Renewable Energy

By: Aregawi Kidanemariam

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 Solar energy

 Global installed capacity for solar-powered electricity has seen an exponential

growth, reaching around 227 GWe at the end of 2015, producing 1% of all
electricity used globally.
 The total capacity for solar heating and cooling in operation in 2015 was
estimated at 406 GWth.
 As solar PV module prices have declined around 80% since 2007 (from ~
US$4/W in 2007 to ~ US$1.8/W in 2015), the cost associated with balancing
the system represents the next great challenge for the Solar PV industry.

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Variation in solar radiations

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Solar Spectrum at edge of atmosphere

The sun’s rays

are reduced in
strength by the
atmosphere:
especially when
sun is at a lower
angle

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Solar Spectrum at the earth surface

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 Use of solar energy
 Three main use of solar energy :
 Water heating
 Solar thermal power system
 PV panels

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Solar Water Heating

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Solar water heating

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Solar water heating

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 Concentrated solar power
 In addition to the directly conversion of solar irradiation to electricity by PV
cells , CSP is an indirect conversion technology.
 In the CSP technology, solar irradiation is focused onto a focal point where it
heats up a particular liquid substance with the eventual goal to drive a
thermodynamic cycle to produce electric power
 In contrast to PV, which is mostly utilized as a distributed, or decentralized,
electricity-generation source, CSP is usually considered for large-scale
applications.
 CSP has the advantage over PV that it can incorporate large-scale (thermal)
storage to deliver a “more constant” electrical output, if so desire

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 Direct Solar Irradiation - DNI
 The amount of direct solar radiation is usually characterized through the
concept DNI.
 “Direct Normal Irradiance”. DNI is usually expressed as the amount of solar
radiation impinging on a unit area (that is always kept) perpendicular to the
solar rays coming in, on an annual basis.
 It is expressed in kWh/(m2-a).
 For the hotspots in Northern Africa, the DNI can reach ~ 2500-3000
kWh/(m2-a);

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Direct Normal Irradiation (DNI)

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 Global Horizontal Irradiation
 Global Horizontal Radiation - also called Global
Horizontal Irradiance; total solar radiation

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 CSP technology families

Following the
document of the
CSP Roadmap
outlined in [IEA,
2010],
Four categories of
CSP technologies
can be
distinguished

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CSP technology families

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 CSP Conversion Technologies
Figure CSP2 shows the
basic principle of the
conversion process of
“solar heat” towards
electric power.
The thermal cycle is
usually a Steam Rankine
cycle , or, for the
parabolic dishes, it is a
Stirling
engine
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CSP Conversion Technologies

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 Basics of PV
 The density of power radiated from the sun (referred as “solar energy
constant”) at the outer atmosphere is 1.373 kW/m2.
 Part of the energy is absorbed and scattered by the earth’s atmosphere.
 The final incident sunlight on earth’s surface has a peak density of 1 kW/m2
at noon in the tropics
 The technology of photovoltaics (PV) is essentially concerned with the
conversion of this energy into usable electrical form
 Basic elements of PV system is the solar cell
 Solar cell can converter the energy of sunlight directly into the electricity

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 Solar cell characteristics
 Solar cells are composed of various semiconductor materials that become
electrically conductive when supplied with heat or light
 The majority of the first-generation solar cells produced are composed of
silicon (Si), which exists in sufficient quantities.
 All technologies related to capturing solar energy to be used as direct
electricity generator are described as photovoltaic technology, which is
subdivided into crystalline, thin film, and nanotechnology.
 Doping technique is used to obtain excess of positive charge carriers (p-type)
or a surplus of negative charge carriers (n-type). When two layers of
different doping are in contact, then a p-n junction is formed on the
boundary.

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 Model of PV module
The primary solar cell equivalent circuit
contains a current source with a parallel
diode, in addition to parasitic series (Rs;
normally small)
and shunt (Rsh) resistances (relatively large)

o 𝐼𝑝ℎ is the current due to the energy of the photon and it is proportional to the
incoming light
o The diode D represents the recombination effects within the p-n junction, and
reduces the output current once the external voltage is above about 0.6 V. The
current 𝐼𝐷 is often known as the Dark current, since it will flow even when
there is no light on the cell.
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 PV module
 The series resistance Rs represents all of the resistances in series with the
cell, including the junction resistance and the contact resistances. This
resistance increases the volt drop when the cell is producing current I.
 The shunt resistance represents path of leakage currents. This reduces I as
voltage increases – giving a slope to first part of the I-V curve.

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 The diode current is given by the Shockley
equation:

 where 𝐼𝑜 is the reverse saturation current, q is the

charge carrier is the Boltzman constant, T is the
cell temperature, and n is the ideality factor.
 The PV module has two limiting components
open circuit voltage and short circuit current
 To determine short circuit current, set V=0,
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 Solar Cell Voltage –current
Characteristics
 To determine 𝑉𝑜𝑐 ,set the cell current 𝐼𝐿 = 0

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 Typical voltage characteristics, known as IV
curve, of a diode without illumination is
shown in green. The applied potential is in
the forward bias direction. The curve shows
the turn-on and the build-up of the forward
bias current in the diode. Without
illumination, no current flows through the
diode unless there is external potential
applied. With incident sunlight, the IV curve
shifts up and indicates that there is external
current flow from the solar cell to a passive
load.

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 Efficiency of the solar cell is the ratio of the electrical power it delivers to
the load, to the optical power incident on the
 cell. Maximum efficiency is when power delivered to load is
Pmax.
 • Incident optical power is normally specified as the solarpower on the
surface of the earth which is approximately 1000W/m2.
 • Thus, the maximum efficiency can be expressed
as :

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Temperature Effects on PV output

 The I–V curve changes as

the temperature and
insolation levels change and
thus the MPP will vary
accordingly
 Increasing the temperature
of the cell decreases the
open-circuit voltage and
increases slightly the short-
circuit current, causing
reduction in the efficiency of
the cell

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 Effects of Insolation Variation

As insolation decreases
the produced current
decreases while voltage
remains roughly constant

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Maximum Power Point Tracking(MPPT)
(MPPT)

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MPPT -> adjusts operating voltage

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Photovoltaic (PV) Hierarchy

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 cell interconnection
 Series cell interconnection  Parallel interconnection

To create higher voltage. The

current of the module remains
To increase current supplying
constant
capability. The voltage across the PV
remains constant

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 Series-Parallel cell or PV module
interconnection
 In order to obtain the appropriate voltage output for different application ,
single solar cells are interconnected in series (for large voltage )and in
parallel (for large current ) to form a PV module
 Then several of these PV modules are connected to each other to form the
PV array.
 This array is then fitted with aluminum or stainless steel frame and with
transparent glass on the front side

PV module
circuits

Photovoltaic cells, modules, panels, and array

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 Cont…
 The voltage generated by the array depends
primarily on the design and materials of the cell,
whereas the electric current depends primarily on
the incident solar irradiance and the cell area.
 This current fluctuates since the path of the sun
varies dramatically over the year, with winter and
summer seasons being the two extreme
excursions

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Photovoltaic Systems’ Components

Major photovoltaic system components

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 Photovoltaic Systems’ Components
 Photovoltaic systems are classified into two major classes:
 grid-connected photovoltaic systems
 stand-alone photovoltaic systems.
 Grid connected PV systems: are connected to the grid through power
conditioning unit and are designed to operate in parallel with the utility
grid.
 The power conditioning unit may include MPPT, inverter and grid
interface as well as the control system needed for efficient system
performance .

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 Designing a stand-alone PV System

 The design of any PV system requires certain basic calculations.

 First,
 Calculate the loads,
 Calculate the PV array current and array tilt angle, (depends on the
solar energy received at the site during the year)
 Calculate the battery size,
 Calculate the PV array size, and
 Wire size

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 Designing a stand-alone PV System

 Off-Grid Design Example

 Step 1: Determine the DC Load.
DC Device Device Hours of DC-Wat-
(Wats) use hours /Day
Refrigerator 60 24 1440

Lighting 150 4 600

fixtures
Device A 12 8 96

Total DC Watt-hrs/Day [A] 2,136

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 Designing a stand-alone PV System
Off-Grid Design Example
 Step 2: Determine the AC Load, Convert to DC
 .AC Device Device Hours of DC-Wat-
(Wats) use hours /Day

Device B 175 6 1050

Pump 80 0.5 40

Television 175 2 350

Total AC Watt-hrs/Day 1,440

Divided by 0.85 (Inverter, losses)
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Total DC Whrs/Day [B] 1,694
 Designing a stand-alone PV System

Step 3: Determine the Total System Load

Total DC Loads [A] 2,136
Total DC Loads [B] 1,694
Total System Load 3,830 Whrs/Day

Step 4: Determine Total DC Amp-hours/Day

Total System Load / System Nominal Voltage =

(3,830 Whrs/Day) / 12 Volts = 319 Amp-hrs/Day

Step 5: Determine Total Amp-hr/Day with Batteries

Total Amp-hrs/Day X 1.2(Losses and safety factor)
319 Amp-hrs/Day X 1.2 = 382.8 or 383 Amp-hrs/Day

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 Designing a stand-alone PV System

Step 6: Determine Total PV Array Current

Total Daily Amp-hr requirement / Design Insolation*

383 Amp-hrs / 5.0 peak solar hrs = 76.6 Amps

* Insolation Based on Optimum Tilt for Season

Step 7: Select PV Module Type

Choose BP Solar-Solarex MSX-60 module:

Max Power = 60 W (STP)
Max Current = 3.56 Amps
Max Voltage = 16.8 Volts
Nominal Output Voltage 12 Volts

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Designing a stand-alone PV System

Step 8: Determine Number of Modules in Parallel

Total PV Array Current / (Module Operating Current) X
(Module Derate Factor)
76.6 Amps / (3.56 Amps/Module)(0.90) = 23.90 modules
Use 24 Modules
Step 9: Determine Number of Modules in Series
System Nominal Voltage / Module Nominal Voltage
12 Volts / (12 Volts/module) = 1 Module

Step 10: Determine Total Number of Modules

Number of modules in parallel X Number of modules
in Series
24 X 1 = 24 modules

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Designing a stand-alone PV System

Step 11: Determine Minimum Battery Capacity

[Total Daily Amp-hr/Day with Batteries (Step 5)

X Desired Reserve Time (Days)] / Percent of
Usable Battery Capacity
(383 Amp-hrs/Day X 3 Days) / 0.80 = 1,436 Amp-hrs
Step 12: Choose a Battery

Use an Interstate U2S – 100 Flooded Lead Acid Battery

Nominal Voltage = 6 Volts
Rated Capacity = 220 Amp-hrs

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Designing a stand-alone PV System

Step 13: Determine Number of Batteries in Parallel

Required Battery Capacity (Step 11) / Capacity of
Selected Battery
1,436 Amp-hrs / (220 Amp-hrs/Battery) = 6.5
Use 6 Batteries
Step 14: Determine Number of Batteries in Series
Nominal System Voltage / Nominal Battery Voltage
12 Volts / (6 Volts/Battery) = 2 Batteries
Step 15: Determine Total Number of Batteries

Number of Batteries in Parallel X Number of Batteries

in Series
6 X 2 = 12 Batteries

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 Designing a stand-alone PV System

Step 16: Complete Balance of System

a. Complete the design by specifying the:

Charge Controller
Inverter
Wire Sizes (Battery will have larger gage
due to higher currents)
Fuses and Disconnects
Standby Generator, if needed
Battery Charger, if needed
Manual Transfer Switch, if needed.

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