particle, it makes more
sense to use a spunbond polyester to
filter the air more effectively because
the oil or lubricant would destroy a
nanofiber filter and quickly plug it.
The company would also experience
shorter filter life and be faced with un-
necessary and costly downtime. An ex-
pert would need to evaluate the
process and all variables to understand
the proper filters to be selected. WJ
References
1. National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration, U.S. Department
of Transportation. nhtsa.gov/laws-
regulations/corporate-average-fuel-
economy.
2. Aluminum Dust Collection, Re-
ducing the Risk of Aluminum Dust Ex-
posure. robovent.com/dust-collection/
aluminum-dust-collection/
3. NFPA 652, Standard on the Fun-
damentals of Combustible Dust. 2019.
National Fire Protection Association,
Quincy, Mass., nfpa.org.
4. NFPA 484, Standard for Com-
bustible Metals. 2019. National Fire
Protection Association, Quincy, Mass.,
nfpa.org.
5. ASTM E1226–12a, Standard Test
Method for Explosibility of Dust Clouds.
ASTM International, West Con-
shohocken, Pa.
6. Aluminum Alloys 101. The Alu-
minum Association, Arlington, Va.
aluminum.org/resources/industry-
standards/aluminum-alloys-101.
7. Deflagration Systems.
robovent.com/features/deflagration-
system/.
MIKE MEYER (mike.meyer@robovent.com)
is vice president, engineering, RoboVent,
Sterling Heights, Mich.
Remembering John M. Stropki Jr.
The former Lincoln Electric chairman, president, and
CEO is commemorated for his distinguished career and
impact on the welding industry
John M. Stropki Jr., former chairman,
president, and CEO of The Lincoln
Electric Co., passed away on May 11.
He is remembered for his passion,
warmth, and commitment to the
industry.
The welding industry recently lost a
distinguished leader. John M. Stropki
Jr., former chairman, president, and
CEO of The Lincoln Electric Co., passed
away on May 11 at the age of 68.
John enjoyed a successful career at
The Lincoln Electric Co. for 41 years
and served as the company’s CEO
from 2004 to 2012. He started at the
company as a summer intern while
earning a bachelor’s degree in industri-
al engineering at Purdue University,
and later earned an MBA from Indiana
University. After college, he rose
through the sales organization to be-
come executive vice president, and
president, North America, in 1996. He
later joined the Board of Directors in
1998 and was promoted to chairman,
president, and CEO of Lincoln Electric
in 2004. During his tenure, John was
known for his passion and loyalty to
the company, its people, and its cus-
tomers. His colleagues remember him
as a caring and approachable friend
and mentor, as well as an ardent com-
petitor who demanded everyone’s per-
sonal best to ensure promises were
kept. His commitment to excellence
helped transform the company’s oper-
ations, global footprint, and product
innovations.
Not only an icon at Lincoln Electric,
John was one of the most respected
leaders in the welding industry. His in-
tegrity, commitment to excellence, and
focus on helping others left an indelible
mark on everyone he met. As he said,
“If you’re honest and you’re fair with
people, you can achieve great things.”
His passion to achieve great things
and connect with people to under-
stand how he could help them, build
value, and create a winning solution
propelled the company and industry
forward. “I love being in front of cus-
tomers. I thought it was the best job
that anybody could ever have. I always
used to say we’re getting paid to make
friends,” he once commented.
His numerous professional and per-
sonal relationships among business
owners and distributors reflect the
many friends he developed through-
out his career and the positive influ-
ence he contributed to the industry.
As an industry leader, he continued
the Lincoln founders’ legacy of train-
ing, education, and the advancement
of welding. He championed new, state-
of-the-art educational solutions, as
well as the promotion of community
colleges and career centers to expand
training in the skilled trades. John was
a strong partner and supporter of the
American Welding Society (AWS) Ca-
reers in Welding Trailer and passion-
ately promoted the global WorldSkills
organization and mission. He person-
ally committed to the future of the
welding industry by establishing the
John Stropki Scholarship Fund at the
AWS Foundation to encourage and
foster the next generation of welding
engineers and scientists to advance
the industry.
John was also committed to manu-
facturing and welding by serving on
the boards of various associations, in-
cluding the Manufacturers Alliance for
WRITTEN BY HIS COLLEAGUES
AT THE LINCOLN ELECTRIC CO.
Productivity and Innovation (MAPI),
National Association of Manufacturers
(NAM), National Electrical Manufac-
turers Association (NEMA), Manufac-
turing Advocacy and Growth Network
(MAGNET), and Gases and Welding
Distributors Association (GAWDA).
He used his position to advocate
for better industry standards and en-
hanced practices. He was also an active
member and supporter of AWS and
helped sustain successful growth of the
Society. His active promotion of AWS’s
FABTECH expos and his endorsement
through Lincoln Electric’s active par-
ticipation in local Sections, technical
committees, and the Foundation
served to advance the future of AWS
and the industry. In recognition of his
efforts, he was elected as an Honorary
Member of the AWS Board of Directors
in 2002 and as an AWS Counselor for
the Class of 2012.
Following his retirement from Lin-
coln Electric, he served on the Boards
of The Sherwin-Williams Co., Hyster-
Yale Materials Handling Inc., and
Rexnord Corp. He also dedicated his
time and efforts to support numerous
nonprofit organizations and their mis-
sions to improve the lives of our com-
munity neighbors. Most importantly,
he devoted his love and time to his
cherished family and grandchildren.
John will be missed by his many
friends in the industry. His passion,
warmth, and commitment to excellence
will continue to inspire those who met
him. His legacy in the industry will con-
tinue for generations to come. WJ
Please see page 90 of the Welding Journal
to read John M. Stropki Jr.’s obituary.
Lincoln Electric (lincolnelectric.com),
Cleveland, Ohio, designs, develops, and
manufactures arc welding products,
robotic arc welding systems, and plasma
and oxyfuel cutting equipment. It has a
global position in the brazing and soldering
alloys market.
JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 55
COMING EVENTS
AWS-SPONSORED EVENTS
Welding Summit. Aug. 29, 30. The Woodlands, Tex. This
summit is intended to bring quality information and con-
struction welding professionals together for a series of in-
teractive presentations on how more value can be brought to
welding operations and the best way to execute successful
welding plans into projects. Visit aws.org.
Shipbuilding & Aluminum Conference. Sept. 17–19. New
Orleans, La. Industry experts will deliver the latest research
and innovations in both the shipbuilding and aluminum in-
dustries. Visit aws.org.
2019 Aerospace Joining Conference. Sept. 24–26. Colum-
bus, Ohio. Experts in aerospace joining research and devel-
opment, manufacturing, and applications will come togeth-
er to discuss subjects ranging from welding and brazing to
adaptive manufacturing to single-crystal repair and more.
Visit aws.org.
FABTECH 2019. Nov. 11–14. McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill.
More than 48,000 attendees and 1900 exhibiting companies
are expected to gather once again to celebrate metal manu-
facturing at its best. The event also provides educational
sessions and expert-led presentations covering the latest
trends and technology in the metal forming, fabricating,
welding, and finishing industries. Visit fabtechexpo.com.
U.S., CANADA, MEXICO EVENTS
Made in America 2019. Oct. 3–6. Indiana Convention
Center, Indianapolis, Ind. The first-ever event will focus on
U.S. manufacturing and products. With more than 800 ex-
hibitors and 10,000 attendees expected, this four-day event
will bring together a network of industrial professionals,
keynote speakers, and conscious consumers to raise aware-
ness for the economic, environmental, and community im-
pact of American manufacturing. Visit madeinamerica.com.
15th Northeast Lean Conference. Oct. 23, 24. The Con-
necticut Convention Center, Hartford, Conn. This year’s
conference will focus on recognizing the re-emergence of to-
tal employee involvement. The practical learning format fea-
tures keynote and breakout presentations, interdepartmen-
tal panels, peer-to-peer discussions, hands-on simulations,
interactive learning and sharing, and unlimited networking
opportunities. Visit northeastleanconference.org.
INTERNATIONAL EVENTS
Lightweight Asia 2019. July 10–12. Shanghai New Int’l
Expo Centre W4, Shanghai, China. The event will feature
lightweight materials, technologies, and parts for passenger
56 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
cars and commercial vehicles, along with processing equip-
ment and other lightweight manufacturing solutions. The
latest lightweight trends and topics will also be explored at a
series of conference streams and forums. Visit
lightweightasia.com/en/.
5th Aluminium China. July 10–12. Shanghai New Int’l Expo
Centre W1–W3, Shanghai, China. Asia’s professional alu-
minum industry platform for the aluminum industry supply
chain will bring together leading industry figures, cutting
edge technologies, and advanced applications. Visit
aluminiumchina.com/en/.
2020 International Conference on Defence Technology.
April 20–24, 2020. International Youth Convention Hotels,
Nanjing, China. This event brings together many presenta-
tions covering basic research in the fields of defense science
and technology from all over the world. Theme categories
include energetic materials; explosion and impact (armor
and protection); novel manufacturing processes and man-
agement (additive manufacturing, 3D printing, metals with
nanostructures, and casting technology); autonomous tech-
nology; application of composite materials; directed energy
and pulsed power; modelling and simulation in defense sci-
ence and technology; and photoelectronic information tech-
nology. Visit icdt-conf.com.
EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES
Advanced Fundamentals & Brazing by Design. Philadel-
phia, Pa. Two-day course covering the essential theoretical
aspects of brazing technology combined with real-life appli-
cations and case studies. Visit lucasmilhaupt.com.
Amada Miyachi Educational Resources/Training. Person-
alized training services on resistance and laser welding fun-
damentals, laser marking, custom programs, material selec-
tion and joint design, and more. Visit amadamiyachi.com, or
call (626) 303-5676.
The Atlas of Welding Procedure Specifications & Prac-
tical Welding Metallurgy. These three-day seminars ad-
dress the needs of welders, inspectors, and engineers who
are advancing their careers to the next level of proficiency.
The Atlas of Welding Procedure Specifications provides a ra-
tional basis for developing welding procedure specifications
that meet AWS, ASME codes, and military standards. Practi-
cal Welding Metallurgy provides a practical approach to de-
termine how to weld metals based on sound metallurgical
principles. The three-day workshop/seminars are scheduled
for September and October 2019 in Simsbury, Conn. Con-
tact Albert Moore, instructor, for more information at
amoore999@comcast.net.
Business Electronics Soldering Technology. Certification
and training classes held in Rolling Meadows, Ill.; Auburn
Hills, Mich.; Rosemount, Minn.; and Cleveland, Ohio, or can
be coordinated onsite at your facility. Training schedule is
available at solder.net. Contact BEST at (847) 797-9250.
CWB Online/Classroom Courses. Courses in NDE disci-
plines to meet certifications to the Canadian General Stan-
dards Board or Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission. The
Canadian Welding Bureau; (800) 844-6790; cwbgroup.org;
info@cwbgroup.org.

CWI Exam Prep Course. American Institute of Nondestruc-

tive Testing offers a 40-h online CWI exam prep course. Part
A covers the fundamentals of welding technology; part B
consists of extensive practical hands-on techniques and will
be held at the Houston Marriott North in Houston, Tex.;
and part C provides in-depth training to the welding code
portion of the exam. Contact Jeff LeTourneau, instructor@
trainingndt.com, (855) 313-0325, or visit trainingndt.com.

CWI/CWS Inspector Training. Welder Training & Testing

Institute is hosting the following endorsement and CWI/
CWS prep course seminars: Bolting Endorsement: July 31;
ASME Section IX/B31.1/B31.3: Aug. 1, 2 and Nov. 21, 22;
D1.1/D1.5/API Endorsement: Aug. 8 and Dec. 5; CWI: Aug.
5–10 and Dec. 2–7; and CWS: Sept. 16–20. To register, go to
wtti.com.

E-Courses in Destructive and Nondestructive Testing of

Welds and Other Welding-Related Topics. Online video
courses taken at one’s own pace offer certificates of comple-
tion and continuing education units. Contact Hobart Insti-
tute of Welding Technology; (800) 332-9448; welding.org/
product-category/online-courses/.

JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 57

ESAB Welding and Cutting Instructor-Led Training. Year-
round training at Denton, Tex.; West Lebanon, N.H.; Tra-
verse City, Mich.; Hanover, Pa.; and Salt Lake City, Utah.
Online e-Learning training is available. Email trainingteam@
esab.com or visit training.victortechnologies.com.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Aerospace Course. Hobart In-
stitute of Welding Technology, Troy, Ohio. This 70-h course
will develop the skills necessary for entrance into the aero-
space industry, including working with typical materials,
weld joint configurations, and tools involved in production
and testing within aerospace manufacturing and repair. For
information, contact (937) 332-9500 or visit welding.org.
Hypertherm Cutting Institute Online. Includes video tuto-
rials, interactive e-Learning courses, discussion forums, we-
binars, and blogs. Visit hypertherm.com; hyperthermcutting
institute.com.
Industrial Laser Training. Technical training and support
offered for users of industrial lasers in manufacturing,
education, and research. Regularly scheduled classes in laser
welding, laser cutting, and drilling. HDE Technologies Inc.;
(916) 714-4944; laserweldtraining.com.
Laser Safety Training Courses. Laser training courses for
personnel in research, industrial, and medical laser facilities.
Courses based on ANSI Z136.1, Safe Use of Lasers. Orlando,
Fla., or customer’s site. Laser Institute of America;
(800) 345-2737; lia.org.
Laser Vision Training Seminars. Two-day classes, offered
monthly and on request, include tutorials and practical
training. Presented at Servo-Robot Inc., St. Bruno, QC,
Canada. For schedule, cost, and availability, email info@
servorobot.com.
Machine Safeguarding Seminar. Rockford, Ill. Two-and-a-
half-day seminar teaches how to properly safeguard machin-
ery for OSHA/ANSI standards. A series of 15 safety demon-
strations will be presented; July 17–19, Aug. 21–23, Sept.
18–20, Oct. 16–18, and Nov. 13–15. Visit
rockfordsystems.com/seminar.
Modern Furnace Brazing School. Wall Colmonoy presents
a three-day seminar offering knowledge and practical appli-
cation on brazing design, metallurgical aspects/brazing op-
eration, brazing atmosphere and furnace equipment, braz-
ing material selection and applications, and quality control.
Oct. 8–10, Pontardawe, Wales, UK, contact Jordan Brace,
+44 (0) 1792 860622, brazingschool@wallcolmonoy.co.uk,
wallcolmonoy.co.uk/brazingschool.
NDE Classes. Moraine Valley Community College, Palos
Hills, Ill., offers NDE classes in PT, MT, UT, RT, radiation
safety, and eddy current, as well as API 510 exam prep and
weld inspection. (708) 974-5735; ccce@morainevalley.edu;
morainevalley.edu.
NDT Classroom Training and e-Learning Course. Offers
courses in UT, RT, MT, PT, eddy current, and remote visual
inspection. Onsite training also available. (855) 232-7470;
geinspectionacademy.com; inspection.academy@ge.com.
58 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
NDT Courses and Exams. Brea, Calif., and customers’ loca-
tions. Level I, II, and III refresher courses in PA, UT, MP, ra-
diation safety, radiography, visual, etc. Test NDT LLC;
(714) 255-1500; testndt.com.
Online Education Courses. Topics include Introduction to
Die Casting (free), Safety (free), Metal Melting and Han-
dling, Product Design, Energy Training, Dross Training,
Managing Dust Hazards, and more. North American Die
Casting Assoc.; diecasting.org/education/online;
(847) 808-3161.
Preparation for AWS® — CWI®/CWE® Examination. Troy,
Ohio. This two-week class offers nine days of instruction
with the test being administered on the tenth day. Includes
a backpack for the convenience of carrying books and other
study materials. Contact Hobart Institute of Welding Tech-
nology; (800) 332-9448; welding.org.
Professional Development Workshop. Five-day workshop
equips welding educators and industrial trainers with the
latest in training techniques, technology, and best practices.
Seven training modules include welding metallurgy; joining
and cutting processes; design, assembly, and robotic weld-
ing; welding codes, specifications, and safety; instructional
design and teaching strategies; nondestructive examination;
and additional welding and allied processes. Location and
dates available at weld-ed.org, or contact Michael Fox, (440)
366-4927, mfox@lorainccc.edu.
Protective Coatings Training and Certification Courses.
At various locations and online. The Society for Protective
Coatings; (877) 281-7772; sspc.org.
Veterans Goodwill Weld Training Program. South Burling-
ton, Vt., and Eagle River, Wis. AWI and Veterans of
Foreign Wars (VFW) have partnered to offer veterans a
complimentary two-day training at AWI facilities. Contact
(802) 660-0600, (715) 337-0122, or awi.edu.
Welding Courses. The Lincoln Electric Co. presents a wide
range of specialized courses throughout the year at its
Cleveland, Ohio, headquarters. Upcoming courses include
Design of Welded Connections, Steel Structures: Sept. 10;
Steel Weldments: Oct. 22; Beyond the Booth™ Instructor
Course: July 15; CWI Prep Course: July 22 and Oct. 14; RE-
ALWELD® Customer Training: Aug. 8, Oct. 17, and Dec. 12;
VRTEX® Customer Training: Aug. 6, Oct. 15, and Dec. 10;
Welding Educator’s Workshop, Original: July 8, Aug. 5, and
Oct. 14; Advanced: July 29, Aug. 12, and Oct. 28; and Alu-
minum Solutions, Practical Training for Welding Aluminum
Alloys: Oct. 8. Go to lincolnelectric.com. WJ
Change of Address? Moving?
Make sure delivery of your Welding Journal is not
interrupted. Contact Kim Hugley in the Membership
Department with your new address at (800) 443-9353,
ext. 262, or by email to khugley@aws.org.
 CERTIFICATION SCHEDULE
CERTIFICATION SEMINARS, CODE CLINICS, AND EXAMINATIONS

Note: The 2019 schedule for all certifications is posted online at 9-Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI
aws.org/w/a/registrations/prices_schedules.html. For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet education re-
quirements without taking the exam. The exam can be taken
at any site listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)
Location Seminar Dates
Location Seminar Dates Exam Date Charlotte, NC July 21–26
Louisville, KY July 7–12 July 13 Houston, TX Aug. 4–9
Phoenix, AZ July 7–12 July 13 Orlando, FL Aug. 25–30
Norfolk, VA July 14–19 July 20 Sacramento, CA Sept. 22–27
Milwaukee, WI July 21–26 July 27 Dallas, TX Oct. 6–11
Orlando, FL July 21–26 July 27 Denver, CO Oct. 20–25
Cleveland, OH July 28–Aug. 2 Aug. 3 Miami, FL Nov. 3–8
New Orleans, LA Nov. 17–22
Los Angeles, CA July 28–Aug. 2 Aug. 3
Denver, CO Aug. 4–9 Aug. 10
Philadelphia, PA Aug. 4–9 Aug. 10 Certified Welding Educator (CWE)
Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified
Chicago, IL Aug. 11–16 Aug. 17
Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code
San Diego, CA Aug. 11–16 Aug. 17 Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).
Salt Lake City, UT Aug. 11–16 Aug. 17
Charlotte, NC Aug. 18–23 Aug. 24
Sacramento, CA Aug. 18–23 Aug. 24 Certified Welding Sales Representative
Houston, TX Aug. 25–30 Aug. 31 (CWSR)
Seattle, WA Aug. 25–30 Aug. 31 CWSR exams are given at Prometric testing centers. More
Minneapolis, MN Sept. 8–13 Sept. 14 information at aws.org/certification/detail/certified-welding-
San Francisco, CA Sept. 8–13 Sept. 14 sales-representative.
Nashville, TN Sept. 15–20 Sept. 21
San Antonio, TX Sept. 15–20 Sept. 21 Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)
Boston, MA Sept. 22–27 Sept. 28 CWS exams are given at Prometric testing centers. More infor-
New Orleans, LA Sept. 22–27 Sept. 28 mation at aws.org/certification/detail/certified-welding-supervisor.
Indianapolis, IN Sept. 29–Oct. 4 Oct. 5
Miami, FL Sept. 29–Oct. 4 Oct. 5 Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)
Long Beach, CA Oct. 6–11 Oct. 12 The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can
Tulsa, OK Oct. 6–11 Oct. 12 exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification. More in-
Detroit, MI Oct. 13–18 Oct. 19 formation at aws.org/certification/detail/certified-radiographic-
Houston, TX Oct. 13–18 Oct. 19 interpreter.
Atlanta, GA Oct. 20–25 Oct. 26
Cleveland, OH Oct. 20–25 Oct. 26 Location Seminar Dates Exam Date
Kansas City, MO Oct. 27–Nov. 1 Nov. 2 Pittsburgh, PA July 29–Aug. 2 Aug. 3
Houston, TX Sept. 30–Oct. 4 Oct. 5
Pittsburgh, PA Oct. 27–Nov. 1 Nov. 2
Dallas, TX Nov. 3–8 Nov. 9
Reno, NV Nov. 3–8 Nov. 9 Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
Sacramento, CA Nov. 10–15 Nov. 16 OTC Daihen Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800, ext. 218
Syracuse, NY Nov. 10–15 Nov. 16 Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-4723
Roanoke, VA Nov. 17–22 Nov. 23 Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7667
Waco, TX Nov. 17–22 Nov. 23 Milwaukee Area Technical College, Milwaukee, WI;
(414) 456-5454
College of the Canyons, Santa Clarita, CA; (651) 259-7800,
ext. 3062
Ogden-Weber Applied Technology College, Ogden, UT;
(800) 627-8448

IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Please verify your event dates with the Certification Dept. to confirm your course status before
making travel plans. Applications are to be received at least six weeks prior to the seminar/exam or exam. Applications received after that time will be assessed a
$250 Fast Track fee. Please verify application deadline dates by visiting our website at aws.org/certification/docs/schedules.html. For information on AWS seminars
and certification programs, or to register online, visit aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars.

JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 59

WELDING WORKBOOK
Introduction: Design for Welding Aluminum
Steel is the most used, and consequently the most weld-
ed, metal on earth. In 2013, the mass of supplied steel, recy-
cled and virgin, was 106 million metric tons while aluminum
came in a distant second with 6.3 million metric tons. The
concepts and methods employed to design structures in alu-
minum are generally the same as those used with steel or
other metals. Welding requirements applicable to welded
aluminum structures are provided in AWS D1.2, Structural
Welding Code — Aluminum. The stress values recommended
for structural aluminum design are set forth in the Alu-
minum Association’s Aluminum Design Manual: Specifications
and Guidelines for Aluminum Structures.
Cast and wrought aluminum products are available in
many structural forms and shapes. The designer can take
advantage of the low density of aluminum by utilizing avail-
able aluminum structural forms. Wrought aluminum alloys
are broken down into eight groups, which are categorized by
the following alloying element(s) employed: 1XXX, 99% pure
aluminum; 2XXX, copper; 3XXX, manganese; 4XXX, silicon;
5XXX, magnesium; 6XXX, silicon and magnesium; 7XXX,
zinc; and 8XXX, other alloying elements.
Cast alloys are classified using a similar but not identical
3-digit, as opposed to a 4-digit, system.
1XXX. Commercially pure aluminum has the best electri-
cal conductivity and corrosion resistance. The tensile
strength of pure aluminum is usually below 15 ksi (100
MPa). For that reason, it is not commonly used in load-
bearing welded structures.
2XXX. The alloying addition of copper increases the
strength of aluminum, but decreases its corrosion resist-
ance. The 2XXX series is often used as an aircraft material
for its high strength; however, due to its lower corrosion re-
sistance, it is often clad with pure aluminum on one or both
sides. Most 2XXX alloys are considered difficult to weld, al-
though some are easily welded.
3XXX. The aluminum-manganese alloys are about 20%
stronger than pure aluminum. The workability and corro-
sion resistance of this alloy make it a good choice for water-
carrying applications, siding, roofing, and heat exchangers.
4XXX. Silicon additions in the 4XXX alloy give the mate-
rial good flow characteristics when forging, as well as a low-
er melting temperature. The lower melting temperature is
one of the reasons that 4043 is a good choice for welding
filler material.
5XXX. One of the stronger aluminum alloy families is
the 5XXX magnesium alloys. There is a proportional rela-
tionship between the strength of the alloy and the content
of magnesium. Due to their strength, corrosion resistance,
and retention of strength after welding, the aluminum mag-
nesium alloys are used in ship hulls and other structural
components, especially when corrosion resistance and
strength are needed.
6XXX. By alloying with magnesium and silicon, the 6XXX
series has good strength and corrosion properties. 6XXX al-
loys are also easier to extrude, and for that reason, are often
made into extruded shapes. The low-temperature properties
Excerpted from the Welding Handbook, tenth edition, Volume 1, Welding and Cutting Science and Technology.
60 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
DATASHEET 390
are also very good. However, they are fairly crack sensitive.
7XXX. Aluminum alloyed with zinc produces one of the
strongest aluminum alloys. Many of the 7XXX alloys are not
readily weldable by fusion welding processes. However, simi-
lar to the variation in the 2XXX family, there are some 7XXX
alloys that can easily be welded. These alloys are one of the
primary materials used in aircraft construction and are nor-
mally joined with rivets. Work on friction stir welding of
these alloys has been conducted to reduce the weight and ex-
pense of riveted aircraft components.
8XXX. The 8XXX series is the catch-all category where
aluminum alloys that contain other alloying mixtures are
placed. Each special alloy in this series has its own composi-
tion and application.
Aluminum alloys are strengthened two different ways,
heat treatment and cold working. Alloys 2XXX, 6XXX, and
7XXX are heat-treatable alloys. Nonheat-treatable alloys,
which are strengthened by cold working, include 1XXX,
3XXX, and 5XXX.
Special Design Considerations
The most significant difference between aluminum and
steel that must be considered in the design of welded con-
nections is, unlike steel, when aluminum is arc welded, the
heat-affected zone (HAZ) will be weaker (or softer) than ei-
ther the base or the weld metal. The degree of softening is
dependent on the aluminum grade. Overcoming the effects
of a weaker HAZ is one of the challenges associated with the
design of welded aluminum connections.
Options to deal with the HAZ in aluminum weldments
may include selection of proper base material, filler materi-
al, or welding process. Changing from a fusion welding
process to a solid-state process (i.e., friction welding) can re-
duce, but likely will not eliminate, the softened HAZ.
Creative joint designs with different weld types can be
used to overcome the concerns of the softened HAZs. Prop-
er engineering design minimizes the number of joints and
amount of welding without affecting product requirements.
This, in turn, results in a good appearance and the proper
functioning of the product by limiting HAZs and distortion
caused by welding. To eliminate joints, the designer may use
castings, extrusions, forgings, or bent or roll-formed shapes
to replace complex assemblies. Special extrusions that incor-
porate edge preparations for welding may provide savings in
manufacturing costs. An integral lip can be provided on the
extrusion to facilitate alignment and serve as weld backing.
Transverse welds in columns and beams should be locat-
ed at points of lateral support to reinforce the weld and the
HAZ to prevent buckling. The weaker HAZ of longitudinal
welds in structural members can be neglected if the soft-
ened zone is less than 15% of the total cross-sectional area.
Circumferential welds in piping or tubing may reduce bend-
ing strength; longitudinal welds usually have little effect on
buckling strength when the HAZ is a small percentage of the
total area of the cross section. WJ
BY KATIE PACHECO — kpacheco@aws.org
National and District Officers Nominated for 2020
The 2018–2019 Nominating Com-
mittee has announced its slate of can-
didates who will stand for election to
American Welding Society (AWS) na-
tional offices for the 2020 term, which
begins January 1, 2020.
Nominated are the following candi-
dates: Robert W. Roth for president;
W. Richard Polanin, Dennis K. Eck,
and Michael A. Krupnicki for vice pres-
idents; and Richard L. Holdren and
Kerry Shatell for directors-at-large.
One president, three vice presidents,
and two directors-at-large are to be
elected.
The National Nominating Commit-
tee was chaired by Past President John
R. Bray. Serving on the committee
with Bray were Uwe W. Aschemeier,
Carey Chen, Karl R. Fogleman, Thomas
S. Holt, J Jones, Shawn M. McDaniel,
David L. McQuaid, John L. Mendoza,
Bob Pali, Ron C. Pierce, William A. Rice
Jr., Mike Sherman, Dean R. Wilson,
and Walter J. Sperko. Chelsea L. Steel
served as secretary.
The Nominating Committees for
Districts 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 20
have selected the following candidates
for election/reelection as district direc-
tors for the three-year term Jan. 1,
SOCIETY NEWS
2020–Dec. 31, 2022. The nominees
are Harland Thompson, Dist. 2; How-
ard Record, Dist. 5; James Thompson,
Dist. 8; Phillip I. Temple, Dist. 11;
Tony H. Brosio, Dist. 14; J Jones, Dist.
17; and Denis Clark, Dist. 20.
Robert Roth, nominated to serve as
president, is president and CEO of Ro-
Man Manufacturing Inc., an AWS sus-
taining member company. He has
served three terms as AWS vice presi-
dent, and is a member of the AWS Ex-
ecutive and Finance Committees,
WEMCO, and RWMA. He also serves
on the boards of various organizations
and nonprofit corporations.
Richard Polanin, nominated to
serve as vice president, is a retired pro-
fessor and program chair of the manu-
facturing engineering technology and
welding technology programs at Illi-
nois Central College. He is currently
coprincipal investigator for Weld-Ed,
chair of the AWS Peoria Section, and
vice chair elect of the IIW Commission
XIV. He is also an active member of
several AWS committees.
Dennis Eck, nominated to serve as
vice president, is general sales manag-
er for Praxair in the greater Houston
area. He has been involved with the
AWS Houston Section for 28 years,
serving as chairman, first and second
vice chairman, treasurer, and secre-
tary. He was also a part of the AWS
Membership Committee for seven
years, and has been honored with mul-
tiple AWS awards.
Michael Krupnicki, nominated to
serve as vice president, is owner and
president of Mahany Welding Supply
Co. Inc.; founder and executive direc-
tor of Rochester Arc + Flame Center
LLC and Molecular Independence LLC;
as well as founder and managing mem-
ber of Capricorn Ventures LLC. His 32-
year involvement with AWS has in-
cluded serving as Dist. 6 director as
well as chairman and treasurer of the
Rochester Section.
Richard Holdren, nominated to
serve as director-at-large for a second
term, is president and principal weld-
ing engineer of Welding Consultants
LLC, as well as senior welding engineer
for Arc Specialties Technical Services.
With more than 40 years’ experience
in welding engineering, he has served
as member, advisor, and chair to nu-
merous AWS certification, education,
and technical committees.
Kerry Shatell, nominated to serve

Robert Roth Richard Polanin Dennis Eck Michael Krupnicki Richard Holdren
president vice president vice president vice president director-at-large

Kerry Shatell Harland Thompson Howard Record James Thompson Phillip Temple
director-at-large Dist. 2 Dist. 5 Dist. 8 Dist. 11

JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 61

SOCIETY NEWS
Tony Brosio J Jones
Dist. 14 director Dist. 17 director
as director-at-large, is a corporate
welding engineer at Pacific Gas & Elec-
tric Co. A 23-year member of AWS, he
has served the Society in multiple ca-
pacities, including chair of the Certi-
fied Welding Inspector (CWI) Lifetime
Achievement Award Committee; mem-
ber of the Compensation Committee;
Dist. 22 director for six years; and
chair, vice chair, treasurer, newsletter
editor, and executive board member of
the Sacramento Valley Section. He is
also an AWS CWI.
Harland Thompson, nominated to
serve as Dist. 2 director, is senior proj-
ect engineer at UL LLC. He is vice chair
of the Membership Committee, mem-
ber of the B1 Committee on Methods
of Inspection, and treasurer of the
Long Island Section. He is also a 27-
year CWI, an AWS Life Member since
2015, and Dist. 2 past director from
2011 to 2016.
Howard Record, nominated to serve
as Dist. 5 director, is engineering man-
ager for Townley Foundry & Machine.
He has served AWS in various capaci-
ties, including chair of the North Cen-
Nominations Sought for National Offices
American Welding Society (AWS)
members who wish to nominate candi-
dates for President, Vice President,
and Director-at-Large on the AWS
Board of Directors for the term start-
ing Jan. 1, 2021, may either
1. Send their nominations electron-
ically by Sept. 30, 2019, to Chelsea L.
Steel at csteel@aws.org, c/o Dale A.
Flood, chairman, National Nominating
62 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
Denis Clark
Dist. 20 director
tral Florida Section, secretary of the
East Texas Section, and member of the
G2 Committee on Joining Metals. He
is also an AWS CWI and Certified
Welding Educator (CWE).
James Thompson, nominated to
serve as Dist. 8 director, is department
chairman of the technology program
at Wallace State Community College,
an AWS Accredited Test Facility. An ac-
tive member of the Greater Huntsville
Section for more than 22 years, he has
served as chairman, education chair-
man, and technical representative
multiple times. He is also an AWS
CWI, CWE, and Certified Welder, and
serves on the AWS Skills Competition
Committee.
Phillip Temple, nominated to serve
as Dist. 11 director, is a welding con-
sultant. He is retired from both eNer-
gy Wise Consulting LLC and Detroit
Edison Co. He served two terms as
chairman of the Welding Handbook
Committee, and continues to serve as
an advisor. He has also served as sec-
tion chair and executive committee
member in several AWS sections. He
Committee, or
2. Present their nominations in per-
son at the open session of the Nation-
al Nominating Committee meeting
scheduled for 2:00 to 3:00 p.m., Tues-
day, Nov. 12, 2019, at the McCormick
Place Convention Center, Chicago, Ill.,
during the 2019 FABTECH Show.
Nominations must be accompanied
by biographical material on each can-
has been the recipient of numerous
AWS awards.
Tony Brosio, nominated to serve as
Dist. 14 director, currently works for a
large machine/fabrication shop spe-
cializing in nuclear-grade and defense
projects, as well as power generation.
He has worked in the welding and fab-
rication industry for 29 years, and has
been involved with the AWS Indiana
Section for 13 years, serving as chair-
man for two terms. In 2011, he be-
came deputy Dist. 14 director. He has
also been involved with the SkillsUSA
regional and state welding competi-
tions as well as the Midwest Welding
Competition for 13 years.
J Jones, nominated to serve as
Dist. 17 director, is a published author
with degrees in welding technology
and education from Texas A&M Uni-
versity. He has been associated with
AWS since 1981, when he joined as a
student member. Since then, he has
served as chairman of both the North
and East Texas Sections, Dist. 17 di-
rector and an AWS director-at-large, as
well as member of the AWS Education
Committee.
Denis Clark, nominated for Dist. 20
director, is a consulting welding engi-
neer, an AWS CWI, and an adjunct
professor at Montana Tech. With 41
years’ experience in the welding indus-
try, he has authored or coauthored
about 50 technical publications as well
as received six patents. He has also
been active in AWS at the local, region-
al, and national levels, serving as chair
of the AWS SH1 and SHC Committees
(Safety and Health). WJ
didate, including a written statement
by the candidate as to his or her
willingness and ability to serve if nom-
inated and elected, letters of support,
and a 5- × 7-in. head-and-shoulders
color photograph.
Note: Persons who present nomina-
tions at FABTECH must provide 20
copies of biographical materials and
written statements.
 SOCIETY NEWS
AWS Bylaws Article IX, Section 3
Section 3. Nominations. The names of the members of the Na- sketch of the nominee (and acceptance
tional Nominating Committee shall letter) shall be provided with the peti-
also be published in this issue of the tion. Any such nominee shall be in-
Nominations, except for Executive
Welding Journal, along with a copy of cluded in the election for such office. A
Director and Secretary, shall proceed
this Article IX, Section 3. District Director may be nominated by
as follows:
(b) Any person with the required written petitions signed by at least ten
(a) Nominations for District Direc-
qualifications may be nominated for members each from a majority of the
tors shall be made by the District
any national office by written peti- Sections in the District, provided such
Nominating Committees [see Article
tions signed by not less than 200 petitions are delivered to the Execu-
III, Section 2(c)]. The National Nomi-
members other than Student Mem- tive Director and Secretary before Au-
nating Committee shall select nomi-
bers, with signatures of at least 20 gust 26 for the elections to be held that
nees for the other offices falling va-
members from each of five Districts, year. A biographical sketch and accept-
cant. The names of the nominees for
provided such petitions are delivered ance letter of the nominee shall be
each office, with a brief biographical
to the Executive Director and Secre- provided with the petition. Any such
sketch of each, shall be published in
tary before August 26 for the elections nominee shall be included in the
the July issue of the Welding Journal.
to be held that year. A biographical election.

CWI Seminar and Exam Held at AWS World Headquarters

Thirty-nine professionals attended the AWS Certified Welding Inspector (CWI) seminar and exam held May 5–11 at AWS World
Headquarters in Miami, Fla. Pictured are CWI seminar and exam attendees with seminar instructors Mike Carey and Paul Cameron.

JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 63

SOCIETY NEWS
District 13 Member Profile
Erin Meyers
Coming from a family of blue-collar
workers, Erin Meyers is no stranger to
working with her hands. As a teenager,
she helped her grandfather and father
build various home projects, including
a deck, her basement bedroom, and a
shed. Meyers and her dad are current-
ly building a lake house.
“I really do put my heart and soul
into what I do, and I bust my butt
every time I work on a project,” she ex-
plained. “I love building things
whether it’s at work or not at work.
It’s something that I fell in love with a
while ago, and I’ve been lucky enough
to have my parents who support it.”
Meyers also has a softer side. As a
child, she competed, and won, several
beauty pageants and Irish dancing
competitions. She has also scored act-
ing jobs, earning a slot as a paid extra
on two episodes of the Showtime tele-
vision series Shameless.
“I still to this day love rhinestones
and anything sparkly, but I can also
cover myself in mud and work all day,
and I am completely fine with both,”
64 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
AWS Celebrates Its Past by Focusing on the
Industry’s Bright Future
The Welding Journal is celebrating its centennial by looking to the future and
showcasing the welding industry’s young professionals. From January to Decem-
ber, 2019, Society News will profile AWS members under the age of 40 from each
AWS District.
The following section profiles Erin Meyers, Dist. 13, and Andrew Eickmeier,
Dist. 14. To nominate an AWS member, contact Katie Pacheco at
kpacheco@aws.org.
she said.
Originally set to pursue a degree in
accounting, Meyers changed her mind
after failing an algebra class. She then
took a semester off from her studies
and applied to be a part of her father’s
Operating Engineers Union, where she
was encouraged to learn welding. Tak-
ing this advice, she enrolled in a se-
mester of welding classes at Moraine
Valley Community College, Palos Hills,
Ill., and discovered a penchant for the
craft.
“I like hands-on work, and I like
that it’s challenging,” she said when
asked what she likes about welding. “If
you get good enough, you will make
good money.”
Soon after, Meyers was hired to be
the college’s welding lab aide, where
she moved and cleaned materials, kept
the lab organized, supervised stu-
dents, and provided hands-on train-
ing. She also helped with the local high
school welding competitions, which
she lists as her favorite part of the job.
“They see how much fun and chal-
lenging welding is, and it pushes
them,” she said. “They learn that they
don’t have to get a college degree to be
successful in life.”
Meyers’ hard work and dedication
was awarded with several American
Welding Society (AWS) scholarships.
“I was paying for everything out of
pocket, and I was pulling a lot of hours
working for school and my dad, and on
the weekends; anything I could do to
make money,” she recalled. “The schol-
arships allowed me to focus on school
instead of working myself to death.”
Despite her busy schedule, Meyers
made time to volunteer with the
American Legion, a veterans’ organiza-
tion her father helps run. Although
she has volunteered in many capacities
since childhood, she recently lent her
welding skills to build aluminum signs
to replace old ones that were rotted.
Graduating in 2018, Meyers has
earned welding certificates in multi-
process welding, individualized weld-
ing, welding combination, and pipe
welding, as well as an associate’s de-
gree in general studies.
Today, Meyers works with the
Piledrivers Union, where she has been
for almost a year. She performs an ar-
ray of tasks for her job, including
shielded metal arc welding.
“They started me out welding eight
hours a day right off the bat, which I
was very surprised. I was thrown into
the wolves, and I had no idea what I
was doing, but somehow I survived,”
she said with a laugh. “But I caught on.
It’s a lot harder in the field than in the
shop. You have to figure out lots of dif-
ferent ways to accommodate for differ-
ent angles and things not being right,
but I like that because it challenges me
to be better.”
Meyers enjoys the variety her job
offers her.
“I like that I am not seeing the same
thing every day. I’ve been all over the
city,” she said. “It’s cool to see the dif-
ferent machines, how they work, what
they do; the whole thing sparks my
interest.”
In the future, Meyers hopes to be-
come a journeyman, then an AWS Cer-
tified Welding Inspector. When asked
about her dream job, Meyers said its
the job she currently has.
“I’m that happy with it,” she af-
firmed. “Once I got in, I was like, ‘This
is for me.’”
SPARKING CONNECTIONS –
2019 AWS MEMBERSHIP CHALLENGE
WHAT IT IS:
Be the spark that ignites the people you know to join
AWS, and get rewards.

HOW IT WORKS:
Build up points throughout the year
for each AWS Member you recruit:
5 Points per Individual Membership
and 1 Point per Student Membership.

WHAT YOU GET:

The top point-earner will receive a $500 gift
card, and all other participants earning over
10 points will get AWS branded merchandise
based on points accrued throughout 2019.

The Fine Print: All AWS members in good standing may participate and are eligible to receive rewards based on points
accrued January 1 – December 31, 2019. Participant eligibility is determined at the sole discretion of AWS program
administrators. AWS staff members and administrators of commercial or educational packages that include AWS
memberships in the pricing structure are not eligible to participate. For more information, visit aws.org/be-the-spark

District 14 Member Profile
Andrew Eickmeier
A true hobbyist, Andrew Eickmeier
first tried his hand at metalworking to
enhance his wood-carving projects. At
the age of 20, he began blacksmithing
and learned to upcycle old metal to
create art projects and other useful
items.
“I would make tools such as punch-
es and chisels, and even blades, out of
old materials I could find laying
around,” he recalled.
Proving that one man’s trash is an-
other man’s treasure, Eickmeier en-
joyed the challenge of turning “junk”
into beautiful, coveted pieces.
“What I like the most about metal-
working is being able to create some-
thing from nothing. People can look at
scrap metal and see trash, but I see po-
tential. I see the ability to create some-
thing amazing,” he said.
Eickmeier’s passion for black-
smithing led him to welding, and he
credits it for enabling him to pick up
welding quickly.
“I taught myself the different types
of metals and their properties, and
how they work for different projects,”
he explained. “I built a small workshop
Candidates Sought to Receive the MIT Masubuchi Award
The Prof. Koichi Masubuchi award,
with a $5000 honorarium, is present-
ed to one person, 40 or younger, who
has made significant contributions to
the advancement of materials joining
SOCIETY NEWS
that I create many projects in, and I
even forge welded several items.”
Eventually, metalworking became
much more than a hobby for Eick-
meier, and he enrolled in the welding
and fabrication engineering technolo-
gy program at Vatterott College in
Missouri.
“I wanted to work with my hands
and never stopped striving for excel-
lence in welding. It was not just a hob-
by to me; I want to be the very best I
can be,” he said.
He credits the college’s instructors
for helping him develop his skills and
passion.
“Keith Allen, my welding instructor,
has taught me a lot, and has not just
instructed me on my welding tech-
nique but helped grow my love for the
trade,” he said. “Him, Scott Thornhill,
and John Brown — my other instruc-
tors — have really helped put me on a
great path into the world of welding.”
Eickmeier was also actively involved
in the college’s American Welding Soci-
ety (AWS) Student Chapter, serving as
the secretary and vice chairman.
“I joined the AWS and several other
groups related to the field so I can
soak up as much knowledge about it as
possible,” he said. “I will always go the
extra mile to achieve my goals in weld-
ing so that I can one day teach some-
one else about the art that I enjoy so
very much.”
Despite Eickmeier’s love for learn-
ing the craft, his education has been
temporarily put on hold with the clos-
ing of all Vatterott Colleges. However,
the setback has not derailed him from
a career in welding. He hopes to con-
tinue his education elsewhere with the
help of an AWS District Scholarship he
recently received.
“The AWS scholarship will help me
with paying for the vital education
that is needed for me to learn as much
through research and development.
Send a list of your candidate’s expe-
rience, publications, honors, awards,
and at least three letters of recommen-
dation from fellow researchers to Prof.
as I possibly can about this amazing
trade,” he said.
In the meantime, Eickmeier has
made the welding industry his class-
room. He is currently gaining experi-
ence as a welder at Hillsdale Fabrica-
tion, where he helps build large struc-
tures, such as stadiums, high-rise
buildings, and bridges.
Aiming high, Eickmeier hopes to
one day become an AWS Certified
Welding Inspector, own his own busi-
ness, and use his skills to see more of
the United States.
“I would like to travel around the
country doing all types of welding
jobs, from structural to fabrication,
gaining experience and learning from
others,” he affirmed. “After I have
done that for some time and have
more knowledge, I would like to start
my own fabrication shop doing various
jobs, like building gates or structures
and welding repairs.”
Andrew Eickmeier performs gas metal
arc welding at Vatterott College. (Photo
credit: Vatterott College AWS Student
Chapter.)
Todd Palmer, tap103@psu.edu. This
award is sponsored annually by the
Massachusetts Institute of Technolo-
gy, Dept. of Ocean Engineering.
JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 67
SOCIETY NEWS
TECH TOPICS
Erratum
The following Erratum has been
identified and will be incorporated into
the next reprinting of this document.
AWS Standard: AWS D20.1/D20.1M:
2019, Specification for Fabrication of
Metal Components Using Additive
Manufacturing
Page 7, Table 5.1: Tension tests re-
quired for directed energy deposition
(DED) erroneously showed 54 instead
of 9 (for Class A and B).
Interpretation
AWS Standard: A5.1, A5.4, A5.5,
A5.6, A5.10, A5.11, A5.18, A5.20,
A5.22, A5.23, A5.25, A5.26, A5.28,
A5.29, A5.34, and A5.36
Subject: Using digital radiology (DR)
or computed radiology (CR) as options
to film radiology
Code Editions: Current as of April
2019
AWS Log: A5.XX-DR-INT-19-1
Inquiry: May DR or CR as published
in AWS A5.17, Clause 11.2 be used as
options to film radiology in AWS A5.1,
A5.4, A5.5, A5.6, A5.10, A5.11, A5.18,
A5.20, A5.22, A5.23, A5.25, A5.26,
A5.28, A5.29, A5.34, and A5.36
specifications?
Response: Yes
Opportunities to Contribute to
AWS Technical Committees
The following committees welcome
new members. Some committees are
recruiting members with specific inter-
ests in regard to the committee’s scope,
as marked below: Producers (P), Gener-
al Interest (G), Educators (E), Consult-
ants (C), and Users (U). For more infor-
mation, contact the staff member list-
ed or visit aws.org/library/doclib/
Technical-Committee-Application. pdf.
S. Borrero, sborrero@aws.org, ext.
334. Definitions and symbols, A2
Committee (E). Titanium and zirco-
nium filler metals, A5K Subcommit-
tee. Piping and tubing, D10 Com-
mittee (C, E, U). Welding practices
and procedures for austenitic
68 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
AWS D8 Committee Meets in Michigan
The AWS D8 Committee on Automotive Welding came together for its May meeting
held at United Technical Inc., Whitmore Lake, Mich.
steels, D10C Subcommittee. Alu-
minum piping, D10H Subcommittee.
Chromium molybdenum steel pip-
ing, D10I Subcommittee. Welding of
titanium piping, D10K Subcommit-
tee. Purging and root pass welding,
D10S Subcommittee. Low-carbon
steel pipe, D10T Subcommittee. Or-
bital pipe welding, D10U Subcom-
mittee. Duplex pipe welding, D10Y
Subcommittee. Joining metals and
alloys, G2 Committee (E, G, U). Reac-
tive alloys, G2D Subcommittee (G).
The A2 Committee is recruiting
educators.
R. Gupta, gupta@aws.org, ext. 301.
Filler metals and allied materials,
A5 Committee (E). Magnesium alloy
filler metals, A5L Subcommittee.
P. Portela, pportela@aws.org, ext.
311. High energy beam welding
and cutting, C7 Committee (C, E, G).
Hybrid welding, C7D Subcommittee
(G). Robotic and automatic weld-
ing, D16 Committee (C, E). Welding
in sanitary applications, D18 Com-
mittee (C, E, G). Additive manufac-
turing, D20 Committee (C, E, G). The
D1N Subcommittee on Titanium Weld-
ing is recruiting all interest groups.
J. Molin, jmolin@aws.org, ext. 304.
Structural welding, D1 Committee
(E). Sheet metal welding, D9 Com-
mittee (C, G). The D1 Committee is re-
cruiting educators and general interest
members.
K. Bulger, kbulger@aws.org, ext.
306. Methods of weld inspection,
B1 Committee (C, E). Brazing and
soldering, C3 Committee (C, E, G).
Welding in marine construction,
D3 Committee (C, E, G, U). Welding
of machinery and equipment, D14
Committee (C, E, G, U).
M. Diaz, mdiaz@aws.org, ext. 310.
Resistance welding, C1 Committee
(C, E, G, U). Friction welding, C6
Committee (C, E). Automotive weld-
ing, D8 Committee (C, E, G, U). Re-
sistance welding equipment, J1
Committee (C, E, G, U). Welding in
the aircraft and aerospace indus-
try, D17 Subcommittee (C, E, G).
S. Hedrick, steveh@aws.org, ext.
305. Metric practice, A1 Committee
(C, E). Mechanical testing of welds,
B4 Committee (E, G, P). Joining of
plastics and composites, G1 Com-
mittee (C, E, G). Personal and facili-
ties qualification, PFQC Committee
(C, E, G). Safety and health com-
mittee, SHC Committee (E, G).
J. Rosario, jrosario@aws.org, ext. 308.
Procedure and performance qualifi-
cation, B2 Committee (E, G). Thermal
spraying, C2 Committee (C, E, G, U).
Oxyfuel gas welding and cutting, C4
Committee (C, E, G). Welding iron
castings, D11 (C, E, G, P, U). Railroad
welding, D15 (C, E, G, U).
Standards for Public Review
AWS was approved as an accredited
standards-preparing organization by
the American National Standards In-
stitute (ANSI) in 1979. AWS rules, as
approved by ANSI, require that all
standards be open to public review for

comment during the approval process.
This column also advises of ANSI ap-
proval of documents.
The following standards are sub-
mitted for public review. A draft copy
may be obtained by contacting the list-
ed staff secretary of the committee.
A3.0M/A3.0:20XX, Standard Terms
and Definitions Including Terms for Ad-
hesive Bonding, Brazing, Soldering,
Thermal Cutting, and Thermal Spraying.
Revised Standard. $86.00. ANSI public
review expires 7/1/19. Contact: S. Bor-
rero, sborrero@aws.org, ext. 334.
News Standards Projects
Development work has begun on
the following new or revised stand-
ards. Affected individuals are invited
to contribute to their development.
Participation in AWS technical com-
mittees is open to all persons.
D15.2/D15.2M:20XX, Specification
for Joining Railroad Rail and Related
Rail Components. This document speci-
fies the minimum standards for the
welding of rails and related rail compo-
nents. The following topics are cov-
ered: repair procedures for rails and
austenitic manganese steel compo-
nents; arc welding, thermite welding,
flash welding, and rail bonding vari-
ables; procedure qualification, welder
performance qualification, and general
welding safety procedures; as well as
inspection methods and acceptance
criteria. Stakeholders: Railroad indus-
try, users, suppliers, and welders. Re-
vised Standard. Contact: J. Rosario,
jrosario@aws.org, ext. 308.
Revised Standards Approved
by ANSI
B2.1-1-201:2019, Standard Welding
Procedure Specification (SWPS) for
Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Carbon
Steel (M-1/P-1, Group 1 or 2), 1⁄8 inch [3
mm] through 3⁄4 inch [19 mm] Thick,
E6010 (Vertical Uphill) Followed by
E7018 (Vertical Uphill), in the As-Weld-
ed Condition, Primarily Pipe Applica-
tions. Approval Date: 3/1/2019.
B2.1-1-202:2019, Standard Welding
Procedure Specification (SWPS) for
Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Carbon
Steel (M-1/P-1, Group 1 or 2), 1⁄8 inch [3
mm] through 3⁄4 inch [19 mm] Thick,
SOCIETY NEWS
D14 Committee Unites at AWS World Headquarters
The AWS D14 Committee on Machinery and Equipment gathered for a meeting on
April 30 to May 2 at AWS World Headquarters, Miami, Fla.
E6010 (Vertical Downhill) Followed by
E7018 (Vertical Uphill), in the As-Weld-
ed Condition, Primarily Pipe Applica-
tions. Approval Date: 3/1/2019.
B2.1-1-203:2019, Standard Welding
Procedure Specification (SWPS) for
Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Carbon
Steel (M-1/P-1, Group 1 or 2), 1⁄8 inch [3
mm] through 3⁄4 inch [19 mm] Thick,
E6010 (Vertical Uphill), in the As-Weld-
ed Condition, Primarily Pipe Applica-
tions. Approval Date: 3/1/2019.
B2.1-1-204:2019, Standard Welding
Procedure Specification (SWPS) for
Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Carbon
Steel (M-1/P-1, Group 1 or 2), 1⁄8 inch [3
mm] through 3⁄4 inch [19 mm] Thick,
E6010 (Vertical Downhill Root with the
Balance Vertical Uphill), in the As-Weld-
ed Condition, Primarily Pipe Applica-
tions. Approval Date: 3/1/2019.
B2.1-1-205:2019, Standard Welding
Procedure Specification (SWPS) for
Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Carbon
Steel (M-1/P-1, Group 1 or 2), 1⁄8 inch [3
mm] through 1-1⁄2 inch [38 mm] Thick,
E6010 (Vertical Uphill) Followed by
E7018 (Vertical Uphill), in the As-Weld-
ed or PWHT Condition, Primarily Pipe
Applications. Approval Date: 3/1/2019.
B2.1-1-206:2019, Standard Welding
Procedure Specification (SWPS) for
Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Carbon
Steel (M-1/P-1, Group 1 or 2), 1⁄8 inch [3
mm] through 1-1⁄2 inch [38 mm] Thick,
E6010 (Vertical Downhill) Followed by
E7018 (Vertical Uphill), in the As-Weld-
ed or PWHT Condition, Primarily Pipe
Applications. Approval Date: 3/1/2019.
B2.1-1-207:2019, Standard Welding
Procedure Specification (SWPS) for Gas
Tungsten Arc Welding of Carbon Steel
(M-1/P-1, Group 1 or 2), 1⁄8 inch [3 mm]
through 1-1⁄2 inch [38 mm] Thick, ER70S-
2, in the As-Welded or PWHT Condition,
Primarily Pipe Applications. Approval
Date: 3/1/2019.
B2.1-1-208:2019, Standard Welding
Procedure Specification (SWPS) for
Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Carbon
Steel (M-1/P-1, Group 1 or 2), 1⁄8 inch [3
mm] through 1-1⁄2 inch [38 mm] Thick,
E7018, in the As-Welded or PWHT Con-
dition, Primarily Pipe Applications. Ap-
proval Date: 3/1/2019.
B2.1-1-209:2019, Standard Welding
Procedure Specification (SWPS) for Gas
Tungsten Arc Welding Followed by
Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Carbon
Steel (M-1/P-1, Group 1 or 2), 1⁄8 inch [3
mm] through 1-1⁄2 inch [38 mm] Thick,
ER70S-2 and E7018, in the As-Welded or
PWHT Condition, Primarily Pipe Appli-
cations. Approval Date: 3/1/2019.
D3.9/D3.9M:2019, Specification for
Classification of Weld-Through Paint
Primers. Approval Date: 5/14/2019.
Technical Committee
Meetings
All AWS technical committee meet-
ings are open to the public. Contact
the staff members listed or call
(800/305) 443-9353 for information.
August 13, 14. D15 Committee and
Subcommittees on Railroad Welding.
Knoxville, Tenn. Contact: J. Rosario,
jrosario@aws.org, ext. 308.
JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 69
SOCIETY NEWS
MEMBERSHIP ACTIVITIES

Chihuahua Mexico Section Visits AWS World Headquarters

AWS Member Counts
June 1, 2019
Sustaining.................................592
Supporting ...............................364
Educational...............................845
Affiliate.....................................632
Welding Distributor ...................67
Total Corporate ........................2500
Individual ...........................57,290
Student + Transitional ...........11,252
Total Members ....................68,542

2019 Membership
Challenge
Listed here are the members partic-
ipating in the 2019 Membership Chal-
lenge — point standings as of May 16.
The campaign runs from Jan. 1 to Dec.
31, 2019. Members receive 5 points
for each Individual Member and 1
point for every Student Member they
recruit.
For more information, please see
page 65 of this Welding Journal or call
the AWS Membership Dept. at (800) The AWS Chihuahua Mexico Section attended AWS’s centennial celebration on April
443-9353, ext. 480. 10 at AWS World Headquarters, Miami, Fla. Pictured (from left) are Section Chair
V. Craven, Pascagoula — 225 Jorge Lopez, First Vice Chair Jorge Rodallegas, and Treasurer Alejandro Cano.
M. Krupnicki, Rochester — 44
J. J. Russell, Fox Valley — 44 C. A. Galbavy, Idaho/Montana — 13 Carport Central Inc.
A. D. Dillon, Detroit — 32 R. L. Richwine, Indiana — 12 737 S. Main St.
G. T. Rolla, Los Angeles/Inland G. J. Smith, Lehigh Valley — 12 Mount Airy, NC 27030
Empire — 31 R. Fugate, Drake Well — 12
J. W. Morris, Mobile — 30 M. D. Stein, Detroit — 11 Elrod Stud Welding
H. A. Browne, New Jersey — 29 D. L. McCart, Indiana — 11 1032 Tennessee Blvd.
M. A. Centeno, Nevada — 28 Lebanon, TN 37087
D. E. Newman, Ozark — 28
B. A. Cheatham, Columbia — 28 New AWS Supporters Texla Mechanical Services
W. H. Wilson, New Orleans — 26 900 N. Felton St.
H. H. Hughes, Mahoning Valley — 25 Baytown, TX 77520
X. Rios, El Paso — 25 Sustaining Members
B. P. Bandmeir, Lehigh Valley — 22 STRUPCO Inc.
T. W. Zablocki, Pittsburgh — 21 Waukegan Steel LLC 2245 S. 9 St.
O. N. Boylan, Cleveland — 21 1201 Belvidere Rd. Springfield, IL 62703
D. Perkins, Pascagoula — 20 Waukegan, IL 60085
D. S. Beecher, San Diego — 19 waukegansteel.com Superheat Services
D. A. Saunders, Lakeshore — 19 1079 Coach Williams Dr.
J. Napier, Cleveland — 18 Sulphur, LA 70663
J. P. Theberge, Boston — 17 Affiliate Corporate Members
D. P. Thompson, SW Virginia — 17 XC Institute of Smart Mfg.
E. R. Cooper, Indiana — 16 Clay’s Performance Construction Shengli Rd. #91
W. S. Winchester, Mid-Plains — 16 LLC Jiangning District
J. C. Durbin, Tri-River — 15 6565 McClellan Hwy. Nanjing, Jiangsu 211100
C. A. Donnell, NW Ohio — 14 West Hamlin, WV 25571 China

70 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019

 SOCIETY NEWS
Educational Institution Western Colorado Community Reynolds Welding Fabrication LLC
Members College 148 Addison Rd.
2508 Blichmann Ave. Windsor, CT 06095
Camden County High School Grand Junction, CO 81505
103 U.S. 158 W. Norwood Mfg.
Camden, NC 27921 Workforce Innovations of America P.O. Box 717
840B Hawthorne Ave. Seymour, MO 65746
Canyons Technical Education Athens, GA 30606
Center
825 E. 9085 S. York County School of Technology Welding Distributor
Sandy, UT 84094 2179 S. Queen St.
York, PA 17402
Members
Dynamic Tek India Precision Equipment Systems
FF2 49 St., 1 Fl., 7 Ave. 131 Century Commerce Loop
Ashok Nagar, Chennai, Arieflemourdle Supporting Corporate Labadie, MO 63055
India 600083 Members
Lighthouse Trades Inc.
Snook ISD Coastal Air Technologies Inc. 6115 Hwy. 8 S.
10110 FM 2155/P.O. Box 87 1828 Carolina Ave. Stanley, ND 58784
Snook, TX 77878 Beaufort, SC 29906
Transcend Institute Consultco Inc.
No. 783 M.T.H. Rd. 40 Emilien Marcoux Local 103
Padi, Chennai, Tamil Nadu Blainville, QC J7C0B5 Canada
India 600050

Membership Committee Meeting Held in Arizona

The Membership Committee congregated in Tempe, Ariz., on April 2 and 3 for its Spring meeting. Pictured after a tour of the Kyrene
Generating Station are (back row, from left) Tour Guide Brian Harbin, Arthur Schnitzer, Stewart Harris, Shanen Aranmor, Vicki Lange,
Dale Lange, Lee Kvidahl, and Nick Martinez, as well as (front row, from left) Mike Hanson, Susan Hanson, AWS Associate Director of
Membership Nici Banks, and AWS Senior Vice President of Strategy Cassie Burrell.

JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 71

 BY CINDY WEIHL — cweihl@aws.org
SECTION NEWS BY CINDY WEIHL — CWEIHL@AWS.ORG

District 1
Douglas A. Desrochers, director
(508) 763-8011
dadaws@comcast.net
DISTRICT 1 CONFERENCE
May 18
Location: Crowne Plaza Hotel,
Warwick, R.I.
Summary: Members of the Central
Massachusetts/Rhode Island, Con-
necticut, Green & White Mountains,
Maine, and Montreal Sections met for
the annual District 1 Conference.
NEW JERSEY
April 17
Location: Pantagis Restaurant, Scotch
Plains, N.J.
Summary: Several awards were pre-
sented at the Section’s April meeting,
which was streamed live on the Sec-
tion’s Facebook Page. Jim Dolan re-
ceived the District Meritorious Award,
Paul Lenox received the August F.
Manz Speaker of the Year Award, and
Pat Doris received a token of apprecia- NEW JERSEY — Paul Lenox (left) re-
ceived the August F. Manz Speaker of
tion for his presentation on welding in the Year Award from Vince Murray.
Africa.

District 2
Ken Temme, director
(856) 264-8377
kenneth.temme@gmail.com

LONG ISLAND
April 11
Location: Wantagh, N.Y. NEW JERSEY — Members (from left)
Summary: Presenter Leonard Ander- Vince Murray, Jim Dolan, and Section NEW JERSEY — Jim Dolan (left) pre-
son discussed three patents he holds Chair Larry Abernethy are seen at the sented a guest speaker appreciation
related to useful energy thrusts of a April meeting. gift to Pat Dorris.
gas turbine engine.

District 1 Conference — Members from District 1 gathered in Warwick, R.I., for their annual meeting.

LONG ISLAND — Members are seen at the Section’s April meeting.

72 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019


DISTRICT 2 CONFERENCE
May 18
Location: American Legion Post 262,
Audubon, N.J.
Summary: District 2 held its annual
conference in Audubon, N.J. Scholar-
ship recipient Chad Antolini was
recognized during the event. He
received a gold medal in the welded
sculpture category of the N.J.
SkillsUSA competition for a pelican
sculpture he created.
District 3
Sean Moran, director
(717) 885-5039
sean.moran@ahydro.com
CUMBERLAND VALLEY
April 25
Location: Lord Fairfax Community
College, Fairfax, Va.
Presenter: CJ McLaughlin, sales engi-
neer, SciAps
Summary: Section members partici-
pated in a technical dinner meeting.
SECTION NEWS
McLaughlin presented on measure-
ments by use of laser-induced break-
down spectroscopy, a handheld tech-
nology for measuring carbon and car-
bon equivalent. Attendees also re-
ceived a tour of the Lord Fairfax Com-
munity College welding lab.
LANCASTER
April 4
Location: Lancaster, Pa.
Presenters: Dave Kurtz, Hemp Bros.
and Harrisburg Area Community Col-
CUMBERLAND VALLEY — At the April
lege; Brandon Miller, Gooch Thermal
meeting were (from left) Section Chair
Systems; Logan Sheely, Tuckey Me-
chanical; Rachel Ochs, Thaddeus
Stephen Slavick, Section Secretary
Stephen Hill, and District 3 Director
Stevens College of Technology; Mike Sean Moran.
Florczykowski, Lincoln Electric; Justin
Heistand, Miller Electric; Mike Seber-
gandio, CNH Industrial America LLC
and Harrisburg Area Community
College
Topic: Career paths in the welding field
Summary: Presentations by various
speakers provided welding students
with an opportunity to learn about
different welding careers from the pro-
fessionals who have held the roles.
Speakers represented many fields in-

District 2 Conference — Chad An-

District 2 Conference — Scholarship recipient Chad Antolini (center) is seen with tolini’s welded pelican “Niegel” won
his former welding instructor Stephanie Hoffman (left) and District 2 Director Ken gold in the N.J. SkillsUSA welding
Temme. sculpture category.

District 2 Conference — District 2 conference attendees are seen at the American Legion Post 262 in Audubon, N.J.

JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 73

SECTION NEWS
cluding welders, underwater welders, READING
inspectors, instructors, welding sales April 27
representatives, and welding engi- Location: Ozgood’s Grill, Robesonia,
neers. Each career professional provid-
Pa.
ed a brief description of what it is like
Summary: Award certificates for win-
to work in their field as well as the
ners of the Section’s welding competi-
path they took to get there. The pres-
tion were awarded during the April
entation was open for questions
meeting. Winners included Nikolas
throughout so students had an oppor-
Harrison, 1st place, Level 1; Caleb
tunity to ask what type of education or
Rapp, 1st place, Level 2; and Gabe Bur-
certification is needed, job options,
ris, 1st place, Level 3. An appreciation
and other aspects of the various
award was also given to Andrew Pen-
careers.
noni for supporting the Section and
LANCASTER — Section Chair Mark sponsoring the evening’s meal.
Malone addressed students before
introducing the panel of welding
professionals.

PITTSBURGH — Apprenticeship Director Dale Glavin (far right) provided a demonstra-

tion regarding the scope of work and type of training steamfitters perform.

READING — Section Contest Chair

Craig Davis (left) presented an appre-
ciation plaque to Andrew Pennoni for
his support.

READING — Section Contest Chair

Craig Davis (left) presented the 1st
place in Level 1 certificate to Nikolas PITTSBURGH — Northern Westmoreland students posed for a group photo during
Harnish. the UA Local 449 Steamfitters facility tour.

74 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019


PITTSBURGH
April 17
Location: Harmony, Pa.
Summary: Nick Kappas, organizer/re-
cruiter with UA Local 449 Steamfit-
ters, coordinated a field trip for weld-
ing and HVAC students from Northern
Westmoreland CTC to visit the UA Lo-
cal 449 Steamfitters Training Center.
The students were given a tour of the
facility and a presentation on industry
leadership and ensuring the next gen-
eration of welders are safe, highly
skilled, and prepared to take on the fu-
ture of the industry. The students en-
joyed a pizza lunch courtesy of the
Steamfitters.
ATLANTA — Welding Sculpture In-
structor Wally Rewis (left) is seen
with Georgia SkillsUSA gold winner
Andy Francis and the winning pirate
ship sculpture he created.
CHARLOTTE — Participants of the Historic Rosedale event included (from left) William Croke; John McPherson, faculty advisor for
the Blacksmith Club; Steve Pitts; Dustin Robertson; Lynn Showalter, District 4 director; Andrew Garvin; Ray Sosko, District 4 chair;
Greg Fredrick, District 4 secretary; Gary Stiltner, District 4 treasurer; Chris Salley; and Paul Godfrey.
SECTION NEWS
District 4
Mr. Lynn Showalter, director
(757) 848-8029
lynneshowalter@gmail.com
CHARLOTTE
March 31
Location: Charlotte, N.C.
Presenter: Ray Sosko, welding instruc-
tor and AWS Central Piedmont Com-
munity College Student Chapter
advisor
Summary: Section officers and mem-
bers met with the Student Chapter to
participate in the Historic Rosedale
event and oyster roast. Members vol-
unteered their time for blacksmithing
demonstrations during the event.
ATLANTA — Welding Sculpture In-
structor Wally Rewis (left) is seen
with gold winner Morgan Davis and
Section Chair Rene Engeron.
District 5
Howard Record, director
(352) 816-0835
howard@rtdtools.com
ATLANTA
April 11
Location: Wiregrass Georgia Technical
College, Valdosta, Ga.
Summary: The Section hosted an
award ceremony for gold place winners
in the state’s SkillsUSA competition.
Winners included Morgan Davis, indi-
vidual category, and Andy Francis,
welding sculpture category. Francis
created a pirate ship for the competi-
tion, which took 351 hours to
complete.
District 6
Michael Krupnicki, director
(585) 705-1764
mkrup@mahanyweld.com
NIAGARA FRONTIER
April 25
Location: Arc Training & Consultation
Services, Buffalo, N.Y.
Summary: Marty Siddall from Lincoln
Electric presented on automation and
robotics during the Section’s April
meeting. Section members are appre-
ciative to Chuck Geiser and his staff at
Arc Training & Consultation Services
for hosting the event.
JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 75
SECTION NEWS
NORTHERN NEW YORK
April 30
Presenters: Brian Park, Eli Pimpao,
and Taylor Sullivan, undergraduate
students, Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute
Summary: Section members toured
the newly opened New York Advanced
Robotics Welding Laboratory hosted
by the Center for Automation Tech-
nologies and Systems. The laboratory
provides manufacturers in New York also presented the results of bend test-
with a resource for welding automa- ing and microscopic analysis of the
tion feasibility studies, process devel- coupons used to evaluate the feasibili-
opment, cycle time estimation, ty of moving from gas tungsten arc
process simulation, and program de- welding to gas metal arc welding for
velopment. The Rensselaer undergrad- the aerospace part under study.
uates demonstrated the Fronius TPS
500i power supply, Yaskawa MA2010
robot, and Octopuz offline program-
ming software by producing test
coupons in Inconel 625. The students

NIAGARA FRONTIER — Guest Speaker

NIAGARA FRONTIER — Guest Speaker Marty Siddall (left), Section Chair Paul Swat- Marty Siddall from Lincoln Electric
land (center), and host Chuck Geiser are seen after the Section meeting. presented the automation and robot-
ics process.

NORTHERN NEW YORK — Attendees of the RPI New York Advanced Robotic Welding Laboratory tour posed for a group photo.

76 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019

 SECTION NEWS
District 7 AUBURN-OPELIKA
April 25
teers and CWIs judged and assisted
with the weld-off. The event began
Larry Heckendorn, director Location: Custom Machine & Fabrica- with judge introductions and a safety
(614) 292-1220 tion Co., West Point, Ga. meeting explaining rules and require-
heckendorn.4@osu.edu Summary: Zack Lynn of Custom Ma- ments. Next was fitup and prep and
chine & Fabrication took members on then the welding began. Coupons were
a facility tour where they saw lathe, visually tested and those that were ac-
milling, and facing grinding machines ceptable were RT examined. The
District 8 as well as welding equipment. judges scored each welder on the writ-
D. Joshua Burgess, director ten test, visual appearance, and RT re-
(931) 260-7039 BATON ROUGE
djoshuaburgess@gmail.com April 26
Location: Fairbanks Inspection & Test-
ing Services (FIT), Baton Rouge, La.
Summary: George Shaheen of CEI and
District 9 George Fairbanks of FIT, hosted the
Michael Skiles, director Section’s 2nd Annual Weld-Off. Eleven
(337) 501-0304 participants from four local schools
michaelskiles@cox.net competed for prizes donated by vari-
ous local companies. Industry volun-

BATON ROUGE — Contestant Stephen

Ellis (center) has his weld coupon re-
viewed by Johnny Dupuy (left) and
Section Chair Blake Hewitt.

BATON ROUGE — Jeremy Whittemore

(left) was presented the Meritorious
AUBURN-OPELIKA — Participants of the Custom Machine & Fabrication Co. tour are Award by George Fairbanks (center)
seen with guest speaker Zack Lynn. and Section Chair Blake Hewitt.

BATON ROUGE — Participants of the 2nd Annual Weld-Off are seen with District 9 Director Mike Skiles (far left). Also seen are (top
row from left) Jarrod Ard, Nathan Hoyt, Johnny Dupuy, Jakenzie Harris, Canera Miles, Contest Judge George Fairbanks, Stephen Ellis,
Cardell Scieneaux, Gary Turner, Benton Davis, and Contest Judge Garry Owens. In the bottom row (from left) are Cody Spriggs,
Zachary Duhe, and Chase Bergeron.

JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 77

SECTION NEWS
sults. All competitors received a bag of
prizes, including a grinder, chipping
hammer, wire brush, cut-off wheels,
welding gloves, and much more. The
winners received additional prizes
such as Lincoln Electric hoods, jackets,
and flashlights.
May 4
Location: Walk On’s, Baton Rouge, La.
Summary: Section Officers Blake He-
witt, Jeremy Whittemore, Tom Shel-
ton, and George Fairbanks were in at-
tendance to discuss officer positions
and the duties attached to them. A
schedule draft for the 2019–2020
year’s meetings was created. Shelton
gave a verbal overview of the yearly fi-
nancial records. Ideas were brought up
as to how to reach students in sur-
rounding schools and encourage con-
tinued welding training. Additionally,
a list of proposed officers was created
to be sent out to all members for
voting.
May 10
Location: Fairbanks Inspection & Test-
ing Services (FIT), Baton Rouge, La.
Summary: George Shaheen of CEI and
George Fairbanks of FIT hosted the
Section’s Annual Crawfish Boil. The
winners of the Section Weld-Off on

BATON ROUGE — Section officers met to discuss several business items. Pictured are (from left) Betty and Tom Shelton, Chris
Love, Jeremy Whittemore, Sydney Sheldon, Blake Hewitt, and George Fairbanks.

BATON ROUGE — Section officers and Weld-Off winners gathered for a photo. Seen are (from left) Tom Shelton, George Fairbanks,
Chase Bergeron, Benton Davis, Cardell Scieneaux, Gary Turner, Blake Hewitt, and Mike Skiles. (Student winners Jarrod Ard and
Jackenzie Harris were not present.)

MORGAN CITY — Joey Rentrop (second from left) and George Fairbanks (second from right) presented awards to (from left) Wilie
Rollins, Jeremy Verret, and Bryan Rock.

78 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019


April 26 were awarded their prizes.
The judges were given certificates of
appreciation. District 9 Director Mike
Skiles presented awards and the
2019–2020 officers were announced
and the motion carried.
MORGAN CITY
May 7
Location: VAST Industries, Morgan
City, La.
SECTION NEWS
Summary: George Fairbanks gave a
lecture on welding procedure require-
ments. Additionally, Joey Rentrop re-
ceived both the Meritorious and CWI
of the Year Awards. Members were en-
couraged to continue their participa-
tion in Section meetings and were in-
formed of various ways the Section
helps students continue their educa-
tion through scholarships.
NEW ORLEANS
February 13
Location: Pellerin Milnor Mfg.,
Kennar, La.
Summary: The Section hosted a nine-
year AWS Certified Welding Inspector
recertification course. Participants
toured the Pellerin Milnor plant with
company Welding Manager, Bruce
Haila and Instructor Lynn Sturgill.

MORGAN CITY — Meeting attendees toured VAST Industries.

NEW ORLEANS — Nine-year CWI recertification course attendees toured the Pellerin Milnor Mfg. plant.

PASCAGOULA — Pictured are William Harris, Robert Cherry, Cynthia Harris, and Moss Point High School students.

JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 79

SECTION NEWS
PASCAGOULA
May 15
Location: Moss Point, Miss.
Presenters: Robert Cherry, Austal
Shipbuilding; and William Harris,
Master Welding Services
Topic: Making a career in welding
Summary: Section Chair and Moss
Point High School Welding Instructor
Cynthia Harris arranged for a Student
Day at the Section’s May meeting. Stu-
dents were encouraged to pursue a ca-
reer in welding and were amazed by
the opportunities in the field and the
need for welders. Guest Speaker
Robert Cherry graduated from Harris’s
class in 2014.
District 10
Mike Sherman, director
(216) 570-9348
mike@shermanswelding.com
DETROIT — Participants of the Section’s High School Welding Competition gathered for a group photo.
DETROIT — Participants of the Section’s High School Welding Competition and members gathered for a group photo.
80 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
DRAKE WELL/NORTHWEST
April 11
Location: Harmony, Pa.
Summary: Members of the Drake Well
and Northwest Sections held a joint
meeting to discuss District Scholar-
ships, the District 10 Conference, and
a golf outing planned for August 2 at
the Whispering Pines Golf Course in
Meadville, Pa.
District 11
Phillip Temple, director
(734) 546-4298
nwcllc_ptemple@att.net
DETROIT
May 3
Location: Washtenaw Community Col-
lege, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Summary: The Section hosted its High
School Welding Contest at Washtenaw
Community College, with gracious
sponsorships from Husky, Miller Elec-
tric, Lincoln Electric, Fronius, Prostar,
and many others. This year’s contest
drew more than 20 students from five
different schools in the Detroit area to
compete in both steel and aluminum
plate welding categories. Six students
from four different schools were
awarded the top six prizes. Section
Chair Mark Gugel and District Direc-
tor Phil Temple presented the awards.
The winners were Hayden Scott, 1st
place, South and West Washtenaw
Consortium; Patrick Stanley, 2nd place,
South and West Washtenaw Consor-
tium; Robert Bennett, 3rd place, Jack-
son County Intermediate School Dis-
trict); Brandon Peters, 4th place, Flat
Rock Community High School; Jacob
Konarski, 5th place, Oakland Schools
Technical Campus Northeast; and Ian
Martin, 6th place, Flat Rock Communi-
ty High School.
 SECTION NEWS
Welding Student Annabelle Malan
with the AWS Student Chapter Award.
She has participated in every student
chapter fundraiser and community
service project while maintaining a 3.7
GPA throughout the program.

District 12
Dale Lange, director
(715) 732-3645
dale.lange@nwtc.edu

FOX VALLEY
Pinckney Community High School Student Chapter — The Student Chapter wel- April 12
comed U.S. Congresswoman Elissa Slotkin to learn more about the school’s manu- Location: Northeast Wisconsin Tech-
facturing and welding program. In the front row (from left) are Instructor Mark Stein, nical College, Green Bay, Wis.
U.S. Congresswoman Elissa Slotkin, and students Rylan O’Connor, Dakota Avedisian, Summary: The Section hosted a welder
Ian Trotter, and David Podvoyski II. In the back row (from left) are students Jacob competition at Northeast Wisconsin
Reid, Sean Hill, Tucker Thomas, and Alec Ignagni. Technical College.

NORTHWEST OHIO/Whitmer Career &
Tech Center Student Chapter —
Welding Student Annabelle Malan
(right) received the AWS Student
Chapter Award from Chapter Advisor
Craig Donnell.
LAKESHORE
PINCKNEY COMMUNITY HIGH March 28
Location: The Formrite Co. Inc.,
SCHOOL STUDENT CHAPTER Two Rivers, Wis.
April 24
Presenter: Cameron Fitzgerald,
Location: Pinckney Community High
production supervisor, The Formrite
School, Pinckney, Mich.
Co. Inc.
Summary: Welding students welcomed
Summary: Members received an ex-
U.S. Congresswoman Elissa Slotkin to
tensive tour of the manufacturing fa-
their school and gave a tour of their
cilities of The Formrite Co., a full-
welding lab.
service tube and fitting manufacturer
of both fluid carrying and structural
NORTHWEST OHIO/WHITMER tube and fitting subassemblies.
CAREER & TECHNOLOGY
CENTER STUDENT CHAPTER
April 4
Location: Toledo, Ohio District 13
Summary: The Section presented Ronald Ashelford, director
(815) 218-8766
r.ashelford@rockvalleycollege.edu

CHICAGO
April 24
Location: Bohemian Crystal Restau-
rant, Westmont, Ill.
Presenter: H. Bruce Brummel, PE
Summary: Brummel spoke to mem-
bers about applying AISC Chapter N to
structural steel erection.

PEORIA
March 14
Location: Illinois Central College,
Peoria, Ill.
FOX VALLEY — Nathan Kelly (left) from Black Creek, Wis., won the shielded metal arc Summary: Forty students and appren-
welding portion of the Section’s welder competition. Also pictured are Proctor Curt tices competed in the Peoria Section
La Chapelle (middle) and Oliver Zernicke from Bondue, Wis., winner of the gas metal Student & Apprenticeship Welding
arc welding category. Contest. The contest required all-

JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 81

SECTION NEWS
CHICAGO — Meeting Chair John Hes-
seltine (right) presented a speaker
appreciation plaque to H. Bruce
Brummel.
CHICAGO — Section members are pictured at the April meeting.
PEORIA — Students and apprentices seen here participated in the Section’s welding contest.
82 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019
INDIANA — Roger Hood was the win-
ner of the Indiana SkillsUSA welding
contest.
position welding using three welding
processes and thermal cutting. A high
school division and college/apprentice-
ship division competed.
District 14
Tony Brosio, director
(765) 215-7506
tbrosio@yahoo.com
INDIANA
April 19
Location: Indianapolis, Ind.
Summary: The Section hosted and
judged the 2019 Indiana SkillsUSA
welding contest. Roger Hood, a stu-
dent at J. Everett Light Career Center,
won the competition.

ST. LOUIS
March 28
Location: CeeKay Supply, St. Louis,
Mo.
Summary: For the past 17 years, the
St. Louis Section’s Weld Show has be-
come an important AWS technical
function. The annual event is used to
promote the science of welding tech-
nology, showcase the latest in welding
equipment, safety apparel, postweld
testing equipment, plasma cutting,
laser welding, positioning equipment,
SECTION NEWS
and mechanical cutting systems. Rep-
resentatives were on hand to provide
live demonstrations and offer techni-
cal expertise.
April 18
Location: Location: St. Charles Com-
munity College, Cottleville, Mo.
Presenter: Ned Lane, CeeKay Supply,
GAWDA Past President
Summary: The Section honored the
area’s top students during its annual
Student Night. Thousands of dollars
were awarded to deserving students
from area schools. Lane spoke about
the mission of the Gases and Welding
Distributors Association (GAWDA).
District 15
Michael Hanson, director
(763) 221-5951
mikhan318@comcast.com

ST. LOUIS — Attendees of the St. Louis Section Weld Show wait for the doors to open.

ST. LOUIS — Section members and AWS St. Louis Weld Show vendors gathered for a group photo.

ST. LOUIS — Members posed with student scholarship and award recipients.

JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 83

SECTION NEWS
ment. Members learned about the leagues, peers, and significant others.
District 16 business as well as about the fabrica-
Karl Fogleman, director tion and welding processes used dur- SIOUXLAND
(402) 677-2490 ing the construction of the unique April 24
fogleman3@cox.net equipment. Location: Yankton, S.Dak.
Summary: In celebration of April be-
EASTERN IOWA NEBRASKA ing National Welding Month, the Sec-
April 17 May 11 tion, Regional Technical Education
Location: Crawford Brewing Equip- Location: Spezia Italian Steakhouse, Center, and Yankton manufacturers
ment, Rock Island, Ill. Omaha, Neb. partnered to host a manufacturing ca-
Summary: Members toured Crawford Summary: The Section hosted a Past reer day and welding competition for
Brewing Equipment, a manufacturer Chairman’s Night. The causal evening high school students.
of high-quality craft brewing equip- allowed for socializing amongst col-

EASTERN IOWA — Crawford Brewing Equipment tour attendees are seen in front of a fermentation tank.

NEBRASKA — Past Chairman’s Night attendees included (front row from left) Dan Scanlan, Karl Fogleman, and Greg Schroeter.
Standing are (from left) Monte Rodger, Dan Shelby, John P. Metz III, Rick Hanny, Darin Owens, and Christian Beaty.

84 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019

 SECTION NEWS
May 15
District 17 District 18 Location: Greer and Lowdermilk Con-
J Jones, director Thomas Holt, director ference Center, Houston, Tex.
(832) 506-5986 (409) 721-5777 Summary: The Section awarded sever-
jjones6@lincolnelectric.com tholt@techcorr.com al scholarships and recognized the
2018–2019 officers and committee
NORTH TEXAS HOUSTON chair. AWS President Thomas Lienert
February 13 February 13 spoke about the past, present, and fu-
Location: Gerdau Midlothian Steel Location: Houston Metallurgical Lab ture of AWS. A question and answer
Mill Presenter: Ron Richter session followed.
Summary: The Section’s nine-year Summary: Richter gave live demon-
CWI recertification class toured the strations to the nine-year CWI recerti-
Gerdau Midlothian Steel Mill. Atten- fication class. Attendees witnessed
dees viewed the entire steel-making tensile hardness, Charpy impact, and District 19
process. bend testing. Demonstrations were Shawn McDaniel, director
also given on mounting and polishing (509) 793-5182
macros. shawnm@bigbend.edu

SIOUXLAND — The high school students pictured here participated in a manufacturing career day.

NORTH TEXAS — Nine-year CWI recertification seminar attendees toured Gerdau Midlothian Steel Mill. Pictured are (first row from
left) Wesley Lacy, James Torry, Billy Ellis, Adam Jenstead, Kevin Mahon, Bryan Krampee, Billy Wade, Dale (Micah) Ison, B. J. Belcher,
Glen Phillips, Mike Buchanan, a Gerdau employee, and Instructor Ron Theiss. In the second row (from left) are a Gerdau employee,
Lucas Norris, Todd Studebaker, Nick Scovell, Tony King, Mike Player, Eric Lansdown, Gary Garrett, Mike Wiggins, Kevin Coale, Jim
Wynegar, Mike Gfeller, and Darrell Garrett. In the third row are (from left) Scott Taylor, Steve Habenbenvsn, John Fowler, Roger
Shanks, and Clay Schmidthberger.

JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 85

SECTION NEWS

HOUSTON — Attendees are seen at Houston Metallurgical Lab. Pictured are (front row from left) James Gerdes, Ron Richter
(owner), and LeRoy Truitt. In the second row (from left) are Scott Palmer, Joe Acosta, Dale Jones, Jason Clark, Tim Schnieder, Olao-
lac Onabajo, and John Anderson. In the third row (from left) are Bart Carter, Mack Blair, and Lessly O. Hamilton. In the last row (from
left) are Leonard Spencer, Nathan McCray, and Chris Tobiassen.

ALASKA — Section Chair Dennis Long

HOUSTON — AWS President Thomas Lienert (left), District 18 Director Thomas Holt (left) presented Lou Alvord with an
(center), and Section Chair Fred Pena posed for a photo during the May meeting. AWS Lifetime Member Award.

ALASKA
March 19
Location: Rigging International
Group, Anchorage, Alaska
Presenter: Bob Goodwin, director of
training
Summary: Rigging International
Group hosted the Section’s March
meeting with a tour of the rope access
training facility and what they do for
the welding and inspection industry.
Additionally, Lou Alvord received the
AWS Lifetime Member Award.

District 20
Pierrette H. Gorman, director
ALASKA — Certified Rope Access Technician and CWI Sarah Glaser (left) and Bob (505) 440-6284
Goodwin explain safety procedures, harness, and rigging gear. pierrette@comcast.net

86 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019

 SECTION NEWS
District 21
Sam Lindsey, director
(858) 740-1917
slindsey@sandiego.gov

ARIZONA
January 16
Location: Mesa, Ariz.
Presenter: Chelsey Morris, deputy
director, AWS North Texas Section
Summary: Morris gave a 45-min
presentation about how to apply for
AWS Section, District, and National
Scholarships.

April 10
Location: Universal Technical Insti-
tute, Avondale, Ariz.
Presenter: Johan Weber, Lincoln
Electric SAN DIEGO — AWS representatives attended the Workshops for Warriors Gala. Pic-
Summary: Section members toured tured are (from left) Matt Miller, Holiane Hopkins, District 21 Director Sam Lindsey,
the Universal Technical Institute. We- and AWS President Tom Lienert.
ber gave a presentation on the future
of power wave systems and its affilia-
tion with automation.

SAN DIEGO
April 4
Location: San Diego, Calif.
Summary: Section members attended
the Workshops for Warriors Gala
aboard the USS Midway.

District 22
Robert Purvis, director
(916) 599-5561
purviswelds@gmail.com ARIZONA — Members learn about the future of power wave systems and its affilia-
tion with automation.

ARIZONA — Members listen to North Texas Deputy Director Chelsey Morris speak about AWS scholarships.

JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 87

SECTION NEWS
CENTRAL VALLEY Summary: Chabot College’s welding tank. There were also demonstrations
May 2 department celebrated National Weld- of oxyfuel and plasma arc cutting,
Location: Fresno, Calif. ing Month with a special Student booths where attendees could watch
Presenter: Robert Topete, training co- Night. Stucker presented on his expe- and try gas metal and gas tungsten arc
ordinator, UA Local 246 Plumbers and riences as a former underwater and welding, and a virtual welding contest.
Pipefitters Union Training Center pipeline welder. He also led attendees The event attracted students from sev-
Summary: The UA Local 246 hosted through a simulated underwater weld- eral local welding programs and many
the Section’s May meeting. Topete dis- ing experience with a shielded metal Section members and guests were in
cussed the requirements for entry into arc welding electrode submerged in a attendance.
the union apprenticeship program
with meeting attendees. He answered
many student questions regarding the
numerous benefits of completing the
five-year program. Section Chair
Randy Emery also spoke about his
own experience as a member. Atten-
dees were taken on a tour of the facili-
ty’s training center, weld shop, and
pipefitter training areas.

SAN FRANCISCO
April
Location: Chabot College, Hayward, SAN FRANCISCO — Welding Instructor Liisa Pine Schoonmaker demonstrated oxy-
Calif. fuel and plasma arc cutting.
Presenter: James Stucker, instructor

CENTRAL VALLEY — Section Chair Randy Emery and Guest Speaker Robert Topete hold the Section banner as they posed with
meeting attendees at the UA Local 246 Plumbers and Pipefitters Union Hall.

SAN FRANCISCO — Instructors Dave Vetrano (far right) and Liisa Pine Schoonmaker (far left), along with Lincoln Electric represen-
tative and Section 1st Vice Chair Sheldon Wray (second from right) posed with students from various colleges.

88 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019

 GUIDE TO AWS SERVICES
American Welding Society® GLOBAL OPERATIONS Director — International Activities
8669 NW 36 St., #130 Corporate Director Andrew Davis.. adavis@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(466)
Miami, FL 33166-6672 Jeff Kamentz..jkamentz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(233) International Standards Activities, American
(800/305) 443-9353; Fax: (305) 443-7559 Oversees international business activities; Council of the International Institute of Welding
Phone extensions are in parentheses. certification, publications, and membership.
Manager, Safety and Health
AWS PRESIDENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS Stephen Hedrick.. steveh@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(305)
Thomas J. Lienert. . . . . . . .tjlienert@gmail.com Managing Director Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining of
Consultant John Perry .. jperry@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(247) Plastics and Composites, Personnel and Facilities
Qualification, Mechanical Testing of Welds
SENIOR LEADERSHIP TEAM PUBLISHING & EDITORIAL
Interim Executive Director Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(275) Program Managers II
Ray Shook.. rshook@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(207) Stephen Borrero... sborrero@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(334)
Welding Journal Definitions and Symbols, Structural Subcom-
Chief Financial Officer/ Publisher/Editor mittees on Reinforcing Steel and Stainless Steel,
Chief Administrative Officer Mary Ruth Johnsen.. mjohnsen@aws.org . . . . .(238) Joining of Metals and Alloys, Piping and Tubing
Gesana Villegas.. gvillegas@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(252)
Society News Editor Rakesh Gupta.. gupta@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(301)
Chief Marketing Officer Katie Pacheco.. kpacheco@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(275) Filler Metals and Allied Materials, International
Sofia Samuels..ssamuels@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(419) Filler Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment, Computa-
Section News Editor tional Weld Mechanics
Senior Vice Presidents Cindy Weihl..cweihl@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(256)
Cassie Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(253) Jennifer Molin.. jmolin@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(304)
Research, Strategy, and Membership Inspection Trends Editor Structural Welding, Sheet Metal Welding
Carlos Guzman..cguzman@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(348)
John Gayler.. gayler@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(472)
Welding & Technology MARKETING Program Managers
Chief Marketing Officer Mario Diaz..mdiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(310)
Vice Presidents Sofia Samuels.. ssamuels@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(419) Automotive, Resistance Welding, Resistance
Annette Alonso.. aalonso@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(299) Welding Equipment, Welding and Brazing in Aero-
Talent MEMBER SERVICES space, Friction Welding
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(480)
Patrick Henry.. phenry@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(226) Kevin Bulger..kbulger@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(306)
Society Programs Associate Director Brazing and Soldering, Methods of Weld In-
Nici Banks...nbanks@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(270) spection, Welding in Marine Construction, Welding
Serves as a liaison between members and AWS of Machinery and Equipment
EXECUTIVE OFFICE headquarters.
Associate Director Jennifer Rosario.. jrosario@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(308)
Chelsea Steel.. csteel@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(294) Senior Manager, Volunteer Engagement and Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting, Railroad
Support Welding, Thermal Spraying, Welding Iron Castings,
Program Administrator, National Awards Darrill A.Gaschler.. dgaschler@aws.org . . . . . . .(260) Welding Qualification
Malisa Mercado.. mmercado@aws.org . . . . . . . .(293)
CERTIFICATION SERVICES Welding Handbook Editor
HUMAN RESOURCES Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(273) Kathy Sinnes.. ksinnes@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(255)
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Alex Diaz.. adiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(209) Managing Director CUSTOMER SERVICE & SUPPORT
Denny Smith.....dsmith@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(263) Director
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF WELDING Hosea Carter...hcarter@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(413)
Senior Coordinator ACCREDITATION
Sissibeth Lopez . . sissi@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(319) Senior Manager Customer Service...customerservice@aws.org . .(280)
Liaison services with other national and interna- Emil Pagoaga..epagoaga@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(448)
tional societies and standards organizations. AWS FOUNDATION INC.
EDUCATION & TRAINING aws.org/w/a/foundation
GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICES Director General Information
Hugh Webster .... hwebster@wc-b.com Alicia Garcia..agarcia@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(229) (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212, jdouglass@aws.org
Webster, Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, D.C.
(202) 785-9500; Fax: (202) 835-0243 CONFERENCES & EVENTS Chairman, Board of Trustees
Monitors federal issues of importance to the Director William A. Rice.. brice@oki-bering.com
industry. CaLae Browne..cbrowne@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(213)
Executive Director, Foundation
CONVENTION AND EXPOSITIONS SALES & PUBLISHING Monica Pfarr.. mpfarr@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(461)
Director, Expositions Managing Director
Matthew Rubin.....mrubin@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(239) Michael Walsh...mwalsh@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(350) Associate Director, Foundation Services
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Senior Sales Executive, Expositions Senior Sales Executive, Academia
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The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit 501(c)(3)
ITSA — INTERNATIONAL THERMAL Senior Sales Executive, Corporate charitable organization established to provide support
SPRAY ASSOCIATION Sandra Jorgensen.....sjorgensen@aws.org . . . . .(254) for the educational and scientific endeavors of the Amer-
Program Manager ican Welding Society. Promote the Foundation’s work
Alfred Nieves....anieves@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(467) STANDARDS DEVELOPMENT with your financial support.
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(340)
RWMA — RESISTANCE WELDING MANUFACTUR-
ING ALLIANCE Director — Standards Development
Program Manager Peter Portela.. pportela@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(311)
Adrian Bustillo....abustillo@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(295) Technical Committee Activities, Additive
Manufacturing, High-Energy Beam Welding, Ro-
WEMCO — ASSOCIATION OF WELDING botics Welding, Welding in Sanitary Applications,
MANUFACTURERS Structural Subcommittees on Bridge Welding and
Program Manager Titanium
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . . . . .(444)

JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 89

PERSONNEL

General Motors Promotes He also led the sales and marketing the building trades. After joining IW in
Executive Vice President, growth in Asia before returning to 2016, O’Leary helped launch several
New York. Before rejoining Alcoa, initiatives to expand diversity, includ-
Global Manufacturing Slaven served as partner and manag- ing the IW/IMPACT paid maternity
ing director at The Boston Consulting leave program and “Be That One Guy”
General Motors
Group for 13 years. Prior to that, he program, which encourages an open
Co., Detroit,
worked for nine years at BHP Billiton, forum for dialoge and education. She
Mich., has ap-
where he held senior strategy and also worked to include “bystander
pointed Gerald
business development roles in both training” as well as intervention best
Johnson as execu-
Perth and Singapore in the iron ore; practices and protocols in key IW safe-
tive vice president,
minerals exploration; and aluminum, ty training such as new officers, shop
global manufac-
manganese, and nickel business units. stewards, and safety director training,
turing. In his new
which will be expanded to all local
role, he will lead
union managers this year.
the company’s
global manufac- Pemamek Oy Names
turing operations, Director of Sales
G. Johnson manufacturing en- Solar Atmospheres Appoints
gineering, and la- Finland-based Sales Managers
bor relations or- global welding au-
ganizations. Johnson previously tomation provider
served as vice president, North Ameri- Pemamek Oy has
can manufacturing and labor relations. named Michael
Prior to that, he served as vice presi- Bell director of
dent of operational excellence, where sales for its North
he worked to develop and execute an American sub-
enterprise-wide cultural transforma- sidiary, Pemamek
tion with a focus on process discipline, LLC. He will sup-
continuous improvement, and waste port sales of the
elimination. Under his leadership, a company’s brand
M. Bell equipment and so-
team of Lean Six Sigma experts devel-
oped a training initiative and coached lutions through- M. Paponetti T. C. Fish
employees in projects that improved out North Ameri-
the company’s operations efficiency. ca from U.S. locations in Cincinnati,
Ohio, and Houston, Tex. Bell previous-
ly was director of operations at au- Solar Atmospheres, a vacuum heat
Alcoa Elects Chief tomation equipment and software treating provider, has promoted Mike
manufacturer Fastems LLC. Paponetti to the position of sales man-
Strategy Officer ager at the company’s South Carolina
facility. He previously served as the re-
Alcoa Corp.,
Pittsburgh, Pa., a Engineering News-Record gional sales manager at the Her-
Honors Iron Workers 2018 mitage, Pa., facility. In his new role,
global provider in
Paponetti will maintain and promote
bauxite, alumina, Top 25 Newsmaker sales for the southeastern United
and aluminum
States. Additionally, the company has
products, has The weekly
added Timothy C. Fish as regional
hired John Slaven magazine Engi-
sales manager at Solar Atmospheres of
as executive vice neering News-
Western PA, where he will maintain
president and Record has named
and promote sales in the Midwest re-
chief strategy offi- Vicki O’Leary,
gion. Most recently, he served as a
cer. He will be re- Iron Workers (IW)
strategic account manager at Ellwood
sponsible for sup- general organizer
J. Slaven City Forge.
porting the com- for safety and di-
pany’s overall versity, a 2018
strategy and will Top 25 Newsmak-
oversee the corporate and business de- er. The honor is in Obituary
velopment functions, global supply recognition of her
chain, and energy development. From V. O’Leary work through the John M. Stropki Jr.
2002 through early 2006, he worked organization’s ini-
for Alcoa Inc., where he implemented tiatives to level John M. Stropki Jr., former chair-
its Asia growth strategy and the turn- the playing field for ironworker man, president, and CEO of The Lin-
around of its Latin America business. women and her thought leadership in coln Electric Co., Cleveland, Ohio,

90 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019

 passed away on college and rose through the sales or- Inc., and Rexnord Corp. He also dedi-
May 11. He was ganization to become executive vice cated his time and efforts to support
68. Stropki had a president and president, North Ameri- numerous industry associations and
successful career ca, in 1996. He joined the board of di- nonprofit organizations. He is sur-
at Lincoln Electric rectors in 1998 and was promoted to vived by his wife, Liz, and many
for 41 years and chairman, president, and CEO in friends and family. The family re-
served as the com- 2004. During his tenure, he trans- quests donations to his scholarship
pany’s CEO from formed operations, oversaw numerous fund at the AWS Foundation. WJ
2004 to 2012. He acquisitions and product innovations,
started at the and expanded the company’s global
company as a footprint. Additionally, he served on
summer intern the boards of The Sherwin-Williams
J. M. Stropki Jr.
while attending Co., Hyster-Yale Materials Handling

NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY vides turnkey solutions for organizations that use thermal
processes in their operations.
— continued from page 17

• The Associated General Contractors of Missouri Ed-

ucation Foundation has partnered with Build Your Fu-
ture to make an impact on the skilled workforce shortage.
Build Missouri aims to educate Missouri residents about
training opportunities and career paths to lucrative em-
ployment in high-demand occupations in the construction
industry. Visit missouri.byf.org.

• UltraTech’s Tactical Welder, a battery-powered welding

system, has won the top prize in the portable productivity
solutions category in the 2019 Edison Awards. The winners
were recently honored at a gala in New York City.

Welding Juniors Camden Elliott from Indian Valley (Ieft) and
Anthony Zombeck from Tuscarawas Valley hold a wall hang-
ing they made using the robotic welding unit.
• Sciaky Inc., Chicago, Ill., has joined the Alliance for the
Development of Additive Processing Technologies to
expand adoption of its electron beam additive manufactur-
ing technology in aerospace and other sectors.

• During the MRO Americas 2019, The DAES Group, Ar-

The robotic welding unit allows High School Welding In-
structors Randall Patrick and Brian Myers to teach students
how to use the technique. A full-time adult education weld-
ing program will begin during the 2019–2020 school year.
“The aim of this acquisition is to be able to teach robotic
welding, as well as the programming,” added Myers.
Industry Notes
• Buehler, Lake Bluff, Ill., an ITW company, and ASM In-
ternational, Materials Park, Ohio, are celebrating 75 years
of continuous partnership. At the center of this relationship
is Buehler’s continued support of the ASM World Training
Center, Novelty, Ohio, through its innovations for metallog-
raphy/hardness testing, solutions for the newest materials,
and participation in ASM International activities.
• Rockford Systems LLC in Illinois, a provider of machine
safeguarding solutions, has expanded its industrial safety
solution portfolio. The new combustion safety division pro-
lington, Tex., an aerospace global provider, and ATG Ltd.,
an engineering company from the Czech Republic special-
ized in nondestructive examination solutions, formed a
partnership to support the aviation industry globally.
• DuraCoatings Holdings LLC, Oklahoma City, Okla., re-
vealed DCI Industries, its subsidiary, has received ap-
proval and designation by the European Aviation Safety
Agency as a Part 145 Repair Station. The company has a
limited rating with specialized services to provide chrome
and sulfamate-nickel plating, zinc and manganese phos-
phate coatings, as well as thermal spraying for landing gear,
airframe, and other airplane components.
• Solar Atmospheres has ordered a 12-ft-long, car-bottom
vacuum furnace with an advanced pumping system and
rapid cooling capability for its Greenville, S.C., facility. This
furnace is capable of processing up to 50,000-lb loads.
Manufactured by sister company Solar Manufacturing,
installation is scheduled for early 2020. WJ

JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 91

CENTENNIAL STORIES
— continued from page 32
When Jones reflects on the last 100 years of welding, he
finds it hard to imagine what the next 100 years will look
like. He recalled atomic arc welding in the 1900s and when
gas tungsten arc welding was invented and called heliarc be-
cause only helium was used as a shielding gas.
“It will be interesting to see more complex alloys that will
be needed for future welding procedures. If you can Blue-
tooth your phone to your car, can you do it to an electrode
holder? Do you even need to have a cable for it? You can just
walk up and start welding. Imagine that!”
And while the future of the Space Force is yet unclear (in
late May, a House of Representatives subcommittee rejected
funding for Trump’s Space Force, but a week later the Senate
Armed Forces Committee voted in favor of its establish-
ment), when it comes to the United States maintaining a
military edge, Jones believes the Space Force is the future of
U.S. military welding.
“I can see that the next major war is either in space or
commanded from space. It makes sense to me to have a new
branch over it and for welders to expect new opportunities
to open up as a result,” he concluded. WJ

PRODUCT & PRINT Rotational Sleeves Keep

SPOTLIGHT
— continued from page 30
welds by providing information about
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procedures to use when joining alu-
minum. The free guide identifies two
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minum welds: hot cracking, a metal
chemistry problem; and stress crack-
ing, the result of mechanical stresses.
It also breaks down best-practice tech-
niques for increasing strength while
avoiding both kinds of cracks. The free
guide can be downloaded from the
company’s website.
Hobart Brothers LLC
hobartbrothers.com
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Cutting Torches in Place
The rotational torch sleeves allow
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hances torch lead life in high-flex ap-
plications. Available in short, medium,
and extended lengths, the torch
sleeves are ideal for bevel or 3D/robot-
ic cutting applications when using ei-
ther an XPR170 or XPR300 X-Defini-
tion plasma system for mild steel,
stainless steel, and aluminum. The other particulates associated with
torch sleeves’ outside diameter of 3 in. plasma cutting, while extending the
allows for an increased wall thickness life of the sleeve and lead system.
and eliminates compression caused by
clamping. Presealed, high-precision Hypertherm Inc.
bearings reduce axial play by 90% and hypertherm.com
radial play by 81% to keep out dirt and (800) 737-2978

Guidelines for Submitting a Welding Journal Feature Article

Have you ever thought about writing a feature article for consideration in the Welding Journal? If so, our staff stays on
the lookout for original, noncommercial, practical, and hands-on stories. Take a look at our editorial calendar — available
as part of the American Welding Society’s Media Kit at aws.org/wj — to see what topics will be highlighted in future is-
sues as well as the editorial deadlines. Potential ideas to focus on could include a case study, recent company project,
and tips for handling a particular process.
Here’s an easy breakdown of our guidelines:
• The text of the articles should be about 1500 to 2000 words and provided in a Word document.
• Line drawings, graphs, and photos should be seen as high-resolution JPG or TIFF files with a resolution of 300 or more
dots per inch.
• Plan on about one figure for every 500 words, and provide captions for every image. Also, if a nice lead photo is avail-
able, please include it for review.
• The authors’ names, along with the companies they work for and their positions, should be listed.
If you’d like to discuss a particular idea or email a submission for evaluation, please contact Features Editor Kristin
Campbell at kcampbell@aws.org.

92 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019

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 ADVERTISER INDEX

Arcos Industries, LLC Inside Back Cover Gullco International Inc. USA 57
arcos.us (800) 233-8460 ussales@gullco.com (440) 439-8333

AWS Certification 19 Hobart Brothers Co. 7

aws.org/certification (800) 443-9353, ext. 273 HobartBrothers.com/tiethatbinds (800) 532-2618

AWS Conferences 23
aws.org/conferences (800) 443-9353, ext. 273 Lincoln Electric Co. Outside Back Cover
lincolnelectric.com/
Ranger-330-MPX (216) 481-8100
AWS Foundation 28, 31
aws.org/foundation (800) 443-9353, ext. 250
MK Products 9
mkproducts.com (800) 787-9707
AWS Member Services 27, 51
aws.org/membership (800) 443-9353,
ext. 480 Plasma Cam 11
plasmacam.com (719) 676-2700
CM Industries 5
cmindustries.com (800) 530-0032
RPB Safety LLC 2
rpbsafety.com (866) 494-4599
Cor-Met 50
cor-met.com (800) 848-2719
Select-Arc Inc. Inside Front Cover
select-arc.com (800) 341-5215
Diamond Ground 13, 15
diamondground.com (805) 498-3837
Staubli 57
staubli.com (864) 486-5429
Fabtech 47
fabtechexpo.com
TRUMPF 1
trumpf.com (860) 255-6000
Fischer Technology 57
fischerengr.com (937) 754-1750
ULT Limited 46
ult-usa.com/airtower (414) 377-1376
Flexovit Abrasives 16
flexovitabrasives.com (800) 689-3539
Weld Engineering 29
weldengineering.com (508) 842-2224
G.A.L. Gage Company 22
galgage.com (269) 465-5750

Gedik Welding 17
gedikwelding.com (855) 245-1607

94 WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019


SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, JULY 2019
Sponsored by the American Welding Society
Laser-Enhanced Short-Circuiting
Metal Transfer in GMAW
Laser irradiation enhanced short-circuiting metal transfer under CC power
mode to control transfer frequency and improve process stability
BY S. J. CHEN, Y. Z. JIA, J. XIAO, AND T. WEN
ABSTRACT
Previously, pulsed laser-enhanced gas metal arc weld-
ing (GMAW) was studied toward the goal of realizing
current-independent free-flight metal transfer. However,
controlled low-spatter or even spatter-free short-circuiting
transfer would be more preferred in applications requiring
even lower heat input. Thereby, laser-enhanced metal
transfer was expanded to short-circuiting transfer by
using a relatively short arc. A constant current (CC) power
source was employed to avoid the current boost during
the short-circuiting period. The arc variables and metal
transfer dynamics were synchronously recorded. The
short-circuiting transfer behavior under constant and
pulsed laser irradiation were both observed and analyzed
in this study. The experimental results show the laser irra-
diation does enhance the short-circuiting metal transfer
under CC power mode in the ways of controlling the trans-
fer frequency and improving the process stability. The role
of the laser recoil force changes to first actively initiate
and then terminate the short-circuiting process between
the droplet and molten pool. The start and end of the
short-circuiting process both become controllable. A suffi-
ciently high short-circuiting current is no longer needed to
severely pinch the droplet and thus guarantee termination
of the short circuit. On the other hand, welding spatter
produced by the current boost in constant voltage (CV)
power mode is nearly eliminated. What is more, the trans-
fer frequency can be precisely controlled when using
pulsed laser irradiation. A kind of one-droplet-per-pulse
(ODPP) short-circuiting transfer, almost without spatter, is
obtained as desirable.
KEYWORDS
• Laser Irradiation • Short-Circuiting Transfer
• Current Waveform • One-Droplet-Per-Pulse Transfer
https://doi.org/10.29391/2019.98.016
WELDING RESEARCH
Introduction
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is currently the most wide-
ly used arc welding method in manufacturing, which is attrib-
uted to its high productivity by using a consumable wire elec-
trode and its good compatibility to automatic/robotic welding.
Short-circuiting GMAW (GMAW-S) is a variant of GMAW
where the wire-droplet compound periodically shorts the
circuit with the weld pool (Refs. 1–3). As a special variant of
GMAW, GMAW-S distinguishes itself by metal transfer from
typical free-flight transfer GMAW. Because of the short-
circuiting metal transfer, the arc in GMAW-S is periodically
terminated and then reignited. The typical advantage of
GMAW-S, compared with free-flight-transfer GMAW, is the
lower heat input to the workpiece. The obstacle of conven-
tional GMAW-S for stable arc and consistent metal transfer
is the lack of controllability on its short-circuiting metal
transfer. If appropriately controlled to significantly reduce
or even eliminate spatter to obtain smooth, gas tungsten arc
welding (GTAW) like surface tension absorption transfer,
GMAW-S promises clean operation with minimal fume/
smoke as with GTAW, but at GMAW speeds.
Conventional GMAW-S generally uses a constant voltage
(CV) power source associated with constant wire feed speed.
The adoption of a CV power source helps to maintain the
stability of the arc length no matter whether in short-
circuiting or free-flight-transfer mode. Setting a relatively
small arc voltage can keep the arc length short and thus en-
sure the droplet would always short circuit with the weld pool
when it grows to a relatively small size. On the other hand,
particularly for short-circuiting transfer, the CV power source
plays a crucial role in guaranteeing the break of the short-
circuiting liquid bridge and reignition of the arc, since the
welding current of a CV power source would rapidly boost
once short-circuiting occurs. Such a current boost affects in
two ways: 1) to produce a strong pinch effect on the short-
circuiting bridge to forcedly neck it; 2) to induce a local explo-
sion of the short-circuiting bridge due to the high current
density going through the necked bridge. With the assistance
JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 187-s
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 1 — Sketch of laser-enhanced short-circuiting metal
transfer system.
of these two effects of current boost and the surface tension-
driven absorption from the weld pool, the end of short-cir-
cuiting, i.e., the reigniting of the arc, is solidly ensured. How-
ever, in the view of fine control of short-circuiting transfer,
the pinch effect and surface tension absorption are both ap-
preciated but the explosion effect will not be due to the spat-
ter generated (Refs. 4, 5). However, using a constant current
(CC) power source with a variable-speed wire feed system can
provide a constant heat input to ensure stable and quantita-
tive melting of the wire, and the real waveform of the welding
current can be optimized for each specific application. How-
ever, the metal transfer independent of the current in CC
GMAW is a challenge. Especially for short-circuiting transfer,
it is going to be unstable due to the absence of high short-
circuiting current if no external force is introduced.
Based on this analysis, one can conclude that fine control of
GMAW-S lies in the way of ensuring robust initiation and ter-
mination of the drop-pool short-circuiting process. Conven-
tional GMAW-S adopting a CV power source is clearly an effec-
tive way but also produces an unstable arc and inconsistent
metal transfer, and it always has relatively severe spatter and
poor bead formation. During the past decades, the two major
successes in modification of GMAW-S have been surface ten-
sion transfer (STT) (Ref. 6) and cold metal transfer (CMT)
(Refs. 7–10). The STT method aims at precise control of cur-
rent waveform (Refs. 11–14). Its core purpose is to rapidly re-
duce the high short-circuiting current to a base level at the
very moment the high short-circuiting current has sufficiently
pinched the liquid bridge, thus it can be certainly absorbed and
detached to the weld pool by surface tension, meanwhile the
high-current-induced explosion is avoided. In this way, the
short-circuiting transfer becomes quite smooth and has very
low spatter.
Instead of current waveform control, CMT seeks a mechan-
ical enhancement of the metal transfer. When the droplet con-
tacts the molten pool, the wire is instantly pulled away from
the pool, and thus the droplet is detached and the arc is
reignited. Then the wire is fed toward the pool again until the
next short-circuit occurs. Cold metal transfer can achieve a sta-
ble short-circuiting transfer under a small current with almost
no spatter. The CMT method requires a complicated wire feed
system and the motors limit the dynamic performance.
Additionally, Zhang et al. proposed a double-electrode
188-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019, VOL. 98
Fig. 2 — Short-circuiting metal transfer behavior under the
condition of 80 A.
Fig. 3 — Illustration of welding direction.
GMAW process and control system, attempting to improve
controllability while maintaining the low heat input of
GMAW-S (Ref. 15). A bypass arc was established between the
wire and an additional electrode. Thereby, the total current
flowing through the wire and the base metal could be sepa-
rately controlled. The metal transfer can also be enhanced by
the bypass arc. However, the metal transfer was only of free-
flight mode.
Researchers at the University of Kentucky have proposed a
laser-enhanced GMAW process (Ref. 16). A CC power source
was adopted, and a laser beam was aimed at the droplet to par-
tially vaporize it, thus generating a recoil force to detach the
droplet (Refs. 17–19). Drop spray transfer was achieved in the
current range of 40–120 A with 0.8-mm ER70s-6 wire and
pure argon shielding gas.
In this paper, the authors are trying to expand the laser ir-
radiating method to short-circuiting metal transfer control. By
properly shortening the arc, the pendant droplet may be
forcedly elongated/driven to short circuit with the weld pool.
And the laser detaching effect still works after it, i.e., the
short-circuiting bridge would be forcedly cut off by the laser.
Thereby, both the initialization and termination of the short-
circuiting process can be actively controlled. This paper is go-
ing to experimentally verify the proposed laser-driven short-
circuiting metal transfer. Also, the effect of the laser parame-
ters will be analyzed.
Experimental Setup
The experimental system was composed of a laser sys-
tem, welding system, high-speed camera, data acquisition,
and control unit, as shown in Fig. 1. Available functions are
1) laser spot size, incident position, and incident angle can
be finely adjusted; 2) arc length in constant current (CC)
 WELDING RESEARCH

A A

B
B

Fig. 5 — Comparison of bead formation in Experiments 1 and 3;

Fig. 4 — Effect of welding direction of laser-enhanced short-
circuiting transfer: A — Laser behind; B — laser ahead.
mode can be controlled; and 3) synchronous acquisition of
droplet transfer image and welding electrical signal. A CC
power source was adopted. An IPG YLS4000 fiber laser was
used in the experiments for laser pulse output. The maxi-
mum power of the laser was 4000 W in continuous wave
(CW) mode, and it could be modulated into pulsed mode.
The laser spot diameter was about 0.5 mm. The welding
wire was ER70S-6 mild-steel wire with a diameter of 0.8
mm. Bead-on-plate welding was conducted on mild-steel
plates. The contact tip-to-workpiece distance (CTWD) was
set at 12 mm. Pure argon was used as the shielding gas at a
flow rate of 15 L/min. The high-speed camera worked at a
frame rate of 3000 frames per second (fps) in axis. The laser
incident point on the droplet was controlled by matching
the arc length. Test parameters are shown in Table 1.
Results and Discussion
Short-Circuiting Transfer of Low-Current
GMAW
Experiment 1 first analyzed the short-circuiting transfer
behavior in conventional GMAW. The current was 80 A. The
frequency of droplet transfer increased with the increase in
wire feeding speed. Figure 2 shows typical short-circuiting
A — Bead formation of GMAW-S with CC power source; B —
bead formation of laser-enhanced GMAW-S with CC power
source.
transfer behavior when wire feed speed is 2.0 m/min. The
transfer frequency was about 4 Hz. The droplet diameter at
the detaching moment was 2.1 mm. With the increase in
wire feed speed, the welding process became unstable. The
wire tended to dip into the workpiece/weld pool solidly and
then terminate the welding process due to the absence of
current boost in CC mode. Stable short-circuiting metal
transfer in CC-GMAW needs external control.
Effect of Welding Direction
The CW laser-enhanced short-circuit transfer was first veri-
fied in two weld directions. Since the laser installation was
fixed, the laser-droplet-pool profiles changed with the welding
direction — laser behind or laser ahead — as illustrated in Fig.
3. The typical metal transfers in Experiments 2 and 3 are
shown in Fig. 4A and B, respectively. First, one can see the
droplet is forced to contact the weld pool by the laser recoil
force. The short-circuit is initialized. After such a forced short-
circuiting, the laser still plays the role of forcedly necking and
further cutting off the short-circuit bridge to reignite the arc,
and without the high short-circuiting current-induced explo-
sion that is always associated with traditional GMAW-S. This
experimental result shows the laser irradiation method does
have the ability to force both the start and end of the short-
circuiting transfer. The stability and robustness of short-
circuit metal transfer thus can be guaranteed. Moreover, such

Table 1 — Arc and Laser Parameters

Current Base Laser Peak Pulse Pulse Laser-Arc
No. (I/A) Current Power Frequency Width Positioning
(Ih /A) (P/W) (/Hz) (t/ms)

1 80 — 0 — — —
2 80 — 2000 — — Laser behind
3 80 — 2000 — — Laser ahead
4 80 — 2000 — — Laser ahead
5 80 — 2000 25 2 Laser ahead
6 80 — 2000 25 6 Laser ahead
7 80 — 2000 25 10 Laser ahead
8 80 — 2000 50 6 Laser ahead
9 80 — 2000 75 6 Laser ahead
10 80 30 2000 75 6 Laser ahead

JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 189-s

WELDING RESEARCH

A A

Fig. 7 — Effect of different pulse widths under the condition

C of 25 Hz on metal transfer: A — 2-ms pulse laser width; B —
6-ms pulse laser width; C — 10-ms pulse laser width.

point on the pool surface is shorter. As such, the droplet is

forced to short circuit with the weld pool at a relatively smaller
size. The droplet diameter measured at the very short-circuit-
ing start moment of Experiment 2 is about 1.6 mm, but ap-
proximately 1.2 mm in Experiment 4 with laser ahead of the
arc in the welding direction.

D Effect of Laser Incident Position

Under the irradiation of the high-energy-density laser spot,

a vapor jet is produced against the droplet. The direction of
the vapor is not the same as the laser incident direction, but
actually in the normal direction of the local droplet surface
that is irradiated by the laser spot (Refs. 20, 21). In this case,
Fig. 6 — Illustration of laser incident point on droplet: A —
Metal transfer with laser aimed at drop mid-bottom; B — the most important laser incident parameter would be the
metal transfer with laser aimed at drop middle; C — metal laser incident position on the droplet. Small variations in the
transfer with laser aimed at drop mid-top; D — metal transfer laser incident point would not affect the metal transfer behav-
with laser aimed at drop neck. ior significantly.
In Experiment 4, the laser installation is fixed, and the irra-
diated position of the droplet is changed by controlling the arc
controllability is exactly the core of short-circuit metal transfer
length. As illustrated in Fig. 6A–D, the droplet incident point is
control. Figure 5 shows the bead formation of Experiments 1
controlled moving from the droplet mid-bottom to the neck.
and 3, respectively. It can be seen that the bead formation of
As shown in Fig. 5A, the arc is relatively longer than that of
Experiment 3, in which the laser is irradiating the droplet to
the normal GMAW-S process.
actively control the short-circuiting transfer, is much
Without the laser irradiation, the droplet would grow
smoother and more uniform. It is indicated that the laser-
large to contact the weld pool. Because the droplet mass cen-
driven method significantly increases the short-circuiting
ter is higher than the laser incident position (mid-bottom),
transfer frequency and the process is robust.
the main effect of the laser recoil force is to swing the
However, one can notice the difference between Fig. 4A and
droplet. Such a swinging effect is more intensive when the
B. In the case of laser behind, the droplet is pushed away from
droplet is still relatively small, but not intensive enough to
the front surface of the weld pool. Although the droplet is
detach the droplet in the repelled mode like that in CO2
elongated by the laser recoil force, it cannot contact the weld
welding. Consequently, the droplet keeps growing, and with
pool/workpiece until it grows large enough. In the case of laser
the increase in the droplet size, the nonaxisymmetric mass
ahead, the droplet is pushed toward the front surface of the
transfer is restricted and the wire-axial elongating effect
weld pool. It looks like the droplet is heading into the weld
gets stronger. The recoil force changes to a detaching force,
pool. The distance between the wire tip and short-circuiting

190-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019, VOL. 98


A B
Fig. 8 — Effect of different pulse frequencies on metal transfer: A — 50-Hz pulse frequency; B — 75-Hz pulse frequency.
Fig. 9 — Droplet diameters of different frequencies.
which elongates the droplet and thus initiates its short-
circuiting with the weld pool.
When the laser spot irradiates the middle of the droplet,
the height of the droplet mass center is approximately equal to
the laser incident position. The droplet is subjected to the re-
coil force of unpredictable direction and thus results in nonax-
isymmetric mass transfer. The transfer behavior is very similar
with the case, as Fig. 6B shows. The droplet is first repelled
and then forced short-circuited with the pool and then forced
detached. The detached droplet is still a relatively large size.
When the laser irradiates the mid-top of the droplet, as
shown in Fig. 6C, the recoil force mainly promotes the droplet
transfer, which produces axial droplet elongation, and still ra-
dial drift due to the use of a single-side laser. But they are not
strong enough to make the droplet contact with the molten
pool when the droplet is too small. When the droplet grows, it
is forced to contact with the molten pool and the force detach-
es it. However, the detached droplet size is apparently smaller.
When the laser beam irradiates the neck of the droplet, as
shown in Fig. 6D, the droplet elongation is strong enough to
force the droplet to contact with the molten pool under a
smaller size, of 1 mm. The average transfer frequency is about
80 Hz. This result again proves that the CW laser irradiation
method can generate adequate laser recoil force to replace the
electromagnetic force to neck and detach the droplet in short-
circuit mode. What is more, the laser also can actively initiate
the short-circuit with a relatively long arc and small droplet.
Effect of Laser Peak Pulse Width
Experiments 5–7 are conducted with pulsed laser irradia-
tion. The laser pulse frequency was fixed at 25 Hz, but the
laser peak width is 2, 6, and 10 ms, respectively. The laser was
WELDING RESEARCH
aimed at the droplet neck position. Figure 7 shows the droplet
transfer behavior under pulsed laser irradiation in those ex-
periments. As shown in Fig. 7A, the droplet deforms obviously
due to the laser recoil force, and the droplet is stretched and
shifted. However, due to the lack of laser peak width, the dura-
tion of recoil force is not long enough to push the droplet to
contact the pool. Two laser pulses are needed to facilitate the
desired short-circuiting transfer. In Fig. 7B, with the increase
in laser pulse width, the duration of laser recoil force is long
enough to first force the droplet short-circuiting and then cut
off the short-circuiting liquid bridge. Desired active short-
circuiting transfer is obtained. When the laser pulse width is
further increased to 10 ms, as shown in Fig. 7C, the laser still
presents after the droplet short-circuit process is completed.
At the very moment, the laser is actually aimed at the weld
pool since the next droplet has just been initiated. The vapor-
ization of the weld pool would help to enhance the arc stability
after the arc re-ignition. These results show the pulsed laser ir-
radiation can indeed lead to the desired control of active short-
circuiting start and end, but a minimum laser peak duration is
required to obtain one-pulse-per-drop short-circuiting trans-
fer. A little excessive pulse width contributes to shortening the
short-circuiting duration; it is 3.6 ms and 3.0 ms in Experi-
ments 6 and 7.
Effect of Laser Pulse Frequency
The results of Experiments 6, 8, and 9 are referred to ana-
lyze the effect of laser pulse frequency. The laser peak pulse in
these three experiments is set at 6 ms. As can be seen from
Fig. 8, with the increase in the laser pulse frequency, the metal
transfer mode is the desired active short-circuiting transfer,
but the critical droplet size decreases, as shown in Fig. 9. These
results further prove that the pulsed laser irradiation method
can produce enough recoil force to force the droplet to be
short-circuited and then detached, and the verified 75-Hz one-
pulse-per-droplet transfer demonstrates satisfactory dynamic
performance.
Analysis of Arc Variables
The recorded arc variable waveforms of Experiments 1, 4,
6, 8, and 9 are shown in Fig. 10A–E. Figure 10A is recorded
from Experiment 1, without laser irradiation. The irregular arc
voltage drop shows the uneven period between each short-
circuiting transfer. And there are some random instantaneous
short circuits between each transfer cycle. The current wave-
form shows an unexpected sharp boost during the short
-circuiting period even when the power supply works in CC
mode. The maximum short-circuiting current is near 125 A,
much lower than that of traditional CV GMAW-S. However,
JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 191-s
WELDING RESEARCH

A B

C D

Fig. 10 — Analysis of current and voltage signal acquisition: E

A — 80 A without laser; B — 80 A with CW laser; C — 80 A
with pulse laser of 25 Hz; D — 80 A with pulse laser of 50 Hz;
E — 80 A with pulse laser of 75 Hz.

such a relatively weak current boost still produces slight spat-

ter at the very moment of arc reignition. The reason for such a
current increase should lie in the power source itself.
Figure 10B corresponds to the results of Experiment 4,
where the laser works in CW mode and aims the droplet neck
position. Each negative pulse of arc voltage represents an oc-
currence of laser-driven short-circuiting transfer. However, it
can be clearly seen that the time interval between each trans-
fer is severely uneven, and the width of the negative pulses,
measuring the short-circuiting period, is also uneven. As such, seen from the figure, the current keeps at base for a little while
the CW laser-driven short-circuiting transfer is guaranteed but after the arc has been re-ignited. Actually, only the falling edge
not precisely predictable. of current needs to be synchronized with the laser pulse; the
Figure 10C corresponds to Experiment 6, 8, and 9. The only rising edge does not. The base current duration could fine ad-
difference is the laser pulse frequency. It can be seen that the just upon heat input preference.
metal transfer frequency exactly equals the laser pulse fre-
quency. Even the pulse of the negative pulse of arc voltage in
each experiment is approximately even. Conclusions
As mentioned in the laser subsection, the current still
jumps during the short-circuiting period and generates spat- 1) Both CW and pulsed laser irradiation can actively con-
ter. However, it is possible to reduce the short-circuit current if trol the short-circuiting transfer behavior. The start and end
it is intentionally reduced to a base level (30 A) right after the of short-circuiting between the droplet and weld pool both
laser pulse is emitted. In this way, the heat input to the weld become a laser-driven behavior.
pool can also be reduced. As shown in Fig. 11, the current and 2) Pulsed laser irradiation is optimal since one-drop-per-
laser waveforms are synchronized. Figure 12 shows the short- pulse short-circuiting transfer can be achieved in this mode.
circuiting transfer with a laser pulse frequency of 75 Hz and a The transfer frequency and droplet size can be controlled by
pulse width of 6 ms. When the laser is modulated, the current adjusting the laser pulse frequency. The metal transfer fre-
is reduced to a base value of 30 A. No spatter is observed dur- quency at 80-A current could be up to 75 Hz.
ing the short-circuiting transfer process. However, as can be 3) The process stability can be further improved by com-

192-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019, VOL. 98


Fig. 11 — Sketch of laser-current cooperative control metal
transfer.
bining the pulsed laser irradiation and current waveform
control. Spatter during the short-circuiting process can be
almost eliminated and the heat input during short-circuiting
can be reduced by synchronously reducing the current base
when the laser pulse is emitted.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Natural Science Founda-
tion of China under grants 51505009 and 51575133.
References
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width, and 30-A base current: A — Acquisition signal of current
and voltage; B — high-speed camera pictures of metal transfer.
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11. Stava, E. K. 1992. System and Method of Short Circuiting Arc
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12. Stava, E. K. 1993. The surface-tension-transfer power source:
A new low-spatter arc welding machine. Welding Journal 72(1): 25–29.
13. Kim, Y. S., and Eagar, T. W. 1993. Analysis of metal transfer in
gas metal arc welding. Welding Journal 72(6): 269-s to 278-s.
14. Rhee, S., and Kannatey-Asibu, E. 1991. Analysis of arc pres-
sure effect on metal transfer in gas metal arc welding. J. Phys. D: Appl.
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15. Li, K. H., Chen, J., and Zhang, Y. M. 2007. Double-electrode
GMAW process and control. Welding Journal 86(8): 231-s to 237-s.
16. Huang, Y., and Zhang, Y. M. 2010. Laser-enhanced GMAW.
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17. Huang, Y., and Zhang, Y. M. 2011. Laser-enhanced metal
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18. Huang, Y., and Zhang, Y. M. 2011. Laser-enhanced metal
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19. Shao, Y., and Zhang, Y. M. 2014. Pulsed laser enhanced
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SHUJUN CHEN, YAZHOU JIA, JUN XIAO (jun.xiao@bjut.edu.cn), and
TAO WEN are with the Engineering Research Center of Advanced
Manufacturing Technology for Automotive Components, Min-
istry of Education, College of Mechanical Engineering and Ap-
plied Electronics, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, China.
JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 193-s
WELDING RESEARCH
Dynamic Behavior of Solder Filling
during Ultrasonic Soldering
What’s claimed to be the first in-situ observations of capillary filling and
acoustic cavitation during ultrasonic soldering were illustrated
BY Z. XU, Z. LI, L. MA, Z. CAO, J. YANG, AND J. YAN
ABSTRACT
In this work, the dynamic behavior of solder filling in a
nonwetting joint capillary under ultrasonic agitation was vi-
sually observed by using a high-speed camera. The filling
process, sputtering of solder, and cavitation phenomena
were recorded and discussed. Filling variation was correlat-
ed with ultrasonic power, base material type, and clearance
width. Notably, the filling rate of liquid metal varied along
the joint clearance and was dependent on the surface vi-
bration strength of the substrate. The sputtering and cavi-
tation of liquid metal became pronounced when the sur-
face vibration of the base material exceeded a critical val-
ue. High ultrasonic power, high base material stiffness, and
narrow clearance increased filling rate. The evidence in this
research showed cavitation is not necessary for initiation
of the ultrasonic capillary effect.
KEYWORDS
• Ultrasonic Soldering • Capillary • Cavitation
• Ultrasonic Power • Clearance Width
Introduction
Ultrasonic soldering involves the induction of high-
frequency mechanical vibrations into molten solder and the
induction of cavitation (Ref. 1). Cavitation stresses disrupt and
disperse oxide layers and other contaminants on the surfaces
of the components covered by the molten solder. These phe-
nomena enable the molten solder to wet the clean surfaces of
the base material surfaces (Refs. 2, 3). In contrast to conven-
tional soldering, ultrasonic soldering can do the following: 1)
solder materials containing resistant surface oxides, such as
Al, Mg, Ti, and their alloys (Refs. 4, 5); 2) prevent exposure to
potentially hazardous materials and postcleaning operations
by eliminating flux; and 3) improve joint corrosion resistance
by preventing flux entrapment (Refs. 6–8).
The production of high-quality joints through ultrasonic
soldering is based on the effective agitation of the molten sol-
194-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019, VOL. 98
der and the generation of sufficient cavitation intensity. In the
earliest ultrasonic-soldering processes, the solder is directly
agitated by an ultrasonic generator (Refs. 9–12). Ultrasonic
energy is applied directly to the molten solder either with a
soldering iron or solder pot, which is also referred to as a sol-
der bath or solder tank, to promote substrate wetting. Solder-
ing iron is operated at ultrasonic frequencies and internally
heated to provide heat and vibration to the solder (Ref. 10). Vi-
bration and cavitation in the molten solder then permit the
solder to wet and adhere to the base material surfaces. This
process shows high efficiency in applications involving small
joint areas but requires the predeposition of the solder on the
surfaces of large joint areas, which results in productivity loss.
Similar to that of ultrasonic cleaners, the operation of the sol-
der pot involves attaching acoustic transducers directly to the
bottom of the pot and inducing cavitation in the volume of the
molten solder (Ref. 9). The substrates must be immersed in
the solder pool to produce a joint (Ref. 11). The use of the sol-
der pool enables handling of soldering joint batches and dras-
tically increases production. The liquid solder attenuates in-
tensely and rapidly because of its high acoustic impedance as
ultrasonic energy is transmitted from the bottom of the solder
bath and dispersed within the entire solder. Thus, the intensi-
ty and distribution of the cavitation field within the solder
pool become complex, and the quality of the soldered joints is
highly sensitive to the immersion depth (Ref. 12).
Recently, ultrasonic energy has been coupled with clamping
fixtures or base materials to agitate molten solder given the
high flexibility and efficient acoustic energy utilization of this
approach (Ref. 13). Faridi (Ref. 14) demonstrated the feasibili-
ty of the flux-free ultrasonic soldering of Al and stainless steel
lap joints via transmitting the ultrasonic energy through a sol-
id aluminum fixture and base material sheets. Weis et. al. (Ref.
15), Nagaoka et. al. (Refs. 16, 17), Tillmann et. al. (Ref. 18),
and Elrefaey et. al.(Ref. 19) coupled a sonotrode directly to the
base materials, to transmit ultrasonic energy, that was trans-
mitted to the molten solder. In these studies, solders were pre-
loaded between faying faces without exception. Most re-
searchers likely believed that spontaneous capillary action can-
not occur because, in contrast to flux, ultrasound cannot func-
tion as a wetting agent to remove the surface oxides of the
substrates ahead of the molten solder and to reduce the sur-
https://doi.org/10.29391/2019.98.017

Fig. 1 — Schematic of ultrasonic-assisted solder filling.
face tension of the liquid solder. We previously found that
even if the liquid solder did not wet the substrate, the solder
droplet located at the entrance of the overlap joint readily
filled the clearance at an incredibly high rate when ultrasonic
waves were imposed on the substrates in air (Refs. 20, 21).
This phenomenon differed from that observed in flux-assisted
or vacuum soldering, wherein capillary filling is entirely de-
pendent on the wetting of the substrates by the liquid solder.
The abnormally rapid ascent/filling of a liquid inside
capillaries, canals, pores, and voids when the liquid volume
is subjected to a high-intensity ultrasonic field has also
been observed in various important technological and
chemical processes related to microfluidic systems (Refs.
22, 23), bio-sludge and biomass processing (Ref. 24), mem-
brane filtration (Ref. 25), ceramic filtration (Ref. 26), mi-
crobiology (Ref. 27), and high-quality metal casting (Refs.
28, 29). This phenomenon is known as the sono-capillary
or ultrasonic capillary effect (UCE) and has attracted con-
siderable attention from researchers in the aforemen-
tioned fields. Researchers have developed several hypothe-
ses regarding the mechanism underlying the UCE (Refs.
30–36). For example, Malykh et al. (Ref. 32) and
Dezhkunov et al. (Ref. 30) correlated cavitation status at
entrances of capillary tubes with water capillary rise and
suggested that cavitation generation is required for the
UCE, given that drastic capillary ascent occurred when a
capillary was placed in a developed cavitation area and liq-
uid did not ascend in capillaries in the absence of cavita-
tion. Similarly, Sankin and Malykh (Ref. 33), as well as
Tamura and Hatakeyama (Ref. 34), believed the counter-
pressure arising from the interactions between capillaries
and cavitation bubbles that formed at the open ends of the
capillaries increased liquid height. In line with these re-
Table 1 — Physical and Mechanical Properties of the Base Materials
Material Modulus of Elasticity (GPa)
Pure Al 68.9
5056 Al 71.7
Fe36Ni 142
WELDING RESEARCH
search findings was the recent work of Tzanakis et al. (Ref.
37), who observed the UCE in molten Al in situ by using
synchrotron x-ray radiography and hypothesized that the
collapse of cavitation bubbles in the vicinity of microcapil-
lary inlets is the possible mechanism responsible for the
UCE.
By contrast, Hu et al. (Ref. 38) claimed that the acoustic
cavitation is not a necessary condition of UCE, as it may oc-
cur in the ultrasonic capillary action. They investigated an
ultrasonic actuator that applied ultrasound-induced capil-
lary action to transport miniscule quantities of liquid in a
twisted bundle of metal wires, and they proposed that ultra-
sound energy might weaken cohesive forces among liquid
molecules. They also proposed that liquid capillary flow oc-
curs when the adsorption force between the capillary tube
and liquid exceeds the cohesive force. Rozina et al. (Ref. 22)
also reported that the filling of dead-end capillaries with a
liquid in an ultrasonic field was mainly affected by gas disso-
lution inside the capillary rather than cavitation. Additional-
ly, Cecchini et al. (Ref. 39) demonstrated surface-acoustic-
wave-driven microfluidics in polydimethilsiloxane-LiNbO3
microchannels and showed that the evolution of the atomiz-
ing droplets within fluidic channels and their interaction
with the liquid meniscus determined rapid fluid movement.
The mechanism governing the UCE remains a point of
debate, and the role of cavitation in this phenomenon re-
mains an open subject for further investigation. Therefore,
in this research a high-speed camera was used to record the
ultrasonically induced filling of liquid solder in a joint clear-
ance. High-speed photography has a faster acquisition rate
than synchrotron x-ray imaging technology. Solder filling
under ultrasonic exposure and its influential factors were
analyzed through high-speed photography combined with
finite-element calculation. To the best of our knowledge,
this work is the first to observe the dynamics of capillary
filling and cavitation in ultrasonic soldering directly. This
novel research is a small step toward understanding the na-
ture of ultrasonic soldering.
Experimental Procedures
Base Materials and Solders
Pure Al, 5056 Al alloy, and Fe36Ni provided by North-
east Light Alloy Co. Ltd. were used as base materials in this
study. The physical and mechanical properties of the base
materials are given in Table 1. The dimensions of the base
materials were 50  10  3 mm. The solders used in this
work were Sn-9Zn, Sn-4Cu, and Zn-5Al, which have melt-
ing points of 191°, 271°, and 380°C, respectively.
Density (kg/cm3) Poisson’s Ratio
2.7 0.31
2.64 0.31
8.1 0.31
JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 195-s
WELDING RESEARCH

A B

C D

E F

Fig. 2 — Filling of Sn-9Zn solder in 5056 Al capillary (Mode II, 500 m): A — 0 s; B — 0.05 s; C — 0.1 s; D — 0.15 s; E — 0.2 s; F — 0.25 s.

Ultrasonic Soldering Experiment

The schematic of ultrasonic soldering is shown in Fig. 1.
A transparent quartz glass was used as the top specimen,
and metal materials were used as the bottom specimen. Sol-
der filling could be observed through the top specimen. Ul-
trasonic waves were transmitted to the bottom specimen
during soldering. Vibration status along the specimen would
drastically affect solder filling. During the soldering experi-
ment, the sonotrode was fixed against the bottom specimen
with a pressure of 0.2 MPa and operated at a frequency of 20
kHz. The ultrasonic vibration system had a maximum rated
power (Pm) of 1000 W. Three modes of power output were
used: 1⁄3 Pm (Mode I), 2⁄3 Pm (Mode II), and Pm (Mode III).
The clearance width between the glass and metal material
was in the range of 200–700 m.
In the ultrasonic soldering experiment, the solder mate- Fig. 3 — Variation in filling velocity with distance during filling
(Sn-9Zn in 5056 Al capillary, Mode II, 500 m).
rial was placed on the bottom plate close to the clearance.
Next, the solder was heated to the test temperature (ap-
proximately 30°C above the melting point of the solder) frames/s and the resolution of 256  256 dots per inch.
and then ultrasonic vibration was applied. A high-speed The filling velocity and process were analyzed by using the
camera (Phantom V12.1) equipped with macro lens (Toki- analytical software packaged with the high-speed camera.
na 100 mm F2.8MACRO) was used to record the whole fill- At least three samples were tested for each experimental
ing process. Images were acquired with the rate of 5000 condition.

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 WELDING RESEARCH

D
E

F
G

Fig. 4 — Filling progresses of (Sn-9Zn, Mode II, 200 m): A — D E

Pure Al; B — 5056 Al; and C — Fe36Ni; along with D — cavita-
tion bubbles by using 5056 Al; E — sputtering by using 5056
Al; F — cavitation bubbles by using Fe36Ni; G — sputtering
by using Fe36Ni.

Results

Ultrasonic-Induced Filling F G

Figure 2 shows the filling of the 5056 Al clearance by the

Sn-9Zn solder under different ultrasonic exposure dura-
tions, ultrasonic power mode of Mode II, clearance width of
500 m, and heating temperature of 220°C. Solder filling
did not occur prior to the application of ultrasonic vibration
but occurred immediately after ultrasonic application — Fig.
2A. During filling, peripheral solder advanced before the ing section, the filling velocity of the solder was closely relat-
central solder — Fig. 2B. Subsequently, the movement of ed to the vibration conditions on the sheet surfaces.
the central solder accelerated. As shown in Fig. 2C, the filler
front appeared almost parallel after 0.15 s of ultrasonica-
tion. The velocity of the central solder was still greater than Factors Affecting Ultrasonic-Induced Filling
that of the peripheral solder, and the solder front became a
convex interface at 0.2 s, as shown in Fig. 2D. Then the en- This section presents an analysis of the influence of dif-
tire interface moved forward as a stable convex front and ferent factors, including filling velocity, cavitation, and sput-
decreased velocity — Fig. 2E. Filling observably accelerated tering phenomena, on filling.
at the final phase — Fig. 2F.
Figure 3 shows the changes in the velocity of the solder
front at different positions during filling. The filling veloci- Influence of the Base Material
ties reached high values at the initial stage of filling. Then,
the filling velocities of the central and peripheral solders de- Figure 4 shows the different filling progresses by using dif-
creased, and the minimum filling velocities were obtained at ferent base materials. The solder was Sn-9Zn. The clearance
the filling distance of 15 mm. Subsequently, filling velocity width was 200 m, and the ultrasonic power mode was Mode
drastically increased at the final stage. The central solder II. When the base material was pure Al, filling was stable, and
initially lagged behind the peripheral solder but then caught the solder proceeded as a mirror surface without observable
up quickly. In general, the filling velocities at different posi- sputtering at the solder front. At an ultrasonic time of 0.1 s,
tions remained almost constant. As discussed in the follow- the solder filled the half distance of the clearance — Fig. 4A.

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WELDING RESEARCH

C
D E

D E

Fig. 5 — Filling velocities of different base materials (Sn-9Zn,

200 m, Mode II).

The entire clearance was filled at the ultrasonic time of ap-

proximately 0.5 s. Pronounced sputtering was observed at the
solder front, and the sputtering droplets of Sn-9Zn were large
by using 5056 Al material — Fig. 4B. In addition to the sput- Fig. 6 — Filling of Sn-9Zn solder in pure Al (200 m) under
the following: A — Mode I; B — Mode II; C — Mode III; along
tering phenomenon, numerous macroscopic cavitation bub-
with D — sputtering; E — cavitation bubbles.
bles were observed at the glass/solder interface — Fig. 4D and
E. Meanwhile, continuous lateral overflow, namely, liquid sol-
der flowing out of the lateral sides of the clearance, was ob-
served during the filling progress. Filling with Sn-9Zn was
faster than that on pure Al substrates, as presented in Fig. 4A.
As shown in Fig. 4B, the entire clearance was filled at an ultra-
sonic time of approximately 0.45 s.
Capillary filling with Fe36Ni was the most intense and
exhibited the fastest rate (approximately 0.15 s as present-
ed in Fig. 4C). It was also accompanied by severe sputter-
ing (Fig. 4G) and lateral solder overflow and highly intense
cavitation (Fig. 4F). The excessively intense ultrasonic
strength even fractured the glass plate. Sputtering and
subsequent overflow resulted in the serious depletion of
solders and prevented the formation of a sound joint.
Figure 5 shows the average filling velocities of Sn-9Zn
solder for different base materials. Filling velocity using Fig. 7 — Filling velocities of Sn-9Zn in pure Al clearance under
pure Al was the slowest, followed by that for 5056 Al. The different ultrasonic power modes (200 m).
filling speed using Fe36Ni was the highest. However, fast
filling velocity was associated with serious solder loss that
Mode III. Sputtering (Fig. 6D) and some small cavitation
resulted in the formation of pores and unfilled defects and
bubbles (Fig. 6E) were observed at the solder front. The lat-
prevented the formation of a sound solder joint.
eral overflow phenomenon also intensified — Fig. 6C.
The filling velocities of the Sn-9Zn solder in the pure Al
Influence of Ultrasonic Power clearance under different ultrasonic powers are provided in
Fig. 7. Notably, the extremely low filling velocity of 4.9
Figure 6 shows the filling of Sn-9Zn solder in the pure Al mm/s was observed under Mode I. Filling velocity drastically
capillary under different ultrasonic power modes. Filling increased when the ultrasonic power increased to Mode II.
was slow under Mode I — Fig. 6A. The solder failed to fill Figure 7 shows that the filling velocity was 40.4 mm/s under
the entire capillary at the given time of 4 s. As presented in Mode II. Filling velocity slightly increased to 51.7 mm/s un-
Fig. 6A, the solder only filled one third of the capillary at the der Mode III.
ultrasonication time of 1.6 s. No macroscopic cavitation
bubbles and sputtering were observed throughout the en-
tirety of the filling processes. Filling velocity increased un- Influence of Clearance Width
der high ultrasonic power — Fig. 6B and C. As illustrated in
Fig. 6B, the solder filled half of the capillary at an ultrasoni- Figure 8 presents the different stages of filling of Sn-9Zn
cation time of 0.15 s under Mode II. Similar to that shown on the base material 5056 Al under different clearance sizes
in Fig. 6A, macroscopic cavitation bubbles and sputtering and Mode II. Filling was slow under these conditions. Filling
were not observed during filling. Filling intensified under under the channel width of 700 m is illustrated in Fig. 8A.

198-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019, VOL. 98


Fig. 8 — Filling under these different clearance widths (Mode
II, Sn-9Zn): A — 700; B — 500 m.
Only one third of the clearance was filled at an ultrasonication
time of 1 s. As shown in Fig. 8B, filling velocity drastically in-
creased as clearance width decreased. More than half of the
clearance was filled at an ultrasonication time of 3 s — Fig. 8B.
Filling considerably accelerated when the clearance width fur-
ther decreased to 200 m, as displayed in Fig. 4B.
Figure 9 shows the average filling velocities of the solder
under different clearance widths. Notably, the filling speed
exceeded 40 mm/s under the channel width of 200 m. Fill-
ing velocity considerably decreased as clearance width in-
creased. The filling velocity was only 8.74 mm/s under the
channel width of 700 m. The solder volume to be driven by
ultrasonic power increased. Filling resistance accordingly in-
creased when clearance width increased. In a large clearance,
sound waves must propagate over a long distance from the
lower to the upper base material. Acoustic attenuation in-
tensified during sound wave propagation, and the sound
field strength weakened. These two factors likely con-
tributed to the reduction in filling rate.
Influence of Solder Type
Sn-4Cu and Zn-5Al solders were used in the experiment
discussed in this section. The experiment was performed with
5056 Al base material under Mode II. Figure 10 shows the fill-
ing processes of the different solders. The filling process of Sn-
4Cu was considerably slower than that of Sn-9Zn, as presented
in Fig. 4B. Solder filling was hindered as viscosity increased.
Numerous tiny cavitation bubbles were present in the clear-
ance of the Sn-Cu solder. As illustrated in Fig. 10A, the filling
front was irregular, and the inconsistent forward movement of
the solder front may surround some gas to form large “trapped
bubbles.” The inconsistency of the solder front also resulted in
the introduction of air in the solder joint, which generated ad-
ditional stable air bubbles that could not be discharged and
were likely to form porosity. The filling process of Zn-5Al is
given in Fig. 10B. The filling process of Zn-Al was considerably
slower than that of Sn-9Zn and Sn-4Cu. The Zn-5Al solder
cannot fill the entire clearance at the ultrasonication time of 4
s. Minuscule cavitation bubbles, but not air bubbles, were ob-
served in the clearance.
The viscosities and average filling velocities of the solders
are presented in Fig. 11. The viscosities of the solders were
obtained from references (Refs. 40–42). Solder filling veloci-
ties were inversely proportional to solder viscosities. To illus-
trate, the Sn-9Zn solder had the lowest viscosity and the high-
est filling velocity. By contrast, the Zn-5Al solder had the
highest viscosity but the lowest filling velocity. Therefore, fill-
ing clearances with highly viscous solders will be difficult.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 9 — Variation in filling velocity with clearance width
(Mode II, Sn-9Zn).
A
B
Fig. 10 — Filling processes (Mode II, 200 m) of the following:
A — Sn-4Cu; B — Zn-5Al.
The surface vibration of the base material, which has its
own specific characteristics, has a crucial effect on the dy-
namics of liquid solders in capillaries when ultrasonic ener-
gy is input from a solid substrate. The surface vibration
strength of the base material must be sufficiently high to
drive the liquid solder to penetrate the capillary. However,
excessively high ultrasonic strength might cause serious
lateral overflow and solder sputtering during capillary fill-
ing and prevent the production of sound joints by inducing
heavy solder loss. In accordance with acoustic law, differ-
ent base materials have different acoustic propagation
characteristics. Base data on the acoustic distribution of
the substrate surface must be acquired to guide the pro-
duction of sound joints through soldering. For a given base
material, the input ultrasonic strength, the joint clearance,
and other factors that affect the sound strength in the sol-
der must be well coordinated to ensure full capillary filling
and adequate cavitation strength for the removal of sur-
face oxide films.
Discussion
Surface Vibration of the Base Material and
Its Influence on Solder Filling
In our previous work (Ref. 43), we found that solder
spreading/wetting on base material largely depended on the
vibration intensity of the base material surface. Large
spreading area and complete oxide removal were observed at
regions of high vibration intensity. Therefore, the vibration
JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 199-s
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 11 — Solder viscosities and average filling velocities of
different solder materials (Mode II, 200 m).
Fig. 13 — Surface amplitude curves of the filling area along
the x-axis for different base metals.
intensity of the base material has a definitive effect on sol-
der filling velocity.
Sound intensity is used to characterize ultrasound propa-
gation in solids. When sound wave frequency and excitation
amplitude are constant, sound intensity in different solids is
proportional to the characteristic impedance of the solid
materials, as shown in Equation 1.
1 area corresponded with the filling velocity illustrated in Fig.
I = z0 A2 2 (1)
2 along the axial direction corresponded to the change in vi-
where I is sound intensity, z0 is the characteristic impedance
of the solid material, A is excitation amplitude, and  is
acoustic angular frequency.
The characteristic impedance of the material is mainly
dependent on the physical properties of the material itself,
as shown in Equation 2.
Table 2 — Characteristic Impedance of the Base Materials
Material Pure Al
Characteristic 13.64 × 103
Impedance
200-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019, VOL. 98
Fig. 12 — Vibration calculation results for the 5056 Al alloy
surface.
E
z0 = 0 c0 = 0 = 0E (2)
0
where 0 is material density, c0 is the propagation velocity of
sound waves in the material, and E is the elastic modulus of
the material. Therefore, acoustic transmission intensity will
differ among different materials. The characteristic imped-
ances of different materials were calculated with Equation 2
and are given in Table 2.
Figure 12 shows the vibration on the 5056 Al surface un-
der Mode II at 220°C. Ultrasonic vibration was applied to
the left side of the specimen (dotted area in Fig. 12). The
length of the filling area in the filling experiment was ap-
proximately 20 mm. As illustrated in Fig. 12, the vibration
nephogram was symmetrical along the x-axis and was divid-
ed into several regions with different colors, which repre-
sent different amplitudes. The maximum amplitude was ob-
served at the red zone at the ending of the filling area, and
the minimum amplitude was observed at the green area.
The solder was placed near the blue area near the filling
area. The amplitude of this area gradually increased along
the positive x-axis axis direction. Therefore, the filling veloc-
ity was relatively fast at the initial filling stage (Fig. 3). In
the filling area, the vibration amplitude first decreased and
then increased along the positive x-axis direction. The law
governing the variation of the amplitude inside the filling
3. Merging Figs. 2, 3, and 12 revealed that the filling velocity
bration distribution on the plate surface. That is, the liquid
solder advanced fast where the surface vibration was strong
and moved slowly where the surface vibration was weak.
Also, it could be deduced that the presence of liquid solder
in the clearance did not alter the vibration pattern of the
base material. The liquid solder in the clearance might
slightly depress the surface vibration of the base material.
5056 Al Fe36Ni
13.76 × 103 34.15 × 103

However, the effect could be neglected because the solder
film was only hundreds of micrometers in thickness.
As illustrated in Fig. 2B, the peripheral solder had high-
er filling velocity than the central solder at the ultrasonica-
tion time of 0.05 s because vibration intensity at the base
material periphery was stronger than that at the base ma-
terial center. As previously discussed, strong vibration in-
creased filling velocity. Thus, the filling process of the pe-
ripheral solder accelerated. As filling continued, the filling
velocity of the central solder increased and gradually ex-
ceeded that of the peripheral solder — Fig. 3. The solder
front became convex at an ultrasonication time of 0.2 s
(Fig. 2D) because sound pressure inside the side solder de-
creased. Sound pressure drastically decreased because the
peripheral solder was in direct contact with air. Therefore,
the filling velocity of the side solder decreased. Meanwhile,
sound pressure inside the central solder remained at a high
level because it did not come in contact with air. Thus, the
velocity of the central solder gradually became higher than
that of the side solder.
Given this theory, the solder front should remain convex
during the whole filling process. However, Fig. 4 shows that
the solder filling front did not follow a strict convex mor-
phology throughout the entire filling process. This was be-
cause the sustained strong ultrasonic vibration might cause
unparalleling of the two substrate plates, resulting in the
unevenness of the clearance width. Thus, the solder filling
velocity was influenced locally, and the convex morphology
of the filling front was spoiled.
Figure 13 shows the variation curves of the amplitude
along the x-axis of the filling areas of the different base ma-
terials. In general, amplitudes on the base materials first in-
creased, then decreased, and finally increased. The vibration
intensity of the pure Al base material was the lowest, fol-
lowed by that of the 5056 Al substrate. Fe36Ni exhibited the
strongest vibration intensity. The vibration intensity on the
substrate was mainly determined by the characteristic im-
pedance of the substrates. Pure Al had the lowest character-
istic impedance (Table 2). Thus, the amplitudes on the pure
Al surface were the weakest. By contrast, the characteristic
impedance of Fe36Ni was the highest and therefore resulted
in the strongest surface vibration intensity. Merging Figs. 4
and 5 with Fig. 13 revealed that the filling velocities ob-
tained by different base materials corresponded well to the
vibration intensity on substrate surfaces. Strong vibration
intensity indicates fast filling. Additionally, it’s more obvi-
ous that the filling velocity along the clearance correspond-
ed well to the vibration distribution on the base material
surface by combining Figs. 3 and 13.
Influence of Ultrasonic Power
Vibration intensity on the base material surface was not
only determined by impedance but also by the input ultra-
sonic power. We previously found that strong vibration can
be obtained under high ultrasonic power, regardless of the
fact the vibration pattern (as Figs. 12 and 13 depict) would
not be altered by the input power level (Refs. 43, 44). There-
fore, the vibration intensity on pure Al was the weakest un-
der Mode I and the strongest under Mode III. Strong vibra-
tion accelerated solder filling, as shown in Figs. 6 and 7.
WELDING RESEARCH
In addition, as presented in Fig. 6, no cavitation bubbles
and sputtering occurred during filling under Modes I and II.
Nevertheless, cavitation bubbles and sputtering were ob-
served under Mode III. The presence of cavitation bubbles
and sputtering could be attributed to the sound pressures
induced inside the solders under different ultrasonic pow-
ers. The sound pressure inside the solders did not reach the
cavitation threshold under Modes I and II but reached the
cavitation threshold at some regions under Mode III. Ultra-
sonic power was transmitted from the sonotrode to the sol-
der. We assumed that solder volume was the same at differ-
ent powers because the clearance width was unchanged.
Therefore, the ultrasonic vibration intensity inside the sol-
der under Mode III was thrice that under Mode I. High ul-
trasonic intensity inside the solder resulted in cavitation
and sputtering at the solder front and increased the filling-
driving force.
Influence of Clearance Width
As shown in Figs. 8 and 9, the clearance width between
base materials had a drastic influence on filling velocity.
Small clearance width resulted in faster filling velocity. This
phenomenon can be attributed to the generation of differ-
ent sound pressures inside clearances with different widths.
Ultrasound first propagated along the lower sheet, then
transmitted into the solder, and finally reached the upper
sheet. During propagation, ultrasound can fluctuate when
passing through different media and is reflected after reach-
ing the medium boundaries. Ultrasound exhibited fluctua-
tions and different reflection times inside clearances with
small widths. These phenomena increased sound pressure
inside the solder. High sound pressure promoted cavitation.
Thus, numerous cavitation bubbles were observed at the sol-
der/base material surface under the channel width of 200
m but not under the channel widths of 500 and 700 m
because of reductions in sound pressure. Cavitation caused
by high sound pressure promoted capillary filling. There-
fore, fast filling was obtained under the channel width of
200 m. Although no cavitation was observed under the
clearance width of 500 m, the sound pressure inside the
clearance was still considerably larger than that at 700 m.
Thus, fast filling speed was observed.
Determination of the Necessity of Cavitation
for Ultrasonic Capillary
In this work, when using 5056 Al as the base material,
cavitation bubbles were observed during filling under a
channel width of 200 m. However, cavitation bubbles were
absent and slow filling was observed under channel widths
of 500 and 700 m. Similarly, for the filling process in pure
Al clearances, as shown in Fig. 6A and B, the liquid solder
rapidly advanced in the absence of cavitation. Therefore, we
concluded that cavitation is not an essential condition for
horizontal capillary movement. This finding is quite differ-
ent from that found in Ref. 37, which claimed that the col-
lapse of cavitation bubbles in the vicinity of the inlet micro-
capillary inlet was responsible for the ultrasonic capillary
effect.
In our previous work (Ref. 45), we observed the ultra-
JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 201-s
WELDING RESEARCH
sonic-induced ascent of the Sn-9Zn solder in a vertical Al
alloy capillary above the normal solder level. As the solder
rise in the capillary was nearly independent of its wettabil-
ity to the aluminum substrate, its driving force was specu-
lated to be a pressure deviation between the solder bath
and the solder in the clearance. This was examined by us-
ing a water/glass sonocapillary system, in which the
acoustic pressure outside and inside the capillary was
measured by using an acoustic pressure meter. The test re-
sults showed that a considerable decline of acoustic pres-
sure did exist from the outside to the inside of the capil-
lary. A model for the propagation of ultrasonic waves in
the capillary was proposed and the acoustic pressure drop
in the capillary was attributed to the fast attenuation of ul-
trasonic energy when ultrasonic waves transmitted from
the solder bath into the capillary. Similarly, the horizontal
ultrasonic capillary observed in the present work should
follow the same mechanism, although the gravity played a
different role on the solder filling. Under ultrasonication,
ultrasonic waves transmitted into the solder droplet locat-
ed at the entrance of the joint clearance. The solder droplet
subjected to ultrasonic vibration deformed and spread on
the substrate, and some of the liquid solder penetrated
into the clearance. Once there existed liquid solder (even a
small volume) in the clearance, acoustic pressure differen-
tial came into being between the outside and inside of the
clearance, and the liquid solder outside the capillary would
be driven to continuously fill into the joint clearance. It
could be seen from the results shown before (Figs. 4–7, 12,
13) that faster solder filling was obtained under stronger
surface vibration of base materials. That means the
acoustic pressure differential became larger when the liq-
uid solder was agitated more intensely by ultrasonic. When
the agitation was intense enough, cavitation took place in
the liquid solder. Therefore, cavitation was an accompany-
ing phenomenon of solder filling, other than the cause of
solder filling.
Conclusions
1. Solder filling velocity was closely related to the vibra-
tion intensity of the base materials. Solder filling velocity
first decreased and then increased. Fe36Ni had the
strongest vibration intensity on its surface and therefore ex-
hibited the fastest filling process, which was accompanied by
severe sputtering and cavitation.
2. High power accelerated filling by increasing vibration
intensity on the base material surfaces. Narrow clearance
width accelerated the filling process by increasing ultrasonic
power inside the solder. Highly viscous solders had low fill-
ing velocities.
3. Cavitation is not an essential condition for horizontal
capillary. Similar to vertical capillary, solder filling is driven
by the acoustic pressure differential between the outside
and inside of the capillary.
Acknowledgments
This project was supported by the National Natural Sci-
ence Foundation of China (No. 51574099, 51435004).
202-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019, VOL. 98
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ZHIWU XU (xuzw@hit.edu.cn), ZHENGWEI LI (qingdaolzw-
@163.com), LIN MA, ZIWEI CAO, and JIUCHUN YAN are with the
State Key Laboratory of Advanced Welding and Joining, Harbin
Institute of Technology, Harbin, China. JIANGUO YANG is with the
Institute of Process Equipment and Control Engineering, Zhe-
jiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China.

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JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 203-s

WELDING RESEARCH
Undercut Formation Mechanism in
Keyhole Plasma Arc Welding
X-ray transmission, high-speed video camera, and thermal camera
systems were developed to study undercut formation
BY A. V. NGUYEN, D. WU, S. TASHIRO, AND M. TANAKA
ABSTRACT
Undercut formation is a common weld defect in keyhole
plasma arc welding. Based on the comprehensive
experimental measurement of the weld pool convection
with the help of x-ray transmission, high-speed video cam-
era, and thermal camera systems, undercut formation is
suggested to be caused by the irregular fluid flow and un-
even energy distribution of the weld pool. As the plasma
gas rate is increased, the counterclockwise eddy inside the
weld pool is increased, and the backward flow at the top
surface is decreased, so more energy is transported to the
bottom surface, while less energy is transported to the top
surface. The rear part of the top weld pool is easily solidi-
fied, so a teardrop-shaped profile is easily formed. Due to
the strong inward flow at the top surface caused by the
teardrop-shaped top weld pool profile and the dominant
counterclockwise eddy inside the weld pool, more energy is
transported from the lateral sides to the centerline of the
top weld pool. A high-temperature zone is formed at the
centerline of the top weld pool, while the lateral sides are
easily prematurely solidified, causing the undercut
formation at the top surface.
KEYWORDS
• Keyhole Plasma Arc Welding • Undercut Formation
• X-Ray Transmission System • Thermal Camera
Introduction
Keyhole plasma arc welding (KPAW) has a promising fu-
ture in the welding of automobiles (Ref. 1), airplanes (Ref.
2), rockets (Ref. 3), and structural steels (Ref. 4) due to its
high-energy density, low equipment cost, and joint toler-
ance. However, welding defects (Ref. 5), such as undercut,
are easily formed during welding, which decrease the static,
fatigue, and fracture strength of the weld joint.
The undercut formation mechanism had been widely dis-
cussed in arc welding based on experimental observation
and numerical simulation. In the gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) process, the inward Marangoni force caused by the
204-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019, VOL. 98
positive surface tension temperature coefficient was pro-
posed by Mills to explain the undercut formation (Ref. 6).
However, the undercut was not generated during the GTAW
of high-sulphur steel (positive surface tension temperature
coefficient) with low welding speed. Mendez found that a
thin layer of liquid metal was formed under the arc due to
the large arc pressure in the high-current GTAW process.
The premature solidification of this thin liquid layer initiat-
ed the undercut (Ref. 7). Meng developed a three-dimen-
sional numerical model for the high-speed GTAW process
(Refs. 8, 9). The premature solidification of the thin liquid
layer at the periphery and the inward flow at the trailing pe-
riphery promoted the undercut formation (Ref. 8). He also
proposed that the arc shear stress was the dominant driven
force for the weld pool deformation and backward flow of
the liquid metal (Ref. 9). However, the arc shear stress and
arc pressure in his studies were calculated based on the em-
pirical equations. In the submerged arc welding (SAW)
process, based on the x-ray observation, the undercut oc-
curred when the liquid metal was displaced more than the
solidification point (Ref. 10). The large arc pressure was sug-
gested to be responsible for the undercut formation (Ref.
11). In the gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process, Nguyen
suggested that the backward flow of the liquid metal caused
by the arc pressure and droplet impact was the main reason
for the undercut and humping formation (Ref. 12). Based on
the observation of the weld pool and the movement of the
tracer particles, Zong suggested that the large longitudinal-
to-transverse velocity ratio, and the inward flow in the mid-
dle of the weld pool, contributed to the undercut formation
(Refs. 13, 14). It can be concluded from previous studies
that the weld pool convection in arc welding plays an impor-
tant role in the undercut formation.
It should be noted that the undercut formation in the
KPAW process is different from that in the GTAW, SAW, and
GMAW processes. Undercut is likely formed in the GTAW,
SAW, and GMAW processes with high current and high
welding speed (Refs. 8, 10, 12), while it can be formed in the
KPAW process with low current and low welding speed. This
may be caused by the formation of the penetrated keyhole
and the complex weld pool convection. Previous studies of
complete-joint-penetration laser welding showed the molten
https://doi.org/10.29391/2019.98.018
 WELDING RESEARCH

Fig. 1 — Photographs of the X-ray transmission system and welding equipment.

metal was pressured toward the bottom surface, which

caused redistribution of the thermal energy between the top
and bottom welds (Ref. 15) and facilitated the formation of
weld defects on the top and bottom surfaces (Ref. 16). Even
though experimental observation and numerical simulation
have been carried out to analyze the keyhole behavior (Ref.
17), keyhole stability (Refs. 18, 19), weld pool convection
(Refs. 20–22), and weld defect formation (Ref. 5) in the
KPAW process, the weld pool convection in previous numer-
ical simulations is different from the experimental results
(Ref. 23), and the undercut formation mechanism has not
been revealed.
In this study, the convective patterns inside the weld pool
in the KPAW process were measured by the x-ray transmis-
sion system. The convective patterns on the weld pool sur-
faces were measured by tracing the movement of the zirco-
nia particles based on the high-speed video camera system.
The temperature of the weld pool surface was measured by
the thermal camera system. Based on the comprehensive ex-
periments, the fluid flow and the temperature distribution
of the weld pool were analyzed. For the first time, the un-
dercut formation mechanism in the KPAW process is re-
vealed in detail.

Experimental Procedures
Figure 1 shows a photograph of the experimental setup.
A transfer-type plasma arc welding torch (100WH, Nippon
Steel Welding & Engineering Co. Ltd.) and a welding power
source (NW-300ASR, Nippon Steel Welding & Engineering
Co. Ltd.) were used in the experiments. The x-ray transmis-
sion system consisting of two sets of x-ray power sources
and image intensifiers as well as a high-speed video camera
was used to observe the movement of 0.5-mm-diameter
tungsten particles, thus allowing the convective patterns in-
side the weld pool to be measured. The x-ray 1 power source
with the tube current of 1.0 mA and the tube voltage of
230.0 kV was located at the upper side of the base metal.
The x-ray 2 power source with the tube current of 3.5 mA
and the tube voltage of 225.0 kV was located at the lower
side of the base metal. The image intensifiers were used to
convert the x-ray transmission images to visible images,
Fig. 2 — Weld bead appearances and cross sections of the
weld beads.
which were then captured by the high-speed video camera
with the frame rate of 1000 frames/s. During welding, the
movement of zirconia particles on the top and bottom weld
pool surfaces were measured by another high-speed video
camera with the frame rate of 3000 frames/s, thus allowing
the convective patterns on the weld pool surfaces to be
measured. It should be noted that the tungsten particles or
the zirconia particles were put into the prefabricated holes
in the base metal.
The thermal camera (Miro Ex4 Phantom, Vision Research
Inc.), including three color sensors composed of red (R),
green (G), and blue (B), was used to take the weld pool sur-
faces images with the frame rate of 2000 frames/s. It should
be noted that to avoid the strong radiation of the arc, the
weld pool surface images were taken immediately after

JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 205-s

WELDING RESEARCH
A B
Fig. 3 — The three-dimensional convective patterns inside the weld pool: A — 0.7 L/min; B — 1.7 L/min; C — 3.0 L/min.
A the base metal was 5 mm. The welding current was direct cur-
B
C formed, and no undercut was generated. The inclination of
Fig. 4 — The convective pattern at the top surface of the
weld pool: A — 0.7 L/min; B — 1.7 L/min; C — 3.0 L/min.
switching off the main arc. The main arc completely disap-
peared within 1.0 ms. In our previous study, it was found
that the decrease of the surface temperature was negligible
within 2 ms after cutting the arc (Ref. 24). The weld pool
temperature was calculated from the ratio of the R sensor
signal to the G sensor signal in the image based on the two-
color pyrometry method. Detailed descriptions of the exper-
imental methods can be seen in our previous work (Ref. 23).
The stainless steel SUS304 plates with the dimensions of
300  100  4 mm were used as the base metal in the experi-
ments. The torch orifice diameter was 2.0 mm, and the elec-
trode setback was 3 mm. The distance between the nozzle and
206-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019, VOL. 98
C
rent 120 A, and the welding voltage was approximately 27 V.
The welding speed was 3 mm/s. Pure argon (Ar) was used as
the main plasma gas and the shielding gas. During welding,
the backshielding gas was introduced to a backside gas box,
which was put on the welding jig, avoiding oxidation of the
back weld bead. The main plasma gas flow rate was 0.7, 1.7,
and 3.0 L/min. The shielding gas flow rate was 7.5 L/min.
Results
Influence of Plasma Gas Rate on Weld Bead Formation
The weld bead appearances and the cross sections of the
weld beads in cases of 0.7, 1.7, and 3.0 L/min are indicated
in Fig. 2. In the case of 0.7 L/min, only a blind keyhole was
the front keyhole wall about 33 deg.
In the case of 1.7 L/min, a penetrated keyhole was formed,
and the slight undercut was generated at the weld toe. The
undercut depth was about 0.13 mm. The keyhole width at
the bottom surface at the B-B cross section was about 2.2
mm. The inclination of the front keyhole wall was about 20
deg.
In the case of 3.0 L/min, serious undercut was generated
at the weld toe. The undercut depth was about 1.2 mm. The
keyhole width at the bottom surface at the B-B cross section
was about 3.1 mm. The inclination of the front keyhole wall
was about 23 deg.
The Influence of Plasma Gas Rate on the Fluid Flow
The three-dimensional convective patterns inside the weld
pool in cases of 0.7, 1.7, and 3.0 L/min are indicated in Fig. 3.
In the case of 0.7 L/min, only a blind keyhole was formed. The
molten metal flowed upward and backward along the rear
keyhole wall. Therefore, only a clockwise eddy was formed in-
side the weld pool. The maximum velocity (0.39 m/s) was lo-
cated at the convective pattern near the top surface.
In the case of 1.7 L/min, a clockwise eddy was formed in-

A B
Fig. 5 — The distribution of average flow velocity at the top surface of the weld pool: A — 0.7 L/min; B — 1.7 L/min; C — 3.0 L/min.
side the top weld pool, and a counterclockwise eddy was
formed inside the bottom weld pool. The maximum velocity
(0.32 m/s) was located at the convective pattern near the
bottom surface.
In the case of 3.0 L/min, near the rear keyhole wall, only
a counterclockwise eddy can be seen inside the weld pool. At
the rear part of the bottom weld pool, a clockwise eddy was
formed. The maximum velocity (0.45 m/s) was located at
the convective pattern near the bottom surface.
It can be concluded from Fig. 3 that as the plasma gas
rate was increased, the counterclockwise eddy inside the top
weld pool became smaller, and then disappeared.
The convective patterns at the top surface of the weld
pool in cases of 0.7, 1.7, and 3.0 L/min are presented in Fig.
4. In the case of 0.7 L/min, all the zirconia particles flowed
backward and outward to the rear part of the top weld pool.
In the case of 1.7 L/min, the zirconia particles flowed
backward to the rear part of the top weld pool. However, at
the lateral sides of the top weld pool, the particles reached
the top weld pool periphery, and then flowed inward.
In the case of 3.0 L/min, near the keyhole, the zirconia
particles flowed downward. At the middle of the top weld
pool, the zirconia particles flowed backward and inward.
The distribution of the average flow velocity at the top
surface of the weld pool in cases of 0.7, 1.7, and 3.0 L/min
are presented in Fig. 5. In the case of 0.7 L/min, from the
front part to the rear part of the top weld pool, the flow ve-
locity was first increased and then decreased. The maximum
velocity (about 1.2 m/s) was located at the middle of the top
weld pool.
In the case of 1.7 L/min, the flow velocity tendency was
similar to that in the case of 0.7 L/min. The maximum veloc-
ity (about 0.62 m/s) was also located at the middle of the
top weld pool.
In the case of 3.0 L/min, the maximum velocity (about
0.8 m/s) was found near the top keyhole, in which the zirco-
nia particles flowed downward and inward.
It can be concluded from Figs. 4 and 5 that when a pene-
trated keyhole is formed, at the top surface, the inward flow
can be observed at the middle of the top weld pool, and the
backward flow becomes weak. If the plasma gas rate is too
large, the downward and inward flow with high velocity can
be observed near the top keyhole.
The convective patterns at the bottom surface of the
weld pool in cases of 1.7 and 3.0 L/min are presented in Fig.
WELDING RESEARCH
C
A
B
Fig. 6 — The convective pattern at the bottom surface of the
weld pool: A — 1.7 L/min; B — 3.0 L/min.
6. In the case of 1.7 L/min, the zirconia particles flowed out-
ward and backward to the rear part of the bottom weld pool.
There were two convective patterns in the case of 3.0 L/min.
All the particles flowed backward from the keyhole toward
the rear part of the bottom weld pool. At the rear part of the
bottom weld pool, several particles flowed forward.
The distribution of the average flow velocity at the bot-
tom surface of the weld pool in cases of 1.7 and 3.0 L/min
are presented in Fig. 7. It can be seen that from the keyhole
to the rear part of the weld pool, the flow velocity was de-
creased. The maximum flow velocity just behind the keyhole
in the case of 3.0 L/min (about 1.3 m/s) was higher than
that in the case of 1.7 L/min (about 1.15 m/s).
The Influence of Plasma Gas Rate on Temperature
Distribution
The top weld pool and temperature distribution in the
cases of 0.7, 1.7, and 3.0 L/min are presented in Fig. 8. In
the case of 0.7 L/min, the top weld pool was elliptical, and
there were two high-temperature zones located at the lateral
sides of the top weld pool (X = 4 ~5 mm). The premature so-
lidification of the molten metal at the lateral sides can’t be
seen. From the front to the rear part of the top weld pool,
the temperature was first increased and then decreased.
In the case of 1.7 L/min, the top weld pool length was de-
creased. The high-temperature zone was located at the cen-
terline of the top weld pool (X = 5 mm). The maximum tem-
perature was about 1870 K. The premature solidification of
the molten metal can be seen at the lateral sides.
In the case of 3.0 L/min, the top weld pool length was the
JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 207-s
WELDING RESEARCH
A B
Fig. 7 — The distribution of the average flow velocity at the bottom surface of the weld pool: A — 1.7 L/min; B — 3.0 L/min.
Fig. 8 — The top weld pool and temperature distribution.
smallest. The high-temperature zone was also located at the
centerline of the top weld pool (X = 3.5 mm). The maximum
temperature was about 1805 K. The premature solidification
of the molten metal can be seen at the lateral sides.
The bottom weld pool and temperature distribution in
cases of 1.7 and 3.0 L/min are presented in Fig. 9. The bot-
tom weld pool was much longer and wider in the case of 3.0
L/min. The bottom weld pool length was about 17 mm in
the case of 3.0 L/min and 14 mm in the case of 1.7 L/min.
The temperature distributions in both cases have the same
tendency with the highest value located just behind the key-
hole. However, the maximum temperature was higher in the
case of 1.7 L/min, where 1859 K at X = 1 mm in comparison
to the case of 3.0 L/min where 1830 K at X = 1 mm.
It can be concluded from Figs. 8 and 9 that as the plasma
gas rate was increased, the weld pool length was decreased
208-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019, VOL. 98
at the top surface, but increased at the bottom surface. The
high-temperature zone moved from the lateral sides to the
centerline of the top weld pool.
Discussion
In this study, an electrode-arc model was developed to
study the plasma arc physics in the KPAW process. The de-
tailed description of the numerical model can be seen in our
previous work (Ref. 25). The influence of the plasma gas
rate on the weld pool convection and weld bead formation
was analyzed, and the undercut formation mechanism was
revealed.
The Relationship between Plasma Gas Rate and Weld
Pool Convection, Weld Bead Formation
Figure 10 shows the distribution of the arc pressure (Pa)
and plasma shear stress () of a flat surface with different
plasma gas rates. When the plasma gas rate was 0.7 L/min,
the maximum arc pressure was about 1562 Pa, and the max-
imum plasma shear stress was about 330 Pa. The arc pres-
sure and plasma shear stress were so small that only a blind
keyhole was formed.
It should be noted that in the blind keyhole case, the arc
pressure was downward, and the plasma shear stress
caused by the reverse flow of the arc plasma was upward
and backward (Ref. 21). Based on Figs. 3A and 4A, it can be
concluded that the plasma shear stress was the dominant
driven force for the clockwise eddy inside the weld pool
and the backward and outward flow on the top surface.
The arc pressure had minor influence on the weld pool
convection.
The Peclet number of the weld pool in the blind keyhole
case is calculated by Equation 1, and its value is about 202.
The Peclet number is a dimensionless number showing the
ratio between convection and conduction. The much higher
Peclet number in the blind keyhole case means the heat
transportation by the fluid flow is the dominant mechanism
for the energy transportation inside the weld pool (Ref. 26).

Fig. 9 — The bottom weld pool and temperature distribution.
Pe = CVL/K
where  is the fluid density (6900 kg/m3), C is the specific
heat (720 J/kg·K), L is the characteristic length (weld pool
radius: 0.00296 m), V is the characteristic velocity (0.39
m/s), and K is the thermal conductivity (28.4 W/m·K).
Based on Figs. 4A and 8, the schematic diagram of the
weld pool at the top view in the case of 0.7 L/min can be ob-
tained. As shown in Fig. 11, the molten metal at the top sur-
face flowed outward and backward due to the plasma shear
stress, so a lot of energy was transported to the weld pool
periphery and rear. An elliptical weld pool was formed. The
temperature of the molten metal at the middle of the weld
pool was high, and two high-temperature zones were located
at the lateral sides of the weld pool. The premature solidifi-
cation of the weld pool periphery at the maximum width of
the weld pool did not occur, so the undercut was not formed
in the blind keyhole case.
As shown in Fig. 10, when the plasma gas rate was 1.7
L/min, the maximum arc pressure was about 4532 Pa, and
the maximum plasma shear stress was about 630 Pa. The arc
pressure and plasma shear stress were so large that a pene-
trated keyhole was formed. As shown in Fig. 12, at the top
surface of the weld pool, the plasma shear stress was upward
and backward due to the reverse flow of the arc plasma (Ref.
27), so a clockwise eddy was formed inside the top weld
pool. At the bottom surface of the weld pool, the plasma
shear stress was downward and backward due to the down-
ward flow of the arc plasma. Besides, the arc pressure was
WELDING RESEARCH
(1) downward, so a counterclockwise eddy was formed inside
the bottom weld pool. The downward flow of the arc plasma
(the downward plasma shear stress) was strong, while the
reverse flow (the upward plasma shear stress) was relatively
low, so the size of the bottom eddy was larger than that of
the top eddy, as shown in Fig. 3B. The maximum backward
flow velocity (about 0.62 m/s) at the top surface was much
smaller than that at the bottom surface (about 1.15 m/s),
and was also much smaller than that of the 0.7 L/min case
(about 1.2 m/s). More energy was transported to the bot-
tom surface, and less energy was transported to the top sur-
face, so the weld pool length at the top surface was smaller
than that of the 0.7 L/min case.
It is obvious that the inward flow can be observed at the
top surface at the middle of the top weld pool in the case of
1.7 L/min. This inward flow was proposed to be responsible
for the undercut formation in the high-speed and high-
current GTAW (Ref. 8) and GMAW processes (Refs. 13, 14).
Meng proposed that the inward flow was caused by the
teardrop-shaped weld pool profile (Ref. 8). Zong suggested
that the inward flow was dominated by the Marangoni force
(Refs. 13, 14). However, it should be noted that in the
KPAW process, the maximum temperature of the weld pool
is less than 2000 K, and the surface tension temperature co-
efficient of 304 stainless steel is negative, so the Marangoni
force is outward. The inward flow in the KPAW process can
be explained as follows.
Based on Figs. 4B and 8, the schematic diagram of the
weld pool at the top view in the case of 1.7 L/min can be ob-
JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 209-s
WELDING RESEARCH
A B
Fig. 10 — The distribution of arc pressure and plasma shear stress of a flat surface with different plasma gas rates.
Fig. 11 — Schematic of the weld pool at the top view in the
case of 0.7 L/min.
tained. As shown in Fig. 13, the upward plasma shear stress
caused by the reverse flow of the arc plasma at the top sur-
face was low, so the backward flow at the top surface was
weak, and little energy could be transported to the rear part
of the top weld pool. The rear part of the top weld pool was
easily solidified, so a teardrop-shaped profile was formed.
When the molten metal reached the solidified weld pool pe-
riphery, it changed the flow direction, resulting in the in-
ward flow.
Due to the inward flow, more molten metal and energy
were transported from the lateral sides to the centerline of
the top weld pool, leading to the formation of the high-
temperature zone at the centerline of the top weld pool.
Without enough molten metal and energy, the lateral sides
of the top weld pool were easily prematurely solidified, caus-
ing the undercut formation.
As shown in Fig. 10, when the plasma gas rate was 3.0
L/min, the maximum arc pressure was about 7179 Pa, and
the maximum plasma shear stress was about 787 Pa. The arc
210-s WELDING JOURNAL / JULY 2019, VOL. 98
pressure and plasma shear stress were very large, so a large
penetrated keyhole was formed. The reverse flow of the arc
plasma at the top surface (the upward plasma shear stress)
was very weak, and the downward flow of the arc plasma
(the downward plasma shear stress) was very strong, so near
the rear keyhole wall, only a counterclockwise eddy was
formed inside the weld pool, and the molten metal flowed
downward and inward with high velocity at the top surface
(maximum velocity: about 0.8 m/s). The maximum back-
ward flow velocity at the top surface (about 0.58 m/s) was
smaller than that of 1.7 L/min (about 0.62 m/s). The maxi-
mum backward flow velocity at the bottom surface (about
1.25 m/s) was larger than that of 1.7 L/min (about 1.15
m/s). Most of the energy was transported to the bottom
surface, and little energy could be transported to the top
surface, so the weld pool length was decreased at the top
surface, but increased at the bottom surface. A teardrop-
shaped top weld pool was easily formed. The molten metal
flowed inward near the keyhole and at the middle of the top
weld pool, resulting in the formation of the high-tempera-
ture zone at the centerline of the top weld pool, and the seri-
ous undercut formation.
The Undercut Formation Mechanism
Based on the above discussion, it can be concluded that
the counterclockwise eddy inside the weld pool, and the
backward and inward flow at the top surface of the weld
pool have great influence on the undercut formation.
As shown in Fig. 14, the irregular fluid flow and uneven en-
ergy distribution mechanisms are proposed to be responsible
for the undercut formation at the top surface. When the plas-
ma gas rate is increased, the counterclockwise eddy inside the
weld pool becomes stronger, and the backward flow at the top
surface becomes weaker, so more energy is transported to the
bottom surface, and less energy is transported to the top sur-
face. The rear part of the top weld pool is easily solidified, so a
teardrop-shaped profile is easily formed.
The teardrop-shaped weld pool profile contributes to the
increase of the inward flow. It should be noted that when

Fig. 12 — The dominant driven force of the weld pool convec-
tion when the plasma gas rate is 1.7 L/min.
A C
Fig. 14 — A — Schematic of the undercut formation in the case of 1.7 L/min; B — schematic of the undercut formation in the case
of 3 L/min; C — the undercut formation mechanism.
the counterclockwise eddy inside the weld pool becomes
dominant, as shown in Fig. 14B, the downward and inward
flow can also be seen at the top surface near the rear key-
hole wall. More molten metal and energy are transported
from the lateral sides to the centerline of the top weld pool.
The high-temperature zone is formed at the centerline of
the top weld pool, and the lateral sides of the top weld pool
are easily prematurely solidified, causing the undercut for-
mation at the top surface.
It should be noted that more molten metal and energy
are transported to the bottom surface, and inward flow can’t
be seen at the bottom surface, so the undercut is difficult to
form at the bottom surface.
Conclusions
The following conclusions can be obtained:
In the blind keyhole case, due to the reverse flow of the
arc plasma, the molten metal at the top surface flows out-
ward and backward, and only a clockwise eddy is formed in-
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 13 — Schematic of the weld pool at the top view in the
case of 1.7 L/min.
side the weld pool. The temperature of the molten metal at
the lateral sides of the weld pool is high, and the undercut is
not formed. The plasma shear stress is the dominant driven
force for the weld pool convection, while the arc pressure
has minor influence on it.
As the plasma gas rate is increased, a penetrated keyhole
is formed. The counterclockwise eddy inside the weld pool
becomes large, and then dominant. The backward flow at
the top surface is decreased, while the inward flow caused by
the teardrop-shaped top weld pool profile and the dominant
counterclockwise eddy inside the weld pool is increased. The
temperature of the molten metal at the lateral sides of the
top weld pool is low.
In the KPAW process, the heat transportation by the flu-
id flow is the dominant mechanism for the energy trans-
portation inside the weld pool. The strong counterclockwise
eddy inside the weld pool, and the weak backward flow at
the top surface, lead to the uneven energy distribution be-
tween the top and bottom surfaces. The strong inward flow
causes the uneven energy distribution between the lateral
JULY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 211-s
WELDING RESEARCH
sides and centerline of the top weld pool. All of these rea-
sons contribute to the undercut formation at the top
surface.
Acknowledgments
Dr. Nguyen and Dr. Wu contributed equally to this work,
so they should be regarded as first joint authors.
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ANH VAN NGUYEN, DONGSHENG WU (d.wu@jwri.osaka-u.ac.jp),
SHINICHI TASHIRO (tashiro@jwri.osaka-u.ac.jp), and MANABU
TANAKA are with the Joining and Welding Research Institute,
Osaka University, Ibaraki, Osaka, Japan. NGUYEN is also with
Murata Welding Laboratories Ltd., Osaka, Yodogawaku, Japan,
and WU is also with Shanghai Key Laboratory of Material
Laser Processing and Modification (Shanghai Jiao Tong Uni-
versity), Shanghai, China.
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