DESIGN OF MULTIPLE EFFECT EVAPORATORS

1. For Forward feed:

First Effect:

Second Effect:

Third Effect:

2. For Backward feed:

First Effect:

Second Effect:

Third Effect:

3. Calculation of Heating Area:

1
 DESIGN DATA FOR TUNNEL DRYER

1. Length of transfer

Lt = 19.5 b G 0.2

b – Free space between tray (ft)

G – Air rate ( lb dry air / hr ft2 )

2. Amount of air recirculated

H1–H0
M ac = ------------ x m a
H2–H0

3. Number of transfer units

i. For constant rate period

t1–tw
( N t ) c = ln ------------
tc- tw

t1 – Air temp. entering constant rate zone

tw – WBT of entering air
tc – Air temp. at critical moisture content

t c = t 2 + (t 1 – t 2) q c / q t

ii. For falling rate period

tc–t2
( N t ) f = -----------
  t m

t 1 = t c – t w , t 2 = t 1 – T 2

T2 – Material discharge temperature

t2 – Reduced temp. of air due to drying

2
 DESIGN DATA FOR ROTARY DRYER

1. For material

Q 1 = m s C PS ( t 2 – t 1 )

Q 2 = m s ( x a – x b ) [ C PL ( t w – t 1 ) + + C PV ( T 2 – t w )]

2. Diameter of Dryer (D)

D = 4 A a / ) where A a = Actual flow area

1.1 ( Q 1 – Q 2 )
A a = --------------------------------------
G ( 1 + H A ) C pa ( T 1 – T 2 )

3. Length of transfer unit

Lt = 0.1 C pa G 0.8 D

4. Number of transfer unit

T1–tw
Nt = ln -------------
T2–tw

5. Length of dryer

L = Nt.Lt

6. Residence time ( )

V holdup  m
 = ----------------
Ms

V holdup = 5 to 10 % of drier volume

7. Steam requirement

M a C pa ( T 1 – T 0 )
M st = -----------------------------
  s
T 0 – Minimum fresh air temperature

8. Steam required per unit mass of water evaporated

M st
= -------------------
M s( x a – x b )

3
9. Slop of dryer

0.23 L 0.6  L G
 =  
S N 0.9 D F

 = 5 D p – 0.5

Dp – Average particle size in micron

G – Air mass velocity ( lb / hr ft 2 )
F – Mass velocity of feed material ( lb / hr ft 2 )
N – Rotation, rpm

10. Rate of rotation ND = 20 – 35

11. No. of flight n = 2D to 3.5 D

12. Flight width w = 1/12 D to 1/8 D

13. Power requirement P = 0.5 D2 to D2 HP

4
 DESIGN OF CONDENSOR

1. Condensing film Coefficient

When Condensation outside the tube

 f2 4G’ 4G”
h ( ------------- ) 1/3 = 1.5 ( ------- ) – 1/3 = 1.5 ( -------- ) – 1/3
k f 3 f2g f f

Where G’ = Condensate loading for vertical tube

= W/NtP lb /hr lin ft
Nt = Number of tubes
P = Wetted perimeter per tube
W = Weight flow for fluid lb / hr
G” = Condensate loading for single horizontal tube = W / L N t
G” = Condensate loading for horizontal tube in tube bundles = W / L N t2/3

When Condensation inside the tube

For vertical tubes –

Condensation inside vertical tubes follows essentially the same mechanism as condensation outside
vertical tubes.

For Horizontal tubes

G ” = W / 0.5 L N t

2. Tube wall temperature

ho
t w = t a + ------------- ( T v – T a )
h io + h o

t a – Average temperature of cold fluid

T v – Hot fluid temperature ( Vapor Temp )

3. Temperature of film

tf = ( T v + t w) / 2

4. Allowable pressure drop for a condensing vapor

For Condensation in the shell

f G s2 D s ( N + 1 )
Ps = ---------------------------
2 x 5.22 x 1010 De S

For condensation in the tubes

f G t2 L n
Pt = --------------------------
2 x 5.22 x 1010 De S

Where S – Sp. Gr. of vapor

5
1. Qh = mhh

2. Corrected U D

UD = Q / ( Ac .  T ln)

Ac – Corrected Area ft2

3. Tube side coefficient h io

h io = hix(di/do)

h i from fig at linear velocity V and tc

4. Film temperature t f

tf = (t1+tc)/2

5. Shell side co-efficient

ho = h from fig. at  f , k f , S f & G ” at t f

where G ” = M n / L t N t 2/3

6. Clean overall coefficient Uc

Uc = h io . ho / ( h io + h o)

6
 DESIGN OF DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGR

1. Calorific Temperature

A. Hot fluid Tc = T 2 + F c ( T1 – T2 )
B. Cold fluid tc = t 1 + F c ( t 2 – t1 )
F c – Caloric fraction

2. Applying Heat Balance

3. Inner Pipe Calculation

i. Calculate flow area ( A p )

ii. Mass Velocity ( G p)
iii. Calculate R e than obtain JH factor

hiD C p 
JH = ( -------- ) ( --------- ) – 1/3 ( ----- ) – 0.14
k k w

hi = Btu / hr ft2 oF ; D = ft ; m = lb / hr ft
Cp = Btu / lb oF ; k = Btu / hr ft 2 ( oF / ft )

iv. Calculate h io

4. Annulus Calculation

i. D e = ( D22 – D12 ) / D1

ii. Flow area aa =  ( D22 – D12) / 4

iii. Similar Calculation as inner pipe calculation to determine ho

5. Overall Calculation :

i Compute UC , UD & A

6. Calculation Of P

A. Inner Pipe

i. For clean commercial Iron and Steel pipes

0.264
f = 0.0035 + ------------------
( D G / )0.42

ii. fp
4 f G 2L
fp = -------------- , ft
2 g 2 D

iii.  Pp

  f p 
P p = ----------- , psi
144

7
B. Annulus

i. Obtain De’ = ( D2 – D1 )

ii. Compute F a as inner pipe

iii. Entrance & Exit losses, one velocity head per hairpin

 f l= V 2/ 2 g ft/ hairpin

Pa = ( Fp + Fl )  / 144 psi

8
 DESIGN OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
1. Applying Heat Balance

2. Calculate true Temp. Difference t

3. SHELL SIDE

i. Flow area ( a s)

ID x C’ B
as = ----------------- , ft2
PT x 144
B – Baffle Spacing (in); C’ – Clearance (in); PT – Tube Pitch (in); ID – Shell ID (in)

ii. Equivalent Diameter

For Square Pitch

4 ( PT2 –  d o2 / 4 )
de = -----------------------------, inch
 do
For Triangular Pitch
1 1  d o2
4 [ ---- PT x 0.86 PT –   ]
2 2 4
de =  inch
  do 

do  Tube outside dia. , inch

PT – Pitch , inch

iii. ho
k C p
ho = JH ----- ( --------- ) 1/3  S
de k

CP – Btu / lb oF ; k – Btu / hr ft2 ( oF / ft ),  – lb / hr ft

iv. Tube Wall Temperature

ho
tw = t c + ----------- ( T c – t c )
h io + h o

v. Compute UC, UD & RD

4. Tube side

i. Flow area a t
N t a t’
at = --------------
144 n
a t’ – Flow area per tube (inch2 ); Nt – Number of tubes; n – No. of passes, tube side

ii. Similar Calculation to determine hi as shell side

9
5. PRESSURE DROP

A. Shell Side

i. Number of Crosses

N + 1 = 12 L / B

ii.  PS
f G S2 DS ( N +1 )
 PS = --------------------------- , psi
5.22 x 1010 De S  S

B. Tube Side

i.
f .G t2 . L . n
 Pt = --------------------------- , psi
5.22 x 1010 D e S  t

De – Shell equivalent Dia.(ft) ; DS – Shell ID (ft) ; S – Specific Gravity of vapor

ii.
4n V2 62.5
 Pr = ------ x -------- x -------- , psi
S 2 g’ 144

V – Velocity (ft/s); g’ – Gravity ft / s 2

iii.
PT = P t + Pr psi

10
 DESIGN OF EVAPORATOR BY KERN’S METHOD

FOR SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER

1. Provisional Area

Q x 103
A = ------------------
( T ) lme x U

2. Bundle Diameter

Nt
Db = do ( ------- ) 1 / n1 k1 & n1 – From table
k1

3. Shell Diameter

Ds = D b + Clearance

4. Tube Flow area = Tube per pass x Tube CS area x 10 – 6

5. hi

4200 ( 1.35 + 0.02 t mean ) U t 0.8

hi = ------------------------------------------
d t 0.2
dt – Inside tube dia.

6.

hidi 
--------- = JH Re Pr 0.33 ( ----- ) 0.14 ( J H From fig 12.29 )
kf w

7. Baffle Spacing ( B )

B = Ds / 5

8. Cross Flow Area

Pt – do
As = -------------- . Ds . B . 10 – 6
Pt

9. Equivalent Diameter

For Square Pitch  1.27 ( P t2 – 0.785 d o2 ) / d o

For Triangular pitch  1.10 ( P t2 – 0.917 d o2 ) / d o

10.

h sd e 
--------- = JH . Re . Pr 1/3 ( ------ ) 0.14
kf w

11
11. Pressure drop

Tube side ( P t )
L   U t2
0.14
Pt = N p [ 8 JF ( ------ ) ( ------ ) + 2.5 ] ---------- [JF from fig 12.24]
di w 2

Shell Side ( PS )

DS L  U S2 
PS = 8 JF ( ------ ) ( ------ ) ---------- ( ------- )0.14 [JF from fig 12.30 ]
de B 2 w

L/B=(Nb+1)

12
 DESIGN OF EVAPORATOR BY BELL’S METHOD
1. Shell side heat transfer co efficient

hs = h oc . F n . F w . F b . F L

2. Ideal Cross-Flow coefficient ( h oc )

h oc .d o 
---------- = JH . Re . Pr 1/3 ( ----- )0.14 [ JH form fig 12.31 ]
kf w

3. Tube Row Correction Factor ( F n )

Tube Vertical Pitch P t’ =  Pitch x 0.87

Baffle cut height Hc = Ds x BC Baffle cut %

4. Height between baffle tips = Ds x 2 H c

Height b/w baffle tips

NCV = -----------------------------------
P t’
Fn from Fig 12.32

5. Window Correction Factor ( F w )

Db
Hb = -------  DS ( 0.5 – BC )
2
Bundle cut = H b / D b

6. Tubes in one window area

Nw = N t . R ’a
R’a = Window area / Total area From fig 12.41

7. Tube in cross flow area

Nc = Nt– 2Nw

Rw = 2 N w / No. of tube ( Nt ) F w From fig 12.33

8. By Pass Correction F b

Ab
Fb = F b’ = exp [  ( 1 – ( 2 Ns / NCV )1/3 ) ]
As
a – 1.5 for Laminar Flow Re < 100
a – 1.35 For Transition and Turbulent Re > 100
Ab – Clearance Area b/w Bundle & shell = B ( D s – D b ) x 10  6

For Very low sealing strip = N s / N cp = 1/5

9. Leakage Correction factor ( FL )

FL = F L’ = 1 –  L [ ( A tb + 2 A sb ) / AL ]

L – Coefficient For FL from Fig 12.35

13
 A tb = C t  do ( N t – N w ) / 2
A sb = Cs Ds ( 2  – b ) / 2

Where Ct – Tube to baffle Clearance, C s – Baffle to shell Clearance

b – From Baffle geometric Factor Fig 12.41

AL = ( A tb + A sb )

10. Shell Side Coefficient

hs = h oc . F n . F w . F b . FL

11. Pressure drop

For Cross Flow zone

P c = P i . F’b . F’L


  U s2 
Pi = 8 JF NCV --------- ( ----- ) 0.14 [ JF From fig 12.36 ]
2 w
Pi = Ideal Tube bank Pressure drop

12. Window Zone Pressure Drop

Pw = F’L ( 2 + 0.6 N wv )  U z2 / 2

Uz = UwUs = Geometric mean velocity

Uw = Ws / 3600 A w 

Aw = [  D s2 R’a / 4 ] – [ N w  d o2 / 4 ]

N wv = H b / P’t B’L For F’L From Fig 12.38

13. End zone pressure drop

 Pe = Pi [ ( Nwv + Ncv ) / Ncv ] F’b

Nwv – No. of restriction for cross flow in window zone, equal to the number of tube rows.

14. Total shell side pressure drop

 PS = 2  P e +  Pc ( N b – 1 ) + N b  Pw

14
 DESIGN OF VALVE TRAY COLUMN

1. Vapor load (Vload )

V
V load = Q (  )0.5
 L  V

Q - Volumetric flow rate of vapour

 L, v - Liquid and Vapor densities

2. Active area (Aa)

V qL
Aa min = (Q ( ) 0.5 + ) / CF (F.P.S.)
 L  V 13000

v qL
Aa min = (Q ( ) 0.5 + ) / CF (M.K.S.)
 L   V 0.735

Where
C = vapor capacity factor C = C* S
S = System factor

Dt Dt
L = 9  (F.P.S.) or L = 0.75  S.I.
N N

L = Liquid flow path

N = No. of Passes
F = flooding factor

3. Downcomer area (Ad min)

q
Ad min = 
UF

U = U* S where U - downcomer velocity

U* - Ideal downcomer velocity

(I ) U* = 0.17 (M.K.S.) or U* = 250 (F.P.S.)

( II ) U* = 41 (  L –  V )0.5 ( F.P.S.)
U* = 0.007 ( L –  V)0.5 ( M.K.S.)

( III ) U* = 7.5 ( TS ( L –  V))0.5 ( F.P.S.)

U* = 0.08 ( TS ( L –  V))0.5 ( M.K.S.)

4. Tower area (AT)

Vload 1.28 Vload

AT min = ------------ (F.P.S.) OR AT min = --------------- (M.K.S.)
0.78 FC FC

15
5. Hole area (Ah )

No. of units No. of units

Ah = ----------------- (F.P.S.) OR Ah = ----------------------- (M.K.S.)
78.5 845

6. Dry tray pressure drop ( P dry )

 m VH 2  V
I. Pdry = 1.35 tm ------------ + K1 ---------------- (F.P.S.)
 L L

 m VH 2  V
Pdry = 0.135 tm ------------ + K1 ---------------- (M.K.S.)
 L L

V
II. Pdry = K2 VH 2 -----------
L
K1 & K2 = Pressure drop coefficient ; m = metal density ;
VH = vapor velocity through holes ; tm = tray thickness .

7. Total Pressure Drop ( PT)

q
PT = Pdry + 0.4 (--------)0.67 + 0.4 hw (F.P.S.)
lw

q
PT = Pdry + 55.4 (--------)0.67 + 0.4 hw (M.K.S.)
lw

lw = weir length h w = weir height

8. Downcomer backup ( h dc )

q L
h dc = 0.4 (-----)0.67 + h w + (PT + 0.65 ) -------------- (F.P.S.)
lw  L –  V

q L
h dc = 55.4 (-----)0.67 + h w + (PT + 1.66 ) --------------- (MKS.)
lw  L– V

16
 DESIGN OF PACKED TOWER ( DISTILLATION )

1. Pressure drop near loading point ( Pload )

Pload = a 10bl g F 2 /  G

Where Pload - Pressure drop (inches of water / ft of packing)

l, g F - liquid and gas flow rates ( lb/ft 2 s )
a, b - constant

2. Height of packing ( Ht )

Ht = NOG ( HG +  HL ) / n
Ht = NOL ( HL + HG ) / n

NOG , NOL - No. of transfer unit

HG , HL - Height of gas film & liquid film transfer unit
 - ratio of slope of equilibrium line to slope of operating line
n - degree of wetting

3. Degree of wetting ( n )

Liquid rate (ft 3 / hr ft 2)

n = --------------------------------------
sp. area of packing (ft 2 / ft 3)

17
 DESIGN OF SIEVE TRAY COLUMN

1. Flow Parameter ( F lv )

Flv = ( L / V ) ( v / l )0.5

L & V Mass flow rates of liquid and vapour

v & l Densities of vapour and liquid

2. Vapour Capacity ( Csb )

V
Csb = Unf ( ------------ )0.5
L– V

U nf - Flooding velocity based on net area

3. Total Entrainment ( e )

ψL
e = (----------)
1–ψ
ψ - Fractional entrainment

4. Dry Tray Pressure Drop ( P dry )

P dry = 5.08 ( v /  l ) ( U h )2 ( 1 / C vo )2 ( M.K.S.)

P dry = 0.186 ( v /  l ) ( U h )2 ( 1 / C vo )2 ( F.P.S. )

U h :- Vapour velocity through holes

C vo :-Dry orifice cofficient

5. Areated Liquid Pressure Drop ( ha )

h a = Q p ( h w + h ow )

h ow - Height of liquid crest over the weir

hw - weir height
lw - weir length

h ow = 66.6 (q / l w )0.67 ( M.K.S. ) OR h ow = 0.48 (q / l w )0.67 ( F.P.S. )

6. Total Pressure Drop ( P T )

P T = P dry + h a

7. Liquid Gradient ( Δ )

100 f Uf2 l w
Δ = -------------------
Rhg

f - Friction factor
Uf - Velocity of aerated mass

18
 Rh - Hydraulic radius of aerated mass

ha lw+D hf Df
h f = ------------ ; D f = ------------- ; R h = ---------------
2 Q p -1 2 2hf+Df

q R h U f L
U f = ------------ ; N Re = -----------------
h f D f L

8. Height of areated mass in downcomer :

h dc = P drt + h w + h ow +  + h da

h da = 16.5 ( q / A da ) 2 (MKS) ; h da = 0.03 (q / 100 A da) 2 (FPS)

A da = area under downcomer ( weir length X downcomer clearance )

9. Total height of aerated mass ( h dc / Qp )

19
 DESIGN OF BUBBEL CAP COUMN

1. Maximum allowable vapor velocity ( based on crossectional area of tower )

i. Soluder’s & Brown correlation –

  L - G
V m = K v (------------) 0.5
G
Kv - Empirical Constant ( ft /s )
G , L - gas & liquid densities

ii. Fair’s Correlation -

   L  G

V m = K’ v (------)0.2 (---------------) 0.5
    G
K’ v  Empirical constant ( ft /s )
  Surface tension of liquid ( dynes / cm )

2. Pressure drop calculation –

i. liquid head equivalent to pressure drop through riser and cop ( h c )

3Vc2 G
h c = -----------------
gL
V c = Liner velocity of gas in riser

ii. Liquid head equivalent to pressure drop through slot ( h slot )

Qs G
h slot = 1.5 (------) 2/3 ( -------------------)1/3
b (  L -  G) g

Q s - Volumetric flow rate of gas / slot ( ft3 / s )

b - Slot width

iii. Height of liquid crest over the weir ( h o )

1.7 Q L
h o = ( --------- )2/3
lw g 0.5

Q L – Liquid flow rate ( ft3 / s )

l w – Weir length ( ft )

iv. Liquid gradient across the tray ( h g )

lrlc 0.42 Q L r 1.5

1.5 0.5
( h g F c ) ( 1.5 r – 1.4 ) + ( h g F c ) 3 r ( h w h o + s (-----------)) = ----------------
lc CDlc
lr – Average total free space between riser ( perpendicular to direction of liquid flow )
lC – Average total free space between bubble caps (perpendicular to direction of liquid flow )
r – No. of row F C , C D  Correction factors
hw – Weir height s – Skirt clearance

20
v. Total Pressure drop across the tray

hTPLg
P T = -------------
144 gc

hT - head equivalent to total pressure drop across the tray

h T = h c + h slot + S m + h o + 0.5 h g

vi. Liquid head of downcomer

H=hw +ho+ hg+hd +hT

vii. height of liquid equivalent to pressure drop through downcomer

3 QL
h d = ----- (-------- )2
2 g Ad
A d – Downcomer Area

viii. Percentage of pressure drop to liquid head above the top of plate

S m + h o + 0.5 h g
% P = -------------------------- x 100
hT

21
 DESIGN OF SIEVE TRAY TOWER FOR EXTRACTION

1. Equilibrium distribution co-efficient ( m CD )

PC
m CD = m -------
PD
m – Distribution Coefficient

2. Perforation

i. Maximum orifice velocity ( V omax )

dj 
V omax = 2.69 (-----)2 (---------------------------------------) 0.5
do d j (0.5137 P D + 0.471 P C

do do
------ = 0.485 (-------------------------------) 2 + 1
dj (  g c /  P g ) 0.5

do
when -------------------------- < 0.785
(  g c /  P g ) 0.5
do do
----- = 1.51 (-------------------------------) 2 + 0.12
dj (  g c /  P g ) 0.5
do
when ---------------------------- > 0.785
(  g c /  P g ) 0.5
d o – Orifice Diameter
d j – jet Diameter

ii. Perforation Area ( A )

qD mD
A = ------ ; q D = -------
Vo PD

iii. No. of Perforation ( No )

Perforation area
No = ----------------------
(  / 4 ) d o2

d o - Orifice diameter

iv. Plate area for perforation ( A p )

Perforation area
A p = ------------------------ P – Pitch
0.907 ( d o / P 2 )

3. Drop Terminal Velocity ( V t )

4 N Re 4 Pc2 (  gc )3
Non dimensional no p = --------------- = ----------------- ft lbf / hr
3 CD N we3 g  o4  P

22
 Where Nwe = dp V t2 c /  gc
4. Tower areas.

qc
i. down space area ( A d ) A d = ----------
Vd

Plate area for perforation

ii. Tower area ( A t ) A t = ---------------------------------
0.65

iii. Net area ( A n ) A n= A t– A d

5. Drop size.
 1 2 3 4

SI. 10.76 52560 1.246 x 106 3.281

FPS 1.0 14600 3040 1.0

6. Coalesced liquid depth ( h )

h=hc+hd

hc,hd – Contribution of each liquid

ho – Head required to cause flow through perforation
h   Head required to overcome interfaced tension

hd=ho+h

( V o2 – V n2 ) P D qD
h o = ------------------------ V n = ------
2 g ( 0.67 )2 P An

4.5 VD2 Pc
h c = -----------------
2gP

7. Dispersed phase hold up

i. Slip Velocity ( Vs )

VD VC
Vs = ------ + ------------
  D ( 1 –  D)

8. Time of drop formation ( V f )

  d p3 / 6
Vf = ---------------
qD/No

9. Mass Transfer

i. Mass Transfer during drop formation

DD

23
 K LDF = const (---------)0.5
  f

Const varies from 0.857 to 3.43

DD – Diffusion Coefficient

ii. Mass Transfer during dropwise

dP VS PC
K LDR = 0.725 (--------------) - 0.43 SC - 0.58 VS ( 1 -  D )
c

4 DD w 3
K LDR = (------------( 1 + S + ----- S 2 ) ) 0.5
   S

1 192 6 g c b
w = ----- ( ---------------------------- ) 0.5
2 d P2 ( 3 PD + 2 PC )
0.225
b = 1.052 d p

s  Dimensionless Amplitude = 0.2

iii. Mass Transfer co-efficient

1 1 1 DD
-------- = --------- ( 1 + -------- ( -------- ) 0.5 )
K LDF K LDF mCD DC

10. Stage Efficiency ( E mD )

4.4 K LDf dP 6 K LDr  D ( z – h )

------------ ( ------)2 + -------------------------
Vo do dp Vn
E mD = ------------------------------------------------------------------
0.4 K LDf dp K LDr  D ( z – h )
1 + ------------- ( ------)2 + ---------------------------
Vo do d pV n

z – Tray spacing

24
 DESIGN OF PACKED TOWER FOR ABSORPTION

1. Liquid Hold Up

a. For water

L’
h tw = 0.0004 ( ----- )0.6
dp

L’ – Liquid rate ( lbs / hr ft2 )

h tw – Water hold up ( ft3 / ft3 vol. of tower )
dp – Equivalent spherical packing dia. ( inch )

b. For liquid other than water

62.3 73
h L = h tw (  L )0.1 ( -------- )0.78 ( ------- ) n
P L 

h L – Liquid hold up ( ft 3 / ft 3 packed tower volume )

 L – Liquid Viscosity ( cP )
L – Liquid Density ( lb / ft 3 )
- Surface Tension ( dyne/cm)
n – Exponent

c. Total hold up

h t =  L’  / D P2

 =  D P 

Dp – Packing size
 – Constant

2. Height of liquid film transfer unit

L’  La
H L = f ( -------- ) j ( ----------- ) 0.5
  La PLDL

  La
------------ = Schmidt Number
  L D L

 La - Height of transfer unit

j ,  – constant
D L – Liquid diffusivity
L’ – Liquid rate ( lb / hr ft 2 )
 L – Viscosity ( lb / ft hr )

3. Height of gas transfer unit

  ( G’ )   Ga
H g = ------------ ( ------------ ) 0.5
( L’ )   G D G

25
  – Constant
G’ – Gas superficial mass rate ( lb / hr ft 2 )
L’ – Liquid superficial rate
 Ga – Gas viscosity
DG – gas diffusivity ( ft2 / hr )

HL
H OG = H G + ------
A
L
H OL = H L + A H G where A = ---------
mG

4. Number of transfer units.

z z
N OG = --------- , N OL = ---------
H OG H OL

z – Height of packing

N OG

1. For dilute solution or for equimolar diffusion

Y1 – Y2
--------------------------------
 Y1 dy ( Y – Y * ) 1 – ( Y – Y* ) 2
N OG =  ------------ = -----------------------------------------
Y2 Y – Y * ( Y – Y * )1
ln -----------------
( Y – Y * )2

Y – Y*  Driving force expressed as mole fraction

Y – Mole fraction of one component ( solute ) at any point in the gas phase
Y*  Gas phase composition in equilibrium with liquid composition
x  mole friction
1,2 – Inlet and outlet condition of system

2. For Concentrated solution and more general application

 Y1 ( 1 – Y )m
N OG =  -------------------------------- dy
 Y2 ( 1 – Y ) ( Y – Y* )

 Y1 dy ( 1 – Y2 )
N OG  + 0.5 ln ----------------
  Y2 ( Y - Y* ) ( 1 – Y1 )

Where ( 1 – Y ) m = log mean average of concentration at the opposite ands of diffusion process.

3. For liquid film controls.

X1 dx (1–X2)
N OL  --------------- + 0.5 ln ----------------

26
 X2 ( X* - X ) (1–X1)

5. Pressure Drop Calculation

A. For Dry Packing

P 2 f’” A W A D A L G 2
-------- = -------------------------------
z G g C D P

where P – pressure Drop ( psi )

z – Depth of packing
G – Mass Velocity of gas based on total cross- section of tower ( lb / hr ft 2 )
G – Gas density ( lb / ft 3 )
f" – Modified friction factor
AW – Wall effect factor ( ft )
AP – Correction factor for hollow packing
AL – Correction factor for wetting of packing by solvent circulated

B. Johnsons Correction for Dry Pressure Drop

For any grid packing

 P 2 f ”  Gu ’2
------- = -------------------
z gCDe

Where u’ – Actual Velocity on open or free cross- section of grid packing

De – equivalent Diameter of passage

D e u’  G Db De
f ” = 0.08 ( --------------- ) 0.2 + 0.52 ( -------- ) 1.5 ( --------- ) 0.75
 Ds Dg
Where
Dg – Height of individual grid members
Ds – Horizontal Clearance between grid members

C. Ergun’s Correction for  P in dry packing

 P 1– G 150 ( 1 –  )  G

-------- = ( ----------- ) --------------- ( ---------------------- + 1.75 )
h  2 d P g C G dPG

 - Friction void volume in bed ( ft 3 void / ft 3 packed vol. )

aP - Surface area of packing per unit of packed tower volume
dP - Effictive Correction of packing =  ( 1 –  ) / a P

D. Pressure drop in packing ( Leavas Correction )

 P L G2

-------- =  ( 10 ) -------- x ----------
h PL PG

 – Constants
L – Superficial mean velocity of liquid
G – Superficial mean velocity of gas
h – Packed height
Applicable of  L < 2 cP

27
 DESIGN OF SPRAY TOWER FOR EXTRACTION

1. Orifice Velocity ( V omax )

dj 6/ d j
V omax = 2.69 ( ------ ) 2 ( ------------------------------- ) 0.5
d o ( 0.513 P D + 0.471 P C )

d o/ d j

i. do do
------ = 0.485 (----------------------- )2 + 1
dj (  g c /  P g )0.5
do
When ---------------------------- < 0.785
(  g c / P g ) 0.5
ii. do do
------ = 1.51 ------------------------------- + 0.12
dj (  g c /  P g ) 0.5
do
When ----------------------------- > 0.785
(  g c /  P g ) 0.5

2. Drop diameter ( d p ) Fig 11.2

3. No of orifices ( No )

Volumetric flow rate V D

No = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Volumetric flow rate through one orifice (  / 4 ) d o2 V o

4. Tower diameter ( D )

Flooding velocity ( V CF )

4000  P 0.28
V CF = --------------------------------------------------------------------------
( 0.483  c 0.075 P C 0.5 + d p 0.056 P D 0.5 ( V D / V C) 0.5 ) 2

Factor of safety is 0.4

Volumetric flow rate V D

Area = -----------------------------------
VC
D = (( 4 /  ) A )0.5

c – lb / hr ft Pc – lb / ft 3
dP – ft

28
5. Drop terminal velocity ( V t )


d pt = 7.25 ( ------------------- ) 0.5
g  P 0.15

where d pt – terminal drop size

i. If d p < d pt

53000 (  P )0.58 d p 0.7

V t = ---------------------------------
Pc 0.45  c 0.11

ii If d p > d pt

517 (  P )0.28  c 0.1  0.18

V t = -------------------------------------
Pc 0.55

Where
P c2  3
P= -----------------
g  c4  P

6. Dispersed phase hold up

From Fig 10.48

VD VC
VS = ------- + -------------
 D ( 1 – D)

7. Drop formation time (  t )

 d p3 / 6
t = ---------------
q D/ N D

29
 DESIGN OF PACKED TOWER FOR EXTRACTION

1. Packed size ( d F )

Critical Packing size ( d FC )

 g c
d FC = 2.42 ( ---------- )0.5
 P g

 – Interfacial tension ( lbf / ft )

p – ( PC – PD )

2. Flooding velocity ( V CF )

From chart

3. Characteristic drop velocity ( VK )

VD ( V C / VD ) V D
----------- + -------------------- = V K ( 1 –  b )
  b  ( 1 –  b )
b – Volume fraction of dispersed phase
V C, V D – Volumetric flow rate of continuous and dispersed phase
vD – Velocity of dispersed phase

4. Characteristic drop diameter ( d p )

 g c vK
d p = 0.92 ( --------- ) 0.5 --------  b
 P g vD

5. Terminal Velocity ( v t )
From fig .
4 N Re 4 P C2 (  g C) 3
Dimensionless no. P = ------------------ = --------------------
3 C d w e3 g  C4 P

6. Characteristic drop Velocity ( v K )

Pg gC
Absiccal of figure = ------------ ( 0.38 d F – 0.92 ( ----------- )0.5 )
P D v t2 P g
7. Diameter ( D )
VD
Area (A ) = ---------
vD

D = ( ( 4 /  ) A )0.5

8. Distributor Characteristic
i. nozzle diameter ( d o )
ii. nozzle velocity ( v o )
iii. Actual drop diameter ( d p ) from fig
iv. No. of holes ( N )

vD
N = ------------------------------------------------------------------------
Volumetric flow rate through on hole ( ( p / 4 ) d o2 v o )

30