Wired and wireless charging of electriic vehicles

A system approach

Georgios Lempidis, Yichuann Zhang, Marco Jung, René Marklein, Sotirios Sootiriou, Yanqi Ma
Systems Engineering and Distribution Grids, Fraunhofer Institute for Wind Energy and Energy System Technology (IWES)
Koenigstor 59, 34119, Kassel, Germaany, rene.marklein@iwes.fraunhofer.de, georgios.lemppidis@iwes.fraunhofer.de

Abstract—In this paper the completee topology of a system with bidirectional enerrgy flow capability operating at
multifunctional charging system for electriic vehicle (EV) is 140 kHz.
discussed. A resonant inductive energy trransfer system is
analyzed, simulated and experimentally vallidated. Finally, a II. OVERALL SYSTEM TOPO OLOGY
control strategy for the bidirectional LLC ressonant converter is The block diagram of a charging system for electric
proposed in order to increase efficiency in parttial load operation. vehicles is depicted in Fig. 1.
1 The same system gives the
opportunity of charging of the t vehicle with single phase
Keywords—electric vehicle charging system
m; wireless charging
of EV; inductive power transfer; resonant magnetic
m coupling;
connection, three phase connnection or inductive energy
bidirectional LLC resonant converterr; computational transfer. The same system is also capable of providing reactive
electromagnetics; numerical modeling power and bidirectional energy flow for power recovery and
grid support. This is possiible with the multifunctional
I. INTRODUCTION converter. Wired and wirelesss grid connection is given by a
The promotion of resource-saving tecchnologies by the multifunctional converter.
public authority was being intensified durinng the last years in The power electronic toppology of the multifunctional
order to reduce energy consumption and CO C 2-emissions. If converter is based on the B6 B Bridge. This Topology is
charged from renewable energy sources, eleectric vehicles can presented in Fig. 2. For three phase
p operation, all three phases
contribute significantly to these objectives. Additionally, they are connected and all componeents were used. For single phase
can be employed to store and balance the fluctuating
f energy operation, two of three bridge legs are used as H-bridge. The
production of renewable sources. Thereforee, however, a high same topology enables the connnection of an inductive energy
availability of electric vehicles in the grid has to be transfer system with a DC outpput. In this operation the grid is
guaranteed. In order to achieve a widespreadd dissemination of disconnected and the inductivee charging system is connected
electric vehicles, several barriers for the usage
u have to be as depicted in Fig. 2 and all phhases are working together as an
dismantled [1] [2]. interleaved boost converter in order
o to adapt the output voltage
Commercially available electric vehiclles use cables to of the inductive energy transferr system to the DC-bus voltage.
connect the vehicle to the grid, although thiis involves certain The multiple use of compoonents such as cooling system,
disadvantages such as risk of vandalism, addditional effort for semiconductors, passive compponents, measurement systems
the user and present safety issues due to the open contacts and and control allows a cost, voluume and weight reduction of the
hanging charging cables in public areas. Unplugged
U cables overall system in comparisoon with other overall system
lead to uncharged batteries, which causes a minimization of topologies with the same flexxibility of grid connection and
mobility. A further reduction of the available range of electric power recovery. Finally a DC/DC-converter directly
vehicles is not acceptable. An alternative is wireless charging
on the basis of resonant inductive energgy transfer. This
technology provides galvanic isolation, has no open contacts
and hanging charging cables, which reepresent potential
hazards in public places, and are susceptiible to vandalism
allowing an automatic, reliable and safe charging process.
Therefore, automatic resonant inductive charrging will improve
the user acceptance of electric vehicles inn general and will
contribute to the integration of electric vehicles into the
market and thus will support the full explooitation of benefits
through electro-mobility.
Here we discuss the overall topology of a complete system
for charging electric vehicles, the basic prinnciples of wireless
resonant inductive energy transfer, different coil
configurations, resonant converter topologgies and presents
Fig. 1 Block diagram of the ovverall charging system
experimental results of a 3.3kW inductivve energy transfer

EE
978-1-4799-5009-6/14/$31.00 ©2014 IEE
connected with the battery regulates the charging current and
voltage [3] [4] [5].
The inductive energy transfer system is based on the
bottom coil system topology. In this topology the primary side
of the coil system is embedded in the ground of the parking
slot and the secondary side of the coil system is mounted in
the underneath of the car. The advantage of the bottom coil
system over the license plate coil system is the coil geometry
flexibility, but at the same time presents the disadvantage of
the large air gap (11 up to 20 cm) between the coils due to
ground clearance. This big air gap causes a low magnetic
coupling.
Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of the multifunctional converter
III. RESONANT INDUCTIVE ENERGY TRANSFER
The Resonant inductive energy transfer system consists of two
parts; the coil system and the resonant converter.
A. Coil system
The coupling factor can be increased by increasing the coil
size and by decreasing the air gap between them. The air gap
in this case cannot be under 11 cm (minimum ground
clearance defined from §30 Abs. 1 and 2 of the German
StVZO). Most modern cars have clearance to ground around
15 to 20 cm; so an air gap of 20 cm would be optimum to be
used in our study. The size of coils is restricted by the bottom
surface size of the vehicle. A size of 60 cm can be chosen for
the coil.
The current density in the primary coils (index P)
generates a magnetic field rotating around the conductor:
∇ × HP = J P
This magnetic field is partially coupled with the secondary
coil and divided into the used field H use and the leakage field
Hleak .
The ratio of them is determined by the geometry and
material of the coil system components and can be described
by the coupling factor k or the leakage factor σ. These factors
can be calculated through the inductances of the coil system,
like in the case of a transformer.
Fig. 3 Dimensions and magnetic flux in a planar coil system.
M (1)
k= ; σ = 1− k2
LP LS
The magnetic flux is represented by inductances in the
equivalent circuit which is presented in Fig. 4 to simplify the
calculation.
Fig. 4 Simplified equivalent circuit
Only the effective magnetic field H use establishes an
electric field in the secondary coil. This electric field creates a
voltage in the conductor of the secondary coil (index S) and a
current density, if the conductor is connected.
∂ BS (2)
BS = μ ⋅ H use ; ∇ × ES = −
∂t
This phenomenon is called coupling of the magnetic field.
The coupling factor is a very important term for the energy
transfer efficiency and must be increased preferably. It
strongly depends on the coil geometry and air gap. The
changes in the air gap can only be of a small range but the
customization possibilities are far better.
Three structures of the coil system are investigated. Only
the simplest system with two round coils can be calculated
analytically. The equation systems from other coil systems are
too complex to be analytically calculated. This is the reason
(0) why all of the three systems are simulated numerically with
Finite Element Modelling (FEM) and measured with real
coils.
1) Planar coils
Different coil geometries could be used for the energy
transfer system. Fig. 3 shows the simplest system with a pair
of ring coils. They are easy to build, but their form is not
optimal to lead the magnetic field.
2) Double D coils
 T1 T3

Lr1 1:1 Lr2

Cin Cout
Lm
Vin Vout
T2 T4
Cr1 Cr2

Fig. 6 Bidirectional Half Bridgee LLC Resonant converter

Fig. 5 Magnetic field flux of the double D coils.

Another way to lead the magnetic field is the “double D”

structure. Instead of two plane ring coils witth a unidirectional
coupling of the magnetic fields, four coills are installed in
order to couple the magnetic field in botth directions. The
Fig. 7 Bidirectional Full Bridgee LLC Resonant converter
magnetic flux of a double D coil system is presented
p in Fig. 5
[6]. keeping the transistors T4 and a T6 constantly on and the
3) Combination Double D and Solenoid coils transistors T3 and T5 constantlly off. This will help to increase
the efficiency under partial loadd conditions.
The use of different coil geometries in one system is
important for the interoperability of diifferent inductive The analysis of the operaation of the bidirectional LLC
charging systems. In this case, the magneetic field must be resonant converter will not be included in this paper as it has
correctly led between the primary and seccondary side. This been thoroughly analyzed in [88] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13].
implies that the coils must be mounted in i the appropriate IV. SIMULATION AND EXPER RIMENTAL RESULTS
position, which allows the magnetic fielld lines to travel
through the whole area of the coils, accordinng to the induction Three different coil systeems were designed, simulated,
and Ampere´s law. This is depicted in Fig. 8.. fabricated, and experimentallyy investigated in the laboratory.
Then, the operation and perfoormance of a bidirectional LLC
In the double D coil topology the generaated field lines are resonant converter for a poweer transfer of 3.3 kW has been
led from one “D” to the other “D”. A solenooid coil can be put tested in order to demonstrate the
t properties of the system.
on their way to couple with these field linees. The solenoid is
lighter, smaller and therefore simpler to be mounted in the A. Coil systems
underneath of the car.
B. Resonance converter
The magnetic coupling factor stronngly affects the
efficiency of the system. This happens becaause the reduction
in the coupling factor leads to an increasse of the reactive
power needed to transfer the same amount of o active power. In
order to overcome this problem, so that the energy
e transfer has
a high efficiency despite the low magneetic coupling, the
leakage inductance has to be compensated withw capacitances.
The best way to do that as well as to reduce the switching
losses of the system is an LLC resonant convverter modified so Fig. 8 Magnetic field flux of the combination of double D and
as to allow bidirectional energy transfer. Thhe topologies of a solenoid coils
half and full bridge LLC resonant Converteer are presented in 1) Planar coils
Fig. 6 and Fig. 7, respectively [7] [8].
The first coil system we connsider is a planar coil system
In these topologies the leakage inductannce can be utilized shown in Fig. 9. Fig. 10 pressents a simulation result and a
as resonant inductor, while during the dead time,
t it discharges picture of the planar coils. In
I Fig. 11 the magnetic field
the parasitic capacitor of the semiconductoor device before it strength in planar coil system is shown while in Table I the
goes into conduction, providing ZVS opperation and thus simulation and experimental vaalues are presented.
dramatically reducing the switching losses, especially when
MOSFET semiconductors are employed. • Diameter of the cooil area: D ≈ 580 mm
• Air gap: g ≈ 200 mm
m
In the full bridge, we are also given the possibility to • Diameter of the cooil conductor: d ≈ 3 mm
operate the converter as only a half bridge for
f partial load by • Turns of coils: N = 8
 Fig. 9 Planar coil system Fig. 12 Double D coil system

Fig. 10 Left Planar coil FEM Simulation Model; Right Planar coil photo
Fig. 13 Double D coil system. Left FEM Simulation Model, Right
photo.

Fig. 11 Magnetic field strength (H) in planar coil system

Fig. 14 Magnetic field strength in double D coil system (H)

TABLE I SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR PLANAR COIL

SYSTEM TABLE II SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR DOUBLE D COIL
SYSTEM
Simulation Measurement
Primary Inductance (LP) 138.92 µH 133.27 µH Simulation Measurement
Secondary Inductance (LS) 138.92 µH 131.33 µH Primary Inductance (LP) 134.65 µH 133.67 µH
Primary Leakage Inductance (LPσ) - 109.62 µH Secondary Inductance (LS) 134.65 µH 130.44 µH
Secondary Leakage Inductance(LSσ) - 107.68 µH Primary Leakage Inductance (LPσ) - 96.33 µH
Magnetizing Inductance (LM) 20.71 µH 23.65 µH Secondary Leakage Inductance(LSσ) - 93.1 µH
Coupling factor (k) 0.19 0.18 Magnetizing Inductance (LM) 33.1 µH 37.34 µH
Coupling factor (k) 0.24 0.28
2) Double D coils
3) Combination of Double D and Solenoid coils
The second coil system we investigate is a “double D” coil
system as given in Fig. 12. Fig. 13 shows a simulation model Finally, in the third case we study a coil system consisting of a
and a picture of the double D coil system. The simulated “double D” for the stationary transmitter and a solenoid coil
magnetic field strength is given in Fig. 14 while in Table II the for the pick-up coil, see Fig. 15. This combination gives the
simulation and experimental values are presented. . advantage of a smaller and lighter pick up coil. For
comparison Fig. 16 a simulation model and a photograph of
• Diameter of the coil area: D ≈ 580 mm the solenoid pick-up coil. The magnetic field strength is
• Air gap: g ≈ 200 mm provided in Fig. 17 while in Table III the simulation and
• Diameter of the coil conductor: d ≈ 3 mm. experimental values are presented.
• Turns of coils: N = 6 • Diameter of the stationary coil area: DP≈ 580 mm
• Air gap: g ≈ 200 mm
• Diameter of the coil conductor: d ≈ 3 mm.
• Length of the secondary coil: LeS≈ 210 mm
 • Turns stationary coil: NP= 6 1 1
• Turns pick-up coil NS=18 fr 1 = = (3)
2π LC ⎛ CC ⎞
TABLE III SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR THE DOUBLE D 2π (L + LSσ )⎜ ⎟
r1 r2

⎝C +C ⎠
Pσ

COILS r1 r2

Simulation Measurement
Primary Inductance (LP) 120.54 µH 124.49 µH Fig. 18 depicts the prototype of the Full Bridge LLC
Secondary Inductance (LS) 124.32 µH 126.47 µH
Primary Leakage Inductance (LPσ) - 101.14 µH
resonant converter.
Secondary Leakage Inductance(LSσ) - 103.12 µH The performance of the circuit, as a full and as half bridge,
Magnetizing Inductance (LM) 26.03µH 23.35 µH
Coupling factor (k) 0.19 0.19 was test in the laboratory. In Fig. 19 the efficiency of the
system is presented and in Fig. 20 the losses.

Fig. 15 Combination of double D and Solenoid coil

Fig. 16 Combination Double D and Solenoid coil System. Left FEM

Simulation Model, Right photo of solenoid pick-up coil

Fig. 18 Photo of the prototype Full Bridge LLC Converter

95
94
94,78
93 94,17
Efficiency η(%)

92
91
Half Bridge
90
89
Full Bridge
88
87
Combined
86
85
0,00 1,00 2,00 3,00 4,00 5,00
Fig. 17 Magnetic field strength in Combination double D and solenoid O utput Power Pout(kW)
coil system (H)
Fig. 19 System efficiency of the inductive power transfer system
B. Resonant converter
300
To experimentally validate the performance of a complete
resonant inductive energy transfer system, a full bridge LLC 250
Resonant converter was built. The selected components are
Losses Ploss (W)

200
presented in Table IV.
150
TABLE IV COMPONENTS SELECTED FOR THE LLC RESONANT CONVERTER Half Bridge
100
Full Bridge
Component Value
50 Combined
Transistor T1-T8 IPW65R080CFD
Capacitor Cin and Cout 40 uF /600 V Film 0
Capacitor Cr1 and Cr2 12.5 nF /3000 Vrms 0,00 1,00 2,00 3,00 4,00 5,00
O utput Power Pout(kW)

The coil system that was selected is the double D and Fig. 20 Losses of the inductive power transfer system
according to equation (4) we have a resonant frequency of
about 146 kHz.
 As it can be observed, each of the two investigated
topologies shows the peak of their efficiency for different load
conditions. In the range of 0 to 1.5 kW the half bridge is more
suitable but after that point the efficiency drops significantly.
The full bridge has lower efficiency than half bridge in power
below 1.5 kW but for power above 1.5 kW the efficiency rises
to higher levels. By taking into consideration that the full
bridge is capable of working also as a half bridge, it would be
optimum if we chose the full bridge and then operate it on
partial load condition as half bridge. This operation is
demonstrated in Fig. 19 and Fig. 20 with an extra curve
labeled “combined”. This curve would be the efficiency of the
systems for operation as half bridge up to 1.5 kW and above
that as full bridge.
In Fig. 21to Fig. 23 oscilloscope images from the operation of
the circuit is shown. These images show the Input current of Fig. 23 Oscilloscope Image Full bridge Pout=3300W
the primary resonant tank (Ch1 blue), the output current of the
secondary resonant tank (Ch3 purple), the voltage across the V. CONCLUSIONS
Cr1 capacitor (Ch2 light blue), the voltage across the Cr2
capacitor (Ch4 green) and the current through the magnetizing In this paper, the complete topology of a multifunctional
inductance (red by detracting Ch3 from Ch1) for different charging system for EV is discussed and the resonant
operating conditions. inductive power transfer system is analyzed, simulated and
finally experimentally validated. Finally a control strategy for
the LLC Resonant converter was proposed in order to increase
efficiency for partial load operation.
In the future work more coil systems configuration, new
semiconductor devices like SiC and GaN and a novel control
strategies for the complete system will be examined with focus
on the optimization of the overall system in terms of cost,
volume, size and weight of the system increase the reliability
and ease of use without compromising the efficiency.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work is part of the Fraunhofer System Research for
Electromobility – FSEM II project. As part of the
body/infrastructure cluster the Fraunhofer IWES develops an
optimized bidirectional charging system with inductive energy
Fig. 21 Oscilloscope Image Half bridge Pout=250W transfer.
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