The Role of Perceived Consumer Effectiveness in Motivating Environmentally Conscious

Behaviors
Author(s): Pam Scholder Ellen, Joshua Lyle Wiener and Cathy Cobb-Walgren
Source: Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, Vol. 10, No. 2, Environmental Problems and
Marketing (Fall, 1991), pp. 102-117
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc.
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/30000238
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 The Role of Perceived Consumer Effectiveness in
Motivating Environmentally Conscious Behaviors
PAM SCHOLDER ELLEN is an Assis-
tant Professor of Marketing and
CATHY COBB-WALGREN is Associ-
ate Professor of Marketing at
Georgia State University, At-
lanta. JOSHUA LYLE WIENER is an
Associate Professor of Market-
ing at Oklahoma State Univer- highly diverse personality traits, values, attitudes, and behaviors.
sity, Stillwater.
JPP & M, Vol. 10 (2)
Fall 1991, 102-117
102 Journal of Public Policy & Marketing
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Pam Scholder Ellen, and
Joshua Lyle Wiener,
Cathy Cobb-Walgren
While perceived consumer effectiveness (PCE) has consistently been linked to socially con-
scious attitudes, the concept appears to have been confounded with other related constructs
in the empirical studies measuring its effects on behavior. In addition, the few studies which
have considered the effects of PCE on reported behavior have done so only in aggregate.
This research demonstrates that PCE is distinct from environmental concern and contributes
uniquely to the prediction of certain pro-ecological behaviors. In addition, differences in
PCE are shown to be associated with differences in demographics and political affiliation.
The results suggest that motivating consumers to express their concern through actual behav-
ior is to some extent a function of increasing their perception that individual actions do make
a difference.
When the environmental movement surfaced in the late 1960s, the majority
of the U.S. population had to be convinced that environmental laws and pro-
tection were inadequate [Schwartz 1990]. Today, three-quarters of Ameri-
cans loosely call themselves "environmentalists" [Goldman 1991]. Their
mutual concern for the environment notwithstanding, this vast group is by
no means a homogeneous one. Instead, it is made up of individuals with
Fifteen years ago, Henion and Wilson [1976] correctly predicted that, as
the size of the environmental movement increased, the uniformity of the
group would dissipate. They went on to suggest that the challenge facing
marketers in the future would not be to encourage everyone in the segment
to engage in some pro-ecological activity but to identify the specific attitu-
dinal and personality traits associated with a consumer's willingness to en-
gage in a specific class of actions and then link those attitudes and behav-
iors through targeted messages. More recently, scholars such as Gill,
Crosby, and Taylor [1986]; Vining and Ebreo [1990]; and Wiener and Does-
cher [1991] issued the same message: Ecological marketers must get people
who are aware of environmental problems and who place a high priority on
solving these problems to act on their concerns.
The question then arises: What factors, beyond simple concern for the en-
vironment, might influence an individual's willingness to engage in environ-
mentally friendly behaviors? One factor which in the past has received con-
siderable attention in marketing is perceived consumer effectiveness (PCE).
When first advanced by Kinnear, Taylor, and Ahmed [1974], PCE was con-
ceptualized and measured as the extent to which the consumer believes that
the efforts of an individual acting alone can make a difference. Subsequent
studies, however, approached the construct from alternate perspectives so
that, over time, PCE lost some of its original meaning (See Table 1 for a sum-
mary).
Researchers combined PCE with constructs such as perceived change in
consumption [Antil 1984; Webster 1975], concern [Allen and Dillon 1979;
Allen 1982; Allen, Calantone, and Schewe 1982], and responsibility [Selig-
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 Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 103

man et al. 1979]. Most researchers investigated the rela

their PCE construct (which sometimes differed from the
and other attitudinal measures (e.g., socially conscious con
for regulation). Only a few investigated the independent
behavior, and those who did [e.g., Webster 1975] examined
in aggregate.
These alternate perspectives may result in misleading conclusions about
the role of PCE, as it was originally defined. If PCE is treated merely as part
of an overall concern measure (as suggested by Allen and Dillon [1979] and
Allen [1982]), then its role is likely to be understated. (Indeed, the construct
may even be viewed as impotent.) Numerous studies report little direct rela-
tionship between a person's general level of concern with an issue and his
or her willingness to act [c.f., Crosby, Gill, and Taylor 1981; Gill, Crosby,
and Taylor 1986; Ritchie and McDougall 1985; Scott 1977; and Verhallen
and van Raaij 1981].
On the other hand, if PCE is believed to motivate a wide variety of behav-
iors (i.e., when behaviors are treated in aggregate), then its role may be over-
or understated, depending on the specific behaviors included. Several dif-
ferent theories, ranging from the theory of reasoned action [Gill, Crosby,
and Taylor 1986], to social dilemma theory [Wiener and Doescher 1991], to
behavioral control theory [Rothbaum, Weisz, and Snyder 1982], have been
used to support the following proposition: If an individual believes that an
environmental problem can be solved by a specific activity (such as recy-
cling aluminum cans), then this belief should strongly influence the individ-
ual's willingness to engage in that specific activity but not his or her will-
ingness to engage in other pro-environmental actions. In other words, PCE
should not be used to predict generalized pro-environmental behaviors. Fur-
thermore, from a practical standpoint, ecological marketers are rarely inter-
ested in promoting general behaviors. More often, they seek to encourage
specific actions and, therefore, need messages that are explicitly designed to
motivate such behavior.
To date, no researchers have investigated the types of individual behav-
iors for which the original PCE construct would be an important influence.
This study is intended to fill this void in the literature. In the process, we
hope to accomplish three objectives: (1) to determine whether perceived con-
sumer effectiveness can be empirically distinguished from the related con-
cept of environmental concern; (2) to determine if PCE has separate as well
as joint effects across a range of specific individual and collective ecologi-
cal actions; and (3) to determine whether perceived consumer effectiveness
is associated with other attitudes or demographic differences. In the next sec-
tion, PCE and its role in motivating environmentally conscious behavior
will be described. Then, the past research on PCE will be examined to un-
derstand how the concept became confounded with other constructs.

Perceived Consumer Perceived consumer effectiveness is defined as a domain-specific belief that

Effectiveness the efforts of an individual can make a difference in the solution to a
problem. PCE is related to the concept of perceived behavioral control,
which has been studied by theorists in the areas of learned helplessness,
locus of control, and perceived control [Rothbaum, Weisz, and Snyder
1982]. The common thread is that subjects' actions and/or intentions are
affected by the degree to which they believe the occurrence or aversiveness
of an event can be affected by their action(s) [Thompson 1981].
While PCE has been linked to more generalized feelings of control (i.e.,

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104 The Role of Perceived Consumer Effectiveness

Table 1. Review of the Operationalization of Perceived Consumer

Author(s) PCE Operationalization Dependent Variable(s) Findings
Kinnear, Taylor, and Original PCE (as de- Ecological Concern PCE was significan
Ahmed (1974) fined by these authors) index of 2 behavioral (type of deter-
gent and degree of shopping for
low pollutant products) and 6 attitu-
dinal items.

Webster (1975) Original PCE and Per- Socially Conscious Con- PCE was significant pre
ceived Change in Con- sumer Index index of 8 behavioral items (use of
sumption (PCC) Use/nonuse of recy- low-phosphate detergent; use of re-
cling service turnable bottles; boycott products
in labor dispute) as well as use/non-
use of recycling service.

Henion and Wilson Original PCE construct Internal/External Locus PCE was positively correlated with
(1976) of Control internal locus of control

Good (1979) Original PCE construct Group differences PCE was higher for persons request-
ing energy saving booklet.

Seligman et al. (1979) PCE and Responsibility Actual energy usage More energy was used by those
households which perceived that in-
dividuals were not responsible for
the energy crisis and could not alle-
viate the crisis.

Allen and Dillon Two factors: Original Evaluation of Energy Factor analysis revealed two dimen-
(1979) PCE and Concern; Per- Efficiency Labeling Pro- sions: PCE-Concern factor and Per-
ceived Change in Con- gram (EELP) ceived Change in Consumption fac-
sumption (PCC) tor. Using canonical, most recep-
tive group to EELP was higher on
PCE-Concern; two negative group
expressed either negative PCC or
low PCE-Concern.

Allen (1982) Same as above Importance of energy- PCE-Concern and PCC were posi-
efficiency tively related to importance of en-
Relative evaluation of ergy use attribute. Only PCC was re-
efficient model lated to higher evaluation of energy-
Choice of model in lot- efficient model and choice of that
tery model in lottery.

Allen, Calantone, and Same as above Cross-cultural differ- Swedes w

Schewe (1982) ences sonal effectiveness and least likely
to feel they have to change t
consumption.

Antil (1984) Original PCE and Per- Socially Responsible PCE was positively related to
ceived Change in Con- Consumption Behavior index of 40 attitudinal items
sumption (SRCB) reflecting a range of environmental
issues.

the findings of Henion and Wilson [1976] of a positive correlat

locus of control), it is considered domain-specific [Allen 1982] and
directly affected by knowledge, direct experience, and the experie
others [Brown 1979; Thompson 1981]. According to Brown [1979
108]:

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 Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 105

People can develop a sense of futility through witnessing failure by

their own experience of failure or uncontrollability. They come to ex
affect outcomes through their actions (which in turn) debilitates perf
undermining motivation.

The degree to which a person feels that he or she has litt

trol over the performance of a behavior has been shown t
behavioral intentions and behavior, even under circumsta
tudes and/or social norms toward the action are very favo
Ajzen and Madden 1986]. Similarly, PCE should affect inte
ior if individuals believe their behavior will or will not lead
outcome.

Prior Research on PCE The different approaches to studying PCE can be tied to both conc
and measurement grounds. As first delineated by Kinnear, Taylor, an
Ahmed [1974], PCE was consistent with the definition advocated prev
ously. They found empirical support for consumer effectiveness as a pred
tor of ecological concern. Subsequently, Webster [1975] operationaliz
PCE using measures by Kinnear, Taylor, and Ahmed and another that as-
sessed the degree to which the consumer had changed his or her consum
tion behavior.
Later research by Allen and Dillon [1979] clearly implies that these are
separate constructs. Factor analysis of a set of energy relevant attitudes (i
cluding items measuring PCE, concern, and perceived change in consump
tion) revealed two separate dimensions: (1) a perceived change dimensi
and (2) a combined PCE and concern factor. Subsequent studies [All
1982; Allen, Calantone, and Schewe 1982] found the same factor structur
therefore, these conceptualizations of PCE continued. A similar approach b
Seligman et al. [1979] resulted in PCE being combined with the extent to
which consumers were responsible for the energy crisis. Perceptions of ef
fectiveness and responsibility are conceptually distinct; i.e., one can thin
he or she is guilty of contributing to the problem without thinking he or she
has the power to solve the problem [Allen and Dillon 1979; Seminik, Belk
and Painter 1982].

Objectives This study's objectives are predicated on the belief that PCE and envi
mental concern are distinct constructs; this belief will be empirically teste
Given that they are distinct, our primary objective is to identify the types of
behaviors which are and are not influenced by PCE. The set of behaviors
under consideration range from those which reflect solely the effort of th
individual to those which often effect change through the joint efforts o
many individuals (i.e., either as a group member or in combination with ot
ers). Social dilemma theory can be used to predict how PCE will influenc
these types of behaviors, because the problem of saving the environment
a social dilemma (i.e., a situation where the collective good can be achieve
if almost all community members sacrifice) [Wiener and Doescher 1991]. S
cial dilemma theory predicts that the degree to which the individual feels h
or her efforts make a difference affects his or her performance of individ
ally oriented activities (such as recycling), as opposed to politic
behaviors.
On the other hand, there is no basis for predicting that high levels of PC
will be associated with a willingness to try to solve the problem through th
political process, i.e., through collective action. To the contrary, political (co

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106 The Role of Perceived Consumer Effectiveness

lective) solutions are most often advanced because there is a p

individual voluntary action will not be sufficient.
A second purpose of the study is to investigate the relatio
PCE and consumers' attitudes towards government regulatio
tions of others' efforts to solve the problems. As noted, many
ies have combined PCE with measures of environmental concern and
linked support for pro-environmental policies with "green" behaviors.
We expect that there will be an inverse relationship between feelings of
PCE and support for governmental regulation. That is, persons who are low
in PCE will probably support greater governmental regulation to solve a
problem because they feel the situation will be unaffected by individual
action. Similarly, the less effective a person feels, the more likely he or she
may be to think that others are not fulfilling their roles [Allen and Dillon
1979].
A third objective is to investigate the relationship between selected con-
sumer characteristics. Henion and Wilson [1976] showed that greater locus
of control was associated with greater environmental knowledge, both as as-
sessed by a knowledge scale and as indicated by membership in an environ-
mental organization. It is expected that greater perceived knowledge will be
correlated with greater levels of PCE.
Finally, past research has linked PCE, as well as socially conscious behav-
ior and/or concern, to certain demographic and political characteristics. Sum-
marizing a wide range of studies that tap environmental concern, Van Liere
and Dunlap [1980] found that concerned individuals were younger, more
likely to be Democrats, and more likely to be liberal. Murphy, Kangun, and
Locander [1978] found that white middle-class women were more likely to
express socially conscious attitudes and behavior than black women. There-
fore, similar results are expected for environmental concern and may hold
true for PCE, although there is no a priori reason to expect identical effects.

Method A telephone survey was designed and administered to residents of a major

southeastern metropolitan area. A systematic sample of 2,012 telephone
numbers was drawn from the residential directory of the local calling area.
To compensate for the estimated 15 percent unlisted numbers in the area,1
a "1" was added to the last digit of every sixth phone number. Of the 745
eligible respondents (i.e., persons over age 21) contacted, 387 usable
questionnaires were completed, for a 52 percent response rate.
Following introductory statements and instructions, respondents
completed Likert-type attitude items (using a five-point scale) to measure
perceived effectiveness (2 items), concern for the environment (4 items),
need for government regulation (1 item), and the perceived degree to which
they feel others make sacrifices (1 item). An additional item measured
perceived knowledge of environmental issues. Table 2 shows all the
statements. These items were adapted from those used in previous studies;
many were rewritten to counter the potential for socially desirable answers
on the issue.
Environmentally conscious action was assessed through six different be-
haviors. The selected activities were intended to reflect different degrees of
individual effort in dealing with problems of the environment. Respondents
first indicated the degree to which they purchased ecologically safe products
and recycled newspapers, glass, or aluminum. The next two behaviors con-
cerned attending public hearings/debates and telephoning/writing public of-
ficials on environmental issues. Respondents also noted their contributions

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 Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 107

Table 2. Survey Measures

Perceived Consumer Effectiveness

There is not much that any one individual can do about the environment.
The conservation efforts of one person are useless as long as other people refuse to conserve.
Environmental Concern
Environmental problems are not affecting my life personally.
Environmental problems are exaggerated, because in the long run things balance out.
I have too many obligations to take an active part in an environmental organization.
I can think of many things I'd rather do than work toward improving the environment.

Need for Government Regulation

We need more government regulations to force people to protect the environment.

Others Not Making Sacrifice

Most people are not willing to make sacrifices to protect the environment.

Perceived Knowledge
How would you rate your knowledge of environmental issues? Excellent...Poor.

to or membership in any environmental or conservation groups. The first

four items were measured on a scale labeled frequently, occasionally, and
rarely, while the latter two were measured as the actual number of organiza-
tions. Finally, relevant demographic information on the respondents was
gathered, including their age, income, and race. Political party affiliation
(i.e., Republican, Democrat, or Independent) and political outlook (i.e., very
conservative to very liberal on a five-point scale) were also solicited.

Results Table 3 shows the comparison of the sample demographic characteristics to

those of the population. The results, based on weighted averages, reveal that
the sample appears somewhat similar to the city population. Confidence
intervals around the sample values for age, income, and race were used to
assess differences. The survey respondents were significantly older and had
lower incomes compared to the population; however, the percentage of
white respondents is not significantly different in the sample. The sample's
median education level appears higher than that of the population, although
no test of significance is possible.

Assessing The research by Allen et al. [1979, 1982] relied on factor analysis to incor-
Discrimination Between porate both concern and effectiveness measures into a single index of effec-
PCE and Concern tiveness. Consistent with that research, a single factor solution was also
found in this study, indicating the degree of correlation between the two ef-
fectiveness and four concern indicators. However, a more appropriate test of
whether these indicators are distinct is provided by confirmatory factor anal-
ysis [Gerbing and Anderson 1988]. Using LISREL VII, a two-factor model
was estimated twice, once with the phi paths between the perceived effec-
tiveness and concern constructs fixed to 1.0 and once with it free. For the
fixed model (i.e., indicating the constructs are the same), the chi-square of
34.14 was significant (p < .01; GFI = .97, AGFI = .93; RMSR = .049). The
model with the path free resulted in a nonsignificant chi-square of 14.28 (p
- .08; GFI = .99; AGFI = .97; RMSR = .031). The difference between the
two chi-squares is significant (Xdifference2 = 19.86, p < .01). In addition, the
95 percent confidence interval around the estimated phi (-.66, s.e. = .075)
for the free model does not include one. These results all indicate the appro-

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108 The Role of Perceived Consumer Effectiveness

Table 3. Comparison of Sample to Population on

Selected Demographic Variables
Sample Population
Age 39.50 32.58
Income $32,050 $37,414
Median Years of Education 14.47 13.16
% White 83% 79%

Source: CACI Sourcebook of De

priateness of treating
Measures of perceived
ming the items. Coeff
respectively. Although
these are very similar
[1982]. It is also possib
therefore, coefficient
of the measures.

Effects on Behavior The diff

amining the effects on
other attitudes and kno
variance was used, wit
eral) serving as covar
while cell means are re

Table 4. Multivariate and Univariate Analysis of (Co)variance

Effectiveness x
Effectiveness Concern Concern Covariates

Wilks' Wilks' Wilks' Wilks'

Dependent variables lambda F-value lambda F-value lambda F-value lambda F-value
Multivariate .96 2.36a .93 4.08a .99 .65 .91 2.54a

Univariate
Purchase environmentally
safe products -- 8.48a -- 4.04a -- -- -- 2.41
Recycle newspapers, etc. -- 6.94a -- 8.78a -- -- -- .47
Contribute to
environmental groups -- 5.97a -- 12.49a -- -- -- 10.49a
Member of env. groups -- 1.39 -- 10.96a -- -- -- 6.50a
Telephone/write public -- .66 -- 19.74a -- -- -- .49
officials
Attend public hearings -- 3.03 -- 13.15a -- -- -- .19
Multivariate .97 4.61a .97 3.86a .97 3.54a .96 2.37a

Univariate
Need for government
regulation -- 1.42a -- 4.32a -- 5.04a -- 3.36a
Others not making
sacrifice -- 7.67a -- 3.37 -- 1.76 -- 1.13
Perceived knowledge -- 5.43a -- 5.87a -- 3.77a -- 1.31

a p 0.05

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 Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 109

Table 5. Cell Means

Concern

Low High
Low Perceived Consumer Effectiveness
Purchase 2.01 2.15
Recycle 2.23 2.44
Contribute .11 .32
Member .08 .18
Telephone/Write 1.09 1.29
Attend 1.05 1.24

Need for Government Regulation 3.96 4.06

Others Not Making Sacrifice 3.95 3.96
Perceived Knowledge 2.23 2.53

Age 3.35 2.51

Political Outlook 2.56 2.96

High Perceived Consumer Effe

Purchase 2.23 2.39
Recycle 2.41 2.64
Contribute .26 .44
Member .09 .28
Telephone/Write 1.12 1.33
Attend 1.12 1.25

Need for Government Regulation 3.55 4.15

Others Not Making Sacrifice 3.45 3.81
Perceived Knowledge 2.54 2.57

Age 3.06 2.86

Political Outlook 2.55 2.87

Using median splits to classify

cern were used as predictors fo
ecologically safe products to att
effect of the independent vari
The significant multivariate ef
ence of political outlook on tw
p < 0.01) and membership in en
cifically, contribution to and m
were more likely for persons r
was not a significant covariate
Since the interaction between
cant (F = .65, p = .71), the ma
0.02) and concern (F = 4.06, p
significantly related to all behav
dictor for three of the six beha
tribution to environmental grou
ness was associated with greate
behaviors. On the other hand, p
factor in a person's membership
public officials. Given that thi

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110 The Role of Perceived Consumer Effectiveness

greater effect of groups, rather than individuals, such r

ing.

Effects on Attitudes and The next step was to assess the relationship of effectiveness and concern to
Perceived Knowledge other attitudes and knowledge. Specifically, it was expected that differences
in perceptions of the government's role, the efforts of others, and perceived
knowledge of the environment would vary with the levels of the predictor
variables. Age and political outlook were used as covariates; again, results
indicated a significant overall effect on the dependent variables (F = 2.37, p
< 0.03) and no significant interaction with the factors. The observed covar-
iate effect, in this case, was the result of the relationship of age to percep-
tions of the government's role (t = 2.22, p < 0.03). Specifically, age was neg-
atively related to the need for government regulations. That is, younger peo-
ple were more likely to feel that greater governmental intervention was
needed than were older persons.
The interaction between the factors was significant (F = 3.54, p < 0.02)
and primarily a function of their joint effect on need for government involve-
ment' (F = 5.04, p < 0.03) and perceived knowledge (F = 3.77, p < 0.05).
The interaction on perceived need for government regulation was the result
of significant differences between groups that were high on perceived effec-
tiveness. As shown in Figure 1, the need for government involvement was
substantially lower for persons with high perceived effectiveness/low con-
cern (x = 3.58) and substantially higher for those with high effectiveness/
high concern (x = 4.13).
The joint effects on the perceived level of knowledge about environ-
mental issues (shown in Figure 2) was a function of persons high on both
PCE and concern and those low on both factors. For persons expressing
high concern and high PCE, there was a significantly higher level of per-
ceived knowledge (x = 2.57), compared to those with low concern and low
PCE (x = 2.23). While there was no significant interaction between the fac-
tors on the perceived effort of others, there was a significant main effect for
effectiveness (F = 7.67, p < 0.01). The adjusted means indicate that persons
with high perceived effectiveness are less likely to feel that others are doing
their share (x = 3.65) than are persons with low perceived effectiveness (x
= 3.95).

Figure 1. Interaction On Need For Regulation

Need for
Government
Regulation

4.5

4.0 - High Concern

3.5 - Low Concern

3.0

I I
Low High Perceived Consumer
Effectiveness

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 Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 111

Assessing Demographic
Several authors have suggested that racial and political party differences
and Political Differences may exist. Using one-way ANOVA, these differences in effectiveness and
concern were examined, along with attitudes toward government regulation
and the sacrifices of others. There was no significant interaction between
race and party affiliation for any of the variables. The results for the main
effects are shown in Table 6. Differences between blacks and whites were
apparent for perceived effectiveness, need for government regulation, and
perceived sacrifices of others but not for level of expressed concern. Black
respondents perceived their own efforts as less effective compared to
whites. They also reported a greater need for government regulation and
were more likely than whites to believe that others were not making sacri-
fices to protect the environment.
Differences based on political party affiliation were found for level of per-
ceived effectiveness and need for government intervention. Democrats re-
ported significantly less perceived effectiveness than did Republicans (t =
-2.29, p = 0.02) and marginally less than Independents (t = 1.84, p = .07).
As expected, Democrats suggested a greater need for government regulation
than did Republicans (t = 2.89 p < .01) or Independents (t = -2.28, p =
0.02). No significant differences were found for level of concern or per-
ceived efforts of others along party lines.

Discussion and This study produced several interesting findings. As anticipated, the most im-
Marketing Implications
portant finding concerned the relationship between the original PCE con-
struct and the willingness of consumers to make individual sacrifices. Our
study suggests that both public and private policymakers who seek to encour-
age voluntary behavior on behalf of the environment should try to enhance
consumer perceptions that their own actions will improve the environment.
A second finding of interest was the interaction of PCE and concern on
perceived knowledge. This result may reflect in some part the growing skep-
ticism among many consumers about "green" marketing claims [Garfield
1991; Goldman 1991]. Consumers recognize that environmental claims are
often exaggerated and/or opportunistic, making it more difficult for them to
make "good" choices. Exaggerated claims, in particular, require the atten-
tion of public and/or private concerns to reduce the use of phrases which are

Figure 2. Interaction On Perceived Knowledge

Perceived
Knowledge

3.0
High Concern
Low Concern
2.5

2.0

I I

Low High Perceived Consumer

Effectiveness

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112 The Role of Perceived Consumer Effectiveness

theoretically but not practically true (e.g., Mobil Oil

ble properties of its Hefty bags [Smith 1990). In the
tional tools, ecological marketers need uniform nat
ing advertising claims, terminology, labeling issues,
Besides suggesting how individual "green" con
should be promoted, the present study provides new
tion issues. While Murphy, Kangun, and Locande
black consumers were less likely to engage in indiv
behaviors than were white consumers, our study
differences in reported perceived consumer effec
coupled with previous research which has linked
[Henion and Wilson 1976], provides one more explan
be distinct racial segments that require different ap
Taken together, these findings have significant im
sign of green marketing programs. One important is
lection of effective communication strategies. Fine
most common form of social marketing communic
appeal, a persuasive tactic that emphasizes the gravit
problem. There is some question about the appropri
PCE is an influential construct and is distinct
emphasizing the severity of a social marketing prob
may enhance concern at the expense of perceived e
point, the gain (in terms of increasing the perceived
goal) may be overshadowed by the loss (in terms of
appear to be so overwhelming that there is nothing
do). This may explain our findings related to the
regulation. Persons who were high in PCE and relat
were less supportive of government intervention, p
the problem was manageable by individual efforts a
The danger of using a "sick baby" appeal seems pa
promoting environmental causes. Given the current
among the population at large (recall that 75 percent
themselves "environmentalists"), the potential benef
cern may be over-rated. In fact, several scholars ha
major promotional task is to induce people to act
Crosby, and Taylor 1986; Vining and Ebreo 1990]. T
dence that environmental actions have not caught up

Table 6. Differences in Effectiveness, Concern, and Other Attitudes Ba

Effectiveness Concern Government Others

F Means F Means F Means F Means

Race1 5.76a B=6.76 2.15 -- 9.01a B=4.44 3.83a B=4.11

W=7.58 -- W=3.85 W=3.75

Political Party2 2.92a R=7.68 .49 -- 4.60a R=3.77

1.44 --
D=7.07 -- --

D=4.21
1=7.59 -- --

1=3.85

a p < 0.05.

1 B=Black; W=White.

2 R=Republican; D=Democrat; I=Independent. For effectiveness, Republicans are significantly different from Democrats (p<0.05), and Democrats
are marginally different from Independents (p=0.06). For others, both contrasts are significant at p < 0.05.

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 Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 113

ample, in the aftermath of the 1989 Valdez oil spill, 41 perc

cans vowed to boycott Exxon; yet, according to Gallup, only
tually did [Goldman 1991].
As an alterative to the "sick baby" appeal, Fine [1990] h
that marketers consider using the "well baby" appeal, which
a positive manner that the problem can be solved. An effecti
tactic should attack the problem of perceived futility by inc
tions that the individual can make a difference. This, in turn
his or her willingness to perform desired behaviors [Bur
1980]. The approach, however, must be two-pronged, convin
sumer of his viability in effecting change and providing inf
means to implement the action. The following situation, whic
curred, illustrates this two-pronged approach:
A colleague recently admitted that she never recycled her soft drink cans
ence of recycling bins across campus-because she didn't think it would m
ence. One day, however, as she passed a recycling bin, she noticed a post
bin which illustrated the effects on the environment of recycling just on
moment," she explained, "I never thought what I did mattered. But it
This colleague is now a regular recycler.

Groups promoting "green behavior" should provide regular,

back to show that individuals are making a difference and re
ior through emphasis on the successes rather than the failures
keting programs, governments, businesses, and environment
to demonstrate vividly that the problem is being affected b
changes in consumption or disposal (e.g., publicizing the sav
vidual of a voluntary program to recycle paper used in office
Such approaches should help to forestall the development
helplessness and, concurrently, enhance perceived consumer
Of course, the feedback should not be so positive that it red
ceived need for individual sacrifice. Future research is needed
just how far an appeal can go in promoting concern without
PCE or vice versa.
In addition, many environmental problems (such as saving the whales or
protecting the ozone) are national or global in scope. In recognition of the
overwhelming nature of such problems, it is not surprising that promotional
slogans, such as "think globally-act locally," have sprung up. This
"scope reduction" strategy has been advocated by Wiener and Doescher
[1991] and Fine [1990] as an effective means of dealing with social prob-
lems.
Local advocates could enhance perceived consumer effectiveness by call-
ing upon consumers to perform small and manageable tasks and emphasiz-
ing the results at the local level. In certain areas of the country, for example,
environmental groups have asked individual families to save their garbage
on the front lawn of their home for a time to illustrate graphically the
amount of garbage a normal family contributes to the local landfill problem.
Subsequently, the reducible or recyclable garbage is separated to demon-
strate the effects of a change in one family's habits. Such portrayals are dra-
matic and verify the effects of individual actions.

Public Policy Since an individual's level of PCE will strongly influence his or her
Implications willingness to make a voluntary sacrifice for the environment, the specific
public policy options suggested by our study are those which encourage
voluntary "green" behaviors. In addition to the communication strategies

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114 The Role of Perceived Consumer Effectiveness

discussed above, public policymakers can enhance the o

by providing information, rewarding behavior, makin
giving options. A person cannot be effective if he or s
what to do. This barrier can be overcome by programs w
"how to" information, such as that detailed in popular
through valid labeling programs, such as one which wo
identify packages that are truly made out of recycled m
Local governments in many areas have adopte
assessments for garbage collection. While such a
extrinsic rewards or punishments (i.e., lower or higher
bills), they focus attention on personal rather than soci
in conjunction with such programs, municipal gov
implement a program which provides feedback on t
individual action in reducing local landfill problems. Fo
volume could be tied to reduced local costs, reduced vo
or postponements in acquiring new landfill space. Simi
recycled materials (i.e., dollar value to recycling
emphasized.
Investments are called for when the individual c
voluntary sacrifice is both very high and readily reduce
investment. For example, consumers may be willin
needed to prepare their trash so that it can be recycled,
willing to spend an hour transporting it to recy
alternatives are curbside pickup either by local governm
or the establishment of central locations. In either cas
to simplify separation and collection are necessary. For
drink brand may be aluminum in one area of a state a
Consumers need to know how to distinguish them bot
recycling. In addition, some recycling facilities require
while others cannot process crushed cans. Uniformity i
consumer participation.
Finally, a consumer who is interested in helping the en
his or her consumption choices must have viable "gr
non-environmentally sound products. Public polici
availability of "green" options by helping the manu
products overcome some of the high startup costs
development of new products and/or packages. Thi
providing direct subsidies, tax credits, or by cont
significant quantities of the "green" alternatives. Anoth
reevaluation of certain restrictive laws. For example, b
States is one of the few countries where personal
shampoos) cannot be returned for refilling, this "green
(which is a "green" selling point in many countries) is

Future Research The present study suggests that there are important differences in the
Directions factors which affect various forms of "green" behaviors. Marketers need to
target their messages so that they focus on the barriers which are inhibiting
the performance of specific behaviors. Future research should better define
what the influences are and how they may be altered.
If the widespread attitudinal shifts which took place in America during
the late 1980s are going to result in behavioral changes during the 1990s,
then ecological marketers and public policy researchers should reexamine
PCE. Our results support the value of further research into the causes of

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 Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 115

PCE and the development of strategies to overcome negative

ceived behavioral control literature might provide a rich sour
both scholars and practitioners who are trying to encourage
make individual sacrifices for the good of the environment.
and other persuasive communication strategies deserve closer
instance, Miller, Brickman, and Bolen [1975] showed that an
strategy which repeatedly described students as neat le
littering, as compared to messages emphasizing why
inappropriate behavior. Allen [1982] found that both attribut
(e.g., the consumer is a willing participant in solving the ener
persuasive messages (e.g., individual action can resolv
significantly affected PCE, compared to more functi
emphasizing monetary gains.
Future research should first focus on the development and valid
proved PCE measures and domain-specific scales for othe
Many of the existing scales cover diverse issues which are n
applicable in different contexts (such as applying measures fr
conservation study to source reduction issues). One such
knowledge scale of Maloney, Ward, and Braucht [1975]. While
lied on a single measure of perceived knowledge, there is cert
developing an objective knowledge test which would be appli
keting-related environmental issues so that the moderating ef
edge on PCE and behavior can be assessed [cf., Rao and M
As is often the case, strategic implications in this study wer
lationships or differences defined by statistical significance.
plement public policy strategies, it may be more appropriat
whether the results are of practical significance. To illustrate,
dicate a difference in the level of recycling and precycling (i
less wasteful products) based on the level of PCE. Yet, i
whether the absolute differences are of practical significance
tual behavior [cf., Miller, Brickman, and Bolen 1975] would m
ately address this issue. Additionally, segmentation of marke
the various segments are (1) large enough to justify the effor
able for targeting communications. Such determinations are
from our results but certainly merit attention in future work.
While the present research dealt with environmental issues
ture research should examine specific marketing issues (e.g.
packaging on landfills) and focus on a wider range of behav
should also include measurement of actual, rather than self-r
iors. In addition, the research to date has been limited almost
surveys. Yet, experimentation may be a better method for
true nature of constructs such as PCE and determining appro
ing and public policy strategies. For instance, the effects of v
nication strategies on PCE and subsequent behavior can be st
perimental setting. Alternatively, it may be possible to exper
nipulate concern and PCE so that their separate and joint
more effectively examined.
Finally, more attention is needed to establish the order of in
various constructs. While researchers may agree that awaren
lem must precede other effects, it is unclear whether PCE de
sult of the degree of concern or whether PCE motivates incr
The growing interest among all parties in the topic of "gree
makes this a fruitful area for marketing, public policy, and
search.

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116 The Role of Perceived Consumer Effectiveness

Notes 1. Interview with Pete Booth, president of Booth Research Services, Atlanta, Ga., June 6,
1990.

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