THE VENTILATION OF SUBSTATIONS*
By F. FAVELL, Member,t and E. W. CONNON, B.Sc, M.Eng., Associate Member.f
(The paper was first received 9 th November, 1942, and in revised form lOth February, 1943. // was read before the TRANSMISSION
SECTION 10^ March, 1943.)
SUMMARY
The type of construction used for substations is generally
governed by requirements, e.g. fire and air-raid precautions,
which may conflict with the maintenance of the atmospheric
conditions necessary for keeping the equipment in good order.
These conditions are not necessarily the same as those needed
for human comfort, and the application of heat alone has often
been found to be ineffective and costly.
The authors were faced with this difficulty and, after much
investigation, evolved a method of overcoming it.
Although containing a general consideration of the problem,
the paper is not intended as an exhaustive treatise on the subject
but merely as a record of the authors' experiences in overcoming
ventilation problems in particular cases.
(1) EFFECT OF CONSTRUCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS
Requirements which have to be met in substation
building construction and which may have considerable
effect on the ventilation problem are:—
(1) A.R.P. recommendations. 1 ' 6
(2) Fire precautions. 2 ' 3 ' 4 * 5
(3) Protection against the effects of internal explosions.
The A.R.P. recommendation that the building should be
so constructed as to protect the plant from the effect of
splinters and blast has generally been interpreted to mean
that windows must be above the highest part of the plant.
This tends to prevent the circulation of air round the plant,
even if the windows are opened.
Fire precautions suggest that:—
(a) The sections of the plant be separated by fire-
resisting partitions.
(b) Main cables and control cables of each section of the
plant be segregated from each other and from those of
other sections of the plant.
(c) Permanent fire-extinguishing plant be installed.
These recommendations may conflict with effective
ventilation, the first two by increasing the possibility of
the air becoming stagnant, and the third by making it
necessary to seal the building in order to prevent the loss
of the fire-extinguishing medium, which is often of a
gaseous nature. Ventilation schemes for substations must
therefore be designed to overcome these difficulties.
Most attempts at protection of substation buildings
against the effects of internal explosions have consisted in
providing the buildings with a "weak" panel facing the
switchgear, and, as window glass has too large a variation
of strength to be used for this purpose, windows or doors
lightly secured or held closed by springs or weights are
often used. Adequate ventilation, however, reduces the
risk of explosion and such protection may then be un-
necessary.
• Transmission Section paper.
t North West Midlands Joint Electricity Authority.
[327]
(2) TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF A LARGE INDOOR
SUBSTATION
The following is a brief description of the substation in
which most of the work described in this paper was carried
out and which is probably typical of many of the sub-
stations constructed immediately preceding the war and
likely to be constructed thereafter.
(2.1) General Layout
The substation comprises two 33-kV switchboards, each
consisting of 750-MVA duplicate-busbar metalclad switch-
gear. These switchboards, together with their relay panels,
are housed in two similar brick and reinforced-concrete
buildings which are 90 ft. apart. The switches are
operated from a control room about half-a-mile away.
The relay panels are accommodated in separate rooms
from the main switches, and main and control cables are
accommodated in separate compartments in a basement.
In a compound behind the substation, and at a lower
level, two 15 000-kVA 33 000/6 600-volt transformers are
installed, together with neutral earthing reactors and re-
sistances. Metalclad 33-kV neutral earthing switches are
installed in the buildings in separate rooms.
(2.2) Constructional Details
Figs. 1A and 1B show the arrangement of one of the
buildings. It should be noted that the basement is divided
to allow the main cables to the switches to be kept separate
from the control cables, also that the windows are above
the plant level in accordance with A.R.P. requirements.
The relay panels consist of sheet-steel cubicles, and the
connections between them and the switches are taken to
terminal boards placed in the hollow front legs of the
switch frames. The closing contactors with their fuses and
discharge resistances are placed in the back legs of the
switch frames, and all these hollow spaces are intercon-
nected through the conduit provided for the connections
to the current-transformer secondary terminals. These
spaces also connect with the basement through holes pro-
vided under the front legs for the multicore cables.
The main cables are taken to cable boxes placed between
the backs of the switch frames, and close-fitting shrouds
are fixed to the cable boxes to close the cable slots. The
main cables are mostly carried out of the basement directly
through the wall at the rear of the switchgear, but where a
cable has to be taken out in the opposite direction it is
carried through the basement in a floor duct covered with
concrete slabs. Fireproof doors are provided throughout
the buildings.
(2.3) Fire and Explosion Safeguards
In addition to the constructional arrangements described
above, fire precautions of a more specialized character have
been taken.
328 FAVELL AND CONNON: THE VENTILATION OF SUBSTATIONS
rurjffs
SHITCHGEA*
. LLJ-.
Fig. 1A.—Layout of one building of substation.
Fig. 1B.—Sectional arrangement of substation building.
Under each switch is a shallow trough filled with pebbles
about 2 in. to 4 in. in diameter, and from the bottom of
these a common drain runs to a sump outside the building.
The whole arrangement ensures that oil thrown out or
spilled from the switch tanks will be removed from the
building, any burning oil being cooled and extinguished by
the pebbles.
A special type of oil sump11 surrounds the transformers
outside, and little oil is likely to find its way into the cable
ducts if a leakage of burning oil should occur. If, how-
ever, some burning oil did leak into these ducts, its entry
into the buildings is prevented by suitably placed barriers.
A permanently-installed thermostatically-operated CO2
fire-extinguishing plant is provided, a common battery of
gas cylinders being used for the switchrooms in the two
buildings. Smaller separate installations are provided in
the neutral switchrooms, and there are portable CO2 and
carbon-tetrachloride extinguishers. The CO2 plants have
arrangements for locking the automatic devices while
leaving hand operation possible. Gas-pressure-operated
switches are installed to indicate in the control room when
the gas has been released.
For explosion relief purposes the centre frames of the
windows facing the switchgear were hinged at the top and
held shut by weights fastened to radius arms. It is doubt-
ful whether this arrangement would have been effective
and, as the improved ventilation now installed has greatly
reduced the risk of internal explosions, it has been dis-
carded.
(3) CONDITIONS REQUIRED IN SUBSTATIONS
The conditions which are required to maintain equip-
ment in good order are not, of course, necessarily the same
as those required for human comfort. The latter condi-
tions have been investigated,7'8 but little attention appears
to have been given to the former. The conditions required
will be discussed under three heads:—
(3.1) Dryness.
(3.2) Cleanliness.
(3.3) Gas dissipation.
The temperature of an unattended substation need not
be considered, as substation equipment is not likely to be
adversely affected by the temperatures which would occur
in an unheated building in this country.
(3.1) Dryness
Dryness is an obvious requirement in a substation.
Extreme dryness is not essential, but it is necessary that
any moisture in the atmosphere should not be deposited
on the plant and, further, that the atmosphere should be
able to absorb and carry away any moisture which may
enter the building, thus preventing deterioration of the
conditions.
 FAVELL AND CONNON: THE VENTILATION OF SUBSTATIONS
Moisture may enter a building in many ways, several of
which, such as leakage of rain or the carrying in of water
for floor-washing and by personnel on wet days, are
obviously not susceptible to calculation. Moisture may
also enter basements by leakage through the walls from
the surrounding soil, its quantity depending on the soil
and the effectiveness of the drainage, but this leakage can
be prevented by means of an asphalt protection round the
side walls and under the floor of the basement. The cost
of this is considerable; for the substation described in
Section 2 it would have been about £500 for each building.
The standing charges on this amount would, at 7% per
annum, have been £35 per annum, or £70 for the two
buildings.
Provided the conditions which can be maintained are
such that the atmosphere can absorb and carry away the
moisture which enters the building, it would seem to be
unnecessary to adopt expensive means of preventing its
entry in small quantities.
(3.1.1) Moisture in the Atmosphere.
The theoretical considerations bearing on moisture in
the atmosphere have been well discussed elsewhere7' 8> 9
so that only the important points need be summarized
here.
The amount of moisture may be specified in two ways:—
(a) Relative humidity, i.e. the moisture content expressed
as a percentage of that required for saturation.
(b) Absolute humidity, i.e. the quantity of moisture in a
given quantity of air, generally expressed in grains per lb.
of dry air.
The amount of moisture may be measured by wet- and
dry-bulb thermometers, the reading of the wet bulb being
reduced by the latent heat of vaporization of the water
surrounding it. The "wet-bulb depression" (the difference
between the wet- and dry-bulb readings) thus gives a
measure of the rate at which moisture will be absorbed by
the atmosphere.
Fig. 2 shows the relation between temperature and wet-
HO 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90°F.
Temperature (dry bulb)
Fig. 2. Relation between rate of drying (proportional to wet-
bulb depression) and temperature, at different values of
absolute humidity. (Absolute humidity expressed as
grains of moisture per pound of air.)
bulb depression for various absolute humidity values.
From this it is seen that a rise in temperature of air con-
taining a given amount of moisture increases its rate of
329
absorption, and it is for this reason that heat is generally
used for drying. Conversely, if the temperature decreases,
a point is reached at which the air is saturated and con-
densation occurs. This is the "dew point" and is constant
for a given absolute humidity. Also, if the air is saturated,
the dry-bulb and wet-bulb readings and the dew point are
all identical.
Moisture will not be deposited on the plant, therefore,
if the temperature of the plant is above the dew point,
but unless the air is kept moving steadily round the plant,
appreciable differences of temperature may exist between
the air and plant inside a building, and condensation may
occur even if the air is not saturated.
The large amount of water normally in the atmosphere
is not generally realized. In the substation described in
Section 2 and having a cubic capacity of 46 000 cu. ft., the
air contains about 3 gallons of water when the temperature
is 60° F. and the relative humidity 75 %.
(3.1.2) Moisture in Insulating Materials.
Moisture-absorbent materials have a moisture content
which depends on the hygrometric state of the atmosphere,
but the rate of change of moisture content may be very
slow so that a stable balance will only be reached in an
atmosphere which remains constant over a long time.
Insulating materials in particular are generally impregnated
with varnishes or the like, which delay—perhaps for years
—the entry of moisture.
It is thus almost impossible to lay down definite hygro-
metric standards for maintaining insulating materials in
good condition, but it can be said that their rate of de-
terioration depends mainly on the relative humidity, and
there is evidence that it increases rapidly if the relative
humidity exceeds 75-80%. Higher relative humidities
are, however, permissible for shorter periods than would
be permissible continuously, because of the delaying effect
of the impregnation.
(3.1.3) Circulation and Interchange of Air.
The readings of a wet-bulb thermometer are not reliable
in still air, the cooling of the bulb being affected by the
movement of air past it. It has been found that this effect
becomes constant at air speeds above 10 ft. per sec.7 The
reduction in the wet-bulb depression in still air is due to
the local increase in the moisture content of the atmosphere
surrounding the wet bulb, and shows the importance of
avoiding, if possible, stagnant conditions in the atmosphere,
particularly where free moisture is present.
This, however, can easily arise in a substation. Ter-
minal boxes containing absorbent material such as the
braiding of cables eventually become filled with saturated
air. To a less extent these conditions also arise whenever
there is no draught to remove the saturated air. It would
appear, therefore, that air movements at speeds of the
order of 10 ft. per sec. are desirable.
The application of heat may cause some improvement by
increasing the amount of moisture which the air can absorb,
but increased absorption leads to increased moisture con-
tent and, unless the moisture is removed, saturation may
again be reached. If, however, the air is kept moving
throughout the building and an interchange of air between
the building and outside takes place, the amount of
moisture in the air inside will approximate to that outside
and local stagnant conditions cannot occur.
330 FAVELL AND CONNON: THE VENTILATION OF SUBSTATIONS

The rate of air circulation should be such as to ensure

complete freedom from stagnation and to prevent dif-
ferences of temperature from occurring in the building.
The rate of interchange of air between inside and outside,
however, requires further consideration.
When no internal heating is used, the temperature of the
building and the plant will lag behind changes of tem-
perature outside, because of the large thermal capacity.
Similarly, if the interchange of air between inside and out-
side is small compared with the volume of the building,
the internal absolute humidity will also lag behind changes
of the external absolute humidity. Using the formulae
deduced in Appendix 13.1, calculations were made to 0 10 14 20 30 40
determine, in the case of the substation described in Hours
Section 2, which of these lags would be the longer. Fig. 4.—Change of internal conditions with gradual external
Fig. 3 shows what would occur inside the building if the change. Values calculated for external temperature rise of
0-5 deg. F. per hour for 14 hours followed by steady con-
°F. ditions, at a relative humidity of 90%. Calculations are for
40 substation described in Section 2, with an air interchange
of 200 cu. ft. per min.
39
In the substation under consideration, this would require
\
38
1 \
the interchange to be reduced to about 20 cu. ft. per min.,
but other conditions, such as cleanliness and provision for

% 36
37
1 "Plant temperature
\
| 35
I to exceed that outside when outside temperatures are
e \ \ rising; and to be less than that outside when outside tem-
(if 34 \ generally accompanied by low relative humidities, this effect
33
y (3.1.4) Newly Constructed Buildings.
32 V" Dew point
\ materials of a new building, and must be largely removed
31
30I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Hours
Fig. 3.—Change of internal conditions due to sudden external
change (see Section 3.1.3). Values calculated for sub-
station described in Section 2, with an air interchange of
200 cu. ft. per min.
outside temperature and the dew point, both starting at
40° F., suddenly decreased to 30° F. This curve assumes
an air interchange of 200 cu. ft. per min. and shows that
under such conditions the change of internal temperature
is very much slower than the change of internal absolute
humidity. In making these calculations, it was observed
that the part played by the air interchange in changing the
internal temperature is very small compared with the effect
of heat transmission through the walls.
When external temperatures and dew points are rising,
conditions leading to condensaiion inside may occur, as
the dew point will rise more rapidly than the temperature
and may overtake it. This is demonstrated in Fig. 4, in
which the curves were calculated from the formulae de-
duced in Appendix 13.2 and are for the substation described
in Section 2 with an air interchange of 200 cu. ft. per min.
As the rate of interchange of air has little effect on the rate
of change of internal temperature it could therefore be so
adjusted that the internal dew point and the internal tem-
perature will alter at the same rate, with the result that con-
densation could not occur inside except in the rare event
of saturation occurring (and being maintained) outside.
dissipating any explosive gas formed, make it inadvisable
to reduce it to this value.
The net effect is that the relative humidity inside will tend
peratures are falling. As high temperatures outside are
is in the right direction.
Considerable quantities of free moisture exist in the
before stable conditions can be reached. If this is not done
and air stagnancy occurs, conditions will arise which may
cause rapid deterioration of the plant (see Section 4).
An estimate of 5 % of the total weight of the building has
been given12 for the quantity of moisture inside a new
building, which means that approximately 9 000 gallons of
water would have to be removed from each of the buildings
of the substation described in Section 2.
In order to carry away this quantity of water, consider-
able interchange of air between inside and outside will be
necessary, and much heat will be taken from the air in
evaporating the water. The rate of evaporation will de-
pend on the "wet bulb depression" (Fig. 2), so that a
tendency towards saturation can be corrected by increasing
the rate of air interchange.
It is obvious that during this drying period the absolute
humidity in the building will always be higher than that
outside, and that during damp weather the amount of
drying which will take place will be small. The rate of
drying will, of course, be accelerated by an increase of
temperature, so that some heating of the building may be
desirable during the initial drying out if this period is not
to be unduly protracted. The amount of interchange of
air should also be much larger than would be desirable
later on when stable conditions have been reached.
(3.2) Cleanliness
In districts where there is considerable pollution of the
atmosphere it may be extremely difficult to maintain plant
 FAVELL AND CONNON: THE VENTILATION OF SUBSTATIONS 331

in a clean condition. The requirements of air circulation dended substations, however, the temperature and air
will cause a considerable deposit of dirt if polluted air is required by the personnel must be considered. These
allowed to enter, and to prevent this the manner of inter- problems have received adequate attention elsewhere7' 8
change of air must be considered. and are outside the scope of this paper.
Interchange of air may be effected in two ways:—
(a) By allowing air to leak out from those parts of the (4) THE EFFECTS OF UNSUITABLE CONDITIONS
building which are at the highest air pressure, so that fresh The experience of the authors, largely in connection with
air must leak in where the pressure is lowest. the substation described in Section 2, will give some idea
(6) By injecting air into the building, hence maintaining of what may be expected with unsatisfactory conditions as
the whole building at a pressure above atmosphere. regards ventilation.
Leakage to the outside air then occurs throughout the For some 18 months after it was built, the building was
building. completely unventilated, all windows being kept closed, and
From an air-circulation point of view these two methods the switch and relay rooms were heated by 20 kW of
are equally satisfactory. If, however, the first is used thermostatically-controlled tubular heaters, the basement
with a polluted atmosphere, large quantities of dirt enter being left unheated. The thermostats were set first to
with the air; whereas the second method may be used in 50° F. and later to 60° F. The conditions which existed
conjunction with a filter so that dirt cannot enter. The may be judged from readings, taken just prior to the instal-
quantity of air injected must, however, be sufficient to lation of ventilating plant, which showed relative humidity
maintain the whole of the building slightly above atmo- values varying from 75% to 84% at temperatures of about
spheric pressure, and it is thus desirable to see that all 64° F. in the switch room; while basement conditions varied
openings to the outside are fairly well closed up. Cable from 80 % to 92 % relative humidity at temperatures around
ducts are often overlooked and considerable leakage may 60° F. The actual running cost with the thermostats set
occur if they are not sealed. at 50° F. was £235 for the two buildings, with energy at
|d. per unit, and was estimated at £450 for 60' F.
(3.3) Gas Dissipation The first visible effect of trouble was the appearance of
Switchgear explosions of the type which wreck the a white mildew on the insulation of small wiring, both in
buildings housing the gear are probably due to the collection the switchgear and in the relay panels. Closer inspection
of explosive mixtures within the buildings. Such mixtures, showed that this insulation was very damp. Later the
it has been suggested,10 arise from the incipient breakdown coloured covering faded almost completely in places.
of insulation under oil. The gases evolved by breakdown Electrolysis too, began to cause trouble wherever there
under oil have been found to consist mainly of hydrogen, were direct-current connections, and this was particularly
with some acetylene, and the proportions of these gases severe round the closing-contactor panels. The closing-
which will give an explosive mixture with air are as follows: contactors were also affected by rust, and failures of
Acetylene .. 2 • 5 % to 82 % (by volume) switches to close became frequent owing to the contactors
Hydrogen .. 4% to 74% (by volume) sticking.
Thus the lower explosive limit for the gas evolved may On one occasion an important transformer was tripped
be taken to be about 3 %, so that if some interchange of out of circuit owing to a double earth fault on the battery
air between inside and outside is kept up, it is unlikely that wiring. One fault (probably of long standing)* had
an explosive mixture could occur. For instance, if air is occurred on a contactor panel owing to electrolysis, and a
interchanged at the rate of 200 cu. ft. per min. (cf. fault under a wiring clip in a relay panel completed the
Section 5.3) gas would have to be evolved at a rate greater trip circuit. Some trouble was also experienced with
than 6 cu. ft. per min. before an explosive mixture could be inverse-time relays failing to reset and hence preventing the
obtained. It seems unlikely that gas could be evolved at reclosing of switches after operation. This trouble, which
this rate without other consequences of an immediately occurred only with low-energy type relays, has not recurred
serious nature, so that such an interchange of air should since ventilation has been installed, and hence it was
remove, to a large extent, the risk of a switchgear explosion probably caused by dampness.
causing extensive building damage. The deterioration of insulating materials, and particu-
The generation of ozone and nitrogen peroxide by brush larly of h.v. insulators, is, however, the most serious result
discharge may cause trouble in unventilated plant, as small of incorrect conditions, although the effects may be con-
quantities are generally evolved even by the most carefully siderably delayed.
designed high-voltage equipment. Provided the ventila- In this particular substation the h.v. bushings are mostly
tion is adequate to dissipate these gases, no harm is likely of bakelized paper. Tests have not shown deterioration to
to result, but if they are allowed to become concentrated, any extent, probably because the conditions were corrected
their great oxidizing power may lead, in the presence of before serious moisture absorption could occur. The
moisture, to the formation of acids which may, eventually, authors have experience, however, of another instance
destroy the insulation. Such items as open-type current where for a number of years humid conditions existed
transformers are particularly subject to this weakness, round a 6-6-kV switchboard owing to its being placed in
which can be largely overcome by adequate ventilation. an annexe of a generating station—a not uncommon
arrangement about 15 years ago when this board was
installed.
(3.4) Personnel
In this case very serious deterioration of the bakelized
In the foregoing it has been assumed that the substation
* A continuous alarm for battery earth-faults has since been installed to
is unattended, as is the general practice to-day. In at- prevent this recurring.
332 FAVELL AND CONNON: THE VENTILATION OF SUBSTATIONS
paper insulators, particularly the busbar and feeder spout
insulators, had occurred and was shown up when Schering
bridge measurements of dielectric loss were commenced in
1936. Steps were immediately taken to improve these con-
ditions by dividing the switchboard from the generating
station by a brick wall. The results of this did not
show any rapid improvement, but a slow general improve-
ment has occurred over a number of years. This improve-
ment was not, however, such as to make it unnecessary to
replace the worst cf these insulators.
In Fig. 5 are shown the dielectric-loss measurements on
07
Fhis insulator' dried out
by iacal heat
0-6
0-5
0-4
Q-'A
0-)
1930 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942
Year
Fig. 5.—Dielectric-loss measurements with 5-kV portable
Schering bridge, on metalclad-switchgear spout insulators
of pre-1929 manufacture.
Broken line shows replacement of insulators.
some of these insulators. These measurements were made
with a 5-kV portable Schering bridge, and the difference
between the 1937 figures and those for the replacement
insulators gives some idea of the deterioration which had
occurred, although it must be remembered that the tech-
nique of manufacture of bakelized paper bushings improved
considerably between 1929 and 1937.
The gradual improvement in the older insulators which
the better air conditions have caused is also shown in this
Figure, and an attempt which was made to dry insulators
by means of local heat will be seen to have had only tem-
porary effect. Some slight deterioration of the new insu-
lators is shown, and both old and new insulators appear to
he tending towards a common limiting value.
(5) ARRANGEMENTS OF VENTILATING PLANT
Several arrangements of ventilating and heating were
tried before a satisfactory and economic method was
evolved for the substation described in Section 2.
A common feature of all the forced-ventilation arrange-
ments was that a flow of air was arranged through the
enclosed parts of the switchgear. By maintaining a higher
air pressure in the basement than in the switchroom, a flow
of air took place up the hollow legs of the switches, where
the terminal boards and closing contactors were placed, and
thence leaked into the switchroom. Similarly in the relay
panels, a flow of air took place through the cable slots into
the cubicles and thence leaked into the room. By this
means stagnancy within these enclosed spaces was avoided.
The several variations of this arrangement which were
tried will now be described in detail.
(5.1) Air Injection
The first method tried in one switch-house was to venti-
late by means of a fan driven by a 1 h.p. motor injecting
air into the basement of the switch-house at a rate of about
2 0C0 cu. ft. per min. By this means the air in the building
was maintained in practically the same condition as that
outside, and the tubular heaters were left on load to keep
the temperature of the plant above that of the outside air.
This method has two important drawbacks. Firstly,
during wet or foggy periods large quantities of moisture
are drawn into the building and must subsequently be re-
moved; and secondly, the amount of heat required from
the tubular heaters to maintain a given temperature is in-
creased considerably owing to the rapid interchange of air.
This latter drawback is minimized because the subsequent
experiments described in Section 5.3 showed that con-
tinuous heating might not have been necessary.
On account of the first drawback it was considered de-
sirable to shut off the fan during wet or foggy weather.
This meant that the fan was running for very short periods
during the winter months, and for this reason the method
was ruled out.
(5.2) Air Circulation with Leakage
An air-circulation method was tried in the other switch-
house. Air was drawn from the switchroom and, after
passing through a 12-kW heater, was discharged into the
basement at the rate of about 2 000 cu. ft. per min. This
arrangement, which is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1B,
results in a higher air pressure being developed in the
basement than in the switchroom, and a flow of air is
maintained through the switchgear. In order to ensure a
slight interchange of air between the inside and outside,
air leaks between the basement and outside were deliberately
left. The outward leakage from the basement is then
balanced by an inward leakage to the switchroom.* The
thermostat which controlled the heater was placed in the
air intake, and the tubular heaters were left in circuit.
This arrangement was immediately found to be successful
in drying the gear in the substation, and the troubles due
to excessive dampness, described in Section 4, began to
disappear. The drying-out was so successful that a similar
ventilating plant was installed in the other switch-house,
and it was decided to carry out other long-term tests to
improve the arrangement and, if possible, to reduce the
amount of heat necessary. The tests therefore took the
form of frequent readings of humidity and temperature, the
thermostat settings being reduced in steps. The relative
humidity was measured in these tests with a paper hygro-
meter so that great accuracy is not to be expected.
It was noticed that the temperature maintained had con-
siderable effect on the relative humidity, and average and
maximum values of the relative humidity observed for each
* Subsequent measurements taken under injection conditions (see
Section 5.3) led to an estimate for this leakage of 40% of the circulation, i.e.
about 800 cu. ft./min. This amount is excessive.
 FAVELL AND CONNON: THE VENTILATION OF SUBSTATIONS
thermostat setting were plotted against the average
temperature.
From this curve and from the number of units consumed
for various temperature differences between the air inside
and outside the building, a graph (Fig. 6) was derived which
For each
switch house
05 75 85 95%
Relative humidity
Fig. 6.—Relative-humidity range obtained for a given expendi-
ture on heating (under conditions described in Section 5.2).
shows approximately the cost of maintaining any required
relative humidity in the building. These readings were
taken during the winter and early spring and therefore
probably represent the worst conditions. In calculating
the cost of maintaining a given indoor temperature, how-
ever, allowance was made for the summer period by taking
the average outdoor temperature for the whole year.
Whilst it is not claimed that these figures are scientifically
accurate they do show the enormous expenditure necessary
to obtain low humidities reliably with thermostatic control
and considerable interchange of air. In spite of the success
of this method of drying the plant, the expense involved
and the amount of dirt which was being brought into the
substation led to a more thorough investigation of the
conditions required, and the method was abandoned in
favour of the circulation-injection method described below.
(5.3) Air Circulation with Injection
This method differs from the previous method only in
that a small fan driven by a ;}-h.p. motor is used to
inject air into the switchroom from outside. A filter in
this circuit prevents the ingress of large amounts of dirt,
and a filter is also incorporated in the circulation fan so as
to assist in removing the dirt already in the building. The
injection fan is arranged so that a slight positive pressure
is maintained in the switchroom, and hence a higher pres-
sure is maintained in the basement so that there is no inward
leakage. With all openings closed as thoroughly as was
practicable, it was found sufficient to inject an amount of
air equal to 10% of the circulation (200 cu. ft./min.).
Fabric-type air filters were used.
333
Tests were commenced in order to discover the mini-
mum amount of heat required with this arrangement,
a start being made without any heat at all. Readings were
first taken, every half-hour, of wet- and dry-bulb thermo-
meters outside and in the switchroom, and of the tem-
perature of the switch frames. A typical graph is shown
in Fig. 7. It was deduced from these readings that:—
Switchgear frame tempi!ratur
Internal air temperature
External air temperature
Internal d e w / "V>'
point /
External dew point
4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 (RP.S.l)
Midnight. Nocn
Fig. 7.—Typical half-hourly readings of temperature inside and
outside substation, 21-22 April, 1942.
(a) The rate of change of frame temperature and internal
air temperature is very slow. Within 24 hours the outside
temperature varied about 15 deg. F. but the internal air
temperature only 3 deg. F., and the frame temperature less
than 2 deg. F.
(b) The dew points inside and outside appear to vary
almost at the same time, but the variation is less inside than
outside.
(c) Owing to the time-lag between the rise and fall of
the temperature of the outside air and that of the frame,
the difference between the latter and the dew point appears
to be least at about 2 p.m. (British D.S.T.), whereas the
difference between the air temperature and the dew point
outside is a minimum at 4 a.m.
As the internal conditions appeared to be worst at 2 p.m.
it was decided to take daily readings at this time (1 p.m.
when Double Summer Time was discontinued). A few
weeks' readings showed again that the dew point inside
tended to follow that outside much more closely than the
frame temperature followed the outside temperature. As
this confirmed the general conclusions arrived at from the
theoretical calculations mentioned in Section 3.1.3, it was
decided to examine the conditions under which condensa-
tion might be expected to occur in the switchroom. Re-
ferring to Section 3.1.3 it will be noted that if a rise in ex-
ternal temperature occurs while a high relative humidity is
maintained, the internal dew point will rise faster than the
frame temperature and might overtake it, particularly if the
rise followed a considerable period of low temperature. In
considering this question it was thought that the time-lags
concerned were sufficient for the hour-to-hour variations
to be neglected, and that only the day-to-day variations
need be considered.
334 FAVELL AND CONNON: THE VENTILATION OF SUBSTATIONS
28 30 2 4 6 8 10 3 5
April May June
Spring 1942
Fig. 8.—Typical readings of temperatures and relative humidities inside and outside substation at 1 p.m. B.S.T.
O Inside air temperature.
• Switchgear frame temperature.
1 Inside dew point.
From the records previously taken of external tempera-
ture during tests with different ventilating arrange-
ments, it was observed that conditions which might possibly
lead to condensation had occurred on a few occasions
during one winter. It was therefore decided to install
humidity control so that, if condensation threatened, the
air heaters would be switched on.
(5.3.1) Humidity Control.
Several types of humidity-control devices or "humidi-
stats" are available, but satisfactory operation of these
devices generally depends on their being in a considerable
draught.
A humidistat was therefore placed in the air intake from
the switchroom and was arranged to switch on the 12-kW
heaters when the humidity exceeded 90%. The humidi-
stat should, however, be regarded as a protective device
rather than as a controlling device. A watt-hour meter
was installed so that an approximate record could be
obtained of the number of hours of heating.
The setting for 90 % relative humidity was chosen for the
following reasons. It had been observed that the dif-
ference between the inside air temperature and the plant
temperature during these experiments seldom exceeded
2 deg. F. and never 3 deg. F., so that condensation cannot
occur if the difference between the air temperature and the
dew point is greater than 3 deg. F. When the dew point is
3 deg. F. less than the air temperature the relative humidity
7 9 11 13 15 17 19 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
October
Summer 1942 Autumn 1942
A Outside air temperature.
• Outside dew point.
will be found to be 90 % over a wide range of air tempera-
ture, namely from 35° F. to 70° F. approximately. Hence,
if the relative humidity is not allowed to exceed 90%,
condensation is unlikely in the circumstances described.
(5.3.2) Summary of Results of Circulation—Injection Method.
The wet- and dry-bulb thermometer readings inside and
outside the substation, and the plant temperature readings,
were continued for a considerable period; extracts from
these readings are plotted in Fig. 8.
The circulation-injection method with protective humi-
dity control has been found to be the most satisfactory of
the methods tried and, in addition, a large saving of fuel
has been achieved. The following figures summarize the
results over some 43 weeks' operation (23rd April, 1942,
to 16th February, 1943):—
Range of relative humidity observed at 1 p.m., B.S.T.
- 3 6 % to 89%.
(Note.—Although no reading as high as 90% was
obtained, the relative humidity must have reached this
value in order to switch on the heating.)
Approximate average relative humidity at 1 p.m., B.S.T.
-68-5%.
Approximate number of days on which the relative
humidity exceeded 80% at 1 p.m. (see Section 3.1.2)
= 34(11%).
Condition of plant remained clean and dry.
[Continued at foot of col. 1 on next page.]
 FAVELL AND CONNON: THE VENTILATION OF SUBSTATIONS 335

80 (5.4) Natural Ventilation

Various devices of a proprietary nature are on the
market which may be mounted in the substation roof and
70 will effectively cause a flow of air through the building,
provided air bricks or louvres are left open near ground-
Heatir\g on level.
for 2l/2 hours— Sufficient circulation through the gear cannot, however,
60 be obtained in this way, and a further difficulty is that the
operation of these devices depends on outside conditions
and little control can be exercised over the interchange.
50 Their application is thus generally limited to the smaller
substations (see Section 8) where they can, if necessary, be
v
used in conjunction with a forced-circulation system.
40
(5.5) Precautions against Spread of Fire
With any ventilation system it is desirable to ensure that,
/ ! in the event of fire, the air movements will not assist in
30 \^ \
\ / i spreading the fire or in dissipating the CO 2 or other fire-
V /
i extinguishing medium.
h In the case of the substation described in Section 2 this
has been achieved automatically by the use of gas-pressure-
operated switches. These switches, which operate on the
release of the CO 2 from the automatic equipment, are so
50 connected that their operation shuts down all the ventilating
fans.
(6) COMPARISON OF COST OF VENTILATING AND
1 1 1 i i i i i i 1 1 1
0 HEATING ARRANGEMENTS
3 5 7 9 11 13 15
The following figures give a comparison of the cost of
January
the various methods which have been tried in the sub-
Winter 1943 station described in Section 2.
Fig. 8—continued.
(6.1) Supply Costs
Approximate annual consumption
Section of for two buildings
paper Method Remarks
No. of units Cost*

4 Tubular heaters with thermostatic control. 50° F. No ventilation Unsatisfactory 150 380 £235t
4 Tubular heaters with thermostatic control. 60° F. No ventilation Unsatisfactory 288 000$ £450
5.2 Tubular heaters and air heaters. Air circulation with approx. Doubtful 116 000 £180
800 cu. ft./min. interchange. Thermostatic control for 50° F., method (from Fig. 6)
giving an average relative humidity of 75 %
5.2 Tubular heaters and air heaters. Air circulation with approximately Satisfactory 282 000 £440
800 cu. ft./min. interchange. Thermostatic control for 60° F., (from Fig. 6)
giving an average relative humidity of 65 %
5.3 Circulation—injection method with air-heaters controlled by pro- Satisfactory 11 530 £18.0.4§
tective humidistat set at 90% relative humidity, giving an average
relative humidity of 68-5%

* At Jd. per unit. t Actual cost for 12 months. t Estimated. § Estimated from 43 weeks' records (see Section 5.3.2).

Costs (one building only). (6.2) Capital Costs (including erection) on a 1942 basis
No. of units used by fans = 4 530 (equivalent to 5 480 Tubular heater and thermostat installa-
per annum). tion £360 ] ,-, .
Cost of electrical energy for fans (at *d. per unit) Circulation and injection fans with air I For two
-^ £7 Is. 7d. (i.e. £8 11s. 3d. per annum). heaters and humidistats £370 buildings
No. of hours of heating = 191 (i.e. 23i per annum).
Units used for heating — 236 "(i.e. 285 per annum). (7) TRANSFORMERS INSIDE BUILDINGS
Cost of electrical energy for heating at -j}d. per unit The ventilating arrangements discussed so far have all
7s. 4ld. (i.e. 8s. lid. per annum). aimed at the smallest possible use of heat, in order to reduce
Total cost of electrical energy for one building, on an the cost. The problem of maintaining plant in good con-
annual basis = £9 0s. 2d. dition is, however, eased where heat can be used, if suitable
336 FAVELL AND CONNON: THE VENTILATION OF SUBSTATIONS
arrangements to remove dampness are also provided.
Transformers are therefore frequently installed in sub-
station buildings so that the heat dissipated due to the
losses may assist in the maintenance of suitable atmo-
spheric conditions.
This practice materially affects the ventilation problems
and has several disadvantages, so that it cannot be con-
sidered to be a universal solution of the problem. Fire
risks are, of course, materially increased, and special ar-
rangements may have to be made to deal with them.17
Explosion risks are not greatly increased, but the effects
of a switchgear explosion may be very much more serious
as the transformer will be exposed to damage therefrom.
The building may have to be considerably larger than would
otherwise be necessary and, in addition, the transformer
itself may have to be larger because of the less effective
cooling. One of the more serious disadvantages of which
the authors have experience, however, is the deterioration
of the transformer.
(7.1) Effect on Transformer Deterioration
One of the most important causes of transformer de-
terioration is the oxidation and consequent increase in the
acidity of the oil. Much has been written on this problem,
the recent contributions by Pollitt14 and Welch15 being
notable. Whilst the conditions which are favourable to
rapid oxidation do not seem to be completely understood,
it appears that the better the ventilation around a trans-
former and the lower the temperature, the less is the
deterioration.14
In this connection the following figures, for a group of
transformers well known to the authors, show the increased
rate of deterioration of transformers installed indoors.
The transformers comprise 605 of various ratings installed
throughout a rural distribution system. They are not all
of the same type, only a few having conservators and
breathers, and were supplied between 1929 and 1942,
mostly by one manufacturer.
A sample of oil is taken from each transformer once a
year and an electric strength test and an acidity test are places. The provision of holes in the barriers between the
made on each sample. Particular note is taken of any
which have an acid value above 0-5 mg. KOH per g.
of oil.
Total number of transformers at 31st
March, 1942 605
No. of transformers installed indoors (in-
cluding kiosks) .. .. .. .. 26
Percentage of "indoor" transformers having
acid value greater than 0-5 .. .. 23 • 1 % the air.
No. of transformers installed outdoors .. 579
Percentage of "outdoor" transformers
having acid value greater than 0-5 .. 1 • 035 % likely to enter and cause subsequent breakdown, and the
(7.2) Effect on Ventilation
When power transformers are installed indoors, the
ventilation problem frequently becomes one of obtaining a
sufficient interchange of air to carry away the heat from
the losses and thus prevent overheating. The natural
ventilation caused by convection from the transformer may
prove sufficient; but care must be taken that other im-
portant items of gear are not placed where the air may
become stagnant. A combination of forced circulation
and natural and converted interchange is frequently a
satisfactory arrangement (see Section 8.3). The rate of air
flow and the size of air openings required for the cooling
of transformers have been discussed by Sia,13 who also
describes a chimney type of convection ventilator.
As it has been demonstrated (Section 5.3) that only small
amounts of heat are required to ensure good conditions in
a switchroom, it would not therefore seem advantageous,
in view of the difficulties mentioned, to house transformers
in switchgear buildings merely in order to make use of the
waste heat.
(8) APPLICATION TO SMALLER SUBSTATIONS
The subject has been considered so far in its relation to
the larger substations. In applying the principles to
smaller substations the following points have to be borne
in mind:—
(a) The smaller importance of the supply and the lower
value of the gear do not justify elaborate ventilating
equipment.
(b) Similarly the reduction of heating to the minimum
is even more important than in the larger substations.
(c) The ventilating equipment must be arranged to
operate with the minimum of attention and maintenance.
It is still essential to maintain a steady circulation of air
round the plant together with a small interchange, but
natural ventilation may often be relied on for such inter-
change while a fan is used to create circulation. The cost
of running another small fan for interchange is, however,
very small and, in view of the disadvantages of natural
ventilation, may be preferable.
Some details of the application of these principles to
various types of switchgear arc given below.
(8.1) Cubicle and Truck-type Gear
In this type of gear a good circulation can generally be
achieved by means of a fan injecting air into the cubicles
and maintaining them at a pressure above atmosphere so
that air will leak out at the gaps in the doors and similar
various parts of the gear may be necessary in order to
attain sufficient circulation through all parts.
If it is not desired to use natural ventilation or to install
a separate injection fan, interchange of air between inside
and outside the building may be attained by allowing a
small amount of leakage from the cubicles to the outside.
Where an auxiliary transformer is incorporated in the
gear, the injection of air past it assists not only in cooling
the transformer but also in maintaining dryness, by heating
Gear of this type often includes open-type current trans-
formers, in some designs of which moisture is particularly
maintenance of dry conditions will tend to prevent this.
(8.2) Metalclad Switchgear
There are so many different types of metalclad switchgear
that it is almost impossible to generalize on their ventila-
tion. When busbars, current transformers and the like are
oil- or compound-immersed the ventilation may be con-
fined to the small wiring, but with air-insulated busbars
and current transformers some method of maintaining
circulation of air through the chambers containing them
 FAVELL AND CONNON: THE VENTILATION OF SUBSTATIONS
is desirable. The method described in Section 5 is
especially suitable for compound-filled metalclad gear, but
the structural arrangements necessary are seldom prac-
ticable in the smaller substations.
In such circumstances the incorporation of a ventilating
fan in the gear itself is particularly desirable. In this
connection greater co-operation between manufacturers
and users is desirable, as the cost of providing and operating
small ventilating equipments is generally a negligible pro-
portion of the initial cost and the cost of maintenance of
the gear.
(8.3) Kiosks
A kiosk substation housing a transformer, a high-voltage
switch and low-voltage fusegear, is a case where natural air
interchange and forced circulation are especially suitable.
A satisfactory arrangement consists in providing louvres
near the floor and openings under the eaves in the trans-
former compartment only, so as to allow natural con-
vection there, while the other compartments are completely
closed from outside. Louvres near the floor are then pro-
vided between the compartments and a fan is placed near
the roof to extract warm air from the transformer com-
partment and supply it to the other compartments, whence
it will return through the floor louvres. The fan used for
this purpose will require to be reasonably silent if the kiosk
is situated in a residential district.
Where kiosks house switchgear only, the method used
will depend mainly on the type of switchgear installed.
(9) FACTORIES ACT
Certain provisions of the Factories Act, 1937, apply only
to premises where mechanical power is used. Ventilating
fans, however, are not deemed to be "mechanical power"
in this connection,16 so that their installation in a substation
does not alter its position under the Act.
(10) CONCLUSION
The provision of adequate and suitably planned ventila-
tion is a means of maintaining substation equipment in a
satisfactory condition with a far smaller use of heat than
has generally been considered necessary. The investigation
described in the paper should be regarded as in its early
stages, for there are several points which require clarifica-
tion. Further collaboration by manufacturers, for in-
stance in designing gear which would be unharmed by the
occasional condensation that might occur in an unheated
building, might enable heating to be entirely dispensed with.
It is by no means certain that present-day switchgear will
be adversely affected by occasional bad conditions, and
further investigation of this matter is required.
Substation equipment and the buildings housing it have
in the past been designed and constructed as separate units,
as were engines and electric generators in the early days of
electricity supply. The authors would therefore conclude
this paper with the suggestion that such equipment and
buildings are, in reality, one unit and should be designed
and constructed as such from the outset.
(11) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors' thanks are due to the Chairman and
Members of the North West Midlands Joint Electricity
Authority for their permission to publish the information
VOL. 90, PART II.
337
concerning the Authority's substations and equipment;
and to their colleagues on the staff of the Authority for
their valuable assistance.
(12) REFERENCES
(1) A.R.P. Memorandum No. C.2, Section 3.
(2) "Fire Prevention at Generating Stations" (Electricity
Commission, 1938).
(3) F. C. WINFIELD: "Fire Precautions in Major Elec-
trical Stations," Journal I.E.E., 1937, 81, p. 289.
(4) H. W. CLOTHIER, B. H. LEESON and H. LEYBURN : " Safe
guards against Interruption of Supply," ibid., 1938,
82, p. 445.
(5) "Fire Fighting Equipment for Electrical Installa-
tions" (E.R.A. Report), ibid., 1939, 85, p. 719.
(6) R. H. BAILEY: "A.R.P. in the Electrical Industry"
(A. Reyrolle and Co., Ltd.).
(7) E. L. JOSELIN: "Ventilation" (Arnold, London, 1934).
(8) J. A. MAYER and R. U. Frrrz: "Air Conditioning"
[McGraw-Hill, New York, 1933].
(9) W. H. CARRIER: "Rational Psychrometric Formulae,"
Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, 1911, 33, p. 1005.
(10) Discussion on Symposium of papers on "Insulating
Oils," Journal I.E.E., 1943, 90, Part II, p. 53.
(11) F. FAVELL: Discussion on "Fire Fighting Equipment
for Electrical Installations," ibid., 1940, 87, p. 272.
(12) R. GRIERSON: "Space Heating by means of Electri-
cally Warmed Floors as applied to Surface-Type
Air-Raid Shelters," ibid., 1942, 89, Part II, p. 4.
(13) V. SIA: "Some Problems encountered on a Distribu-
tion System, with Special Reference to Shanghai,"
ibid., 1942, 89, Part II, p. 143.
(14) A. A. POLLITT: "Mineral Oils for Transformers and
Switchgear," ibid., 1943, 90, Part II, p. 15.
(15) L. H. WELCH: "Maintenance of Insulating Oils in the
Field," ibid., 1943, 90, Part II, p. 29.
(16) Factories Act, 1937, Section 152(3).
(17) Electricity Supply Regulations, 1937; Regulation 16.
(13) APPENDICES
(13.1) Relation between Internal and External Conditions
(with sudden external change)
The relation between the internal and external condi-
tions, when a small amount of air injection takes place,
may be obtained as follows:—
Change of Internal Absolute Humidity.
Let us assume that, after steady conditions, an increase
from absolute humidity a to absolute humidity b occurs
suddenly outside.
Let C = capacity of building in cu. ft.
i = air interchange in cu. ft./min.
«! = absolute humidity of internal air after t min.
from external change.
Then C(dat) = idt(b — a{), whence al = b — (6 - a)e~u/c
Change of Internal Temperature.
Let us again assume that, after steady conditions, an
increase in external temperature from Ta to Tb occurs
suddenly.
23
338 FAVELL AND CONNON: THE VENTILATION OF SUBSTATIONS
Heat may enter the building in two ways, namely
(1) carried in by the injected air, and (2) transmitted through
the walls.
Let K •--•:- thermal capacity of the building.
:
XSW, where S — specific heat and W = weight.
i ~ air interchange in cu. ft./min.
Sa -~ specific heat of air.
P ••--air density.
H — heat transmitted through walls (B.Th.U. per min.
per deg. F.).
Tt — internal temperature after t min. from external
change.
Then, again, K(dTt) - (iPSa + H)dt(Tb - Tt)
Whence T, - Tb - (Tb - Ta)e~{iPS- + mt/K
(13.2) Relation between Internal and External Conditions
(with gradual external change)
When an external change has taken place gradually, the
internal conditions can be determined as follows:—
Change of Absolute Humidity.
Let us assume that, after steady conditions, an increase
DISCUSSION BEFORE THE TRANSMISSION SECTION, 10TH MARCH, 1943
Mr. R. Grierson: The authors ingenuously record the
fact that they expended substantial sums of money in
maintaining the temperature of an unattended substation
at 50' and also at 60 u F., without producing evidence to
prove that the results obtained provided any marked im-
provement over a temperature of 40° F. If, in the initial
stage of their investigation, they had made a survey of the
available information regarding the seasonal variation of
relative humidity in this country, as provided, for example,
by "The Book of Normals,"* they would have seen that
the hourly mean only exceeded 89-9% at Kew between
2 a.m. and 7 a.m. in September and October, whereas at
Eskdalemuir it occurred between midnight and 6 a.m. in
July and August.
Again, according to Bilham/j* "the range of the diurnal
variation of relative humidity depends a good deal, like
that of temperature, on the conditions in respect to cloud
and wind. In clear calm weather the relative humidity at
inland stations during the summer half-year often varies
from an early morning maximum of 95% or even 100%
to an afternoon minimum of 40% or lower. Values of
100% arc not uncommon at all times of the year; in spring,
summer and early autumn they are confined, except at
high levels, to the night and early morning hours, but in
the late autumn and winter they may also occur during
the daytime, usually in association with wet fog." At
Eskdalemuir, the highest mean nourly value of 91 0% in
August corresponds to the lowest mean of 74 • 2 % and a
daily mean of 82%, giving a diurnal range of 16-8%;
whereas in December the respective values are 89-1%,
86-0%, 88-4% (maximum for year) and 3-1%.
The thermal resistance of the walls, floor and roof, the
materials employed and the surface finish are of vital
importance from the point of view of preventing condensa-
• Section VI, "Normals of Relative Humidity" (H.M. Stationery Office,
1928. 9d. net).
t E. G. BUHAM: "The Climate of the British Isles" (Macmillan), p. 226.
occurs outside from absolute humidity a at a rate o f /
grains per cu. ft. per min.
Let at = absolute humidity of internal air after t min.
bx — absolute humidity of outside air after t min.
Then Cdax = idt(by — ay) and bx = a f ft
so that Cda{ = idt(a — ax+ ft)
Whence a, = a + # + —(e~''lc — 1)
Change of Temperature.
Let us assume that, after steady conditions, an increase
occurs in the external temperature from Ta at a rate of
Tf deg. F. per min.
If TQ = temperature outside after t min.
then KdTt = (iPSa + W ( r 0 - r r )
and TQ = Ta + Tft
so that KdTt = (iPSa + i?)dSf(rfl + Tft - Tt)
whence Tt = Ta + Tft + - 1
tion. It would be interesting to know, for example, why
the roof was (presumably) constructed only of 6 in. of solid
concrete (for which the thermal conductivity may be esti-
mated at 0-54B.Th.U. per hour or 0-16 watt per sq. ft.
per deg. F., although it has been established that the
maximum safe value is 0• 3 B.Th.U. per hour or 0 • 088 watt
per sq. ft. per deg. F.), when it was desired to eliminate
the risk of condensation.* The effect of material and
surface finish on the stabilization of the temperature and
relative humidity has not been adequately stressed in the
paper. Thus, entirely different results will be obtained in
(a) a kiosk constructed of non-absorbent materials, such as
steel or cast-iron plates; (b) a brick building in which the
internal surfaces of the walls have been rendered non-
absorbent, either by means of glazing (glazed bricks or
tiles) or by paint, distemper, etc.; and (c) a building in which
the ordinary absorbent bricks have been left in their natural
state. In this connection I would recall a contribution of
Mr. A. C. Pallotf to the discussion on the paper by Mr.
Betts and myself, in which he mentioned the extraordinary
results which had been achieved in the Lower Orangery
at Hampton Court Palace, where it was necessary to main-
tain the relative humidity within the limits of 55% and
75%, corresponding to a variation in the air content of
50 lb. of water. The gallery contains a large amount of
panelling and other woodwork, but it is painted, and its
reaction to changes in relative humidity would be com-
paratively slow. It was found possible to stabilize the
relative humidity between the specified limits of 55% and
75 % merely by installing 2 000 lb. of old, unlined canvas
fire hose in the air ducts, which it was calculated could
absorb and release 80 lb. of water within the prescribed
limits.
Unsaturated air (like sponges, towels, etc.) has a capacity
* Journal I.E.E., 1942, 89, Part II, p. 12.
t Ibid., 1935, 76, p. 514.