 DME Theory
The ‗gate‘ in the target receiver is an
 DME Operations
 DME Advantages & Disadvantages
 DME Slant Distance
 DME Ground Base Equipment
 DME Airborne Equipment
DME Theory
– Most VOR‘s have DME- distance
measuring equipment or are co-located
with a military TACAN facility which
provides the same information.
– VOR and DME are essentially unified
systems which are seamless to the pilot
when co-located
Difference of Operation
– VOR‘s are a Passive System giving
continuous information
– DME‘s respond only when interrogated
making them an Active System
DME Theory
– Each VOR frequency from 108.00 to
117.95 MHz (VHF) has a corresponding
UHF freq. Ranging from 962 – 1213 MHz
– Pilots usually have to tune only one freq.
With newer receivers
– ―A short pulse is transmitted and the time
interval from transmission to reception of
the reflected pulse is measured. As the
speed of an electromagnetic pulse
through the atmosphere is 300 000
kilometers per second, or one nautical
mile in 6.2 micro-seconds, the distance
between the transmitter and the target
can be calculated.‖
– Interrogation pulses are transmitted and
when received at the target they are
passed through a ‗gate‘ and then trigger
transmission of reply pulses back to the
initial source where the time interval may
be measured and displayed as distance.
electronic device which is preset to
receive only matching pulses
Airborne DME equipment ----Beloro and
Ibarrientos
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
The DME system consists of a pulse
transmitter and receiver in the aircraft and
pulse transmitter-receiver system at a
fixed location on ground.
The equipment in the aircraft is called the
interrogator and the equipment on ground
is called the transponder.
Interrogator
Located in the equipment bays.
Transmission is in the range of 1025 to
1150 MHz; receiving is in the range of 962
to 1215 MHz; channel spacing is 1 MHz.
The interrogator operates in several
modes:
• Standby
• Search
• Track
• Scan
• Memory
• Fault
• Self Test
When the system is first powered up, it
enters the standby mode; transmission
are inhibited, the receiver and audio are
operative; the DME displays four dashes
to indicate no computed data (NCD).
The receiver monitors pulse-pairs
received from any local ground stations. If
sufficient pulse-pairs are counted, the
interrogator enters the search mode.
 The transmitter now transmits pulse-pairs
and monitors any returns; synchronous
pulse pairs are converted from time into
distance and the system enters track
mode. Distance to the navigation aid will
now be displayed on the DME indicator.
The scan mode has two submodes:
• Directed scanning for multiple
navigation aid tuning
• Alternatively, free scanning occurs
for any DME navigation aids within
range.
If pulse pair from any navigation aids are
not received after a short period of time,
the interrogator goes into memory mode
whereby distance is calculated from the
most recently received pulse-pairs.
If the system detects any fault conditions,
the distance display is blanked out.
Self-test causes the system to run through
a predetermined sequence causing the
indicators to read: blank dashes (NCD)
and 0.0 nm.
Dme indicator
DME enables aircraft to establish its
range to the ground station: Distance in
nautical miles, ground speed in knots,
flying time to the station in minutes.
DME On-board equipment
Frequency selector
The NAV frequency selector is the control
unit where pilots select DME frequencies.
DME On-board equipment
Indicator instruments:
There are several types of instruments for
receiving a DME:
1. Standalone instrument
2. DME displayed on RMI instrument
3. DME displayed on electronic
navigation instrument
Indicator instruments
Standalone instrument
- A standalone instrument is an instrument
that displays only DME related
information. This instrument can found on
Beechcraft propellers.
The information displayed are:
• Distance in NM between aircraft and DME
station
• Speed of the aircraft in Knots
• Time to reach the station if you navigate
direct to the DME station
DME displayed on RMI instrument
• - In more complex aircraft, like business
jet and some airbus, cockpits have dual
RMI equipment installed. This equipment
is paired with a VOR/NDB remote
magnetic indicator, and when a DME
station can be found, the distance in NM
is displayed at the top of the istrument.
DME displayed on electronic navigation
instrument
In many modern jets and propeller
aircraft, electronic navigation instruments
are usually used. These modern
electronic navigation instruments are all-
in-one instruments to display:
• VOR and paired DME distance
• ILS and paired DME distance
• NDB
• Navigation fixes
• FMC route
• Traffic (TCAS)
• Weather
DME Ground Base Equipment---Biares, Types of Transponder:
Largosa
 Mode A
Transponder
- transmits an identifying code only.
 ―transmitter-responder‖
 Mode C
 plays an important role in tracking an
aircraft. They provide a vital link between - provides identifying codes and aircraft
aircraft and the ATC systems on the pressure altitude.
ground, as well as ACAS/TCAS in the air.  Mode S
DME Ground Equipment - provides multiple information formats to
Consists basically of: a selective interrogation (data exchange),
including the call sign.
 transponder beacon;
Transponder Settings
 accessory equipment in the form of an
aerial array; A transponder switch usually has several
position:
 test equipment
 OFF
Transponder Beacon
 STBY
 The beacon can handle satisfactorily at
least 30 aircraft simultaneously and can  ON
give complete omnidirectional coverage to  ALT
all aircraft within a 280NM radius.
 TA
 It is designed to operate on a complete
unattended basis.  TA/RA

Single Aerial

 It is used for both transmission and  STBY – powers the transponder and
reception. make it ready for operation (warming up).

 It is mounted on a tower adjacent to the  ON – only send primary information to the

building housing the beacon. radar that is code and position.

 The main electrical requirements of the  ALT – additionally transmit altitude

aerial: broadband frequency information.
characteristics.
 TA and TA/RA – provide traffic advisory
Test Equipment and traffic advisory resolution

 Each beacon installation is supplied with a Transponder IDENT

set of test equipment to allow periodic
 All mode A, C, and S transponder include
equipment checks and to assist in
on IDENT button, which activates a
localizing faults.
special function known as IDENT
 Test equipment is self-contained and is (identify) in order to help air traffic
transportable. controller locate an aircraft.

Transponder Codes
  Transponder transmission usually uses a
discrete code in order to identify the flight.
 Squawk Codes are four-digit octal
numbers. The dials on a transponder read
from 0 to 7, inclusive. Thus, the lowest
possible squawk is 0000 and the highest
is 7777.
 A discrete code is any one of the 4096
selectable Mode 3/A aircraft transponder
codes except those ending in zero zero.
Code Allocation
 SSR transponder code is normally
allocated by each State with coordination
with regional air navigation agreements
and taking into account overlapping radar
coverage over adjacent airspaces.
 Codes 7700, 7600, 7500 shall be
reserved internationally for use by pilots
encountering a state of emergency, radio
communication failure or unlawful
interference, respectively:
• 7700 : Emergency code
• 7600 : Radio failure code
• 7500 : Hi-jack code
Transponder 7700 : the emergency code
 The pilot of an aircraft in a state of
emergency shall set the transponder to
code 7700 unless ATC has previously
directed the pilot to operate the
transponder on a specified code.
 The pilot shall continue to use the
specified code unless otherwise advised
by ATC.
 If the pilot is facing a simple pan or
failure, this code shall not be used. The
shall not use the 7700 code outside the
state of emergency.
 An ATC can request a pilot to squawk
7700 if the declares an emergency or
distress situation (MAYDAY).
 After the aircraft has landed, an aircraft
controller should ask the pilot to set a
normal code when the emergency is
terminated. As a pilot, set the transponder
code to 2000 or ask a new code to the air
traffic controller after the emergency is
terminated.
Transponder 7600 the radio failure code
 The pilot of an aircraft losing two-way
communication shall set the transponder
to code 7600.
 A controller, who notices a communication
failure code, will determine the extent of
the failure by instructing SQUAWK IDENT
or to change the code. With that
operation, if it is determined that the
aircraft receiver is functioning, further
control of the aircraft will be continued
using code changes or IDENT
transmission to acknowledge receipt of
clearances. This code shall not be used to
ignore ATC clearance and contact.
Transponder 7500 hi-jacking code
 If there is unlawful interference with an
aircraft in flight, the pilot-in-command shall
attempt to set the transponder to code
7500 in order to indicate the situation.
DME OPERATION--- Babol
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
 A system that is used in aviation for
navigation purposes.
 The DME system consists of an
interrogator on board an aircraft and DME
station on the ground (transponder).
 The received pulses trigger the DME
station to reply. The reply is received by
the aircrafts interrogating DME.
 The time difference between transmission
and reception is used to calculate the
distance from the aircraft to the DME
station. Because the interrogation is
repeated, the information can be used to
calculate the ground speed.

 There are 200 DME channels which are
paired with the 200 VOR/LOR channels.
 It starts transmitting a stream of
interrogations to the ground station.
 When the ground station receives the
interrogation, it waits for 50 microseconds
and then sends a pair of reply pulses back
to the aircraft.
 Airborne DME equipment receives the
reply and measures the elapsed time from
when it sent the interrogation until it
received the reply.
 It subtract the 50 microsecond delay that
the ground station introduced to come up
with the round-trip time.
 Distance is measure in slant range.
 Slant range error minimized at lower
altitudes
 DME operates in the 960 – 1215 MHz
band. The interrogator transmits on a
center frequency of 1025 up to 1150 MHz
. In this band are 126 frequencies with 1
MHz spacing defined. The DME station
replies on a frequency that is either 63
MHz lower or 63 MHz higher.
 Modem DME stations can serve up to 200
aircrafts at the same time.
DME--- Llagas
• The uses of DME
• Advantages of DME
• Disadvantages of DME
THE USES OF DME
• DME provides the physical distance from
the aircraft to the ground DME
transponder expressed in Nautical Miles
(NM).
• DME also calculates ground speed and
the time needed to reach the station if the
aircraft is fitted with appropriate computer.
ADVANTAGES OF DME
• DME is extremely accurate: Provide
continuous and accurate indication of the
slant range distance.
• Aircraft Handling Capability: The
transponder equipment should be capable
of handling 100 to 200 aircrafts.
• Large coverage: DME facility provides
coverage up to 200 NM.
DISADVANTAGES OF DME
• As VOR, the DME is also restricted to
line-of-sight transmission.
• For example, the aircraft at altitude below
10,000 ft. is unable to detect the DME
signal.
• Errors and abnormal indications:
• Slant range
• Speed and time calculation
• Ground speed saturation – 100
aircraft
• System error
DME error
• Slant range error occurs because the
DME calculates its straight line or ―slant
range‖ distance from the station which is
not as useful to pilots as ground distance.
• This causes all DME indications to be
inaccurate when greater than 1,000 ft.
AGL for each NM from the station-
otherwise it can be ignored.
• For example if a pilot is at 3,000 ft AGL at
2 miles from the station the error is out of
tolerance.
 • Remember for accuracy be at least 1NM
from the station for each 1,000 ft AGL
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)-----
Babay
 Measuring Distance on the Earth
 Distance Calculation
 Slant Range
 DME
 Is a transponder-based radio navigation
technology that measures slant range
distance by timing the propagation delay
of VHF or UHF radio signals.
 Is a system that is used in aviation for
navigation purposes.
 DME system consists of an interrogator
on board an aircraft and a DME station on
the ground.
 Operates in the 960-1215 MHz band.
 Distance Definition
 Distance is a measure of the space
contained by a straight line between two
points.
 Distance is a scalar quantity that refers
to how much ground an object has
covered during its motion. (in Physics)
 Distance Calculation Definition
 A radio signal takes approximately 12.36
microseconds to travel 1 nautical mile to
the target and back- also referred to as a
radar-mile. The time difference between
interrogation and reply, minus the 50
microsecond- ground transponder delay,
is measured by the interrogator's timing
circuitry and converted to distance
measurement (slant range), in nautical
miles, then displayed on the cockpit DME
display.
 Distance calculations are based on the
great circle distance between points, and
do not account for differences in
elevation.
 The Distance Calculation transform
generates distances based on the latitude
and longitude of origin-destination pairs.
 There are at least three types of
distances that may be defined between
points and therefore between geometric
objects:
① Map distance - is the distance between
the points as defined by their position in a
coordinate projection such as on a map
when scale is taken into account.
② Geodetic distance- is the length of the
shortest curve between those two points
along the surface of the earth model being
used by the spatial reference system.
③ Terrain distance- will take into account of
the local vertical displacements (
hypsography).
 Measurement of the Distance on surface
of the Earth
 There are a lot of different miles, some of
them are measures of a fixed length, such
as: geographical mile, International
Nautical Mile (INM), statue mile, other of
variable length dependent on the latitude
of location of measurement, such as:
nautical mile or sea mile.
① Geographical mile: Distances on the
surface of a sphere or an ellipsoid of
revolution are expressed in a natural way
in units of the length of one minute of arc,
measured along the equator. Its length
varies according to the ellipsoid which is
being used as the model but, in these
units, the radius of the Earth is fixed at a
value of 108,000/π.
② International Nautical Mile: The
international nautical mile was defined by
the First International Extraordinary
Hydrographic Conference, Monaco(1929)
 as exactly 1852 meters. Both the Imperial
and U.S. definitions of nautical mile were
based on the Clarke (1866) spheroid. The
United States nautical mile was defined
as 1853.248 meters (6080.20 U.S. feet,
based on the definition of the foot in the
Mendenhall order of 1893).
The Imperial (UK) nautical mile, also known
as the Admiralty mile, was defined in terms of
the knot, such that one nautical mile was
exactly 6080 international feet (1853.184m).
3. Nautical Mile: A nautical mile is unit of
measurement used on water by sailors
and/or navigators in shipping and aviation. It
is the average length of one minute of one
degree along a great circle of the Earth. One
nautical mile corresponds to one minute of
latitude. The unit used by the United Kingdom
until 1970 was the British Standard nautical
mile of 6080ft or 1853.18m.
4. Sea Mile: The sea mile is the length of
one minute of arc, measured along the
meridian, in the latitude of the position; its
length varies both with the latitude and with
the dimensions of the spheroid in use. The
sea mile has also been defined as 6000 feet
or 1000 fathoms, for example in Dresner's
Units of measurement ( Dresner, 1971).
5. Statue Mile:. The statue mile is the unit of
distance of 1760 yards or 5280 ft or 1609.3m.
Slant Range
Is the line-of- sight distance along a slant
direction between two points which are not at
the same level relative to specific datum(in
radio electronic).
 Is the length of the skywave path between
target and radar, not the distance as
measured along the Earth's surface (the
so-called Down Range).
MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM (MLS)----
Oliva
ILS DISADVANTAGES
 There are only 40 channels available
worldwide.
 The azimuth and glideslope beams are
fixed and narrow.
 There are no special procedures available
for slower aircraft, helicopters, and Short
Take Off and Landing (STOL) aircraft.
 ILS is very susceptible to terrain effects.
 Vehicles, taxying aircraft, low-flying
aircraft and buildings have to be kept well
away from the transmission sites.
INTRODUCTION
 MLS was designed to replace Instrument
Landing System (ILS) with an advanced
precision approach system that would
overcome the disadvantages of ILS and
also provide greater flexibility to its users.
 The Microwave Landing System (MLS) is
a precision approach and landing system
that provides position information and
various ground to air data.
 The position information is provided in a
wide coverage sector and is determined
by an azimuth angle measurement, an
elevation measurement and a range
measurement.
 The MLS is intended to be installed at
large airports to provide precision
navigation guidance for exact alignment
and descent of aircraft on approach to a
runway or landing, including “blind
landing”.
 Both lateral and vertical guidance may be
displayed on conventional course
deviation indicators or incorporated into
multipurpose cockpit displays. Range
information can be displayed by
conventional DME indicators and also
incorporated into multipurpose displays.

 It has several advantages compared to
the ILS, for example, a greater number of
possible executed approaches, a more
compact ground equipment, and a
potential to use more complicated
approach trajectories.
 However, for certain reasons, in particular
the advancement of GPS satellite
navigation, the installation of new devices
halted and finally in 1994 completely
cancelled by the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) organization.
MLS FEATURES
 There are 200 channels available
worldwide.
 MLS gives positive automatic landing
indications plus definite and continuous
on/off flag indications for the localiser and
glideslope needles.
 MLS is compatible with conventional
localiser and glidepath instruments, EFIS,
auto- pilot systems and area navigation
equipment.
MLS ADVANTAGES
 Greater accuracy and reliability
 More channels
 Less signal corruption from interference
 Extremely good guidance capacity

 It operates in the SHF band, 5031 - 5090  Very wide 3-dimensional coverage
MHz, with 300 KHz spacing in each
 Can be used by light aircraft, helicopters
channel. This enables it to be sited in hilly
and STOL aircraft
areas without having to level the site.
 Various approach routes available

 Built-in DME
 The azimuth coverage is at least ± 40° of
the runway on-course line (QDM) and  Cheaper to install
glideslopes from .9° to 20° can be
selected. The usable range is 20-30 nm
from the MLS site; 20nm in the UK.
MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM ( MLS )
 There is no problem with back-course Principle of Operation---- Tigue
transmissions; a secondary system is
 MLS employs the principle of Time
provided to give overshoot and departure
Division Multiplexing ( TDM ) whereby
guidance ± 20° of runway direction up to
only one frequency is used on a channel
15° in elevation to a range of 10 nm and a
but the transmissions from the various
height of 10,000 ft.
angle and data ground equipment are
synchronized to assure interference free
operations on the common radio
 Because of its increased azimuth and frequency.
elevation coverage aircraft can choose
their own approaches. This will increase
runway utilisation and be beneficial to
 MLS operates in the Super High
helicopters and STOL aircraft.
Frequency ( SHF ) between 5031 –
5090.7 MHz on two separate channels at
a mutual interval of 300 KHz.
 The MLS has a built-in DME.
 MLS system uses separate transmitters
producing two scanning beams ( one in
 azimuth and one in elevation ) and a
precision DME which allows the aircraft to
fix its position in three dimension.
Time Reference Scanning beam (TRSB)
 Is an air-derived data system which
operates at microwave frequencies to
provide guidance information proportional
to an aircraft‘s lateral and vertical
displacement from a selected flight profile.
 The time difference is controlled to be an
indication of the aircraft‘s angular position.
 Azimuth Location
Time referenced scanning beam ( TRSB )
is utilized in azimuth and elevation as follows:
the aircraft computes its azimuth position in
relation to the runway center – line by measuring
the time interval in microseconds between the
reception the ‗to‗ and ‗fro‗ scanning beams.
 o An azimuth station to perform
 The beam starts the ‗to‘ sweep at one
extremity of its total scan (13.5
scans/sec.) and travels at a uniform
speed to the other extremity. It then starts
its ‗fro‘ scan back to its start position. The
time interval between the reception of the
‗to‘ and ‗fro‘ pulses is proportional to the
angular position of the aircraft in relation
to the runway on-course line.
 The pilot can choose to fly the runway on-
course line ( QDM ) or an approach path
which he selects as a predetermined
number of degrees ( +- ) the runway
direction.
 Glide slope location
Another beam scans up and down (40.5
scans/sec.) at a uniform speed within each
elevation limits. The aircraft‘s position in relation
to its selected glide slope angle is thus
calculated in the same manner by measuring the
time difference between the reception of the
pulses from the up and down sweep.
The transmissions from the two beams
and the transmissions from the other
components of the MLS system are transmitted
at different intervals.
 MLS creates inbound courses to runways
by a scanning beam which moves
laterally. This is called the azimuth signal.
 Glide paths are created by a scanning
beam that moves vertically. This is called
the elevation signal.
MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM----Botor
 The standard configuration of MLS ground
equipment includes:
functions (a) and (e) above. In
addition to providing azimuth
navigation guidance, the station
transmits basic data which consists
with the operation of the landing
system,, as well as advisory data
on the performance of the ground
equipment.
o An elevation station to perform
function (c)
o Distance Measuring Equipment
(DME) to perform range guidance,
both standard DME (DME/N) and
precision DME (DME/P)
 MLS Expansion Capabilities:
o The standard configuration can be
expanded by adding one or more
of the following functions or
characteristics.
 Back azimuth:
 Provides lateral
guidance for missed
 approach and o In range, to at least 20 NM
departure navigation

 Auxiliary data transmissions:

ELEVATION GUIDANCE
 Provides additional
data, including  The elevation station transmits signals on
refined airborne the dme frequency as the azimuth station.
positioning , A single frequency is time-shared
meteorological between angle and data functions
information, runway  The elevation transmitter is normally
status, and other locates about 400 feet from the side of the
supplementary runway between runway threshold and
information the touchdown zone
 Expanded Service  Elevation coverage is provided in the
Volume (ESV) same airspace as the azimuth guidance
proportional guidance signal:
to 60 degrees
o In elevation, to at least +15
 MLS identification is a four-letter degrees;
designation starting with the letter M
o Laterally, to fill the Azimuth lateral
o It is transmitted in International coverage; and
Morse Code at least six times per
minute by the approach azimuth o In range, to at least 20 NM
(and back azimuth) ground
equipment.
Microwave Landing System (MLS)---Bermal

RANGE GUIDANCE
APPROACH AZIMUTH GUIDANCE
• The MLS Precision Distance Measuring
 The azimuth stations transmits MLS angle
Equipment (DME/P) functions the same
and data on one of 200 channels within
as the navigation DME ,but there are
the frequency range of 5031 – 5090.7
some technical differences. The beacon
MHz
transponder operations in the frequency
 The equipment is normally located about band 962 to 1105 MHz and responds to
1,000 feet beyond the stop end of the an aircraft interrogator. The MLS DME/P
runway, but there is considerable flexibility accuracy is improved to be consistent with
in selecting sites. For example, for heliport the accuracy provided by the MLS
operations the azimuth transmitter can be azimuth and elevation stations.
collocated with the elevation transmitter
• A DME/P channel is paired with the
 The azimuth coverage extends: azimuth and elevation channel. A
complete listing of the 200 paired
o Laterally, at least 400 on either side channels of the DME/P with the angle
of the runway centerline in a functions is contained in FAA Standard
standard configuration, 022 (MLS Interoperability and
o In elevation, up to an angle of 150 Performance Requirements).
and to at least 20,000 feet, and
 • The DME/P is an integral part of the MLS
and is installed at all MLS facilities unless
a waiver is obtained .This occurs
infrequently and only at outlying, low
density airports where markers beacons
or compass locators are already in place.
• Data communications:
• The data transmission can include both
the basic and auxiliary data words. All
MLS facilities transmit basic data. Where
needed, auxiliary data can be transmitted
• Coverage limits . MLS data are
transmitted throughout the azimuth (and
back azimuth when provided) coverage
sectors.
• Basic data content. Representative data
include :
* Station identification;
* Exact locations of azimuth, elevation and
DME/P stations (for MLS
receiver processing functions);
* Ground equipment performance level; and
* DME/P channel and status
• Auxiliary data content : Representative
data include:
* 3-D locations of MLS equipment;
*Waypoint coordinates;
*Runaway conditions ; and
*Weather (e.g.., RVR, ceiling, altimeter
setting, wind, wake vortex, wind shear)
Components of Microwave Landing System
(MLS)---Talagtag
Approach Azimuth Antenna
• Operational Flexibility
• The MLS has the capability to fulfill a
variety of needs in the approach , landing,
missed approach and departure phases of
flight. For example:
*curved and segmented approaches ;
* Selectable glide path angles;
• PILOTS
• Pilots should be aware of the possibility of
momentary erroneous indications on
cockpit displays when the primary signal
generator for a ground-based navigational
transmitter is inoperative.
• Pilots should disregard any navigation
indication, regardless of its apparent
validity, if the particular transmitter was
identified by Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) or
otherwise as unusable or inoperative.
• ACCURACY – The MLS provide precision
three-dimensional navigation guidance
accurate enough for all approach and
landing maneuvers.
• COVERAGE –Accuracy is consistent
throughout the coverage volumes.
• ENVIRONMENT-the system has low
susceptibility to interference from weather
conditions and airport ground traffic.
• CHANNELS – MLS has 200 channels
,enough for any foreseeable need.
• DATA- The MLS transmit ground-air data
message associated with the systems
operations .
• RANGE INFORMATION –Continuous
range information is provided with an
accuracy of about 100 degree.
• The azimuth station transmits MLS angle
and data on one of 200 channels within
the frequency range of 5031 to 5091 Mhz
and is normally located about 1000ft
(300m) beyond the stop end of the
runway.
 • The azimuth coverage extends: Laterally,
at least 40 degrees on either side of the
runway centerline in a standard
configuration.
• Forward azimuth subsystem is located
beyond the runway stop end on the
extended centerline and radiating in the
approach direction defines the azimuth
position.
Distance Measuring Equipment
• DME Beacon is co-located with the
azimuth element and it supplies slant
angle distance from that point the range of
these systems is approximately 30
nautical miles.
• The MLS Precision Distance Measuring
Equipment (DME/P) functions the same
as conventional DME, but there are some
technical differences.
• A DME/P channel is paired with the
azimuth and elevation channel.
Flare Antenna
Flare Subsystem is located near the elevation
element is designed into MLS but International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) have stated
that it is not intended to be implemented.
The purpose of the flare is to land the aircraft on
the runway touching with the main gear first, with
a low speed and the lowest vertical velocity
possible.
A flare is used to reduce both vertical and
horizontal speed to allow a near zero-speed
touchdown.
Components of Microwave Landing System
(MLS)---Valencia
Elevation Antenna
• Elevation Subsystem is located to one
side of the runway and also radiating in
the approach direction defines the
elevation angle.
• The elevation station transmits signals on
the same frequency as the azimuth
station. A single frequency is time-shared
between angle and data functions and the
elevation transmitter is normally located
about 400 feet from the side of the runway
between runway threshold and the
touchdown zone.
• Elevation Coverage is provided in the
same airspace as the azimuth guidance
signals In elevation to at least +15
degrees; Laterally to fill the azimuth lateral
coverage and in range, to at least 20
nautical miles ( 37 km)
Back Azimuth Antenna
• The Back Azimuth Antenna provides
lateral guidance for missed approach and
departure navigation. The back azimuth
transmitter is essentially the same as the
approach azimuth transmitter. However,
the equipment transmits at a somewhat
lower data rate because the guidance
accuracy requirements are not as
stringent as for the landing approach.
• The equipment operates on the same
frequency as the approach azimuth but at
different time in the transmission
sequence.
AIRBORNE EQUIPMENT
The airborne equipment-is designed to
continuously display the position of the aircraft in
relation to the pre-selected course and glide path
along with distance information during approach
as well as during departure.
Control Unit -In order to receive ILS, MLS and
GPS transmissions, aircraft are equipped with
multi-mode receivers and a combined control • Just like with the azimuth beam, the
unit for ease of use by the flight crew. elevation beam scans To and From.

• However, the beam goes up and down

instead of side to side.

• Elevation coverage ±20˚.

MLS Ground Installation----Nonato

Ground Equipment in MLS

MLS Azimuth Transmitter

Guidance

 Provides a fan shaped Horizontal signal.

approach azimuth antenna normally
provides a lateral coverage of 40 either
side of the center of scan. Coverage is
reliable to a minimum of 20 NM from the
runway threshold and to a height of
20,000 feet(ft). The antenna is normally
located about 1000 feet beyond the end of
the runway.

MLS Elevation Transmitter

Guidance

 Provides a fan shaped Vertical signal. The

elevation transmitter is normally located
about 400 feet from the side of the runway
between threshold and the touchdown
zone.

MLS COVERAGE-----Gapas ILS------Balaoro

MLS Azimuth Beam › An Instrument Landing System (ILS)

enables pilots to conduct an instrument
• A narrow scanning beam from the MLS approach to landing if they are unable to
sweeps back and forth beyond either side establish visual contact with the runway.
of the runway.
› defined as a ground-air based instrument
• A curved approach can be computed if approach system that provides precision
the aircraft is equipped with a Flight guidance to an aircraft approaching and
Management System (FMS). landing on a runway.
• Azimuth coverage ±40˚

› It uses a combination of radio signals and

MLS Elevation Beam , in many cases, high-intensity lighting
arrays to enable safe landing during
 instrument meteorological conditions
(IMC).
› Assist airplane to fly along a precise path
towards and on the runway, defined in
three dimensions, during approach to land
on specific runway using guidance signals
transmitted by ground equipment.
› It is defined by the International
Telecommunication Union as
a service provided by a station as follows:
› A radio navigation system which provides
aircraft with horizontal and vertical
guidance just before and during landing
and, at certain fixed points, indicates the
distance to the reference point of landing.
ILS Minimums----Bolivar
› — Article 1.104, ITU Radio
Regulations (ITU RR)
› History of ILS
› Tests of the first ILS began in 1929 in the
United States.
› A basic system, fully operative, was
introduced in 1932 at Berlin-Tempelhof
Central Airport (Germany) named LFF or
"Lorenz beam" due its inventor, the C.
Lorenz AG company. The Civil
Aeronautics Administration (CAA)
authorized installation of the system in
1941 at six locations.
› The first landing of a scheduled U.S.
passenger airliner using ILS was on
January 26, 1938, when a Pennsylvania
Central Airlines Boeing 247D flew from
Washington, D.C., to Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, and landed in a snowstorm
using only the Instrument Landing
System.
› In 1949, International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) adapted an ILS
standard developed by the US Army as a
standard system for all of its member
countries.
› 1958-First Instrument Flight Rule (IFR)
landing system developed
› 1966-First ILS system developed and
tested at Airport in USA
› The first fully automatic landing using ILS
occurred in March 1964 at Bedford
Airport in UK
› 1968-First ILS applications installed at
major airports
› 1974-ILS systems mandated by FAA for
at least two major runways at all Regional,
and International Airports.
 DH (Decision Height )
 Is the point which the pilot must
have visual contact with the runway
for a safe landing.
 RVR(Runway Visual Range)
 Distance along the runway that the
pilot concede which is important so
he/she can see the markings in the
runway.
 HUD (Head Up Display)
 Is any transparent display that
presents data without requiring
users to look away from their usual
viewpoints
 The lowest authorized ILS minimums, with
all required ground and airborne systems
components operative, are:
 CAT I:
 Decision Height: 200‗
 Runway Visual Range: 2,400'
 Special Authorization Category I:
  Decision Height: 150'
 Runway Visual Range: 1,400'
 HUD to Decision Height
 CAT II:
 Decision Height: 100'
 Runway Visual Range: 1,200' with
auto-land or HUD to touchdown
and noted on authorization,
Runway Visual Range 1,000'
 Special Authorization Category II with
Reduced Lighting:
 Decision Height: 100‘
 Runway Visual Range: 1,200 with
auto land or HUD to touchdown
and noted on authorization
 Touchdown zone, centerline
lighting.
 CAT IIIa:
 No Decision Height or Decision
Height below 100'
 Runway Visual Range not less
than 700'
 CAT IIIb:
 No Decision Height or Decision
Height below 50'
 Runway Visual Range Less than
700' but not less than 150'
 CAT IIIc:
 No Decision Height
 No Runway Visual Range minimum
 Note that special authorization and
equipment required for Categories II and
III
Components of ILS----Cortez
1) Runway Localizer
2) Glide Path localizer
3) Marker
• Outer marker (OM)
• Middle Marker (MM)
• Inner Marker (IM)
Runway Localizer
From the ground, a localizer transmitter projects
radio beams aligned with the centerline of the
runway from about 5nm out.
It operates in the VHF band from 108.1-111.95
MHz.
The localizer transmits 2 tones: 150Hz and
90Hz, and one tone is on one side of the runway,
the other on the other side.
The ILS receiver measures the difference of
strength of the 2 tones to compute whether or
not the aircraft is centered or off course.
• The localizer antenna array radiates two
different signals, carrier plus sideband
(CSB) and suppressed carrier sideband
only (SBO). These signal consists of the
RF carrier amplitude modulated (AM)
frequencies of 90 Hz and 150 Hz tones.
• If the aircraft on approach is aligned with
the runway centerline, the CDI(course
deviation indicator) will display no
difference in between the 90 Hz and 150
Hz frequencies therefore, the CDI needle
is centered.
Glide Path-----Estallo
 Glide path is the vertical antenna located
on both side of the runway about 300m
to the end of the runway.
 A system of vertical guidance embodied in
the instrument landing system which
indicates the vertical deviation of the
aircraft from its optimum path of
descent.
 Glide Path operates in UHF band
between 329.15 and 335 MHz.
 The pilot controls the aircraft so that the
glide slope indicator remains
centered on the display to ensure the
aircraft is following the glide path of
approximately 3° above horizontal
(ground level) to remain above
obstructions and reach the runway
at the proper touchdown point.
Glide Slope indicators
 Visual glideslope indicators provide the
pilot with glide path information that can
be used for day or night approaches. By
maintaining the proper glide path as
provided by the system, a pilot should
have adequate obstacle clearance and
should touch down within a specified
portion of the runway.
 Visual Approach Slope Indicator
(VASI)
 Precision Approach Path Indicator
(PAPI)
 Tri-color visual approach slope
indicator
INSTRUMENT
LANDING
SYSTEM

 The glide path signal provides vertical Marker Beacons------Flor

guidance. A particular type of VHF radio beacon used in
 Glide path produce two signals in the aviation.
vertical plane.

 The upper has 90 Hz modulation and the
bottom has a 150 Hz modulation.
 The usual glide path angle is 3 degrees
but exceptions may occur, usually to meet
particular approach constraints such as
terrain or noise abatement.
• function as ILS markers. It consists of the
Outer, Middle and Inner Markers.
• enables the pilot to cross check the
aircraft‘s position.
RADIO FREQUENCY

• 75 MHz

 If an aircraft approaching the runway too MODULATING FREQUENCY

high, it will receive more of the 90 Hz
• OM - 400 Hz
modulation than 150 Hz modulation.
• MM - 1300 Hz
 Difference in depth of modulation will
energizes the horizontal needle of ILS • IM - 3000 Hz
indicator.

 Thus, aircraft will be given the direction to

go down. When the aircraft is passing over the marker
beacons, they are indicated by light illumination
and Morse Code tone through the cockpit
speaker or headphones.
 Cockpit light:

OUTER MARKER White

• Located about 3.6 to 6 NM (5.56 - 11.11 Morse code tone:

km) from the runway‘s threshold
6 Dots/ Second
• ~ 7000 m
Pitch:
• Its beam intersects the glide slope‘s ray at
approximately 426 m above the runway High

• Signal Modulated at 400 Hz

• Located about 3.6 to 6 NM (5.56 - 11.11

km) from the runway‘s threshold

• ~ 7000 m

• Its beam intersects the glide slope‘s ray at

approximately 426 m above the runway

• Signal Modulated at 400 Hz

MIDDLE MARKER

• Located about 0.5 to 0.8 NM (0.93 – 1.50

km) from the runway‘s threshold

• ~ 1000 m

• Signal Modulated at 1300 Hz

Factors Affecting ILS Signals-----Frondozo

Cockpit light: Weather, FM Broadcasts, Vehicle or Aircraft

Movement on the Ground
Amber

Morse code tone:

FM BROADCASTS
3 Alternate Dots and Dashes/ Second
The FM broadcasting service operates in the 88-
Pitch: 108 MHz band while the VHF aeronautical
Middle services band is 108-136 MHz.

FM transmitters (radio stations) have wide

bandwidths and it is possible for such stations
INNER MARKER transmitting on same frequencies that causing
interference with the ILS signals.
• Located 50 m in front of the runway‘s
threshold In airborne ILS localizer and VOR receivers, the
interference problem ranges from nuisance
• Signal Modulated at 3000 Hz background FM broadcasting audio to errors in
course deviation and flag operation.

VEHICLE OR AIRCRAFT MOVEMENT ON THE
GROUND
• Every ILS installation has its critical
area and its sensitive area.
• The critical area is protected during
all ILS operations because the
presence of vehicles or aircraft
inside its boundaries will cause
unacceptable disturbance to the
ILS signals.
• These areas are important to
prevent ILS signal disturbance.
• The sensitive area extends beyond
the critical area. Its is where the
parking and movement of vehicles
or aircraft is controlled.
• ILS categories depends on 2 things:
Decision Height (DH) and Runway Visual
Range (RVR).
• The Decision Height (DH) is the altitude
when the pilot must see the runway lights,
else he must abort the landing.
• Runway Visual Range (RVR) means how
far pilot can see on horizontal plane (how
many feet pilot can see).
• The categories are:
1. CAT I: DH>200 ft, RVR>2400 ft
2. CAT II: 100 ft< DH <200 ft, RVR>1200 ft
3. CAT III: in general DH<100 ft and
RVR<700 ft
• The following must be fully serviceable to
meet CAT II/III standards:
• Airport lighting:
• Approach lights
• Runway threshold lights
• Touchdown zone lights
• Centerline lights
• Runway edge lights
• Runway end lights
• All stop bars and lead-on lights
• Essential taxiway lights
• ILS components:
• Localizer
• Glide path
ILS
PROCEDURE------Monte
• Request the ILS approach from ATC
• Follow the assigned clearance or radar
vectors, as assigned by ATC
• Complete any appropriate checklists,
ensuring the aircraft is in the landing
configuration prior to glide slope
interception
• Upon intercepting the glide slope (FAF),
reduce power, and adjust pitch to
maintain glide slope
o The glideslope angle can be found
on the instrument approach chart
however, it is generally around 3
degrees.
• Make small adjustments as required
o Corrections will become more
sensitive as you get closer to the
airport so it is imperative to
stabilize your approach as early as
possible
o To recapture the glideslope,
corrections should be within a
degree or two of pitch, or a couple
 hundred feet per minute on the rate
of descent
o To recapture the localizer, stay
inside of the heading bug, if
available, or 5 degrees left or right
of center if none is
• At the outer Marker (OM) or Locator Outer
Marker (LOM):
o Check the altimeter crossing the
OM/LOM
o Perform the 5Ts:
 Time: Note the time
 Turn: to track the inbound
course
 Twist: Verify that the OBS is
set to inbound course:
 Throttle: Maintain approach
speed
 Talk: Make required reports
• At 1000' above DA(H), call out "1000
above DA(H)"
• At 500' above DA(H), call out "500 above
DA(H)," and complete a GUMP check
• At 100' above DA(H), call out "100 above
DA(H)―
• Upon reaching DA(H):
o Continue the approach if the
runway environment is in sight, or;
 Descend no lower than 100
above touchdown zone
elevation when referencing
the approach light system
without seeing the red
terminating bars or red side-
row bars
o Call out "missed approach," and
execute the published missed
approach procedure if ATC does
not direct a different procedure
• With the runway in sight and in a position
from which a descent to a landing on the
indented runway can be made at a normal
rate of descent using normal maneuvers
o Callout, "Runway in Sight, Landing"
o Maintain the localizer and
glideslope during the visual
descent to a point over the runway
where the glideslope must be
abandoned to accomplish a normal
landing
• At or below , set the flaps as
appropriate for landing
HOW ILS WORKS ?
GROUND LOCALIZER ANTENNA
 transmit VHF signal (108.1-111.9 MHz) in
direction opposite of runway to
horizontally guide aircraft(left/right) to the
runway centre line.
GROUND GLIDE PATH ANTENNA
 transmit UHF signal (329.3 – 335.0 MHz)
in vertical direction to vertically guide
aircraft (Up/down) to the touchdown point
at angle of about 3 degrees above the
horizontal.
MARKER BEACONS
 To indicate predetermined distances to
the runway threshold.
 Localizer and Glide Path receiver antenna
located at aircraft nose receives both
 signals and sends it to ILS indicator in the
cockpit.
 These signals activate the vertical and
horizontal needles inside the ILS indicator
to tell the pilot either go left/right or go
up/down.
 By keeping both needles centered, the
pilot can guide his aircraft down to end of
landing runway aligned with the runway
center line and aiming the touch down.
Instrument Landing System
Advantages and Disadvantages
ADVANTAGES
 INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM is a
very powerful system for landing
guidance.
 It has a greater precision approach.
 It helps for landing in a very poor visibility.
 It is also an option for automatic landing.
DISADVANTAGES
LORAN Overview
 It has a narrow and single approach path.
 It has 40 channels and it signals are very
sensitive
 Its signal are limited.
 Maintenance and installation is costly.
Korean Airlines Boeing 747
Attempting to land in heavy rain
228 of 254 killed
Long Range Navigation (LORAN)-----Hugo
History
 1942 - the British had an operating
hyperbolic system named Gee to aid in
longrange bomber navigation. The system
is operated on frequencies between 30
MHz and 80 MHz and employed ―master‖
and ―slave‖ transmitters spaced
approximately 100 miles apart.
 Late 1940‘s and early 1950‘s -
experiments in low frequency Loran
produced a longer range, more accurate
system. Using the 90-110 kHz band.
(LORAN C)
 Late 1950‘s - From the late 1950‘s, Loran
A and Loran C systems were operated in
parallel
 Mid 1970‘s - phasing out of Loran A. The
United States continued to operate Loran
C in a number of areas around the world.
 Mid 1990‘s - closing of Loran C stations in
the US. This was a result of the U.S.
Department of Defense adopting the
Global Positioning System (GPS) as its
primary radionavigation service
 1st Modern practical area navigation
system for use in general aviation.
 Developed for maritime navigation. Early
LORAN A‘s were exclusively for marine
use
 Still in use today although its use beyond
6 – 8 years from now is uncertain
 Certain LORAN-C receivers are approved
for IFR Enroute and Terminal navigation
but not for approaches.
 Most LORAN-C recievers are used for
VFR navigation
  For all practical purposes, LORAN-C
provides the same type of navigation data
to the pilot.
LORAN Theory
 The LORAN-C concept is based on
groups or chains of stations around the
world.
 Worldwide there are 28 chains.
 Each chain consists of one master station
and 4 – 6 secondary stations in a
geographic area.
 The master station of each chain
broadcasts a continuous string of Low
Frequency pulses (measures in
microseconds).
 The unique time between the start and
stop of each pulse identifies the particular
chain.
 This time is known as the Group
Repetition Interval or GRI.
 For instance the time between the start
and stop of each pulse in the northeast
U.S. chain is 99,600 microseconds or
9960 for short. 9960 is identified as the
great lakes chain.
 The GRI is entered into the LORAN-C unit
in the aircraft upon startup along with the
approximate LAT./Long. Position during
the initialization process. This helps the
unit find its position more quickly.
 The LORAN-C unit then searches for that
master station and the two strongest
secondary signals.
 The master station pulse triggers a
response from the secondary stations.
The receiver corrects for any time lag in
pulse reply.
 The receiver then calculates the time it
takes these signals to reach the aircraft
and essentially generates hyperbolic
Lines of Position (LOP) from each station-
known as a hyperbolic lines of position
since the lines look like a parabola.
 Two intersecting hyperbolas produce two
possible points for the aircraft position.
 Using a second slave (or secondary)
station the receiver then pinpoints its
position. Entering the latitude or
longitude. During initialization also aids in
this process.
LORAN Limitations-----Recio
Area of coverage limited to chains which don‘t
give
global coverage
The sky wave component of the signal bounces
off the
ionosphere causing navigational errors when
traveling
greater than 1,000 NM from the farthest master
or
secondary station- causes errors in position of
up to
three miles.
1,000 miles is significant as at ranges less than
this,
the ground wave is significantly greater in
strength
than the sky waves therefore the receiver is
programmed to reject the weaker sky waves.
At distances of between 1,000 and 1,400 NM the

ground and sky waves are approximately the Repeatable Accuracy

same
Accuracy with which a user can
strength making the signals seem the same to
the return to a position whose

receiver. coordinates have been

measured at a previous time with the same

navigational system.
Since the sky waves take longer to reach the
receiver than the ground waves, this leads to
position errors. Measure of an observer‘s abilityby using a
As the aircraft moves through precipitation, it navigation system

generates static electricity which generates such as Loran – C to return to a position visited
previously using the same navigation system.
electromagnetic ―noise‖ around the aircraft
thereby

interfering with the LORAN signal- causing the Sometimes as good as 18

Signal Strength to noise ratio to go to meters and is usually better
unacceptable limits.
than 100 meters within the

coverage area.
LORAN ACCURACY-----Elevado

A matter of signal quality and operator

experience than any fundamental limit of the
equipment or signals.
Least understood attributes of the LORAN – C
system.
Relative Accuracy
Accuracy with which a user can measure
position
relative to that of another user of the same

navigation system at the same time.

3 major types of accuracy

PREDICTABLE, REPEATABLE & RELATIVE Of these three types of accuracy, most users are

Predictable Accuracy connected with either absolute or repeatable

accuracy.
Also called Absolute or geodetic. Accuracy of

position with respect to the geographic or

The absolute accuracy of the system includes
geodetic coordinates of the earth. both the precision (random errors) and the bias
. (systematic errors) of the system.
The loran – c service will support an absolute
accuracy varying from 185 meters to 463 meters
(0.1 to 0.25 nautical miles)
The repeatable accuracy of the system includes
only random errors of the system.
Both types of accuracy are important to loran
users, but for different purposes.
Loran-----Cerillo
 Master slave
 Coding delay
 Time difference
Master / Slave
• The master transmits a set of 8 plus 1
pulses.
• The pulses are received at the ship and at
W, X, Y and Z.
• When the ship receives the first master
pulse, it starts a timing clock.
• When the secondary stations receive the
first master pulse, they wait for a short
time known as a coding delay and then
each transmits a similar set of 8 pulses.
• The ship receives the pulses from W, X, Y
and Z and times the interval between
receiving the master pulse and receiving
each of the four secondary pulses.
Coding Delay
• The coding delay is such that the ship will
always receive the master station pulse
first, then W pulse, then X pulse then Y
pulse and finally Z pulse.
• The coding delay is that the pulses do not
overlap as they are received.
• After a short interval of between one
twentieth to one tenth of a second, the
master station transmits another set of
pulses and the cycle repeats.
Time Difference
• The position of the ship determines the
time differences
• If we know the time differences, we know
the ship‘s position.
Ninth Pulse,
Group Repetition Interval,
Time Difference Measurement-------Villamayor
Ninth Pulse
 Used for service communications
 It is used to transmit warnings if any
station is not transmitting correctly. The
warnings trigger alarms in the Loran
receiver.
 It enables the Loran receiver to identify
the master station.
 Spaced by 2 seconds from the eight pulse
Group Repetition Interval (GRI)
 The specified time interval of a Loran C
chain for all stations of the chain to
transmit their pulse groups. For each
chain a minimum group repetition interval
(GRI) is selected of sufficient duration to
provide time for each station to transmit
its pulse group and additional time
between each pulse group so that signals
from two or more stations cannot overlap
in time anywhere within the coverage
area.
  There are several different intervals.
Each is a few hundreds of microseconds
less than 50,000, 60,000, 80,000, 90,000
or 100,000  seconds.
 Examples;
 49900  sec known as
Station 4990
 59300  sec known as
Station 5930
Time Difference Measurement
 Uses the third cycle of the received pulse
because;
 The start of the received pulse may
be too weak to be heard
 The master and secondary signals
may not be received at the same
strength.
 It is possible to accurately identify
the time when the third cycle ends
and time this point.
 This part of the pulse arrives at the
ship before there can be any sky
wave interference.
LORAN C CHAINS------Tibayan
 The LORAN C are arranged of 3 to 5
transmitting stations. They all transmit on
a frequency of 100 kHz.
 A group consisting of a Master and up to
four slaves is called a chain.
 Within the chain, one station is designated
―Master‖ (M) while the other ―secondary‖
stations identified by the letters W, X, Y,
Z.
 Different secondary designations are used
depending on the number of station in a
chain.
 In order to separate one group of stations
for another neighboring chain, the time
from when the master station transmits
until it transmits again is different for each
chain.
 Each chain is identified by a Group
Repetition Interval (GRI) which is the time
between transmissions from the master.
Each slave transmits its pulse train at a specified
interval after the master has transmitted.
This is called the emission delay (ED) and is
made up of the master-slave time (MS) and a
coding delay (CD)
The coding delay (CD) is a very small correction
that removes the local (near-field) discrepancy
between the envelope and carrier.
LORAN-C-----Arroyo
TRANSMITTER, RECEIVER, ANTENNA
TRANSMITTER
• Due to the long distances covered by
each LORAN C chain, the power
transmitted must be high (0.5 to 4 MW)
• Propagation is by ground wave and thus
has to be vertically polarized
• Antenna therefore is a vertical mast.
LORAN-C transmitter Rantum is a transmission
facility for LORAN-C on the German island Sylt
near the village Rantum
The tower is approximately 190 metres tall.
ANTENNA
Three types of transmitting antennas, or towers,
are
currently in use in the North American LORAN-C
system:
Top-Loaded Monopole (TLM), Sectionalized
LORAN
Tower (SLT), and the Top Inverted Pyramid
(TIP).
The ends of the TLE are insulated with fiberglass
strain insulators and are supported by the TLE
support guys.
Top loading increases the capacitance of the
antenna to ground thereby increasing the
bandwidth. Top loading also increases the
effective height of the antenna resulting
in greater efficiency.
the SLT antenna, one of two multi-tower
arrays (MTAs) used to transmit LORAN-C
signals.
the TIP antenna, the second type of
MTA used to transmit LORAN-C signals. The
differences between these antennas include:
tower height, spacing between towers, and the
design of the top hat.
RECEIVER
Receivers require a data base which provides
- the location (Latitude/Longitude) of
the Master and Slave stations
- the GRI of the chains to be used
- the time delays for the individual
stations
The LORAN C signal travels both by ground
wave and sky wave
• ground wave gives stable, reliable
timing
• sky wave does not due to the
variable nature of the ionosphere
• ground wave is attenuated more
and hence is weaker and can be
contaminated by the sky wave
• Receiver Operation:
- Searches for Master pulses using known GRI
- Locks on to slave pulses
- Measures master or slave time interval and
subtracts the Emission Delay (ED)
- Calculates the distances and position
e-Loran------Rivera
Enhanced LORAN, also known as
eLORAN or E-LORAN, was developed in the
United States starting in the mid-1990‘s. eLoran
is a major technology upgrade of Loran-C, but
can be provided by the same sites and antenna
technology used for Loran-C.
eLoran comprises advancement in
receiver design and transmission characteristics,
which increase the accuracy and usefulness of
traditional LORAN. With reported accuracy as
good as ±8 meters, the system becomes
competitive with unenhanced GPS.
eLORAN also includes additional pulses,
which can transmit auxiliary data such as
(Differential GPS) DGPS corrections. These
enhancements in LORAN make it a possible
substitute for scenarios where GPS is
unavailable or degraded.
Provides changes to improve accuracy,
reliability, integrity, availability.
– Operational changes (Time of
Transmission (TOT) control)
– Transmitter equipment (control, Cs
clock, etc.)
– Data Channel (integrity and timing)
 • Very much like GPS this messaging
channel provides transmitter identification,
• Enhanced Loran, is independent of GPS time of transmission, differential
but fully compatible in its positioning and corrections, and authentication and
timing information, and its failure modes integrity signals.
are very different.

• eLoran is based on the existing low

frequency Loran-C infrastructures that
exist today in the United States, Europe,
and Far East, and in fact throughout much
of the northern hemisphere.

• It is an internationally recognized
positioning and timing service, the latest
evolution of the low frequency long-range
navigation (Loran-C) radionavigation
system.

Why eLoran?

• GPS is vulnerable to disruption, and it

doesn't work everywhere - entering a
tunnel or parking garage or even traveling
down a narrow city street: the navigation
system generally alerts to "loss of satellite
reception."

• Some interruptions of cell-phone

operations or losses of other services for
no apparent reason have been the result
of Global Navigation Satellite System
(GNSS) interference.

• Perhaps the most exciting changes from

Loran-C to eLoran are the new operating
concepts.

All transmitters are timed directly to

(Universal Time Coordinated) UTC, so that a
user may use all eLoran signals in view and may
combine them with GNSS signals for robust
position and time solutions.

• Each transmitter includes a messaging

channel; this is an in-band signaling
channel that allows the eLoran signal to
also carry information to improve the
user's solution.