UNIT 6

Preparing the Data for Analysis

Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data with the goal
of discovering useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision-making.

Editing
Editing is the process of checking and adjusting the data for omissions, legibility, and consistency.
Editing may be differentiated from coding, which isthe assignment of numerical scales or classifying
symbols to previously edited data.

The purpose of editing is to ensure the completeness, consistency, and readability of the data to be
transferredto data storage. The editor's task is to check for errors and omissions on the questionnaires
or other data collection forms.
Information gathered during data collection may lack uniformity. Example: Data collected through
questionnaire and schedules may have answers which may not be ticked at proper places, or some
questions may be left unanswered. Sometimes information may be given in a form which needs
reconstruction in a category designed for analysis, e.g., converting daily/monthly income in annual
income and so on. The researcher has to take a decision as to how to edit it.
Types :

1. Field Editing
• Preliminary editing by a field supervisor on the same day as the interview to catch
technical omissions, check legibility of handwriting, and clarify responses that are
logically or conceptually inconsistent.
2. In-house Editing
• Editing performed by a central office staff; often dome more rigorously than field
editing
• Pitfalls of Editing
• Allowing subjectivity to enter into the editing process.
• Data editors should be intelligent, experienced, and objective.
• Failing to have a systematic procedure for assessing the questionnaires developed by
the research analyst
• An editor should have clearly defined decision rules to follow.
• Pretesting Edit
• Editing during the pretest stage can prove very valuable for improving questionnaire
format, identifying poor instructions or inappropriate question wording.
Coding

Coding is translating answers into numerical values or assigning numbers to the various categories of
a variable to be used in data analysis. Coding is done by using a code book, code sheet, and a
computer card. Coding is done on the basis of the instructions given in the codebook. The code book
gives a numerical code for each variable.

Manual processing is employed when qualitative methods are used or when in quantitative studies, a
small sample is used, or when the questionnaire/schedule has a large number of open-ended

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questions, or when accessibility to computers is difficult or inappropriate. However, coding is done
in manual processing also.Ex: Male- Code 1,female –Code2
Classification
Distribution of data as a form of classification of scores obtained for the various categories or a
particular variable. There are four types of distributions:

 Frequency distribution
 Percentage distribution
 Cumulative distribution
 Statistical distribution

Frequency distribution: In social science research, frequency distribution is very common. It

presents the frequency of occurrences of certain categories. This distribution appears in two
forms:

Ungrouped: Here, the scores are not collapsed into categories, e.g., distribution of ages of the
students of a BJ (MC) class, each age value (e.g., 18, 19, 20, and so on) will be presented
separately in the distribution.
Grouped: Here, the scores are collapsed into categories, so that 2 or 3 scores are presented
together as a group. For example, in the above age distribution groups like 18-20, 21-22 etc., can
be formed)

Percentage distribution: It is also possible to give frequencies not in absolute numbers but in
percentages. For instance instead of saying 200 respondents of total 2000 had a monthly income
of less than Rs. 500, we can say 10% of the respondents have a monthly income of less than Rs.
500.

Cumulative distribution: It tells how often the value of the random variable is less than or equal
to a particular reference value

Statistical distribution: In this type of data distribution, some measure of average is found out of
a sample of respondents. Several kind of averages are available (mean, median, mode) and the
researcher must decide which is most suitable to his purpose. Once the average has been
calculated, the question arises: how representative a figure it is, i.e., how closely the answers are
bunched around it.

Tabulation

After editing, which ensures that the information on the schedule is accurate and categorized in a
suitable form, the data are put together in some kinds of tables and may also undergo some other
forms of statistical analysis.Table can be prepared manually and/or by computers. For a small study
of 100 to 200 persons, there may be little point in tabulating by computer since this necessitates

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putting the data on punched cards. But for a survey analysis involving a large number of respondents
and requiring cross tabulation involving more than two variables, hand tabulation will be
inappropriate and time consuming.
Uses of tables

Tables are useful to the researchers and the readers in three ways:

1. The present an overall view of findings in a simpler way.

2. They identify trends.
3. They display relationships in a comparable way between parts of the findings.
By convention, the dependent variable is presented in the rows and the independent variable in the
columns.

Validation
Data validation ensures that the survey questionnaires are completed and present consistent data.
In this step, should not include the questions that were not answered by most respondents in the
data analysis as this would result to bias in the results. However, in the case of incomplete
questionnaires, must count the actual number of respondents that were able to answer a particular
question. This should be the same for the rest of the questions.

Analysis and Interpretation

The process by which sense and meaning are made of the data gathered in qualitative research,
and by which the emergent knowledge is applied to problems.

Types: Descriptive and inferential analysis

Statistical inference is the process of deducing properties of an underlying distribution by

analysis of data. Inferential statistical analysis infers properties about a population: this includes
testing hypotheses and deriving estimates. The population is assumed to be larger than the
observed data set; in other words, the observed data is assumed to be sampled from a larger
population.

Inferential statistics can be contrasted with descriptive statistics. Descriptive statistics is solely
concerned with properties of the observed data, and does not assume that the data came from a
larger population.

Report writing and presentation of results

A document prepared by an analyst or strategist who is a part of the investment research team. A
research report may focus on a specific stock or industry sector, a currency, commodity or fixed-
income instrument, or even on a geographic region or country. Research reports generally, but not
always, have "actionable" recommendations

Importance of report writing

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Report-writing is an indispensable part of any profession. Almost every important decision in
business, industry or government is taken on the basis of information presented or recommendation
made in reports. Every member of the executive staff of an organisation is made to write a report at
one time or another because without making report no analysis of their work is possible. Reports
keep record which are used if the same situation recur. Reports also provide objective
recommendations on any problem. Hence the skill of report-writing is as important as good raw
material and equipment for running an industry or a business efficiently. An efficient executive need
to possess this skills, if he wants to rise up the corporate ladder. It helps him to perform his functions
of planning and evaluating men and material resources efficiently.

Types of research report

• Two types of reports:-
– Technical Report: suitable for a target audience of
• researchers, research managers or other people familiar with and interested in
the technicalities such as research design, sampling methods, statistical details
etc.,
– Popular Report: suitable for:
• a more general audience, interested mainly in the research findings as it is
non-technical in nature.
– The writing style is designed to facilitate easy and rapid reading and understanding of
the research findings and recommendations.

Other forms
– Dissertations and theses
– Dissertation and theses proposals
– Journal articles
– Conference papers
– Conference paper proposals
– Reports for policy makers and schools

Report structure
A. Preliminary Section
1. Title Page
2. Acknowledgments (if any)
3. Table of Contents
4. List of Tables (if any)
5. List of Figures (if any)
6. Abstract

B. Main Body
1. Introduction
a. Statement of the Problem
b. Significance of the Problem (and historical background)
c. Purpose
d. Statement of Hypothesis

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 e. Assumptions
f. Limitations
g. Definition of Terms

2. Review of Related Literature (and analysis of previous research)

3. Design of the Study

a. Description of Research Design and Procedures Used
b. Sources of Data
c. Sampling Procedures
d. Methods and Instruments of Data Gathering
e. Statistical Treatment

4. Analysis of Data
contains:
a. text with appropriate
b. tables and
c. figures

5. Summary and Conclusions

a. Restatement of the Problem
b. Description of Procedures
c. Major Findings (reject or fail to reject Ho)
d. Conclusions
e. Recommendations for Further Investigation

C. Reference Section
1. End Notes (if in that format of citation)
2. Bibliography or Literature Cited
3. Appendix

Title: Be specific. Tell what, when, where, etc. In one main title and a subtitle, give a clear idea
of what the paper investigated.

Acknowledgment: Include only if special help was received from an individual or group.

Abstract: Summarizes the report including the hypotheses, procedures, and major findings.
Introduction: Sections may be combined in short reports.

Statement of the Problem: This is a general introduction to the topic.

Significance of the Problem: Comment on why this question merits investigation.

Purpose: What is the goal to be gained from a better understanding of this question?

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Statement of the Hypothesis: In one statement (not a question) declare the question which is
investigated and the expected results. (For a null hypothesis, no difference is predicted.)

Assumptions: Explain everything that is assumed in order for the investigation to be undertaken.

Limitations: Explain the limitations that may invalidate the study or make it less than accurate.

Definition of Terms: Define or clarify any term or concept that is used in the study in a non-
traditional manner or in only one of many interpretations.

Review of Related Literature: Gives the reader the necessary background to understand the study
by citing the investigations and findings of previous researchers and documents the researcher's
knowledge and preparation to investigate the problem.

Design of the Study: Gives the reader the information necessary to exactly replicate (repeat) the
study with new data or if the same raw data were available, the reader should be able to duplicate
the results. This is written in past tense but without reference to or inclusion of the results
determined from the analysis.

Description of the Research Design and Procedures Used: Completely explain step-by-step what
was done.

Sources of Data: Give complete information about who, what, when, where, and how the data
was collected.

Sampling Procedures: Explain how the data was limited to the amount which was gathered. If all
of the available data were not utilized, how was a representative sample achieved?

Methods and Instruments of Data Gathering: Explain the procedures for obtaining the data
collected. Include the forms or manner by which it was recorded.

Statistical Treatment: Explain the complete mathematical procedures used in analyzing the data
and determining the significance of the results.

Analysis of Data: Describe the patterns observed in the data. Use tables and figures to help
clarify the material when possible.

Summary and Conclusions: This section condenses the previous sections, succinctly presents the
results concerning the hypotheses, and suggests what else can be done.

Restatement of the Problem: This is a short reiteration of the problem.

Description of the Procedures: This is a brief reiteration of important elements of the design of
the study.

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Major Findings: The final results from the analysis are presented, the hypothesis stated, and the
decision about the rejection or the failure to reject the hypothesis is given.

Conclusions: Comments about the implication of the findings are presented.

Recommendations for Further Investigation: From the knowledge and experienced gained in
undertaking this particular study, how might the study have been improved or what other
possible hypotheses might be investigated?

End Notes: These are like footnotes but are located at the back rather than the bottom of each
page. These would include all of the references for all works cited in the Review of Related
Literature or any other sections of the report as well as the references for quotations, either direct
or indirect, taken from other sources, or any footnote comments that might have been included.
These are listed in numeric order as presented in the text.

Bibliography or Literature Cited: These are the bibliographic reference for each of the works
cited in the End Notes.

Appendix: Any tables, figures, forms, or other materials that are not totally central to the analysis
but that need to be included are placed in the Appendix.

Guidelines for effective documentation

Documentation is a set of documents provided on paper, or online, or on digital or analog media,
such as audio tape or CDs. Example are user guides, white papers, on-line help, quick-reference
guides. It is becoming less common to see paper (hard-copy) documentation. Documentation is
distributed via websites, software products, and other on-line applications.

The following is a list of guides dealing with each specific field and type:

 thesis writing

 papers for academic journal publishing

 As the research and field work progress, files of notes, sketches, reproduced reference
materials, and photographs should be compiled. If an aid to navigation has changed over time,
chronologically arranged files of plans, photographs, and notes will help to understand the
progression and nature of the alterations. Color slides of the aid to navigation may be useful in
preparing the National Register nomination when returning to the site is not possible.

 Black and white photographs of the aid to navigation should be taken. The quality of the
photographs actually included in the nomination will benefit from selecting among a wide choice
of photographs. Historic photographs and graphics may be located and copied for inclusion with
the nomination. Historic plans may be copied in photographs to aid in documentation. If historic
plans do not exist, modern plans may be prepared.

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