Infrared Physics & Technology 44 (2003) 125–132

www.elsevier.com/locate/infrared

An analytical model of a double-heterostructure

mid-infrared photodetector
R.K. Lal, M. Jain, S. Gupta, P. Chakrabarti *

Department of Electronics Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
Received 21 February 2002

Abstract

A complete analytical model of a mid-infrared (MIR) double heterostructure (DH) photodetector has been devel-
oped. The model is physics based and takes into account all the dominant mechanisms that shape the characteristics of
room temperature MIR DH photodetectors. It can be used to characterize theoretically the performance of narrow
bandgap III–V based semiconductor MIR photodetectors for non-telecommunication applications. The model has been
applied to estimate the detectivity, photoresponse and quantum efficiency of an Pþ –As0:55 Sb0:15 P0:30 /n0 –InAs0:89 Sb0:11 /
Nþ –InAs0:55 Sb0:15 P0:30 DH MIR photodetector. The results obtained on the basis of the model are in good agreement
with reported experimental findings. The simulation code developed can be used as a tool by the design engineers for
useful fabrication guidelines.
Ó 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: MIR detector; InAsSb; Responsivity; Detectivity; Double heterostructure

1. Introduction length region. Currently the dominant infrared

Mid-infrared (MIR) photodetectors operating
beyond 2 lm wavelength have a variety of appli-
cations such as in gas sensors based on optical
absorption, process control monitor, temperature
sensors, pulsed laser monitor and power meters
[1,2]. In particular, there is a great demand for
efficient and reliable photodetectors, which can be
used for detection of several gases in environment
and process control applications in 2–6 lm wave-
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +91-542-307011; fax: +91-542-
317074.
E-mail address: pchakra@bhu.ac.in (P. Chakrabarti).
detector materials appropriate for 2–5 lm appli-
cations are PbSe, HgCdTe and InSb related ma-
terials. However, both PbSe and HgCdTe-based
detectors are normally used in photoconductive
mode and therefore result in slow response speed.
PbSe also suffers from undesirable 1=f -noise
problems, while HgCdTe normally requires ther-
moelectric cooling below room temperature in
order to achieve a sufficiently high detectivity for
successful instrumentation. Photovoltaic detectors
based on InAsSb related materials on the other
hand are faster and can operate beyond 5 lm
wavelength. However, these devices require cryo-
genic cooling to 77 K in order to obtain satisfac-
tory detector performance. There is therefore, a

1350-4495/02/$ - see front matter Ó 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 1 3 5 0 - 4 4 9 5 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 1 9 0 - 1
126 R.K. Lal et al. / Infrared Physics & Technology 44 (2003) 125–132
Nomenclature
Lp hole diffusion length in n0 region
Dp hole diffusion coefficient in n0 region
Sp surface recombination velocity for holes
on the n0 side at the n0 –Pþ hetero-
interface
xp width of the depletion region at Pþ –n0
heterointerface on Pþ side
Ln electron diffusion length in Pþ region
Dn electron diffusion coefficient in the Pþ
region
Sn surface recombination velocity of elec-
tron in Pþ side at the n0 –Pþ hetero-
interface
xn width of the depletion region at Pþ –n0
heterointerface on n0 side
t width of the Pþ region
d width of the n0 region
r trap capture cross-section
Nf trap density at the n0 –Pþ heterointerface
q electronic charge
k BoltzmannÕs constant
T detector temperature
h PlanckÕs constant
c velocity of light in free space
rp reflectance of the Pþ entrance face
rn reflectance at the n0 –Pþ heterointerface
mpp effective mass of holes on Pþ side
mnn effective mass of electrons on n0 side
nip intrinsic carrier concentration on the Pþ
side
need for improved MIR detectors and specifically
for use in portable gas sensor instruments. A fast
photovoltaic detector based on narrow bandgap
III–V materials operating at room temperature
beyond 4 lm would be a major advantage and
would have wide ranging applications.
Although much work has already been done in
the general area of modelling semiconductor pho-
todetectors for the near-infrared region [3–5],
comparatively less work has been done on the de-
velopment models for MIR detectors. It is there-
fore, necessary to develop both generic and specific
nin intrinsic carrier concentration on the n0
side
v1 electron affinity of the larger bandgap
Pþ material
v2 electron affinity of the smaller bandgap
n0 material
ap absorption coefficient of Pþ material
an absorption coefficient of n0 material
Eg1 bandgap of the larger bandgap Pþ ma-
terial
Eg2 bandgap of the smaller bandgap n0
material
DEc conduction band-edge discontinuity at
the n0 –Pþ heterointerface
DEv valance band-edge discontinuity at the
n0 –Pþ heterointerface
DEg bandgap difference between the mate-
rial forming the heterointerface
Vdp built-in potential at the heterointerface
on the larger bandgap Pþ side
Vdn built-in potential at the heterointerface
on the smaller bandgap n0 side
dp separation between the Fermi level and
the top of the valance band on the Pþ
side
dn separation between the Fermi level and
the bottom of the conduction band on
the n0 side
A effective RichardsonÕs constant
models and simulation codes for analysis of room
temperature MIR photodetectors based on narrow
bandgap III–V semiconductors. As the technology
of these materials is not yet fully mature and the
cost of experimental investigations is high, there is
a need for further theoretical studies in the area
to advance the existing knowledge. The results
of theoretical studies will provide useful design
guidelines for development of device prototypes.
The modelling of detectors based on narrow
bandgap materials needs special attention. These
models should take into consideration various ad-
 R.K. Lal et al. / Infrared Physics & Technology 44 (2003) 125–132
ditional mechanisms such as tunneling and surface
recombination at various interfaces in addition to
Auger and radiative mechanisms. It is also neces-
sary to explore theoretically the ways and means
for improving and optimizing the performance
of the existing devices in respect of quantum effi-
ciency, responsivity and detectivity. In this paper a
complete physics based model of a double hetero-
structure (DH) photodetector based on narrow
bandgap InSb related material for application in
the MIR region has been presented.
2. Theoretical model
The narrow bandgap ternary III–V alloys are
promising materials for making MIR optoelec-
tronic devices. The performances of these devices
can be greatly improved by using heterostructure.
In a DH MIR photodetector, the lightly doped
narrow bandgap active layer is generally sand-
wiched between two heavily doped lattice matched
cladding layers. The DH is used for carrier con-
finement in the active region. The higher energy
bandgap of the upper cladding layer also acts as a
window for the incident optical signal. The basic
mechanism of operation of a DH MIR photode-
tector is same irrespective of the material combi-
nations used for realising the structure.
2.1. Specific detectivity
One of the most important figures of merit of
the MIR photodetector is the specific detectivity
D , which depends on the wavelength of the inci-
dent light k, the quantum efficiency g and the zero-
bias resistance-area product R0 A. The detectivity
of the heterojunction photodetector under con-
sideration depends on four dominant mechanisms
that control the zero-bias resistance area product.
These include radiative and Auger recombination
(AU) in the neutral n and Pþ regions, generation–
recombination (G–R) in the depletion region,
and tunneling of carriers from n to Pþ regions and
vice versa. In our modelling we consider the effect
of both the recombination mechanisms e.g. AU
and radiative recombination (RAD) in the com-
putation of diffusion current in the neutral n0 and
127
Pþ regions considering the effect of surface re-
combination at the heterointerface. The other
mechanisms considered in the model include the
G–R mechanism in the depletion region and tun-
neling at the Pþ –n0 interface (TUN). The specific
detectivity of the heterojunction photodetector
under consideration can be calculated from John-
son noise limited equation as
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ðR0 AÞnet
D ¼ SðkÞ ð1Þ
4kT
The photoresponsivity SðkÞ is given by
qgk
SðkÞ ¼ ð2Þ
hc
where g the net quantum efficiency, k the operating
wavelength. The effective value of the zero-bias
resistance area product ðR0 AÞnet can be written as
1 1 1 1
¼ þ þ
ðR0 AÞnet ðR0 AÞAU ðR0 AÞRAD ðR0 AÞGR
1
þ ð3Þ
ðR0 AÞTUN
where R0 A is the zero-bias resistance-area product
of the detector which is related to the saturated
current density as
kT
ðR0 AÞx ¼ ð4Þ
qJsx
Here the suffix x represents the component (AU,
RAD, GR or TUN) and Js is saturated current
density for the corresponding component.
Each component of R0 A product further com-
prises contributions from both n and p regions.
The net R0 A product for each component (e.g. AU,
RAD, G–R and TUN) is calculated using the
following relation
1 1 1
¼ þ ð5Þ
R0 A ðR0 AÞp ðR0 AÞn
2.1.1. Auger mechanism and radiative mechanism
Among the various noise mechanisms in narrow
bandgap III–V materials, the Auger and radiative
recombination are the most important mecha-
nisms that affect the performance of a MIR
photovoltaic detector working at or near room
temperature. In this model we have assumed that
128 R.K. Lal et al. / Infrared Physics & Technology 44 (2003) 125–132

the Auger processes involved in this device follow rffiffiffiffiffiffi  

kTn0 sp qðVdp  Ev Þ
those observed in InSb like band structure. For ðR0 AÞp ¼ exp
q2 n2in Dp kT
sake of simplicity we have considered three most    
Lp Sp
dominant Auger mechanisms only e.g. Auger 1 (A- Dp
sinh tx Lp
n
þ cosh tx Lp
n

1), Auger 7 (A-7) and Auger S (A-S). The effective      ð12Þ

Lp Sp
carrier lifetime due to Auger recombination can be Dp
cosh tx Lp
n
þ sinh tx Lp
n

written as [4]
where t is the width of the Pþ region and d is the
1 1 1 1 width of the n0 region, Vdn and Vdp are the built-in
¼ þ þ ð6Þ
sAU sA-1 sA-7 sA-S potentials at the Pþ –n0 heterojunction on the n0
and Pþ side respectively.
where sAU corresponds to the overall value of the The components of R0 A corresponding to
mean lifetime of the carriers due to AU and Auger mechanism and radiative mechanism can be
the other suffixes indicate the components of s for obtained separately by substituting the values of
the corresponding Auger transitions. the respective lifetime (sAU or sRAD ) of carriers in
The lifetimes for the A-1, A-7 and A-S mecha- Eqs. (11) and (12).
nisms can be obtained as [4]
2siA-1 2.1.2. G–R mechanism in the depletion region
sA-1 ¼ ð7Þ The carriers generated in the depletion region
1 þ n0 =p0
are generally separated out under the action of the
2siA-7 existing electric field. These carriers contribute to
sA-7 ¼ ð8Þ the total current flowing through the detector. The
1 þ p0 =n0
transport of carriers across the heterojunction
2siA-S under consideration is strongly affected by the trap
sA-S ¼ ð9Þ levels at the heterointerface inside the depletion
1 þ p0 =n0
region. The electron and the hole component of
where p0 and n0 are the hole and electron con- the R0 A product arising from the G–R in the de-
centration at equilibrium in the active n0 -InAsSb pletion region can be obtained as
region and si indicates the intrinsic value of re- rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Vdn mnn
combination lifetime of the corresponding Auger ðR0 AÞGRn ¼ ð13Þ
2qnin xn rNf 3kT
transitions [4]. For the radiative recombination,
the lifetime of the carriers can be computed di- rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Vdp mpp
rectly from ðR0 AÞGRp ¼ ð14Þ
2qnip xp rNf 3kT
1
sRAD ¼ ð10Þ where mnn and mpp are the effective mass of elec-
Br ðn0 þ p0 Þ
trons and holes in the n0 and Pþ region respec-
where Br is the recombination coefficient for elec- tively, Vdn and Vdp are barriers due to band bending
trons and holes in the active region. of n0 region and Pþ region respectively at the Pþ –
The electron and hole components of R0 A n0 heterointerface.
product arising from diffusion mechanisms (Auger
and radiative mechanisms) can be obtained as 2.1.3. Tunneling mechanism
In the present heterojunction photodetector
rffiffiffiffiffiffi  
kTp0 sn qðVdn þ DEc Þ both electrons and holes are separated on both
ðR0 AÞn ¼ exp sides of the heterointerface. The electrons and
q2 n2ip Dn kT
    holes having energy below the barrier can cross the
Ln Sn dxp dxp
Dn
sinh Ln
þ cosh Ln heterointerface by quantum mechanical tunnel-
     ð11Þ ing process when the width of the barrier is suffi-
Ln Sn dxp dxp
Dn
cosh Ln
þ sinh Ln ciently thin. As tunneling is a quantum mechanical
 R.K. Lal et al. / Infrared Physics & Technology 44 (2003) 125–132 129

process, one has to take help of quantum me-
chanics to model the tunneling current component.
Following the numerical model based on WKB
approximation proposed by Yang et al. [7] the
compo-nents of R0 A arising from quantum me-
chanical tunneling can be obtained as
 
k Vdn þ dn
ðR0 AÞTUNn ¼  exp ð15Þ
qA TPp kT
 
k Vdp þ dp
ðR0 AÞTUNp ¼ exp
qA TPn kT
where A is the effective RichardsonÕs constant, Pn
and Pp are tunneling factors for the n0 and Pþ -side
respectively.
2.2. Quantum efficiency
The quantum efficiency of a photodetector is
defined as the number of electron–hole pairs gen-
erated per incident photon. The incident optical
radiation on the detector is absorbed in the de-
pletion region as well as in the bulk regions of both
the materials. The wavelength of the incident ra-
diation is selected to match the bandgap of the
narrow bandgap active material so that the larger
bandgap material behaves essentially as a window.
In the present analysis we have however assumed
that the absorption takes place in both the mate-
e.g. neutral n0 and Pþ regions and the depletion
region at the heterointerface.
The net quantum efficiency can be written as
g ¼ gn þ gp þ gdep ð17Þ
where the gn , gp and gdep are the components of the
quantum efficiency contributed by the n0 , Pþ and
the depletion region respectively. If an optical
power Popt is incident on the surface of the wide
bandgap Pþ material, the generation rate of the
ð16Þ
electron–hole pairs in the Pþ region as a function
of distance x from the surface can be written as
ð1  rp ÞPopt
Gp ¼ ap ðkÞ expðap ðkÞxÞ ð18Þ
Ahm
The generation in the n0 region can be written as
ð1  rp Þð1  rn ÞPopt
Gn ¼ an ðkÞ expðap ðkÞtÞ
Ahm
 expðap ðkÞxÞ ð19Þ
The three components of quantum efficiency can
be obtained as follows.
(i) The net quantum efficiency due to the contribu-
tion of the photogenerated carriers in the de-
pletion region can be written as
gdep ¼ ð1  rn Þð1  rp Þ expð  ap ðt  xp ÞÞ

 expð  ðap t þ an xn ÞÞ ð20Þ

rials. The photocurrent generated due to the ab-
sorption of the incident radiation in the various (ii) The quantum efficiency component contrib-
regions contributes to the total quantum efficiency. uted by the neutral n0 and P regions can be ob-
In the present detector we have three regions tained as

2  h 
txp
 
txp
i 3
ð1  rp Þap Ln 4 ap L n þ c n  exp  a p ðt  x p Þ c n cosh Ln
þ sinh Ln  
gp ¼      ap Ln exp  ap ðt  xp Þ 5
a2p L2n  1 txp
cn sinh Ln þ cosh Ln
txp

ð21Þ

2  h    i 3
dxn dxn
ð1  rp Þð1  rn Þan Lp    cp  an Lp exp f  an ðd  xn Þg  cp cosh Lp þ sinh Lp
gn ¼ exp  ap t þ an wn 4     þ an Lp 5
a2n L2p  1 c sinh dxn þ cosh dxn
p Lp Lp

ð22Þ
130 R.K. Lal et al. / Infrared Physics & Technology 44 (2003) 125–132
Sp Lp
where cn ¼ SDn Lnn and cn ¼ Dp
.
3. Results and discussion
In order to characterise a DH MIR detector
theoretically on the basis of the above model it is
necessary to consider a typical structure. The type
of the energy band diagram (type I or II) and some
of the associated parameters play key roles in
shaping the characteristics of the detector. In the
present work, a DH InAs0:89 Sb0:11 photodiode
supposed to operate at room temperature in the
2.0–5.0 lm MIR wavelength range has been con-
sidered. The photodetector structure under con-
sideration is shown in Fig. 1a and is similar to one
studied experimentally by Gao et al. [6]. In order
to accommodate the large lattice mismatch be-
tween the InAs0:89 Sb0:11 active region and the InAs
substrate, buffer layers of InAs0:55 Sb0:15 P0:30 and
InAs0:94 Sb0:06 are introduced in the structure. The
structure consists of a heavily doped Pþ -type In-
As0:55 Sb0:15 P0:30 followed by a lightly doped n0 -type
InAs0:89 Sb0:11 active layer. The single thick (
4 DEg ¼ Eg1  Eg2
Fig. 1. (a) Structure of the DH photodetector and (b) energy band diagram.
lm) buffer layer with an intermediate composition
of InAs0:94 Sb0:06 is used to relieve the misfit dislo-
cation density in the active region due to large
mismatch between InAs and the InAs0:89 Sb0:11
substrate. The undoped thick InAs0:89 Sb0:11 active
layer sandwiched between two InAs0:55 Sb0:15 P0:30
regions forms the DH. The DH is used for carrier
confinement in the active region. Due to higher
bandgap, the upper cladding layer acts as an ef-
fective transparent window layer for transmission
of light incident on it.
The energy band diagram of the DH Pþ –
InAsSbP/n0 –InAsSb/Nþ InAsSbP is shown in Fig.
1b. The energy bandgaps of the two semiconduc-
tors, their conduction and valance band-edge dis-
continuities and the built-in potentials at the
heterointerface after formation of the heterojunc-
tion are interrelated as follows.
Vd ¼ Vdn þ Vdp ð23Þ
DEc ¼ v1  v2 ð24Þ
ð25Þ
 R.K. Lal et al. / Infrared Physics & Technology 44 (2003) 125–132 131

DEg ¼ DEc þ DEv ð26Þ

dp þ dn þ Vd þ DEc ¼ Eg1 ð27Þ

where, Vd is the total built-in potential, DEg is the
total band-edge discontinuity, DEc and DEv are the
conduction and valence band-edge discontinuities
respectively at the heterointerface.
Computations have been carried out for an
InAs0:55 Sb0:15 P0:30 /InAs0:89 Sb0:11 /InAs0:55 Sb0:15 P0:30
double heterojunction MIR photodetector at 300
K. The doping concentrations on Pþ and n0 sides
are taken to be 4  1024 m3 and 1021 m3 re- Fig. 2. Variation of quantum efficiency of the detector with
spectively. The thickness of the active n0 region wavelength.
has been assumed to be 1 lm. The thickness of the
cladding layers has been taken to be 3 lm each. rapidly above 4.4 lm. The device has a moderately
The optical absorption coefficients of the active high value of quantum efficiency in the 2.4–4.4 lm
layer and the window layer have been computed wavelength range. The value of the quantum effi-
theoretically as a function of the wavelength of the ciency is found to be 35% at k ¼ 2:3 lm which is in
incident radiation. In the present computation free close agreement with the value of the quantum
carrier absorption and intra-valence band ab- efficiency (
35.2 %) obtained experimentally at the
sorption have been neglected. Various parameters same wavelength by Gao et al. [6] for a similar
used in the computation have been taken from structure. It is also observed that at room tem-
Refs. [6,8]. Some of the parameters of the quater- perature the detector exhibits a quantum efficiency
nary material (InAsSbP) used for the cladding of more than 30% up to a wavelength of 3.5 lm
layers had to be computed from the parameters of wavelength.
the corresponding ternary materials using linear Fig. 3 shows the variation of the photorespon-
interpolation. The major parameters used in the sivity of the device with the operating wavelength.
computation are listed in Table 1. In the present It is seen that the responsivity of the device is
computation we assumed Sn ¼ Sp ¼ 0. nearly constant (
0.83 A/W) in the wavelength
Fig. 2 shows the variation of the quantum effi- range of 2.4–4.4 lm. The responsivity of the de-
ciency of the photodetector with the operating vice falls steeply near the cut-off wavelength. The
wavelength. The quantum efficiency of the device
is found to increase sharply near 2 lm and falls

Table 1
Major parameters used in the computation
Parameter Value Remark
Eg1 0.278 eV [8]
Eg2 0.484 eV Computed
v1 4.876 eV [8]
v2 4.737 eV Computed
DEc 0.139 eV Computed
DEv 0.067 eV Computed
Nf 1020 /m3 [3]
r 1019 m2 [3]
an (at k ¼ 3 lm) 1:2  106 /m Computed
mnn 0.019 m0 [8] Fig. 3. Variation of responsivity of the detector with wave-
e (InAsSb) 15.33 e0 [8] length.
132 R.K. Lal et al. / Infrared Physics & Technology 44 (2003) 125–132
Fig. 4. Variation of detectivity of the detector with wavelength.
detector has a high responsivity as compared to
HgCdTe detectors. The value of the responsivity
obtained on the basis of the present model also
matches closely with the measured value of the
responsivity (0.8 A/W at k ¼ 4:6 lm) reported by
Gao et al. [6] for a similar structure.
Fig. 4 depicts the variation of the room tem-
perature detectivity of the device with the op-
erating wavelength. The device exhibits a peak
detectivity of 1:18  107 mHz1=2 W1 at k ¼ 4:4
lm. The device has a relatively high value of the
detectivity in the wavelength range of 2.4–4.4 lm.
The device can therefore, be used as a sensitive
detector in the mid-infrared region. The room
temperature detectivity of the device obtained on
the basis of our model is found to match with the
experimentally measured value of detectivity re-
ported by Gao et al. [6]. It is seen that at 300 K the
diffusion current (Auger and Radiative mecha-
nisms) components are dominant over tunneling
component and G–R component in the depletion
region. The R0 A product thus follows mainly the
diffusion model. It is also seen that the use of a
highly doped active region significantly reduces the
tunneling component of current and improves the
detectivity of the MIR detector.
4. Conclusion
A physics-based theoretical model of a narrow
bandgap III–V based room temperature MIR
double heterojunction photodetector has been de-
veloped. The model has been applied to a reported
DH MIR detector structure. The maximum quan-
tum efficiency, peak detectivity and responsivity of
the detector estimated on the basis of the model
closely match with the experimentally reported
values. The simulation code developed can be used
to optimize the performance of DH MIR photo-
detectors for specific non-telecommunication ap-
plications. The model is expected to provide useful
guidelines for fabrication of device prototypes and
thereby cut down the cost of expensive experi-
mental investigations significantly. The model can
be used as a tool for exploring the potential of
other similar DH room temperature MIR photo-
detectors based on other narrow bandgap III–V
materials.
References
[1] X.Y. Gong, T. Yamaguchi, H. Kan, T. Makino, T. Iida, T.
Kato, M. Aoyama, Y. Hayakama, M. Kumagawa,
Room temperature InAsx P1xy Sby /InAs photodetectors
with large quantum efficiency, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 36 (1997)
2614–2616.
[2] A. Rakovska, V. Berger, X. Marcodet, B. Vinter, G.
Glastre, T. Oksenhendler, D. Kapler, Room temperature
InAsSb photovoltaic mid infrared photodetector, Appl.
Phys. Lett. 7 (2000) 397–399.
[3] Y. Tian, B. Zhang, T. Zhou, H. Jiang, Y. Jin, Numerical
analysis of the detectivity in nþ –n–p and pþ –p–n GaInAsSb
infrared detectors, Solid State Electron. 43 (1999) 1879–
1891.
[4] Y. Tian, Z. Tianming, T. Zhou, B. Zhang, Y. Jin, Y. Ning,
H. Jiang, G. Yuan, Theoretical analysis of the Auger
mechanism in a GaInAsSb infrared photovoltaic detector,
Opt. Eng. 37 (1998) 1754–1762.
[5] Y. Tian, B. Zhang, T. Zhan, H. Jiang, Y. Jin, Theoretical
analysis of the detectivity in N–p and P–n GaSb/GaInAsSb
infrared photo-detectors, IEEE Trans. Electron Dev. ED-47
(2000) 544–551.
[6] H.H. Gao, A. Krier, V.V. Sherstnev, Room temperature
InAs0:89 Sb0:11 photodetectors for CO detection at 4.6 lm,
Appl. Phys. Lett. 77 (2000) 872–874.
[7] R.O. Yang, M. Sweeny, D. Day, J.M. Xu, Interband
tunneling in Heterostructure Tunnel diodes, IEEE Trans.
Electron Dev. ED-38 (1999) 442–446.
[8] M. Levinshtein, S. Rumyantsev, M. Shur (Eds.), Handbook
Series on Semiconductor Parameters, vols. 1 and 2, World
Scientific, London, 1999.