Graphic Design: Fine Art or Social Science?

Author(s): Jorge Frascara

Source: Design Issues, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Autumn, 1988), pp. 18-29
Published by: The MIT Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1511556 .
Accessed: 10/12/2014 09:02

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

The MIT Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Design Issues.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 192.231.202.205 on Wed, 10 Dec 2014 09:02:57 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Jorge Frascara
Beware of Steps H,gh Voltage

Graphic Design: Fine Art

or Social Science?

Corrosive No Open Flame

I thank the editors of Design Issues and particularly Victor
Margolin, for their useful comments to my initial manuscript. The
present version has very much benefited from their advice.

Fig. 1) Symbols for safety, an area left Toward a theoretical backbone for graphic design
aside when graphic design is only
viewed as an esthetic activity.
Graphic design has existed long enough for its role in society to be
easily understood. However, unlike architecture, literature, or the
fine arts, it has developed without much theoretical reflection. It
has evolved into a sophisticated practice in a piecemeal fashion,
with scattered efforts aimed at the development of subareas, such
as posters or books, but without either the critical apparatus in
literature or the discussion present in architecture.
The aspect of graphic design that has attracted some discussion
is visual style. But this discussion of style has several flaws:
* It overemphasizes the importance of the visual structure
within an esthetic context.
* It omits problems of appropriateness.
* It leaves out certain areasof graphic design, such as signage,
forms, timetables, maps, and educational material (Figs. 1, 2,
human factors has been shown to
3).
designers trained
designers in art
trained in art schools
schools had
had * It omits the importance of ideas in the communication
not achieved before applied
psychologists took the lead. A user- process, not distinguishing between visual creation and
performance-based approach where the visual manipulation.
analysis of the communication process * It avoids problems of performance related to visual per-
is at the
is at center.
the center.
ception.
* It omits problems related to the impact that graphic
ested, it has proved to ot
perform communication has on the public's attitudes and ideas.
These flaws have led to several distortions, the most important
ylearningtool. brought about by the praise of modern avant-garde typography.
How long will the praise of El Lissitzky continue? True, he made a
strong impact on a few typographic designers whose work in
graphic design was closely related to the practice of art and looked
Fig. 3) Design beyond esthetics:
alphabet for the learning disabled by J.
very similar to their paintings or the paintings of avant-garde
Frascara and
Frascara and T.
T. M.
M. Nelson.
Nelson. Widely
Widely artists of the time. However, was Lissitzky's contribution really
tested, it has proved to out perform
other initial
other initial reading alphabets as
reading alphabets as a
positive? His visual languagewas tremendously abstract (Fig. 4), as
learning tool. inappropriate to mass communication as Schwitters's graphics

18

This content downloaded from 192.231.202.205 on Wed, 10 Dec 2014 09:02:57 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 AM
A.
r
Fig. 4) El Lissitzky, Of Two Squares,
1920. Abstract language directed at
children.

using Pelikan ink motives were inappropriatefor the product

nMan
Fig. 5) The pre-modernPelikan
logo: appropriatenessof language,
with clear referenceto the drawing
ink medium.
(Figs.5 and 6). Pelikanink, used for line drawingandcalligraphy,
was presented,surroundedby geometrictypography,black and
redbars,andrectangles.Not only did thatimagerynot expressthe
product,but it didnot evenrelateto the logo or the label.Whydid

..' .. .... .. . . 94

Fig. 6) Kurt Schwitters: Design with

Pelikan ink. A case where the created 3 4001 ,

image has nothing to do with the

product or its label.

Design Issues:Vol. V, Number 1 Fall 1988 19

This content downloaded from 192.231.202.205 on Wed, 10 Dec 2014 09:02:57 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Schwitters'sdesignsincludePelikanink bottles whenthe designs
reallyrelatedto constructivism,not to Pelikan.
Lissitzky was interestedin improvingcommunication,as his
I.,IUl: J . lu una.. _ r:r. In; m
u.m
FIt*lgl m III _
I0Lll(~l#: ;~ll mt

writing shows. This article, however, questions the apparent

successof his worksreproducedin designhistorybooks. He and
other avant-gardeartists made a major impact in the visual

MERZ developmentof graphicdesign, but they also raisedthe impor-

tance of their esthetic approachto a point wherethe communi-
cation link with the commondenominatorthey were addressing
broke down. They seem not to havebeen awarethat communi-
HOLLAND U cationrequiresthe sharingof codes. Althoughdesignersneednot
DADA relytotally on the stereotypes,they cannotdisregardthe codesof
the public;they shouldworkwith the publicandimproveits visual
andconceptuallanguageasmuchaspossible,withoutbreakingthe
JANUAR
1923
E
HERAUSGEBER:
HAHIOVER
KURTSCHWITTERS
. WALDHAUSENSTRASSE
communicationlink.
5'
Lissitzky worked on a wide rangeof projects, some of them
possiblyless flashyandmoreusefulthanothers,but the Lissitzky
worshipedby manycontemporarydesignersanddesignhistorians
is the personwho producedthe quasi-abstract,constructivist,red
andblackpieces.
Fig. 7) Kurt Schwitters:Expression
that is appropriateon the coverof Although the quality of Lissitzky's, Schwitters's, and van
the first issue of Merz. Doesburg'sdesignsin theirown exhibitions(Figs.7 and 8), ideas,
andpublicationscanbe praised,the fact that they failedto realize
that theirvisuallanguagewasnot appropriatein allpossiblecases
mustbe acknowledged.The sameis applicableto otherartistswho
did some graphicdesign.Joan Miro was perfectlyskillfulin the
promotionof his own exhibition(Fig.9), but Albers'spromotion
for a Lincoln Center Film Festival says a lot about Albers and
little, if anything,about a film festival(Fig. 10).
The excessiveimportancegiven to the avant-gardemovement
in the context of graphicdesignhistory is basedon the failureof
theoryto recognizegraphicdesignas somethingother thananart
form. Furthermore,as an art form, graphicdesignis viewedonly
- m - TUL from an esthetic perspective,without enough considerationof
communicationandsocialsignificance.Surely,estheticsis impor-
Fig. 8) Vilmas Huszar:Logo for De tant, but it is by no meansthe sole measurefor quality.
Stijljournal.A caseof spontaneous
appropriatenessin visual style usual
Discussion should start with a working definition. Graphic
among artists who expresstheir own design is the activity that organizesvisual communication in society.
ideas.
It is concerned with the efficiency of communication, the
technologyused for its implementation,and the social impactit
effects, in other words, with social responsibility.The need for
communicativeefficiencyis a responseto the mainreasonfor the
existenceof anypieceof graphicdesign:someonehassomethingto
communicate to someone else. This involves, to a greater or lesser
extent, a perceptualand a behavioralconcern.
The perceptualconcern involves visual detection problems
sometimesandcommunicationproblemsallthe time.Problemsof

20

This content downloaded from 192.231.202.205 on Wed, 10 Dec 2014 09:02:57 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Fig. 9) Joan Miro:GalerieMaeght.
Anotherexampleof appropriateness
of style.
Fig. 10) JosefAlbers:10thNew York
Film Festival.The posterexpressesa
lot of Albersand little, if anything,
about films. A caseof communication
failure.
Design Issues: Vol. V, Number 1 Fall 1988
This content downloaded from 192.231.202.205 on Wed, 10 Dec 2014 09:02:57 AM
GALE
11 I E
M A-3E G II T
detection and communicationinclude visibility, legibility, and
esthetics.The behavioralconcernhas to do with the way graphic
communicationsaffect the attitudes and conduct of their audi-
ences. Advertising design is expected to make people buy
products or services;political or ideologicalpropagandais ex-
pected to affect people'sbeliefs and actions;regulatorysigns on
highwaysareintendedto organizethe flow of traffic;teachingaids
are supposed to improvelearningperformance;bank notes are
designed to make forgery difficult and identification of one
denominationfrom anothereasy. This is the realmeasureof the
performanceof anyandeverypieceof graphicdesignandthe proof
that graphicdesign cannot be understoodin isolation but only
within a communicationsystem.
Social responsibilityin graphicdesign is the concernfor the
following:
21
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 , ...

* The impact that all visual communication has in the com-

munity and the way in which its content influences people.
-e -.-. * The impact that all visual communication has in the visual
environment.
" ML O
* The need to ensure that communications related to the
safety of the community areproperly implemented (Fig. 11).
IC___ __-I?

This brief summary shows that the practice of graphic design

"I.= .............
Fig. 11) A case of lack of professional
responsibility: actual size of a label
for a contact cement container
showing directions for use and
warnings about toxicity (black type
on red ground in the original).
Fig. 12) Edward Johnston: railway
type, 1916. A no-nonsense
typography for signage. A step ahead
in communication at a time when
ornament and self-expression were
the common alternatives.
transcends the realm of esthetics. Pursuing the identification of
the pioneers of graphic design in this context and seeing in what
way El Lissitzky compares to EdwardJohnston (Fig. 12) or to Jan
Tschichold (Fig. 13) is therefore worthwhile. Interesting results
might also be derived from comparisons between the contri-
butions of Armin Hofmann and Giovanni Pintori when the focus
of attention moves from a specific esthetic conception to commu-
nication efficiency. Although Hofmann created a beautiful style
(Figs. 14 and 15), Pintori had a greater flexibility and a better
understanding of the importance of appropriateness and created a
feeling for Olivetti that still exists after 30 years (Fig. 16).
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghijk m nopqrstuvwxyz
& 1234567890.,;: -!?'""/()
VORZUGS-ANGEBOT

V r Sl *.AG. C)f S a iL
0I0t v P RA
iND Si DL!
: r I i'I.'3h-u;e
onwSC c L .r
r-,.t- .. i- ,:' ? 3t ..t
.r* " :-i; : h-,t

JAN TSCCHCHOLD
ti ? .ii -e . "*csr.'cuir .t(
t:f
rrla,!':f s -rlh&rJUciipr :n Mi" chfn

DIE NEUE TYPOGRAPHIE

flns.dbu.h 1ir die gi4mle FC#hwIft
ImId do d e h It>?
# - h<de n KFrIo

1- ,l Jz.... .....- " ,

L. m..,T*!: t t-.,le^ hI- Tyr-i'.,^il'(<e tiht.i;. , le::t3fte INALT DES SUCtIS

* ! , ;.'.:t. . ;
?.t'., " .,", '',',' H.?-st>, . , 'e
fr f
tEUEN TVPOaRAPHIE

i -. ~,,, , - . f.1 0 ?,:f,..H..'

b fk, ,
*:! ...**+,,-.
~s.
-..... . *.b! V,!:, i< , n; ;a > 1a,~Bf*-' '-'-'*1 ?? . "
.p:.
: r ',.... fesre - . ', h. ',;':"-
ZfT *?l5 ; ... .
?yp?gtiphln
,,hcn
dttfMtkampln M*<;ri k . *rI
(;Photo
---j... '**!..,. Mr-
r E,*r'?..?r
-?r ;?*<*!-
T]FP f*pMr tt .. *" --*
. _.>..- .
;. ..

* $t . *! * ,I*: * ..........;........ tes*e tn .7 ...........-

Tpho? *ll??m
sphZilr git .
ln.t - )?eh?! <r'>* tf t .(e ri W ,
r *...*14 .*i .
?1 'g li f
??r?l ]poNiO n ti phr *nlttb tie 114~dII ,., -, ~:.',,-.. Be _ .
', ,..' ...,,- .r h... ~, ~,,, ,} rsil;.
' J b. s
,~ , a.Vt t i . lti nJ*l t:,?;4 t ;

e
::r?*l. + r.~' ;l tIktSZ?:r
Z'
B-MwtPCn tgsp
IN tls . d
u.i,n -I O11.Ski- Tt
d h
Tp??rew" [ .
1t .: -i '-
.':lPOlIrphhP *-
;.1:1 e I: e.- ,,, k; ,lr'e't.1 usUt'Se",.
:ii . -- -.t.....F'
:,- s t, '' de r ?..
..,:,
? - ...:.. !
.rr " ., *,r:! ...:
; ',..
: . ;-,Jen
t t. ;>(.*{* fl *

Ne-.e Typ4)grlphi. red lom,'.sn.. .#g. . . .

f sprphl-
* .
, ,fto
..,,* .....,.a,. ,
.6 .:r ..- .se ,* UI4
' r.1,,.f ., :- asU4-4
r . l.
tt.. f.
." . ..*!
*.,;.,. ,r ;l,,. . r, eer ,,rr -tld; ha re. rZm?o el

,. I ; t w,..... P}....?....; ~ ... r.:..". n .,,-,,

. t.?.e*'- n ..',t.i

Dem sI. l splmit tIeri125 Albllise . won

do.n. wtw *ln VItell Xswolfhrbta *ruc?k s.t,
Fig. 13) Jan Tschichold: Die neue .nd umfott ilg*-
drwcp#is.,
200 "Ion Js gstl*m KIMw-
Cs * rFceknt In- Fo*rmt DI AS (14,
typographie. A new approach to 2tO mm) ud let bIiiomII In *it?ltIl*l i*b*ei.

:
typographic design that combined Prl . I ,
,t tr ..;... ..;. , 9,: 5.9? M
.
'*!. U**...-. , .. -.t_, I- .IB1. A o J1R??
esthetics with a strong concern for
Ba.MN,thol. s"to*4m _
the organization of information.

22

This content downloaded from 192.231.202.205 on Wed, 10 Dec 2014 09:02:57 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
r -

Although the concepts of communicationand technological

Herman efficiency are common denominatorsfor all areas of graphic
Miller
Collection
Verkaufab
I
design, several internal differences,dependingon the subarea,
9.Mirz
Contura SA
need developing.The things graphicdesignersshould know to
Basel
Aeschen
vorstadt4
Passage
promotethe saleof cookiesareverydifferentfromthose theyneed
to knowto teacha five-year-oldhow to read.Everytime a graphic
designerreallywishesto achievethe objectivesof the communi-
cation proposed,the cross-disciplinarynatureof the profession
becomesapparent.
Graphicdesignersare alwaysin need of active dialoguewith
theirclients andwith otherprofessionals- be it with aneditor, a
manager,a marketingexpert,or aneducator- to reallymakethe
best of theirpractice.This certainlyhasimportantimplicationsin
Fig. 14) Armin Hofmann: relation to the evaluationof graphicdesign quality and to the
Advertisementfor HermannMiller,
1962. Coincidencebetweenthe educationof graphicdesigners.
graphicdesigner'sstyle and the
productannounced.
Fig. 15) Armin Hofmann:An The problem of quality in graphic design
abstractcompositionintendedto Further to the working definition of graphicdesign advanced
representinsects.A strong esthetic
paradigmdoes not allow above,a definitionfor qualityin graphicdesignis also necessary:
communicationefficiency.
Qualityin graphicdesignis measuredby thechangesit producesin
Fig. 16) Giovanni Pintori: Posterfor
Olivetti 82 Diaspron, 1958. the audience.The movement away from esthetics and stylistic
Technologicalprecisionand modem innovationasdeterminantsof qualitystartedwheninvestigations
elegancein the developmentof a relatedto perceptualpsychology,particularlythe Gestalt school,
successfulcorporateidentity.

i @_ -
Ai'

a
olivetti
82 Dlaspron

Design Issues:Vol. V, Number 1 Fall 1988 23

This content downloaded from 192.231.202.205 on Wed, 10 Dec 2014 09:02:57 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 provided some theoretical concepts for visual fundamentals
coursesin art schools.These conceptsreplacedintuitiverulesfor
what was called composition.This involved a rationalizationof
partof the designprocessandwasparallelto developmentsin the
studyof legibility.The studiesin legibilitywerethe expressionof
an interest that went beyond the esthetic structureof the visual
field and steppedinto a concernfor communicationefficiency.
This concernrepresenteda new factor in the measurementof
qualityin design.The 1950sand 1960ssaw a growinginterestin
communicationthroughout the field. The works of Paul Rand
andJosef Miller-Brockmanare two differentexpressionsof this
concern (Figs. 17 and 18). Researchon labeling of equipment,
instructionstrategies,and informationpanels,developedby the
United States armedforces since World War II introduceda
concern for communicationefficiency simultaneouswith the
developmentof informationtheory, communicationtheory, and
semiotics. Signs became signage systems and logos became
corporateidentities.Buildings,fashion,and life-stylesstartedto
be analyzedin communicationterms.In addition,the receiversof
graphicdesignmessageswerethen discoveredas an activepartof
the communicationprocess. However, these receiversinitially
wereperceivedbasicallyas decoders.
The objective of graphic designers was to produce clear
communications.Only designersin the advertisingbusinesswere

Fig. 17) Paul Rand: Cover design for

the American Institute of Graphic
Arts. The rebus as a way of
communicating to graphic designers.
Fig. 18) Joseph Muiiller-Brockmann:
Poster for a campaign against noise
pollution. The strength of form as a
vehicle for communication
(typography in red in the original
version).

24

This content downloaded from 192.231.202.205 on Wed, 10 Dec 2014 09:02:57 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 concerned with other elements in the performanceof their
designs:namely,sales.At least as farbackas the 1950s,it became
clearthat clients'accountsdependedon clients'successand that
advertisingdesign was a contributingfactor to the successof a
business.The concernfor salesandpersuasionin the advertising
field led to the constitution of multidisciplinaryteamsof mana-
gers, writers, sociologists, psychologists, and designers who
contributedto the establishmentof marketingasanindispensable
componentof the advertisingfield.
Although understandingthe importanceof changesin public
attitudes as a consequenceof design has so far been limited to
advertising,a closerlook at the wholefieldof graphicdesignmight
suggestthat specificchangesin attitudesandconductare,indeed,
the finalaimof graphicdesignin most areas.It hasbeensaidmany
times that the designeris a problem solver of visual communi-
cationsandof clients'needs.But thesolutionto a client'sneedisnot
theproductionof thevisualcommunication; it is themodificationof
people's attitudes or abilitiesin one way another.This modifi-
or
cationcanbe a change,asin switchingfromoneproductto another
or in quittingsmoking;a reinforcement, asin the caseof exercising
more,givingmoremoneyto charities,or drinkingmoremilk;or a
facilitation,as in the caseof reducingthe complexityof reading,
operatinga machine,or orientingoneselfin a new place.
The quality of the designsproducedin relationto the above
exampleswill be determinedby the numberof peoplewho switch
to the desiredproduct,who quit smoking,and so forth. Clarity
and beautydo not necessarilydetermineobjectiveachievement,
whereasthey usuallycontributeto success.If graphicdesigners
wish to be recognizedas problemsolvers,it is indispensablethat
they concernthemselveswith the resultsof theirworkmeasured
by achievementof the objectivesthat generatedthe need for the
productionof the visualcommunicationin question.
I amnot advocatingthe demiseof esthetics.Estheticappropri-
ateness and quality are certainly of high importance,both as
factors that affect performanceand as responsibilitiesdesigners
haveto the community.Mypropositionis to placethe conceptof
qualityin context andto establishits relativity,aswellasto clarify
that the estheticqualityof a designdoes not determineits overall
quality.
This thesis has wide implicationsboth in termsof the practice
of the professionand of educationfor it. In the case of practice,
specialistsother than graphicdesignersarerequiredto interpret
public responses,to evaluatedesignperformance,and to advise
regardingappropriatemodificationof the communicationstra-
tegies when better resultsare desired.The experts requiredfor
this task mayvaryfromone professionalareato another,but, in
general,they should presumablycome from the fields of mar-

Design Issues: Vol. V, Number 1 Fall 1988 25

This content downloaded from 192.231.202.205 on Wed, 10 Dec 2014 09:02:57 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 keting, sociology, psychology, and education, disciplines whose
main concerns are the behavior of individuals and groups, and the
problemsof interpreting,quantifying,and qualifyinginforma-
tion, as well as to a greater or a lesser extent, applying the
information to practical ends.
The implications for graphic design education are just as
obvious: the traditional art school cannot provide a full answer.
Obviously, the thesis here contends that the designer's job is not
finished when the design is produced and delivered, but that
evaluation must be an integral part of the design process. In a
safety symbols project, for example, the design problem is not the
production of symbols but the development of an effective
communication strategy for the prevention of accidents. It is not
enough for the symbols to be beautiful, clear, and visible; these are
useful factors, but the real measure of the quality of the design lies
in its contribution to the reduction of accidents.
At best, these considerations will make the evaluation of design
quality clearer and will better equip designers to contribute more
efficiently to the solution of clients' problems. And not just
communication problems, because as already indicated, the final
objective of every communication design is some kind of beha-
vioral change in a target population that occurs after the
communication has taken place.

The education of graphic designers

A basic duality of graphic design becomes apparent when the
formation of practitionersis considered:what skills do they need to
develop? Graphic design is both a rational and an artistic activity.
The decision-makingprocess in graphic design alternatesbetween
the consideration of objective information and intuitive leaps. The
goal of practitioners should be to base their decisions as much as
possible on objective information,but the nature of the field always
requires a certain degree of artistic intuition, that is, of decisions
made by designers on the basis of experience that is difficult to
quantify or explain rationally. (Graphic design in this case is
comparable to marketing or psychoanalysis. All are activities in
which a body of knowledge has to be applied to specific situations
that relate to human behavior.)
The balancebetween artisticand rationalelements in the practice
of graphicdesign poses an interestingchallengeto design educators,
a challengethat callsfor the developmentof visualsophisticationand
intuitive abilities to express concepts visually, along with a rational
capacityfor processes of analysisand synthesis. In addition, graphic
designersneed skills to listen and interpretthe needs and concepts of
people in other fields and enough flexibility of mind and visual
resourcesto produce efficient communications.
No school could attempt to deal with all of these requirementsin

26

This content downloaded from 192.231.202.205 on Wed, 10 Dec 2014 09:02:57 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 every area of professional practice. Advertising, information, illus-
tration, editorial, signage, and education design are areas that
demand different backgrounds,training, and aptitudes and require
both specialized instructors and motivated students for each.
Reducing the scope of a program to include only some of the
professional areaswould be admissible.A school might choose not
to deal with three-dimensionaldesign, that is, packaging, signage,
and exhibitions; another might concentrate on advertising,which
might be excluded by still another.
Whereas,makingthe above choices would be desirable,removing
any of the concerns that should be present in all graphicdesign work
would not be advisable.The teaching should represent all levels of
the activity, that is, the emotional and the rational, the communi-
cative, the technological, and the awarenessof the social context.
In most cases, emphasis has been placed on the visual aspect in
education. There has also been a focus on education as a process of
transmissionof information and the development of personal skills
and style. This trend has led to a reduction of the concerns
appropriateto graphicdesign.
In this context, an important distinction can be made between
undergraduateand graduate education in graphic design. Under-
graduate education must be centered on developing individual
student's skills; graduateeducation should do the same at a higher
and more conceptual level, while also contributing to the ad-
vancement of knowledge in the field.
Researchand advancementof knowledgein graphicdesignrequire
the support of senior educationalinstitutions. Professionalpractice
does not usually allow for research time, and, when research is
developed, practitioners do not share information with others.
Marketresearchin advertisingis very common, but it is case specific
and difficult to apply to different situations. Perception psycho-
logists develop basic and applied researchof wider application,but
many times psychological researchis so removed from reality that
placing its results in applied contexts requires additional research
efforts.
I am not supportingthe ideathat universitiesshould directlyserve
industry,but that those interestedin the advancementof knowledge
cannot expect from industryinquiriesother than those connected to
its immediatebenefit. It thereforefollows that visualcommunication
problems that relate to noncommercialhuman needs have only the
university as a resourcefor developing solutions. There is a need to
work on severalfronts:
* Reference centers where existing information can be stored
and retrieved should be developed.
* More information should be generatedthrough two kinds of
research activities: experimental, and critical discussion of
both present and past work.

Design Issues: Vol. V, Number 1 Fall 1988 27

This content downloaded from 192.231.202.205 on Wed, 10 Dec 2014 09:02:57 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 *Communication networksshould be developedamong re-
searchers,leading,at best, to coordinatingefforts and, at
worst,to avoidingduplication.
Graduateprogramsin graphicdesignshouldeitherworkalongthe
precedinglinesor generatedesignsolutionsforspecificprojectsthat
clearlysurpassthe usuallevelof qualityin the professionalfieldand
thatbecomemodelsof excellenceforpracticinggraphicdesign.This
practicalworkhowever,shouldbe developedhandin handwith a
sound,theoreticalanalysisof designsolutions.
Althoughdueregardshouldbe paidto visualsophistication,and
althoughdesignsolutionscannotbe basedsolely on the rational
organizationof objectiveinformation,theprofessionneedsto move
awayfrombeinga purelyartisticendeavortowardbecomingone in
whichvisualsolutionsarebasedas muchas possibleon explicable
decisionprocesses.
In orderto direct graduategraphicdesignstudiestowardthe
developmentof newknowledge,educatorsshouldconceivethemas
qualitativelydifferentfromundergraduate studiesandnot as mere
continuation,whateverthe increaseddegreeof complexityand
ambitionmightbe. In undergraduate studies,the teachersinstruct
and createlearningsituationsthat help studentsmakediscoveries
anddeveloptheirskills,but thosediscoveriesandthatdevelopment
do not necessarily expandeitherthe knowledgeof the instructorsor
the advancement of the professionas a whole.Studentscan make
new, surprising,and exciting syntheses, and teaching at the
undergraduate levelis thereforenot necessarilyrepetitious,but the
centraltaskis the learningprocessof the studentswhorequiresome
yearsbeforethey can make significantcontributionsto the pro-
fession. Nevertheless, undergraduate studies
should not be seen as a mere preparationfor integrationinto
industry;in other words, undergraduate studies should not be
merelyjob training,noris it possibleto believethatfouryearsis all
thatis neededforaprofessional education.Undergraduate programs
should aim at graduatingpersons who are ready to begin a
professionalcareerand whose conceptualpreparationwill allow
themto progressrapidlyandto enrichthepracticeof theprofession.
Developingan awarenessof the essentialproblemsof graphic
designin undergraduates is important.Graphicdesignis first and
foremosthumancommunication. A graphicdesigneris apersonwho
constructsa patternin orderto organizethe communication link
betweenthe pieceof designandthe viewer.In most cases,graphic
designs aremeant to be seen or read.These activitieshappenin time,
as well as in space. Although designerswork in two dimensions or in
sequences of two- dimensional pieces for the most part, the
enactment of these pieces occurs over time. As with the playwright
or the composer, the designerproduces a piece (score,play)that only
comes into full existence when the communicationwith the audience

28

This content downloaded from 192.231.202.205 on Wed, 10 Dec 2014 09:02:57 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 takesplace.
My emphasison this aspect shifts the designer'scenter of
attention from the interrelationof visual componentsto that
betweenthe audienceand the design,recognizingthe receiveras
activeparticipantin the constructionof the message.It followsthat
decisionsrelatingto visualaspectsof the designshouldbe basednot
only on compositionalconcerns,but also,andchiefly,on the study
of humancommunication. This emphasison the receiverwithinthe
conventionalscheme of transmitter-receiveropposition places
visualcommunicationdesignoppositeto the romanticconception
of art as self-expression,thus avoiding one of the distorting
conceptionsof the profession.
Given the above, the time has come to understandthat the
educationdesignerscannotbe satisfiedbytheresourcesof traditional
art schools and that several branchesof psychology, verbal
communication, sociology,computingscience,marketing, andother
disciplinesshould be called to
upon develop in studentsthe required
awareness.This seems to be the only choice if a theoretical
understanding of graphicdesignis to developandif the fieldis to
take on the responsibilityfor the conceptionand productionof
effectiveandconscientiouscommunications andfortheeducationof
graphicdesigners.This specificoperationaldimensionmust be
qualifiedby a concernforprofessionalandsocialresponsibility that
includesethicsandesthetics.

Design Issues: Vol. V, Number 1 Fall 1988 29

This content downloaded from 192.231.202.205 on Wed, 10 Dec 2014 09:02:57 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions