PHYSICS

Marcelo Alonso
Florida Institute of Technology

Edward J . Finn
Georgetown University

PEARSON

Prentice
Hall

Harlow, England " London " New York " Boston " San Francisco -Toronto
Sydney " Tokyo " Singapore " Hong Kong " Seoul " Taipei " New Delhi
Cape Town " Madrid " Mexico City " Amsterdam " Munich " Paris " Milan
 Contents

Preface v 3.8 Composition of velocities and

accelerations 48
Introduction 1 3.9 Relative motion 50
What is physics? 1 4 Curvilinear motion 57
The relation of physics to other sciences 2
The experimental method 4 4.1 Introduction 57
4.2 Curvilinear motion : velocity 58
1 The structure of matter 5 4.3 Curvilinear motion : acceleration 60
5 4.4 Tangential and normal
1.1 Introduction
5 acceleration 62
1 .2 Particles
7 4.5 Curvilinear motion with constant
1.3 Atoms
9 acceleration 64
1 .4 Molecules
4 .6 Relative translational motion :
1.5 Matter in bulk 12 the Galilean transformation 69
1.6 Living systems 15
1.7 Interactions 16 5 Circular motion 77
2 Measurement and units 18 5.1 Introduction 77
2.1 Introduction 18 5.2 Circular motion: angular velocity 77
2.2 Measurement 19 5.3 Circular motion : angular
2.3 Fundamental quantities 20 acceleration 81
2.4 Fundamental units 21 5.4 Vector relations in circular motion 82
2.5 Derived units and dimensions 24 5.5 Relative rotational motion 85
5.6 Motion relative to the Earth 87
3 Rectilinear motion 29
3 .1 Mechanics 29 6 Force and momentum 93
3 .2 Frames of reference 30 6.1 Introduction 93
3.3 Rectilinear motion : velocity 31 6.2 The law of inertia 95
3.4 Rectilinear motion: acceleration 37 6.3 Mass 96
3.5 Some special motions 41 6.4 Linear momentum 99
3 .6 Free vertical motion under the 6.5 Principle of conservation of
action of gravity 44 momentum 100
3.7 Vector representation ofvelocity 6.6 Newton's second and third laws 106
and acceleration in rectilinear 6.7 Relationship between force and
motion 47 acceleration 108
viii Contents

6.8 Units of force 110 10.5 Basic equation of simple

6.9 Classical principle of relativity 112 harmonic motion 196
10.6 The simple pendulum 197
7 Applications of the laws of 10.7 Superposition of two SHMs in
motion 120 the same direction and frequency 200
10 .8 Superposition of two SHMs with
7.1 Introduction 120
the same direction but different
7.2 Motion under a constant force 120
frequency 203
7.3 Resultant force 121
10 .9 Superposition of two SHMs in
7.4 Equilibrium of a particle 125
perpendicular directions 205
7.5 Frictional forces 127
10.10 Coupled oscillators 208
7.6 Frictional forces in fluids 130
10.11 Molecular vibrations 210
7.7 Systems with variable mass 133
10.12 Anharmonic oscillations 212
10 .13 Damped oscillations 213
8 Torque and angular momentum 141
10.14 Forced oscillations 216
8.1 Introduction 141
8.2 Curvilinear motion 141 11 Gravitational interaction 239
8.3 Torque 145
11 .1 Introduction 239
8.4 Angular momentum 146
11 .2 The law of gravitation 241
8.5 Central forces 148
11 .3 Newton's derivation of the law
9 Work and energy of force 245
157
11 .4 Inertial and gravitational mass 247
9.1 Introduction 157 11.5 Gravitational potential energy 249
9.2 Work 158 11.6 Relation between energy and
9.3 Power 161 orbital motion 251
9.4 Units of work and power 161 11.7 Gravitational field 264
9.5 Kinetic energy 164 11 .8 Gravitational potential 267
9.6 Units of energy 167 11 .9 Gravitational field of a spherical
9.7 Work of a constant force 168 body 268
9.8 Potential energy 169 11 .10 The principle of equivalence 274
9.9 Relation between force and 11 .11 Gravitation and molecular forces 277
potential energy 171
9.10 Conservation of energy of a 12 Space exploration 286
particle 174
12.1 Introduction 286
9.11 Discussion of potential energy
curves 12 .2 Earth satellites 287
177 12 .3 Voyage to the Moon 292
9.12 Non-conservative forces and
energy dissipation 12 .4 Exploration of the solar system 294
184
13 Systems of particles I : Linear and
10 Oscillatory motion 190 angular momentum 301
10.1 Introduction 190 13.1 Introduction 301
10.2 Kinematics of simple harmonic 13 .2 Motion of the center of mass of
motion 191 an isolated system of particles 302
10.3 Rotating vectors or phasors 192 13 .3 Motion of the center of mass of
10.4 Force and energy in simple a system of particles subject to
harmonic motion 194 external forces 307
 Contents ix

13.4 Reduced mass 314 16.5 Many particle systems : energy

13 .5 Angular momentum of a system balance 406
of particles 317 16.6 Special processes 410
13.6 Internal and orbital angular 16.7 Heat capacity 412
momentum 320 16.8 Reversible and irreversible
13.7 Angular momentum of a rigid processes 416
body 321 16 .9 Entropy and heat 418
13.8 Equation of motion for rotation 16.10 Efficiency of a thermal engine
of a rigid body 328 operating in a Carnot cycle 422
13.9 Oscillatory motion ofa rigid body 331 16 .11 The law of entropy 426
13.10 Gyroscopic motion 334
13 .11 Equilibrium of a body 339 17 Statistical mechanics 433
17 .1 Introduction 433
14 Systems of particles 11 : Energy 348 17.2 Statistical equilibrium 434
14.1 Introduction 348 17.3 Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
14.2 Kinetic energy of a system of law 436
particles 348 17.4 Statistical definition of
14.3 Conservation of energy of a temperature 441
system of particles 349 17.5 Energy and velocity distribution
14.4 Total energy of a system of of the molecules in an ideal gas 446
particles subject to external forces 352 17.6 Experimental verification of the
14.5 Internal energy of a system of Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
particles 353 law 449
14.6 Kinetic energy of rotation of a 17 .7 Thermal equilibrium 450
rigid body 354 17.8 Entropy 453
14.7 Rotational energy of molecules 357 17 .9 Law of increase of entropy 454
14.8 Binding energy of a system of
358 18 Transport phenomena 462
particles
14 .9 Collisions 360 18 .1 Introduction 462
14.10 Fluid motion 367 18 .2 Molecular diffusion : Fick's law 462
18 .3 Steady diffusion 465
15 Gases 378 18 .4 Thermal conduction : Fourier's
15.1 Introduction 378 law 469
15.2 Temperature 379 18.5 Steady thermal conduction 470
15.3 The ideal gas temperature 381 18.6 Viscosity 472
15.4 Temperature and molecular 18.7 Mean free path and collision
energy 384 frequency 475
15.5 Internal energy of an ideal gas 386 18.8 Molecular theory of transport
15.6 Real gases 390 phenomena 477
15.7 Polyatomic gases 394
19 The principle of relativity 483
16 Thermodynamics 400
19.1 Introduction 483
16.1 Introduction 400 19.2 The velocity of light 484
16.2 Internal energy and work 401 19.3 The Lorentz transformation 487
16.3 Many particle systems : work 401 19.4 Lorentz transformation of
16.4 Many particle systems : heat 405 velocities and accelerations 490
x Contents

Consequences of the Lorentz 23 Electric structure of matter 592

19.5
transformation 492 592
495 23 .1 Introduction
19.6 Special principle of relativity 23 .2 Electrolysis 592
19.7 Momentum 496
498 23.3 The nuclear model of the atom 594
19.8 Force 23.4 Bohr's theory of the atom 596
19.9 Energy 500
23.5
19.10 The general theory of relativity 505
momentum 601
518 23 .6 Effect of a magnetic field on
20 High energy processes 603
electronic motion
20.1 Introduction 518 23 .7 Electron spin 605
20.2 Energy and momentum 519 23 .9 Spin-orbit interaction 606
20.3 Systems of particles 522 23.9 Electron shells in atoms 608
20.4 High energy collisions 525 23.10 Electrons in solids 614
20.5 Particle decay 529 23 .11 Conductors, semiconductors and
insulators 615
21 Electric interaction 539
21 .1 Introduction 539 24 Electric currents 624
21.2 Electric charge 541
21.3 Coulomb's law 542 24 .1 Introduction 624
21 .4 Units of charge 543 part A: Electric currents and electric fields 625
21 .5 Electric field 545 24.2 Electric current 625
21 .6 Electric field of a point charge 548 24.3 Ohm's law 627
21 .7 The quantization of electric 24.4 Conductivity 628
charge 552 24.5 Electric power 632
21 .8 Principle of conservation of 24 .6 Combination of resistors 634
charge 555 24 .7 Direct current circuits 636
21 .9 Electric potential 555 24 .8 Methods for calculating currents
21 .10 Relation between electric in an electric network 638
potential and electric field 556 641
Part B : Electric currents and magnetic fields
21 .11 Electric potential ofa point charge 558
24.9 Magnetic force on an electric
21 .12 Energy relations in an electric
current 641
field 563 24.10 Magnetic torque on an electric
current 645
22 Magnetic interaction 569
24 .11 Magnetic field produced by a
22.1 Introduction 569 current 647
22.2 Magnetic force on a moving 24 .12 Magnetic field of a rectilinear
charge 570 current 648
22.3 Motion of a charged particle in 24.13 Magnetic field of a circular
a uniform magnetic field 572 current 650
22.4 Motion of a charged particle in a 24.14 Forces between electric currents 653
non-uniform magnetic field 576
22.5 Examples of motion of charged 25 The electric field 661
particles in a magnetic field 578
22.6 Magnetic field of a moving 25.1 Introduction 661
charge 583 25 .2 Electromotive force 661
22.7 Magnetic dipoles 585 25 .3 Flux of the electric field 662
 Contents xi

25 .4 Gauss' law for the electric 27 .11 Energy of the electromagnetic

field 664 field 739
25 .5 Properties of a conductor 27.12 Coupled circuits 741
placed in an electric field 670
25.6 Electric polarization of matter 673 28 Wave motion 747
25.7 The polarization vector 675
25.8 Electric displacement 676 28 .1 Introduction 747
25.9 Electric susceptibility and 28 .2 Waves 748
permittivity 678 28 .3 Description of wave motion 749
25.10 Electric capacitance: capacitors 680 28.4 The general equation of wave
25 .11 Energy of the electric field 685 motion 753
28 .5 Elastic waves 754
28 .6 Pressure waves in a gas 758
26 The magnetic field 690 28 .7 Transverse waves on a string 761
26 .1 Introduction 690 28 .8 Transverse elastic waves in a rod 763
28.9 Surface waves in a liquid 764
26 .2 Ampere's law for the magnetic
690 28.10 What propagates in wave motion? 766
field
26 .3 Magnetic flux 696 28 .11 Waves in two and three
Magnetization of matter 697 dimensions 769
26 .4
26 .5 The magnetization vector 699 28 .12 Spherical waves in a fluid 771
28 .13 Group velocity 772
26 .6 The magnetizing field 704
26 .7 Magnetic susceptibility and 28 .14 The Doppler effect 775
permeability 706
26 .8 Energy of the magnetic field 708 29 Electromagnetic waves 782
26 .9 Summary of the laws for static 29.1 Introduction 782
fields 711 29.2 Plane electromagnetic waves 783
29.3 Energy and momentum of an
electromagnetic wave 787
27 The electromagnetic field 714
29.4 Radiation from oscillatingdipoles 790
27 .1 Introduction 714 29.5 Radiation from an accelerated
Part A: The laws of the electromagnetic field 715 charge 793
27 .2 The Faraday-Henry law 715 29 .6 Propagation of electromagnetic
27.3 Electromagnetic induction due waves in matter; dispersion 797
to the relative motion of a 29 .7 The Doppler effect in
conductor and a magnetic field 720 electromagnetic waves 798
27.4 Electromagnetic induction and 29 .8 The spectrum ofelectromagnetic
the principle of relativity 722 radiation 802
27 .5 The principle of conservation of
electric charge 723 30 Interaction of electromagnetic radiation
27 .6 The Ampere-Maxwell law 724 with matter : photons 808
27 .7 Maxwell's equations 727 30 .1 Introduction 808
Part B : Application to electric circuits 728 30 .2 Emission of radiation by atoms,
27 .8 Self-induction 728 molecules and nuclei 808
27.9 Free electrical oscillations 732 30 .3 Absorption of electromagnetic
27.10 Forced electrical oscillations : radiation by atoms, molecules
alternating current circuits 734 and nuclei 810
xii Contents

30 .4 Scattering of electromagnetic 33.7 Dispersion 898

waves by bound electrons 811 33.8 Chromatic aberration 900
30.5 Scattering of electromagnetic
radiation by a free electron : the 34 Interference 908
Compton effect 813 908
34 .1 Introduction
30 .6 Photons 816
34.2 Interference of waves produced
30.7 More about photons: the by two synchronous sources 909
photoelectric effect in metals 820
Interference from several
34 .3
synchronous sources 914
31 Radiative transitions 824
34 .4 Standing waves in one dimension 919
31 .1 Introduction 824 34 .5 Standing electromagnetic waves 924
31 .2 Stationary states 825 34 .6 Standing waves in two dimensions 926
31 .3 Interaction of radiation with 34.7 Standing waves in three
matter 829 dimensions ; resonant cavities 929
31.4 Atomic spectra 831 34.8 Waveguides 930
31.5 Molecular spectra 835
31 .6 Radiative transitions in solids 838 35 Diffraction 936
31 .7 Spontaneous and stimulated
radiative transitions 841 35.1 Introduction 936
31 .8 Masers and lasers 843 35 .2 Huygens' principle 937
31 .9 Blackbody radiation 848 35 .3 Fraunhofer diffraction by a
rectangular slit 939
35 .4 Fraunhofer diffraction by a
32 Reflection, refraction and polarization 856 circular aperture 942
32.1 Introduction 856 35 .5 Fraunhofer diffraction by two
32.2 Rays and wave surfaces 857 equal parallel slits 944
32.3 Reflection and refraction of plane 35.6 Diffraction gratings 945
waves 858 35 .7 X-ray scattering by crystals 948
32.4 Reflection and refraction of
spherical waves 861 36 Quantum mechanics: fundamentals 955
32 .5 Reflection and transmission of
36 .1 Introduction 955
transverse waves on a string 863
36 .2 Particles and fields 956
32 .6 Reflection and refraction of
electromagnetic waves 865 36 .3 Scattering of particles by
crystals 957
32 .7 Propagation of electromagnetic
36.4 Particles and wave packets 960
waves in an anisotropic medium 867
36 .5 Heisenberg's uncertainty
32 .8 Reflection and refraction at
metallic surfaces 872 principle for position and
momentum 961
33 Wave geometry 875 36 .6 Illustrations of Heisenberg's
principle 963
33 .1 Introduction 875 36.7 The uncertainty relation for time
33 .2 Reflection at a spherical surface 876 and energy 967
33.3 Refraction at a spherical surface 882 36 .8 Stationary states and the matter
33 .4 Lenses 885 field 968
33 .5 Optical instruments 891 36 .9 Wave function and probability
33 .6 The prism 897 density 971
 Contents xiii

37 Quantum mechanics : applications 977 41 The ultimate structure of matter 1070

37.1 Introduction 977 41 .1 Introduction 1070
37.2 Schrodinger's equation 978 41 .2 The `fundamental' particles 1071
37.3 Free particle 979 41 .3 Particles and antiparticles 1073
37.4 Potential wall 980 41 .4 Particle instability 1077
37.5 Potential box 981 41 .5 The conservation laws 1080
37.6 Potential well 985 41 .6 Symmetry and interactions 1081
37.7 Particles in a general potential 988 41 .7 Resonances 1085
37.8 The simple harmonic oscillator 991 41 .8 The standard model 1087
37 .9 Potential barrier penetration 993 41 .9 The evolution of the universe 1091

38 Atoms, molecules and solids 999 Notes

38 .1 Introduction 999 2.1 Historical basis for the

38.2 Angular wavefunction under a fundamental units 23
2.2 Space, time and matter 26
central force 999
38.3 Atoms with one electron 1002 3.1 The age of the universe 52
38.4 Atoms with two electrons 1006 5 .1 Radial and transverse velocity in
38.5 Atoms with many electrons 1009 plane curvilinear motion 80
6.1 The forces we know 114
38.6 Diatomic molecules 1012
8.1 Scattering of a particle by a
38.7 Linear molecules 1015
38.8 The geometry of molecules 1017 central repulsive inverse square
force 153
38.9 Structure of solids 1020
9.1 Relation between force, torque
38 .10 Electrons in metals 1023
and potential energy in plane
curvilinear motion 173
39 Nuclear structure 1027 9.2 Energy in plane curvilinear
39.1 Introduction 1027 motion 182
39.2 The nucleus 1027 10.1 Impedance of an oscillator 221
39.3 Properties of the nucleus 1028 10.2 Fourier analysis of periodic
39.4 Nuclear binding energy 1030 motion 224
39.5 Nuclear forces 1031 10.3 Representation of oscillatory
39.6 The deuteron 1034 motion in phase space 226
39.7 Neutron-proton scattering 1035 10.4 Non-linear oscillations and 230
39.8 The shell model 1036 dynamical chaos
39.9 Nuclear radiative transitions 1038 11.1 General motion under
gravitational attraction 259
11 .2 Gravitational energy of a
40 Nuclear processes 1042 spherical body 261
40.1 Introduction 1042 11 .3 Critical density of the universe 262
40.2 Radioactive decay, 1042 11.4 Gravitation and the large-scale
40.3 a-decay 1045 structure of the universe 278
40.4 /1-decay 1048 11.5 Gravitation and dynamical
40.5 Nuclear reactions 1052 chaos 280
40.6 Nuclear fission 1054 13.1 Discussion of the interaction
40.7 Fission chain reactions 1056 between two systems of particles 313
40.8 Nuclear fusion 1059 13.2 Precession of a gyroscope 336
xiv Contents

14.1 Invariance, symmetry and the 27.1 The betatron 719

conservation laws 372 27.2 Application of the method of
17.1 Probability of a partition in rotating vectors to a.c. electric
Maxwell -Boltzmann statistics 439 circuits 737
17.2 Heat capacity of a crystalline 28 .1 Acoustics 778
solid 445 29 .1 Comparison of electric and
17.3 Statistical analysis of work and magnetic dipole radiation 792
heat 452 30 .1 Collisions involving a zero mass
17.4 Systems far from equilibrium 458 particle 816
18.1 Relation between mean free path 475 30 .2 Experimental verification of
and molecular dimensions Einstein's equation 821
18.2 Convective and turbulent 31 .1 Tuning of a laser 847
transport 479 31 .2 Analysis of spontaneous and
19.1 Analysis of the stimulated transitions 851
Michelson-Morley experiment 485 33 .1 New telescope technologies 895
19.2 Relativistic momentum 498 33.2 The Hubble Space Telescope
19.3 Estimation ofgeneral relativistic (HST) 902
effects 509 33.3 Non-imaging optics 904
20 .1 Lorentz transformation of 34 .1 Hertz's experiment 925
energy and momentum 520 35 .1 Holography 952
20 .2 Experimental techniques for 37 .1 Energy states in a potential well 987
producing high energy particles 533 40 .1 Discovery of the neutron 1053
21 .1 Analysis ofthe Millikan oil-drop 40 .2 Nuclear fission reactors 1057
experiment 554 40.3 Nuclear fusion reactors 1061
22.1 Van Allen radiation belts 588 40.4 The formation of the elements 1062
23 .1 Justification of relation 41 .1 The antiproton experiment 1076
LZ 602
= l(1 + 1)h2 41 .2 Parity violations in /3-decay 1084
23.2 Origin of the spin-orbit 41 .3 Experimental evidence of the
interaction 607 internal structure of protons 1089
24.1 Calculation of the electric 41 .4 The cosmological fate 1093
conductivity 632
24 .2 Electric currents in gases 639 Appendices
24 .3 Relation between the magnetic A: Vectors 1097
field of a current and the A.1 Concept of direction 1097
magnetic field of a moving A.2 Scalars and vectors 1097
charge 648 A.3 Addition and subtraction of
24 .4 Note on electromagnetic units 654 vectors 1098
25 .1 Charge and discharge of a A.4 Components of a vector 1100
capacitor 683 A.5 Addition of several vectors 1101
25 .2 Relation between the electric A.6 The scalar product 1101
field and the energy of the field 687 A.7 The vector product 1102
26 .1 Magnetic confinement of a A.8 Vector representation of an area 1103
plasma 695 A.9 Gradient of a scalar function 1104
26 .2 Magnetization of diamagnetic A.10 The line integral of a vector :
and paramagnetic substances 703 Circulation 1105
26 .3 Energy of the magnetic field of A.11 The surface integral of a vector :
a slowly moving charge 710 Flux 1105
 Contents xv

B : Mathematical relations 1106 B.7 Average value of a function 1110

B.1 Trigonometric functions 1106 B.8 Conic sections 1111
B.2 Logarithms 1107 C : Calculation of the moment of inertia 1112
B.3 Power expansions 1108
B.4 Plane and solid angles 1109 Answers to selected problems 1114
B.5 Basic derivatives and integrals 1110
B .6 Special integrals 1110 Index 1124