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Early Buddhist Philosophy (Abhidharma/Abhidhamma)
by Tadeusz Skorupski
© Oxford University Press 2016
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Early Buddhist Philosophy (Abhidharma/Abhidhamma)

Tadeusz Skorupski
Introduction
During the centuries after the Buddha’s demise, the activities of the Saṅgha in India
are sparsely documented. It is, however, evident that the Buddha’s followers made
efforts to gather and systematize his teaching. The efforts to gather his teaching
resulted in due course in the collection of the Vinaya and Sūtra Piṭakas. The efforts to
systematize his teachings induced controversies, and resulted in the fragmentation of
the Saṅgha into schools, and the composition of sectarian Abhidharma texts.
Generally, the Tripiṭaka (Vinaya, Sūtra, Abhidharma) is treated as the Buddha Word.
However, particularly in the case of the Abhidharma texts, historical and textual
studies indicate that their crystallization into the Abhidharma Piṭaka took several
centuries after the Buddha. Conventionally, the Abhidharma is said to provide a
systematization of the Dharma taught by the Buddha, but in effect it offers more than
that. As such the term Abhidharma encompasses a body of literature and doctrine. In
terms of literature, the roots of the Abhidharma Piṭaka are often traced to mnemonic
lists called mātṛkā in Sanskrit, and mātikā in Pāli. Basic lists are already present in the
Sūtra Piṭaka, for instance, in the Saṅgīti and Dasuttara suttas of the Dīghanikāya.
Starting with such lists, Buddhist masters produced more lists, which they grouped
and collated to form the foundation of Buddhist doctrine and practice. The phases that
culminated in the compilation of the mature Abhidharma Piṭakas, as we have them,
remain enigmatic. In terms of doctrine, the Abhidharma does not represent a mere
systematization of the Buddha’s legacy. In addition to safeguarding his teaching, the
Abhidharma casts new horizons for classifying and analyzing the phenomena of
existence. One of its seminal aspects is its focus on taxonomy of the entire spectrum
of existence in terms of the ultimate realities called dharmas (factors, phenomena).
The dharmas are differentiated into conditioned and unconditioned, and correlated
with the threefold stratification of the cosmos. The conditioned dharmas are analyzed
in terms of their ethical and other qualities, and arranged into taxonomic groups. A
clear distinction is made between dharmas that perpetuate existence or suffering, and
dharmas that are conducive to the soteriological progress and attainment of the
unconditioned state, nirvāṇa. The Abhidharma adepts also produced innovative
theories and pragmatic stages of the path leading to emancipation. Thus the
Abhidharma adepts formulated an innovative scenario of Buddhist doctrines, which
they placed under the Buddha’s authority, and at the same time proclaimed them as
the ultimate teaching.
Extant Abhidharma Piṭakas
The technical term abhidharma is a propositional compound composed of abhi and
dharma, which the relevant sources endow with two principal meanings: (1)
pertaining to or with regard to (abhi) the doctrine (dharma); (2) the highest or
advanced (abhi) doctrine (dharma). While the first etymology is favored by the
Sarvāstivāda school, the Theravāda tradition endorses the second interpretation.
Taken together, these two interpretations clearly indicate that the term abhidharma is
styled as a systematized and definitive exposition of the Dharma that is articulated in
a variety of ways in the discourses of the Buddha and his immediate disciples. In the
introductory verses of his Abhidharmakośa, Vasubandhu makes a distinction between
the abhidharma that is stainless wisdom (anāsrava prajñā), and the abhidharma as
treatises (śāstra) that are a repository of wisdom that aids to obtain the stainless
wisdom. He credits the Buddha with teaching the ultimate Abhidharma, and treats the
treatises of the Abhidharma Piṭaka as human products. It is impossible to determine
whether all of the early schools had their own Abhidharma Piṭaka, but certain sources
indicate the existence of Abhidharma texts of several, some say seven, different
schools. Unfortunately, only three complete collections of the Abhidharma Piṭaka are
extant: Theravāda, Sarvāstivāda, and one attributed to the Dharmaguptakas. This
entry mainly covers the Theravāda and Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma Piṭakas, and to a
lesser extent the Dharmaguptaka Abhidharma treatise (śāstra).
Theravāda Abhidhamma Piṭaka
According to the relevant sources, the Theravāda Tipiṭaka was committed to writing
in the second half of the 1st century BCE. What was actually recorded is not fully
attested until the 5th century CE, the time when Buddhaghosa composed his
commentaries. The Theravāda Abhidhamma Piṭaka comprises seven books or
treatises, and survives in its original Indian vernacular, Pāli. This tradition ascribes the
Abhidhamma Piṭaka to the Buddha himself, both in terms of its historical origin and
literary form. According to Buddhaghosa, the sequential order of the seven
Abhidhamma books is as follows: Dhammasaṅgaṇi, Vibhaṅga, Dhātukathā,
Puggalapaññatti, Kathāvatthu, Yamaka, and Paṭṭhāna. The Pāli texts of the seven
Abhidhamma books have been edited and published by the Pali Text Society. Five out
of these seven Abhidhamma books have been translated into English and published
by the Pali Text Society. Dhammasaṅgaṇi is translated in Rhys Davids 1993,
Vibhaṅga in Thiṭṭila 1988, Dhātukathā in Nārada 1995, Puggallapaññatti in Law
1992, and Kathāvatthu in Aung and Davids 1993. Only the initial part of the massive
Paṭṭhāna is translated in Nārada 1969–1981. The Yamaka remains untranslated, but
there exist summaries, one of which is included in Lang 1996.
Aung, S. Z., and Caroline A. F. Rhys Davids, trans. Kathāvatthu: Points of
Controversy. London: Pali Text Society, 1993.
This treatise is ascribed to Moggaliputta Tissa, who disclosed it at the conclusion of
the council held at Pāṭaliputta in the 3rd century BCE. It refutes some 250 doctrinal
controversies. It defends the orthodox position held by the Fraternity of Elders
(sthaviranikāya). It presumes the existence of the Dhammasaṅgaṇi and Vibhaṅgha as
authorities for resolving doctrinal controversies. First edition 1915.
Law, B. C., trans. Puggallapaññatti: Designation of Human Types. London: Pali
Text Society, 1992.
This text presents categories of persons (puggala), grouping them in sets from ones to
tens. The term puggala does not denote any real entity, but is a mere concept
(paññatti) without any reality. As this text is tangibly derived from the sutta
collection, some scholars think that it may appertain to the earliest Abhidhamma
materials. First edition 1924.
Nārada, U., trans. Paṭṭhāna: Conditional Relations. 2 vols. London: Pali Text
Society, 1969–1981.
This text, partially translated by U Nārada, is the longest text included in this group of
seven books. It is concerned with the twenty-four conditions that govern the
interactions of all conditioned phenomena. Its aim is to demonstrate how the causes
and their results or fruits are interrelated. Basically it deals with the phenomena
classified in the Dhammasaṅgaṇi with reference to the twenty-four conditions.
Nārada, U., trans. Dhātukathā: Discourse on Elements. London: Pali Text
Society, 1995.
This text in fourteen chapters establishes the correlation between specific phenomena
(dhamma) and the five aggregates, twelve sense-bases, and eighteen elements. The
aim is to eliminate erroneous conceptualizations about one’s personal ego (attā). To
that extent it treats the phenomena that appertain to the preceding three classifications,
which do not stand for or nourish the self (anattā). First edition 1962.
Rhys Davids, Caroline A. F., trans. Dhammasaṅgaṇi: Buddhist Psychological
Ethics. London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1993.
This text contains a detailed classification of mental and physical phenomena of
existence. The largest portion of this text is concerned with the classification of
consciousness and mental concomitants in terms of their ethical qualities, and in
relation to the threefold stratification of the Buddhist world. First edition 1900.
Thiṭṭila, U., trans. Vibhaṅga: The Book of Analysis. London: Pali Text Society,
1988.
This text is comprised of eighteen chapters, which individually deal with specific
topics, including the five aggregates, the four noble truths, dependent origination, four
foundations of mindfulness, and types of knowledge. The analysis of the treated
subjects is given on the pattern of the methods of the discourses (sutta), Abhidhamma,
and catechistic formulations. First edition 1969.
Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma Piṭaka
The Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma Piṭaka also consists of seven books, which were
compiled by the Sarvāstivāda Vaibhāṣikas in Kashmir around the 2nd century CE.
This Piṭaka does not survive in its original Indian language, but exists only in its
Chinese version executed in the 7th century. The Sarvāstivāda Vaibhāṣikas admit that
named masters compiled the seven Abhidharma books. However, at the same time
they claim that ultimately the Abhidharma Piṭaka stems from the Buddha himself, but
some schools, notably the Sautrāntikas, reject their claim. In this set of the seven
Abhidharma books, the Jñānaprasthāna is styled as the body, and the remaining six
books are portrayed as the feet, or auxiliaries: Prakaraṇapāda, Vijñānakāya,
Dharmaskandha, Prajñaptiśāstra, Dhātukāya, Saṅgītiparyāya. Out of the seven
Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma books preserved in Chinese versions, six books are
complete and one book is incomplete. The Chinese version of the Prajñapti is
incomplete, but its complete version is extant in a Tibetan translation. In terms of
translations into Western languages, only the Saṅgītiparyāya has been translated into
German in Stache-Rosen 1968.
Dharmaskandha. In Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō. Edited by Junjirō Takakusu,
Kaigyoku Watanabe, and Genmyō Ono. 100 vols. Tokyo: Daizō Shuppan
Kabushiki Kaisha, 1924–1934, No 1537.
This text (Aggregation of Dharmas) is attributed to either Śāriputra or
Mahāmaudgalyāyana. It treats the thirty-seven factors conducive to enlightenment
(bodhipākṣika-dharma), and unveils one of the earliest systematizations of the path. It
also inaugurates a distinction between the path of vision (darśana-mārga) and the
path of meditative cultivation (bhāvanā-mārga), which stand at the heart of the
Sarvāstivāda portrayal of the path.
Dhātukāya. In Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō. Edited by Junjirō Takakusu, Kaigyoku
Watanabe, and Genmyō Ono. 100 vols. Tokyo: Daizō Shuppan Kabushiki
Kaisha, 1924–1934, No 1540.
This text (Collection of Elements) is attributed to either Pūrṇa or Vasumitra. It is a
collection of classificatory schemes for grouping mental states. The first part provides
a scheme of ninety-one categories of mind (citta) and its concomitants (caitta),
redistributed into fourteen groups. The second part ascertains the correlation between
the mental states included in these groups.
Jñānaprasthāna. In Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō. Edited by Junjirō Takakusu,
Kaigyoku Watanabe, and Genmyō Ono. 100 vols. Tokyo: Daizō Shuppan
Kabushiki Kaisha, 1924–1934, No 1544.
This text (Foundations of Knowledge) is attributed to Kātyāyanīputra. It contains an
ordered and mature exposition of the Sarvāstivāda doctrine and practice. It consists of
eight sections, which include expositions of defilements, knowledge, karma,
absorptions, and intuitive vision. Essentially, these eight sections reflect the
Sarvāstivāda soteriological schema. This text also establishes a set of six causes
(hetu), not found in the earlier texts.
Prajñaptiśāstra. In Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō. Edited by Junjirō Takakusu,
Kaigyoku Watanabe, and Genmyō Ono. 100 vols. Tokyo: Daizō Shuppan
Kabushiki Kaisha, 1924–1934, No 1538
This text (Designations) is attributed to Maudgalyāyana. It consists of three parts. Part
one treats the speculations about the origins of the world. Part two ascertains the
causal conditions that govern the course of the Bodhisattva’s career. Part three
provides a general exposition of the theory of ethical causes and their effects. Its
complete Tibetan version is in Derge Tanjur: Tōhoku Catalogue 4086, 4087, and
4088.
Prakaraṇapāda. In Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō. Edited by Junjirō Takakusu,
Kaigyoku Watanabe, and Genmyō Ono. 100 vols. Tokyo: Daizō Shuppan
Kabushiki Kaisha, 1924–1934, No 1542.
This text (Exposition) is attributed to Vasumitra. It consolidates the Sarvāstivāda
fivefold classification of all phenomena into matter or form (rūpa), mind (citta),
mental concomitants (caitta), phenomena dissociated from the mind (cittaviprayukta),
and unconditioned phenomena (asaṃskṛta). The Sautrāntikas and Mahāyāna schools
accept this classification. It is considered to constitute the final scheme of the
Sarvāstivāda doctrinal systematizations.
Stache-Rosen, Valentina, trans. Saṅgītiparyāya: Das Saṃgītisūtra und sein
Kommentar Saṃgītiparyāya. 2 vols. Dogmatische Begriffsreihen im älteren
Buddhismus 2. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1968.
Depending on the source, this text (Discourse on Concordance) is attributed either to
Mahākauṣṭhila or to Śāriputra. It is a commentary on the Saṅgīti-sūtra, and comprises
a series of dharma lists, systematically arranged from ones to tens. It is in ten sections
that cover some two hundred dharma groups. Some scholars consider it as one of the
oldest among Abhidharma texts. The Chinese translation is in Taishō Shinshū
Daizōkyō No 1536.
Vijñānakāya. In Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō. Edited by Junjirō Takakusu,
Kaigyoku Watanabe, and Genmyō Ono. 100 vols. Tokyo: Daizō Shuppan
Kabushiki Kaisha, 1924–1934, No 1539.
This text (Collection on Consciousness) is attributed to Devaśarman. The initial
section provides a sustained proof of the primary Sarvāstivāda tenet that all
phenomena exist (sarva-asti) in the past, present, and future. The second section
focuses on the refutation of the erroneous belief in a person. The next sections deal
with different types of causes and conditions, and some other doctrines.
Dharmaguptaka Śāriputra Abhidharma Śāstra
The precise authorship of this treatise is not determined, but the dominant opinion
among Buddhist scholars is that it probably originated in the Dharmaguptaka school.
This treatise is preserved only in its Chinese translation executed at the beginning of
the 5th century. According to Bareau 1950, it is a massive composition that provides a
complete exposition of the abhidharma doctrine. Yoshimoto 1996 provides a
summary of this treatise. Matsuda 2002 identifies three Sanskrit fragments that
exhibit parallels with the Chinese translation of this treatise. Bareau 1950 analyzes the
doctrinal position of this treatise in an attempt to establish its sectarian affiliation.
Bareau, André. “Les Origines du Śāriputrābhidharmaśāstra.” Le Muséon 63.1–4
(1950): 69–95.
Bareau attempts to identify the school that may have produced the Śāriputra
Abhidharma Śāstra. To that extent, he compares and contrasts the doctrinal tenets of
this treatise with the doctrines held by the major schools of early Buddhism. He
progressively eliminates the schools with which the Śāriputra Abhidharma Śāstra is
in disagreement, and concludes that this treatise most likely originated in the
Dharmaguptaka school.
Matsuda, Kazunobu. “Three Fragments Related to the Śāriputra-Abhidharma.”
In Buddhist Manuscripts. Vol. 2. Edited by Jens Braarvig, 239–248. Manuscripts
in the Schøyen Collection 3. Oslo, Norway: Hermes, 2002.
In this study Matsuda edits and discusses three Sanskrit fragments, which
suggestively approximate to a passage of the Chinese translation of the Śāriputra
Abhidharma. A modified version of this study with images of the manuscript
fragments is included in Traces of Gandhāra Buddhism: An Exhibition of Ancient
Buddhist Manuscripts in the Schøyen Collection, by Jens Braarvig and Fredrik Liland.
Oslo, Norway: Hermes Publishing, 2010 (pages 46–49).
Śāriputra Abhidharma Śāstra. In Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō. Edited by Junjirō
Takakusu, Kaigyoku Watanabe, and Genmyō Ono. 100 vols. Tokyo: Daizō
Shuppan Kabushiki Kaisha, 1924–1934, No 1548.
This treatise in thirty fascicles (chüan) was translated into Chinese at the beginning of
the 5th century.
Yoshimoto, Shingyo. “Śāriputra Abhidharma Śāstra.” In Abhidharma Buddhism
to 150 A.D. Edited by Karl H. Potter. With Robert E. Buswell Jr., Padmanabh S.
Jaini, and Noble Ross Reat, 317–325. Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies. Vol. 7.
Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1996.
Yoshimoto’s summary sketches the primary topics of this treatise. Yoshimoto also
provides a reference to Baiyu Watanabe’s Japanese translation of this treatise from
the Chinese.
Synoptic Guides to the Abhidharma Piṭaka
The publications listed in this section are intended to facilitate intellectual inroads into
the content and structure of the seven Abhidharma books of the Theravāda and
Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma Piṭakas. Norman 1983 and Hinüber 1996 sketch the
structure and broad content of the Theravāda Abhidharma books. Nārada 1979 and
Nārada 1986 offer a limited and yet substantial guide to the Paṭṭhāna. Nyanatiloka
2007 provides a detailed guide to the Theravāda Abhidharma Piṭaka. Takakusu 1904–
1905 sketches the content of the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma treatises. Buswell and
Lopez 2013 contains excellent entries on the individual texts of the Theravāda and
Sarvāstivāda Piṭakas. Potter 1996 contains substantial summaries of all of the extant
Abhidharma treatises.
Buswell, Robert E., Jr., and Donald S. Lopez Jr. The Princeton Dictionary of
Buddhism. Princeton, NJ, and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2013.
This dictionary includes one entry on the Abhidharma Piṭaka, and analytic entries on
each of the seven Abhidharma works of the Sarvāstivāda and Theravāda Abhidharma
Piṭakas.
Hinüber, Oskar von. A Handbook of Pali Literature. Indian Philology and South
Asian Studies 2. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1996.
This book offers a comprehensive overview of the Theravāda literary heritage. It
covers editions and translations of the canonical and post-canonical works, as well as
commentaries and sub-commentaries. It also discusses the history of scholarship of
Theravāda literature.
Nārada, U. Guide to Conditional Relations (Paṭṭhāna). Part 1. London: Pali Text
Society, 1979.
Provides a guide to pages 1–12 of the Paṭṭhāna.
Nārada, U. Guide to Conditional Relations (Paṭṭhāna). Part 2. Rangoon, Burma:
Religious Affairs Department Press, 1986.
Provides a guide to pages 13–141 of the Paṭṭhāna. In some editions the Paṭṭhāna text
extends over 2,500 pages.
Norman, Kenneth Roy. Pāli Literature: Including the Canonical Literature in
Prakrit and Sanskrit of All the Hīnayāna Schools of Buddhism. Wiesbaden,
Germany: Otto Harrassowitz, 1983.
This book provides a competent and authoritative treatment of the Theravāda
Tipiṭaka, commentaries, and later literature. The seven Abhidhamma treatises are
discussed in terms of their structure and general content (pages 96–107).
Nyanatiloka, Mahāthera. Guide through the Abhidhamma Piṭaka: A Synopsis of
the Philosophical Collection of the Buddhist Pāli Canon. Kandy, Sri Lanka:
Buddhist Publication Society, 2007.
This guide provides summaries of the seven Abhidhamma books of the Theravāda
tradition. The initial section provides a translation and an explanation of the mātikā
list, which is included at the beginning of the Dhammasaṅgaṇi. This list or matrix
serves as the primary framework for the classification and analysis of all phenomena.
Potter, Karl H., ed. Abhidharma Buddhism to 150 A.D. With Robert E. Buswell
Jr., Padmanabh S. Jaini, and Noble Ross Reat. Encyclopedia of Indian
Philosophies. Vol. 7. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1996.
This volume includes summaries of the seven Abhidharma works of the Theravāda
and Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma Piṭakas.
Takakusu, Junjirō. “On the Abhidharma Literature of the Sarvāstivādins.”
Journal of the Pali Text Society 5 (1904–1905): 67–146.
The bulk of this paper provides an analytic description of the seven Abhidharma
treatises of the Sarvāstivāda school. Essentially, it presents the content of each book
in a somewhat tabulated but informative manner.
Theravāda Commentaries
The Theravāda tradition attributes to Buddhaghosa the composition of three
commentaries (aṭṭhakathā) on the seven books of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka. He
compiled single commentaries on the Dhammasaṅgaṇi and the Vibhaṅga, which he
respectively named Atthasālinī and Sammohavinodanī. In the case of his
commentaries upon the remaining five Abhidhamma books, he placed them together
under the title of Pañcappakaraṇaṭṭhakathā. Three commentaries are available in
English translations: Atthasālinī translated in Tin 1999, Sammohavinodanī in
Ñāṇamoli 1987–1991, and the commentary on the Kathāvatthu in Law 1940. Buswell
and Lopez 2013 contains entries on Buddhghosa’s commentaries. Goonesekere 1967
discusses the history and categories of the Pāli commentaries. Norman 1983 treats the
development and scope of the Pāli commentaries.
Buswell, Robert E., Jr., and Donald S. Lopez Jr. The Princeton Dictionary of
Buddhism. Princeton, NJ, and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2013.
This dictionary contains instructive entries on the Pāli commentaries.
Goonesekere, Lakshmi R. Buddhist Commentarial Literature. Kandy, Sri Lanka:
Buddhist Publication Society, 1967.
This booklet sketches the history and character of the commentaries on the Pāli
Tipiṭaka. In the initial sections, the author discusses the way in which the term
commentary (aṭṭhakathā) is understood in Sri Lanka. Next she discusses the early
Sinhala and Dravidian commentaries, and then the commentaries produced by
Buddhaghosa, Dhammapāla, and other important commentators.
Law, B. C., trans. Kathāvatthuppakaraṇa: The Debates Commentary. Oxford: Pali
Text Society, 1940.
This is Buddhaghosa’s commentary on the Kathāvatthu. It is an indispensable source
for clarifying many shady and knotty passages in the Kathāvattu. It also identifies the
names of the schools that upheld controversial theories and contentions.
Ñāṇamoli, Bhikkhu, trans. Sammohavinodanī: The Dispeller of Delusion. Revised
by Lance Cousins, Nyanaponika Mahāthera, and C. M. M. Shaw. 2 vols. Oxford:
Pali Text Society, 1987–1991.
This is Buddhaghosa’s commentary on the Vibhaṅgha. It is divided into eighteen
chapters, starting with an exposition of the five aggregates. Other topics treated in this
text include meditation, the path, and rules of training. In this treatise Buddhaghosa
provides a comprehensive exposition of the doctrine of dependent origination;
perhaps the most detailed account of this doctrine in the Abhidhamma works. Volume
one published 1987; volume two published 1991.
Norman, Kenneth Roy. Pāli Literature: Including the Canonical Literature in
Prakrit and Sanskrit of All the Hīnayāna Schools of Buddhism. Wiesbaden,
Germany: Otto Harrassowitz, 1983.
Buddhaghosa’s commentaries on the seven Abhidhamma books are critically
evaluated on pages 122–125.
Tin, Pe Maung, trans. Atthasālinī: The Expositor. 2 vols. Oxford: Pali Text
Society, 1999.
This is Buddhaghosa’s commentary on the Dhammasaṅgani. In the initial sections,
Buddhaghosa upholds a vigorous defense of the Theravāda claim that the seven
Abhidhamma treatises were spoken by the Buddha himself, and then handed down to
Sāriputta, and inherited by an unbroken succession of Abhidhamma masters. The
third chapter of this commentary contains a comprehensive treatment of karma. First
editions 1920, 1921.
Sarvāstivāda Commentaries
The Sarvāstivāda masters did not produce a set of commentaries on their Abhidharma
Piṭaka texts. Instead they composed three compendia of which the (Abhidharma-)
Mahāvibhāṣā is the largest and most important. This text was compiled in Kashmir,
and survives only in its Chinese version. It is purported to be a commentary on the
primary treatise of the Abhidharma Piṭaka, the Jñānaprasthāna composed by
Kātyāyanīputra. Ichimura 1996 contains a summary of the Mahāvibhāṣā, and Buswell
and Lopez 2013 sketches its structure. Translations of selected topics treated in the
Mahāvibhāṣā are contained in La Vallée Poussin 1930, La Vallée Poussin 1931–
1932, La Vallée Poussin 1936–1937, and Rahder 1931–1932.
Buswell, Robert E., Jr., and Donald S. Lopez Jr. The Princeton Dictionary of
Buddhism. Princeton, NJ, and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2013.
This dictionary offers an insightful overview of the history and structure of the
Mahāvibhāṣā. Look under the heading of Abhidharmamahāvibhāṣā.
Ichimura, Shohei. “Mahāvibhāṣā.” In Abhidharma Buddhism to 150 A.D. Edited
by Karl H. Potter. With Robert E. Buswell Jr., Padmanath S. Jaini, and Noble
Ross Reat. Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies. Vol. 7. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass, 1996.
This summary provides a fairly detailed digest of the major topics treated in the
Mahāvibhāṣā; pages 511–568.
La Vallée Poussin, Louis de. “Documents d’Abhidharma: Textes relatifs au
nirvāṇa et aux asaṃskŗtas en général.” Bulletin de l’École Française d’Extrême-
Orient 30 (1930): 1–28, 247–298.
The exposition of the nature of nirvāṇa, and of the unconditioned dharmas, largely
consists of translations from the Mahāvibhāṣā, and from Saṅghabhadra’s
Nyāyānusāra.
La Vallée Poussin, Louis de. “Documents d’Abhidharma: La doctrine des
refuges, le corps de l’arhat.” Mélanges Chinois et Bouddhiques 1 (1931–1932):
65–127.
This study of the three refuges contains translations from the Mahāvibhāṣā and from
the Nyāyānusāra.
La Vallée Poussin, Louis de. “Documents d’Abhidharma: La controverse du
temps; Les deux, les quatre, les trois vérités.” Mélanges Chinois et Bouddhiques 5
(1936–1937): 7–187.
The expositions of the controversy over the existence of the three times, and of the
two and four truths, largely consist of translations from the Mahāvibhāṣā and the
Nyāyānusāra.
Mahāvibhāṣā. In Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō. Edited by Junjirō Takakusu,
Kaigyoku Watanabe, and Genmyō Ono. 100 vols. Tokyo: Daizō Shuppan
Kabushiki Kaisha, 1924–1934, No 1545.
As mentioned in the commentary paragraph to this section, this massive treatise
compiled in 200 fascicles (chüan) survives only in its Chinese translation, which was
executed in the 7th century by Hsüan-tsang and his translation team.
Rahder, Johannes. “Le satkāyadṛṣṭi d’après Vibhāṣā.” Mélanges Chinois et
Bouddhiques 1 (1931–1932): 227–239.
The exposition of the erroneous view of personality includes translations from the
Mahāvibhāṣā.
Abhidharma Synopses
The seven Abhidharma treaties, as literary compositions, are rather dense, cryptic,
concise, and schematic. As they are long and difficult to comprehend, there arose a
need to produce shorter but comprehensive and topically structured expositions of
Abhidharma doctrines. This need resulted in the composition of a series of
systematized texts having different titles, but here they are collectively categorized as
synopses. The production of such synoptic treatises also reflects the next stage in the
development and systematization of Abhidharma doctrine and practice. Both
Theravāda and Sarvāstivāda produced a number of synopses, some of which became
highly celebrated, such as Buddhaghosa’s Visuddhimagga, and Vasubandhu’s
Abhidharmakośa.
Theravāda Abhidhamma Synopses
This section presents Theravāda works that are high-ranking and exist in translations.
The approximate chronological order of the authors listed in this section is as follows:
Upatissa, Buddhaghosa, Anuruddha, Sumangala, and Khema. Upatissa 1961,
translated by Ehara, encapsulates the primary doctrines and practices necessary for
the attainment of emancipation. Buddhaghosa 1956, translated by Ñāṇamoli,
constitutes a masterly and treasured synopsis of Buddhist doctrines and practices.
Anuruddha 1956, translated by Nārada, and Anuruddha 1993, revised by Bodhi, is
treated as the Theravāda primer for the study of Abhidhamma doctrines and practices.
Sumangala 2002, translated by Wijeratne and Gethin, provides a commentary on
Anuruddha’s work. Khema 1987, translated by Saddhātissa, deals with consciousness
and matter.
Anuruddha. Abhidhammattha-saṅgaha. Translated by Mahāthera Nārada. A
Manual of Abhidhamma: Being Abhidhammattha Sangaha of Bhadanta Acariya
Anuruddha. Colombo, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1956.
This important translation of Anuruddha’s work was revised by Bhikkhu Bodhi, as
detailed in Anuruddha 1993.
Anuruddha. Abhidhammattha-saṅgaha. Revised by Bhikkhu Bodhi. A
Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma: The Abhidhammattha Saṅgaha of
Ācarya Anuruddha. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1993.
A revision of Anuruddha 1956. Anuruddha’s dates and homeland are uncertain, but
some scholars date him to the 11th century. Anuruddha’s work provides a complete
exposition of Abhidhamma teachings. A textual guide compiled by Rewata Dhamma
and Bhikkhu Bodhi accompanies Anurudha’s text. This work serves as the primer for
the study of the Abhidhamma in the Theravāda world.
Buddhaghosa. Visuddhimagga. Translated by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoḷi. The Path of
Purification. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1956.
Buddhaghosa’s synopsis is a masterly and all-inclusive exposition of the Theravāda
doctrine and practice extracted from the Piṭakas. Structurally, it is divided into three
parts that correspond to the threefold training in morality, meditation, and wisdom.
Part one deals with the purification of morality. Part two covers the purification of
meditation. Part three explains the fivefold purification of wisdom.
Khema. Nāmarūpasamāso. Translated by Hammalava Saddhātissa. “Summary
of Mind and Matter,” Journal of the Pali Text Society 11 (1987): 7–31.
Khema’s text is assigned to the 10th or 11th century. It is a compact manual that
provides a synopsis of the Abhidhamma categories of consciousness and matter. The
works of Anuruddha and Khema, along with seven other works, form a group of texts
known in Burma as “the little finger manuals.”
Sumangala. Abhidhammatthavibhāvinī. Translated by R. P. Wijeratne and R.
Gethin. Summary of the Topics of Abhidhamma (Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha) by
Anuruddha. Exposition of the Topics of Abhidhamma (Abhidhammatthavibhāvinī)
by Sumangala, Being a Commentary to Anuruddha’s Summary of the Topics of
Abhidhamma. London: Pali Texts Society, 2002.
This publication includes translations of two texts: Anuruddha’s treatise
(Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha) and Sumangala’s commentary on it
(Abhidhammatthavibhāvinī). Thus, in effect this publication has two titles combined
into one. Sumangala’s work provides a fairly detailed and helpful elucidation of
Anurudha’s text.
Upatissa. Vimuttimagga. Translated by N. R. M. Ehara, Soma Thera, and
Kheminda Thera. The Path of Freedom by the Arahant Upatissa. Colombo, Sri
Lanka: Saman, 1961.
The identity and dates of Upatissa (or Upatiṣya) are uncertain, and his work survives
only in a Chinese translation. It is normally known by its putative Pāli title; its
Sanskrit title would be Vimuktimārga. Its attested existence dates to the 5th century. It
is in twelve chapters, and sketches the path in terms of the three trainings in morality,
concentration, and wisdom.
Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma Synopses
In addition to the three Vibhāṣā compendia produced in Kashmir, there exist
Sarvāstivāda texts that originate from the cultural region of Gandhāra. The
Sarvāstivāda adepts from this region developed a distinctive strand of Abhidharma
ideas and systematizations. Some scholars refer to the works produced in the Gadhāra
region as hṛdaya (heart, essence) texts, because their titles contain this term. The
approximate chronological order of the Indian authors listed in this section is as
follows: Dharmaśrī, Ghoṣaka, Dharmatrāta, Vasubandhu, Saṅghabhadra, Skandhila,
and Yaśomitra. Dharmaśrī 2006, translated by Willemen, represents one of the
earliest compositions that provide a systematic and topically arranged exposition of
the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma. Ghoṣaka 1977, translated by Broeck, also provides a
coherent treatment of Abhidharma teachings. Dharmatrāta 1999, translated by
Dessein, is the same in structure as Dharmaśrī’s text, but it is much larger in textual
volume. Skandhila 2008, translated by Dhammajoti (as well as by Velthem in 1997),
provides an exposition of the Sarvāstivāda dharma theory. Vasubandhu 1967, edited
by Pradhan, constitutes the doctrinal culmination of the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma
developments in India; later Abhidharma generations did not write new treatises, but
instead composed commentaries on it. Yaśomitra 1932–1936, summarized in Anacker
2008, is a commentary on Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośa. Saṅghabhadra 1995,
partially translated by Cox, defends the Sarvāstivāda orthodoxy against Vasubandhu’s
Abhidharmakośa. Mejor 1991 studies the commentaries on Vasubandhu’s
Abhidharmakośa.
Anacker, Stefan. “Sphuṭārthābhidharmakośavyākhyā.” In Buddhist Philosophy
from 350 to 600 A.D. Edited by Karl H. Potter. Encyclopedia of Indian
Philosophies. Vol. 9. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2008.
In Part two of this volume, Anacker provides a fairly detailed summary of
Yaśomitra’s Sphuṭārthābhidharmakośavyākhyā, pages 565–593.
Dharmaśrī. Abhidharmahṛdaya. Translated by Charles Willemen. The Essence of
Scholasticism: Abhidharmahṛdaya T1550. Rev. ed. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass,
2006.
In academic circles, the vital dates of Dharmaśrī (or Dharmaśreṣṭhin) range between
the 1st century BCE and the 2nd century CE. At any rate, his text Abhidharmahṛdaya
is one of the first systematized expositions of the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma. The
original text survives only in a Chinese translation, and consists of 250 summary
verses followed by their commentaries. The topics that are covered include karma,
defilements, knowledge, and concentration. French translation by I. Armelin. Le
Coeur de la Loi Suprême: Abhidharmahṛdayaśāstra. Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1978.
Dharmatrāta. Saṃyuktābhidharmahṛdaya. Translated by Bart Dessein.
Saṃyuktābhidharmahṛdaya: Heart of Scholasticism with Miscellaneous Additions.
Buddhist Tradition Series 33–35. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1999.
This publication is in three parts. Part one of over seven hundred pages contains an
introduction and a translation of Dharmatrāta’s work. Part two provides copious
annotations to Part one, and Part three consists of indices, glossaries, and
bibliography. Dharmatrāta’s treatise is an expansion of Dharmaśrī’s work and consists
of 596 verses and their commentaries, divided into eleven topical chapters.
Ghoṣaka. Abhidharmāmṛtarasa. Translated and annotated by José van den
Broeck. La Saveur de l’immortel (A-p’i-t-an Kan Lu Wei Lun): La Version
Chinoise de l’Amṛtarasa de Ghoṣaka (T. 1553). Publications de l’Institut
Orientaliste de Louvain 15. Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium: Institut Orientaliste,
1977.
The dates and homeland of Ghoṣaka remain uncertain, but it is surmised that he lived
in the 2nd century, and probably composed his work in Gandhāra. The Chinese
translation was made in the 3rd century CE. The introduction provides an analysis of
selected subjects treated in Ghoṣaka’s work. Taken together this text covers the entire
spectrum of Abhidharma teachings.
Mejor, Marek. Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośa and the Commentaries Preserved
in the Tanjur. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1991.
This is an insightful study of Vasubandhu’s life and works, and a textual and doctrinal
analysis of nine commentaries on his Abhidharmakośa that are extant in Tibetan
translations.
Saṅghabhadra. Nyāyānusāra. Translated by Collett Cox. Disputed Dharmas:
Early Buddhist Theories of Existence, An Annotated Translation of the Section on
Factors Dissociated from Thought from Saṅghabhadra’s Nyāyānusāra. Studia
Philologica Buddhica, Monograph Series 11. Tokyo: International Institute for
Buddhist Studies, 1995.
This is a partially translated treatise that reasserts the Sarvāstivāda Vaibhāṣika
orthodoxy, and at the same time debunks the Sautrāntika positions as recorded in
Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośabhāṣya. The translated portion deals with the fourteen
factors dissociated from the mind (cittaviprayukta-dharma). In addition, Cox provides
an insightful introduction with sections on the origin and scope of the Abhidharma
texts.
Skandhila. Abhidharmāvatāra. Translated by Kuala Lumpur Dhammajoti.
Entrance into the Supreme Doctrine: Skandhila’s Abhidharmāvatāra. Hong Kong:
Centre of Buddhist Studies, 2008.
Translated from the Chinese. Skandhila is dated to the 5th century, and is surmised to
have been a Vaibhāṣika from Kashmir. His work is extant in Chinese and Tibetan
versions. It is a summary of the dharma theory of the Sarvāstivāda school. The first
five chapters treat the conditioned dharmas redistributed among the five aggregates,
and the remaining chapters deal with the three unconditioned dharmas. The Tibetan
version was translated by Marcel van Velthem. La Traité de la Descente dans la
Profonde Loi: Abhidharmāvatāraśāstra. Publications de l’Institut Orientaliste de
Louvain 16. Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium: Institut Orientaliste, 1977.
Vasubandhu. Abhidharmakośabhāṣya. Edited by Prahalad Pradhan.
Abhidharmakośabhāṣya of Vasubandhu. Patna, India: K. P. Jayaswal Research
Institute, 1967.
Vasubandhu’s work was composed in India in the late 4th or early 5th century. It
exists in the original Sanskrit, and Chinese and Tibetan versions. It emulates the
structure of Dharmatrāta’s work. It comprises the root text (kārikā), and its auto-
commentary (bhāṣya). The Vaibhāṣikas approved of the root text as faithfully
reflecting the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma, but criticized the commentary for doctrinal
distortions. French translation by Louis de La Vallée Poussin. L’Abhidharmakośa de
Vasubandhu: Traduction et Annotations. 6 vols. Paris: Librairie Orientaliste Paul
Geuthner; J. B. ISTAS, Louvain, Belgium: 1923–1931. English translation from the
French by Leo M. Pruden. Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam. 4 vols. Berkeley, CA: Asian
Humanities Press, 1988–1990.
Yaśomitra. Sphuṭārthābhidharmakośavyākhyā. 2 vols. Edited by Unrai
Wogihara. Sphuṭārthā: Abhidharmakośavyākhyā. Tokyo: Publishing Association
of Abhidharmakośavyākhyā, 1932–1936.
This is the only commentary on the Abhidharmakośa that survives in the original
Sanskrit. Otherwise it is an Abhidharma treatise in its own right. There are no
translations of this work in Western languages. See Anacker 2008.
Reference Works
Reference resources included here provide sound entries on Abhidharma topics and
technical terminology. Among the sources listed in this section, the Encyclopedia of
Buddhism, Malalasekera and Weeraratne 1961–2007, provides the most
comprehensive coverage of Abhidharma literature and doctrine. The Encyclopedia of
Religion, Jones 2004, is more limited in coverage of Buddhism, but still contains an
impressive range of entries on Abhidharma doctrines and schools. The Encyclopedia
of Buddhism, Buswell 2003, offers substantial entries on Abhidharma literature and
schools. The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism, Buswell and Lopez 2013, contains
numerous entries on Abhidharma texts, concepts, schools, and masters. The Buddhist
Dictionary, Nyanatiloka 1980, focuses on technical terminology culled from Pāli
sources. Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies, Williams 2005, facilitates
access to 110 articles, some of which are important for the study of the Abhidharma.
Potter 1995 contains a wide-ranging bibliography on the Theravāda and Sarvāstivāda
texts and doctrines. Potter 1996, Potter 1999, and Potter 2008 essentially contain
summaries of a large number of Buddhist texts, including all important Abhidharma
works.
Buswell, Robert E., ed. Encyclopedia of Buddhism. New York: Macmillan, 2003.
This encyclopedia includes approximately 470 entries in over 900 pages. Its coverage
of Abhidharma terms is less extensive than in Malalasekera and Weeraratne 1961–
2007, or Buswell and Lopez 2013. However, it has a number of fine entries on
Abhidharma, cosmology, dharma and dharmas, Hīnayāna, karma, mainstream
Buddhist schools, Sarvāstivāda, and Theravāda.
Buswell, Robert E., Jr., and Donald S. Lopez Jr. The Princeton Dictionary of
Buddhism. Princeton, NJ, and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2013.
This dictionary of over 5,000 entries is based on original sources in Pāli, Sanskrit,
Chinese, Tibetan, Japanese, and Korean. It covers texts, concepts, authors, and much
more. In terms of Abhidharma, it offers generous entries on Abhidharma, the seven
works of the Abhidharma Piṭakas belonging to the Theravāda and Sarvāstivāda
schools, commentaries, commentators, schools, and a gamut of technical terms.
Jones, Lindsay, ed. Encyclopedia of Religion. 2d ed. 16 vols. New York:
Macmillan, 2004.
This encyclopedia contains a wide range of entries on Buddhist topics. Volume two
provides a solid treatment of Buddhist history, literature, and teachings. The topics
that are relevant to this entry include Buddhism in India, Buddhism in Southeast Asia,
Hīnayāna, Buddhist philosophy, Buddhist soteriology, Abhidharmapiṭaka,
Sarvāstivāda, and Theravāda. Originally published in 1997, Mircea Eliade, editor-in-
chief, New York: Macmillan.
Malalasekera, G. P., and W. G. Weeraratne, eds. Encyclopedia of Buddhism. 8
vols. Government of Sri Lanka, 1961–2007.
This encyclopedia was produced over the period of fifty years. It offers a wide range
of entries on Buddhist history, literature, doctrine, and much more. It is particularly
strong on the Theravāda tradition and early Buddhism, but it also includes many
entries on other Buddhist traditions.
Nyanatiloka, Mahāthera. Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms and
Doctrines. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1980.
This dictionary covers a considerable range of technical terms of Buddhist doctrines
and practices. The terms are given in Pāli and explained on the basis of Pāli sources.
The overall aim of this compilation is to provide sound and readable explanations of
the basic Buddhist terminology. First edition 1950.
Potter, Karl H. Bibliography. Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies. Vol. 1. 3d rev.
ed. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1995.
A fairly comprehensive bibliography, which includes a substantial range of
publications on the Theravāda and Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma topics. This
bibliography is kept up to date and can be accessed online.
Potter, Karl H., ed. Abhidharma Buddhism to 150 A.D. With Robert Buswell,
Padmanath Jaini, and Noble Ross Reat. Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies.
Vol. 7. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1996.
Part one has one section on the development of Abhidharma philosophy, and one
section on a few early Abhidharma concepts. Part two provides summaries of twenty-
four Abhidharma texts, including the Abhidharma treatises belonging to the
Theravāda and Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma Piṭakas.
Potter, Karl H., ed. Buddhist Philosophy from 100 to 350 A.D. Encyclopedia of
Indian Philosophies. Vol. 8. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1999.
Part one includes one section on the Buddhist path, and one section on the categories
of phenomena (dharmas). Part two contains summaries of over 200 texts, including
the works of Vasubandhu, and of Saṅghabhadra’s Nyāyānusāra.
Potter, Karl H., ed. Buddhist Philosophy from 350 to 600 A.D. Encyclopedia of
Indian Philosophies. Vol. 9. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2008.
In Part one, chapter two discusses different aspects of the Abhidharma stages leading
to liberation. Part two includes summaries of almost 200 texts, including Yaśomitra’s
Abhidharmakośa-Sphuṭārthāvyākhyā.
Williams, Paul, ed. Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies. 8 vols.
London and New York: Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group, 2005.
The following articles are pertinent. Volume one: Collins on the idea of the Canon;
Cousins on oral literature; Lamotte on textual authenticity, and on textual
interpretation. Volume two: Bechert on the sects; Cousins on the nature of jhāna,
Mahādeva’s five points, and person and self. Volume four: Cousins on the Patthāna
and Abhidhamma, and on nibbāna and Abhidhamma; Gethin on the aggregates;
Williams on Abhidharma ontology.
Historical and Textual Studies on the Abhidharma Treatises
This section includes a selection of books and articles that study the origin, formation,
and content of the Abhidharma Piṭaka and affiliated texts. Frauwallner 1995 traces the
literary and doctrinal evolution of the Sarvāstivāda and Theravāda Abhidharma
Piṭakas. Cox 1992 studies the origin and formation of the Abhidharma literature of the
Sarvāstivāda school. Bronkhorst 2000 discusses the Sarvāstvāda Abhidharma
doctrines. Watanabe 1954 assesses the debates and doctrinal disagreements among the
Sarvāstivāda masters. Anālayo 2012 assesses the accounts of the Buddha’s teaching
of the Abhidharma in the abode of the Thirty-Three gods. Anālayo 2014 formulates
an innovative vision of the origin of the Abhidharma Piṭaka. Willemen, et al. 1998
provides a detailed survey of the Sarvāstivāda history and literature. Lamotte 1988
assesses the Abhidharma texts, and sketches the formation and character of the early
schools. Bareau 1951 discusses the Abhidharma texts that are extant or possibly were
in existence. Gethin 1992 concentrates on the lists (mātikā) that form the seminal core
of the Abhidhamma treatises.
Anālayo. “Teaching the Abhidharma in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three: The
Buddha and His Mother.” Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies 2
(2012): 9–35.
The story of the Buddha’s teaching the Abhidharma to his mother in the Trāyastriṃśa
abode is contained in a number of Buddhist sources. The author traces its
development and intended purpose, and concludes that it was devised to authenticate
the Abhidharma treatises.
Anālayo. The Dawn of Abhidharma. Hamburg Buddhist Studies 2. Hamburg,
Germany: Hamburg University Press, 2014.
This study attempts to trace the origin of the Abhidharma treatises. The author
postulates that initially the Abhidharma doctrines had their roots in certain
formulations that were inserted into the Sūtra Piṭaka. After that these formulations
were ingeniously reformulated into Abhidharma treatises, and finally placed under the
Buddha’s authority.
Bareau, André. “Les Sectes Bouddhiques du Petit Véhicule et leur
Abhidharmapiṭaka.” Bulletin de l’Ecole Francaise d’Extrême-Orient 44.1 (1951):
1–11.
First the author discusses the Abhidharma texts that exist as complete Abhidharma
sets: Theravāda, Sarvāstivāda, and Śāriputra Abhidharma Śāstra. Next, he attempts to
determine which schools definitely had, and which schools probably had, separate
Abhidharmas. In his opinion, three other schools had their own Abhidharmas:
Mahāsāṅghika, Dharmaguptaka, and Haimavata. Five other schools probably had
separate Abhidharmas.
Bronkhorst, Johannes. “Die buddhistische Lehre.” In Der Buddhismus I: Der
indische Buddhismus und seine Verzweigungen. Edited by Heinz Bechert,
Johannes Bronkhorst, Jacob Ensink, et al., 23–213. Die Religionen der
Menschheit, Band 24.1. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer Verlag, 2000.
This lengthy study provides a comprehensive treatment of Indian Buddhism. It
consists of three sections: the teaching in the Buddha’s discourses, the Abhidharma
systematization, and the Mahāyāna development. In the Abhidharma section, much of
the discussion focuses on the Sarvāstivāda doctrines, and on the dharma theory. It is
an erudite account of the Abhidharma within the spectrum of Indian Buddhism.
Cox, Collett. “The Unbroken Treatise: Scripture and Argument in Early
Buddhist Scholasticism.” In Innovations in Religious Traditions: Essays in the
Interpretation of Religious Change. Edited by Michael A. Williams, Collett Cox,
and Martin S. Jaffee, 143–189. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992.
This is a comprehensive study of the origin and development of the Abhidharma
literature of the Sarvāstivāda school. Initially the author discusses the Buddhist
position in relation to the Vedic texts. After that she systematically unfolds the stages
of Abhidharma literature: formation of Abhidharma treatises, production of synoptic
texts, and legitimization of Abhidharma treatises.
Frauwallner, Erich. Studies in Abhidharma Literature and the Origins of Buddhist
Philosophical Systems. Translated by Sophie Francis Kidd. Albany: State
University of New York Press, 1995.
This book contains Frauwallner’s research into the origin and development of the
Abhidharma treatises and philosophical systems. In his opinion, the Theravāda and
Sarvāstivāda Abhidhamma treatises were not composed at a stroke and at the same
time, but were compiled over a considerable period of time.
Gethin, Rupert. “The Mātikās: Memorization, Mindfulness, and the List.” In the
Mirror of Memory: Reflections on Mindfulness and Remembrance in Indian and
Tibetan Buddhism. Edited by Janet Gyatso, 149–172. Albany: State University of
New York Press, 1992.
In this paper Gethin offers an insightful and instructive treatment of the Abhidhamma
mātikās. He identifies and discusses the character of the various mātikā lists, shows
how they epitomize the essence of the Dhamma, and indicates how they underpin the
development of the Abhidhamma. He also discusses their importance for meditation.
Lamotte, Étienne Paul Marie. History of Indian Buddhism, From the Origins to
the Śaka Era. Translated by Sara Webb-Boin. Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium:
Institut Orientaliste, 1988.
The formation and canonicity of the Theravāda and Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma works
is discussed in the sections that deal with the early canonical collections (pages 179–
191). In chapter six (pages 517–637), Lamotte collates and appraises a rich range of
sources that shed light on the origin and doctrinal leanings of the early Buddhist
schools. Translated from the French. Histoire du Bouddhisme Indien des Origines à
l’Ère Śaka. Louvain, Belgium: Institut Orientaliste, 1958.
Watanabe, Baiyū. Ubu abidatsumaron no kenkyū. Tokyo: Heibonsha, 1954.
This publication (Study of Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma Texts) is considered to be one of
the most important studies of the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma. The author largely
focuses on doctrinal differences upheld by discordant Sarvāstivāda groups. He mainly
deals with disagreements between the Sarvāstivāda masters from Kashmir, the
masters from Gandhāra, the western masters (pāścātya), and the masters from the
peripheral regions (bahirdeśaka).
Willemen, Charles, Bart Dessein, and Collett Cox. Sarvāstivāda Buddhist
Scholasticism. Handbuch der Orientalistik. Zweite Abteilung. Indien. 11 Bd.
Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1998.
This book provides an extensive survey of the history and literature of the
Sarvāstivāda school. Chapter three contains an analysis of the seven Abhidharma
books, and of their Vibhāṣā compendia. Chapter four ascertains the Abhidharma
treatises produced in the Gandhāra region. The bibliography of secondary materials
includes an ample number of publications produced by modern Japanese scholars.
Academic Handbooks and General Studies
This heading encompasses a selection of academic publications that provide
comprehensive or general studies of the Abhidharma treatises and their doctrines.
Karunadasa 2010 provides a detailed study of the Theravāda Abhidhamma. Ronkin
2005 focuses on the philosophical framework of the Theravāda Abhidhamma.
Nyanaponika 2010 outlines the Theravāda philosophical scope, and discusses the
complex of mental states. Gorkom 2011 outlines the Theravāda exposition of the
mind and its processes. Skilton 2013 offers an insightful sketch of the Abhidhamma
literature and doctrine. Dhammajoti 2009 offers an all-inclusive study of literature
and doctrines of the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma. Hirakawa 1990 provides an all-
encompassing silhouette of early Buddhism in India. Stcherbatsky 1979 treats several
concepts of the Sarvāstivāda school, and compiles the primary lists of all phenomena
according to the classification system of the Sarvāstivāda schools.
Dhammajoti, Kuala Lumpur. Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma. Hong Kong: Centre of
Buddhist Studies, 2009.
This book of over 500 pages provides an extensive survey of the history, literature,
and doctrines of the Sarvāstivāda school. It is based on the Sarvāstivāda works and
related sources. The sixteen chapters of this book include discussions of Sarvāstivāda
treatises, causality, consciousness, karma, and the path of emancipation.
Gorkom, Nina van. Introduction to the Abhidhamma. London: Zolag, 2011.
This publication of just over forty pages provides a coherent overview of the
Abhidhamma principles. The main focus is on the states of consciousness and its
ethical qualities, and on the process of its purification. This work is a modified and
restructured version of the author’s earlier and longer book Abhidhamma in Daily
Life, also published by Zolag in 2009.
Hirakawa, Akira. Indo Bukkyō Shi. Translated and edited by Paul Groner. A
History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna. Asian Studies
at Hawai’i 36. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1990.
As its title suggests, this book covers the Buddhist history and doctrine from the time
of the Buddha to the origin of Mahāyāna texts and doctrines. Part two deals with the
development of Nikāya Buddhism, Abhidharma literature, classification of
phenomena (dharmas), cosmology, and the theory of karma.
Karunadasa, Y. The Theravāda Abhidhamma: Its Inquiry into the Nature of
Conditioned Reality. Hong Kong: Centre of Buddhist Studies, 2010.
This book of over 300 pages provides an extensive and coherent treatment of the
Theravāda Abhidhamma. It is based on primary sources and selected secondary
sources. It consists of eighteen topical chapters, which essentially provide a
comprehensive analysis of consciousness and its concomitants, matter, and other
related topics.
Nyanaponika, Thera. Adhidhamma Studies: Buddhist Exploration of
Consciousness and Time. Edited by Bhikkhu Bodhi. Boston: Wisdom, 2010.
Chapter one provides an overview of Abhidhamma philosophy. Chapter two
ascertains the Abhidhamma method of analysis and investigation into the
conditionality of phenomena. The next two chapters are based on the
Dhammasaṅgaṇi, and deal with its classificatory scheme of mental states. In the
introduction, Bhikkhu Bodhi provides a fine overview of the Abhidhamma literature
and teaching. First edition 1949.
Ronkin, Noa. Early Buddhist Metaphysics: The Making of a Philosophical
Tradition. London: Routledge-Curzon, 2005.
This book soundly contributes to the study of the Theravāda Abhidhamma. It is
divided into five chapters, which cover the emergence of the Abhidhamma, the
dhamma theory, the concept of svabhāva, consciousness, and causation. A more
succinct exposition of the major Abhidharma themes is given in Ronkin’s
Abhidharma entry in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2014 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta, ed., available online.
Skilton, Andrew. “Theravāda.” In A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy. Edited
by S. M. Emmanuel, 71–85. Blackwell Companions to Philosophy. Chichester,
UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.
Skilton provides a competent and insightful survey of Theravāda history, doctrine,
and literature. The treatment of the canonical Abhidhamma treatises and their
commentaries is informative and formulated with clarity.
Stcherbatsky, Theodor. The Central Conception of Buddhism and the Meaning of
the Word Dharma. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1979.
This book provides a succinct and coherent exposition of the Sarvāstivāda principal
concepts and a detailed classification of phenomena (dharma). The different groups
of dharmas are explained separately. It also covers the law of causality, karma, and
the theory of cognition. First edition 1923.
Studies on Abhidharma Concepts and Topics
In addition to handbooks and standard studies, there exists a considerable range of
articles and books that treat specific concepts and topics, most of which appertain to
the basic framework of Abhidharma doctrines. Gethin 2004 studies the term dhamma
on the basis of Pāli sources. Cox 2004 treats the notion and function of the term
dharma as found in the Sarvāstivāda sources. Boisvert 1995 studies the nature,
function, and innate permutation of the five aggregates. Collins 1982 casts a
diversified imagery of the Buddhist doctrine that denies the existence of the self
(anattā). McDermott 1980 shows that the early Buddhist interpretations of karma and
rebirth were controversial. Ryose 1987 discusses the notion of karma and related
matters on the basis of the Sarvāstivāda sources. Cox 1993 traces the interpretative
evolution of the notion of dependent origination in the Sarvāstivāda sources.
Karunadasa 1989 ascertains the notion and classification of matter on the basis of
Theravāda sources. Rospatt 2015 treats the controversial theories of momentariness as
propounded in the Abhidharma sources.
Boisvert, Mathieu. The Five Aggregates: Understanding Theravāda Psychology
and Soteriology. Editions SR 17. Waterloo, Canada: Wilfrid Laurier University
Press, 1995.
This study focuses on the five aggregate (khandha), and their correlation with
dependent origination. Chapter one discusses the concept of khandha, and
differentiates between the five aggregates as such and as the five aggregates of
clinging. The next five chapters analyze each of the aggregates, and the final chapter
examines their innate interrelationship and affinity to dependent origination.
Collins, Steven. Selfless Persons: Imagery and Thought in Theravāda Buddhism.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1982.
Parts one and two analyze the Theravāda doctrine of the nonexistence of the self or
soul (anattā). Parts three and four deal with the accounts of personality, rebirth, and
continuity. The author postulates that for Buddhists specialists, the anattā doctrine
denotes a pattern of self-perception and mental analysis that reflects the true state of
reality.
Cox, Collett. “Dependent Origination: Its Elaboration in Early Sarvāstivādin
Abhidharma Texts.” In Researches in Indian and Buddhist Philosophy: Essays in
Honour of Professor Alex Wayman. Edited by Ram Karan Sharma, 119–141.
Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1993.
This instructive article concentrates on the interpretative evolution of the concept of
dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda) as found in the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma
texts. In order to demonstrate the progressive transformation of this concept, initially
the author discusses its perceptions in the early discourses (sūtra), in order to serve as
the foundational scenario. Next she traces its conceptual transformation.
Cox, Collett. “From Category to Ontology: The Changing Role of Dharma in
Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma.” Journal of Indian Philosophy 32 (2004): 543–597.
This erudite article explores the doctrinal scope and function of the complex term
dharma on the basis of the Sarvāstivāda texts. It also discusses its purpose and
relation to other terms such as intrinsic nature (svabhāva) and existence (bhāva).
Dhammajoti, Kuala Lumpur. Abhidharma Doctrines and Controversies on
Perception. Hong Kong: Centre of Buddhist Studies, 2007.
In the Theravāda sources the exposition of the cognitive process of consciousness is
largely uncontroversial. By contrast, Sarvāstivāda masters had tense disagreements
about the process and nature of perception, and the cognitive error. The author
investigates the Sarvāstivāda controversies about the apparatus of perception, the
mental factors responsible for perception, and the process of gaining knowledge of the
external world.
Gethin, Rupert. “He Who Sees Dhamma Sees Dhammas: Dhamma in Early
Buddhism.” Journal of Indian Philosophy 32 (2004): 513–542.
In the initial sections the author discusses the previous publications on the subject,
and some fundamental meanings of the term dhamma, such as teaching, truth, and
mental or physical state. The next sections deal with the understanding of dhamma in
the Theravāda commentaries, and with the evolution of its Buddhist interpretation.
Karunadasa, Y. Buddhist Analysis of Matter. Singapore: Buddhist Research
Society, 1989.
This book offers a detailed analysis of matter (rūpa) in the light of Theravāda sources.
Chapter one examines the senses and contexts in which the term rūpa occurs. Chapter
two deals with the four primary elements and their properties. The remaining chapters
deal with the secondary matter, its classification, and other related topics.
McDermott, J. P. “Karma and Rebirth in Early Buddhism.” In Karma and
Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions. Edited by W. D. O’Flaherty, 165–192.
Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1980.
The author examines the early Buddhist theories on the karma process and transition
from one existence to the next. The Pudgalavādins postulated that a “person”
(pudgala) transmigrates and provides the link between lives. The Theravāda
introduced the rebirth-linking consciousness that arises at conception. The
Sarvāstivāda school postulated the existence of an intermediate state or being between
death and birth.
Rospatt, Alexander von. The Buddhist Doctrine of Momentariness: A Survey of
the Origins and Early Phase of This Doctrine up to Vasubandhu. Rev. ed.
Berkeley, CA: Institute of Buddhist Studies and BDK America, 2015.
This is a textually based study of the complex and controversial theory of
momentariness of conditioned phenomena, and of their characteristic marks. It covers
the doctrinal positions propounded by the Sarvāstivāda, Sautrāntika, Dārṣṭāntika, and
other early sectarian affiliations. Original edition: Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag,
1995.
Ryose, Wataru. “A Study of the Abhidharmahṛdaya: The Historical
Development of the Concept of Karma in the Sarvāstivāda Thought.” PhD
thesis, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 1987.
In Part one, this thesis ascertains the development and different aspects of karma, and
assesses karma as a form of ethical system. Part two contains an analysis and a
translation of the chapter on karma of Dharmaśrī’s Abhidharmahṛdaya, and of the
commentary culled from Dharmatrāta’s work.
Studies on Abhidharma Soteriological Topics
The Abhidharma treatises and related texts not just systematize and consolidate the
Buddha’s doctrinal teaching, but they also vibrate with soteriological dimensions and
concerns. The field of Buddhist soteriology is vast, and the selection of publications
listed in this section represents a fraction of the available sources. Collins 1998
provides a broad study of the Theravāda notion and metaphoric imagery of nirvāṇa.
Dhammajoti 2002 focuses on the Sarvāstivāda interpretation of nirvāṇa. Fuller 2005
treats the notion of right view, which constitutes the first factor of the eightfold path.
Bodhi 2006 sketches the core teaching of the eightfold path (magga), which is the
primary expedient of emancipation. Gethin 2001 studies in detail a set of the primary
factors that are conducive to spiritual liberation. Gunaratana 1988 treats the
meditative techniques that are essential to climb the ladder of spiritual development.
Cox 1992 provides an overview of the Sarvāstivāda exposition of the path.
Bodhi, Bhikkhu. The Noble Eightfold Path: The Way to the End of Suffering. Kandy,
Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 2006.
In chapter one, the author discusses the nature of suffering, its causes, and the
elimination of the causes of suffering. The remaining seven chapters provide a
detailed exposition of the noble eightfold path. The book is based on Theravāda
sources. First edition 1984.
Collins, Steven. Nirvana and Other Buddhist Felicities. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press, 1998.
This is an innovative study of nirvāṇa, which is realized in the final phase of
meditative cultivation. Nirvāṇa is studied in terms of its systematic treatment, and of
its expression through images and in narrative. In the author’s words (page 188),
Buddhist thought says that nirvāṇa “is a real, external and timeless existent, not
merely a concept; the Abhidhamma classification scheme places it in the categories of
mental object sense-base and mental object element.”
Cox, Collett. “Attainment through Abandonment: The Sarvāstivādin Path of
Removing Defilements.” In Paths to Liberation: The Mārga and Its
Transformations in Buddhist Thought. Edited by Robert E. Buswell and Robert
M. Gimello, 63–105. Studies in East Asian Buddhism 7. Honolulu: University of
Hawai’i Press, 1992.
In this article Collett Cox provides a detailed study of the Sarvāstivāda theory and
practice of the path (mārga) that concludes with the elimination of defilements. First
she explains the character of defilements, and then outlines the consecutive stages of
the path. The full exposition of the Sarvāstivāda path is given in chapter six of the
Abhidharmakośa.
Dhammajoti, Kuala Lumpur. “The Sarvāstivāda Conception of Nirvāṇa.” In
Buddhist and Indian Studies in Honour of Professor Sodo Mori. Edited by a
Publication Committee, 335–348. Hamamatsu, Japan: Kokusai Bukkyoto
Kyokai, 2002.
Dhammajoti studies the notion of nirvāṇa on the basis of the Sarvāstivāda
Abhidharma treatises. He focuses on the nature of nirvāṇa, its reality, and its
character as a state of liberation. For the Sarvāstivāda school, nirvāṇa (or
pratisaṃkhyā-nirodha) is a distinct entity, and a kind of ontological force that is
experienced when all defilements are abandoned.
Fuller, Paul. The Notion of Diṭṭhi in Theravāda Buddhism: The Point of View.
London and New York: Routledge-Curzon, 2005.
There are two primary ways of understanding the notion of views. The first way
understands right view as a correction of wrong views. The second one understands it
as the elimination of all views. The author argues that these two approaches are
defective, and postulates that in the early texts, this term denotes an attitude that
transcends all views.
Gethin, Rupert M. L. The Buddhist Path to Awakening: A Study of the Bodhi-
Pakkhiyā Dhammā. Oxford: One World, 2001.
This is a textual study of the thirty-seven factors of enlightenment based on Pāli
sources. These factors are divided into seven groups, and are considered to be
equivalent to the path to enlightenment. The author assesses their formation, and then
provides detailed studies of each group. The final section of this book deals with the
Sarvāstivāda formulation of the path. First edition, Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill,
1992. Originally a PhD dissertation submitted at the University of Manchester in
1987.
Gold, Jonathan C. Paving the Great Way: Vasubandhu’s Unifying Buddhist
Philosophy. New York: Columbia University Press, 2014.
This publication represents a major study of Vasubandhu’s religious and
philosophical ideas. The author admirably discusses and unfolds Vasubandhu’s
critical and creative contribution to the interpretation of the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma
doctrines.
Gunaratana, Henepola. The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation. Kandy,
Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1988.
This is a comprehensive study of the four fine material jhānas and four immaterial
jhānas. It is based on the Pāli canonical texts and their commentaries. Essentially, it
explores the dynamics of the jhānas and their function in the process of gaining the
ultimate liberation, nibbāna. It also discusses the supernormal categories of
knowledge (abhiññā).