Router

A router is a network device that is used to connect two or more network device together and it is responsible for
forwarding packets from one network-to- another network or from the source to the destination. It also determine
optimal path for transmitting information from one network to another. Router breaks up a broadcast domain into
two or more. It has multiple interfaces and each interface belong to a different IP network or broadcast domain. It
is layer 3 device.

Function of Router:- There are two main function perform by

1. Path Determination: There may be various paths to get from source to destination. A router determine best
path for transmitting data from source to destination by using routing table.

2. Packet Forwarding: After path determination router forwards the packet from source to destination using IP
address.

In addition to packet forwarding, a router provides other services as well, routers are also used to:
1. Ensure 24x7 (24 hours a day, 7 days a week) availability network reachability, by using alternate paths in
case the primary path fails.

2. Provide integrated services of data, video, and voice over wired and wireless networks. Routers use
Quality of service (QoS) prioritization of IP packets to ensure that real-time traffic, such as voice, video
and critical data are not dropped or delayed.
3. Mitigate the impact of worms, viruses, and other attacks on the network by permitting or denying the
forwarding of packets. By using ACL
4.
Note:- When the router receives a packet, it examines its destination IP address and searches for the best
match with a network address in the router's routing table. The routing table also includes the interface to be
used to forward the packet. Once a match is found, the router encapsulates the IP packet into the data link
frame of the outgoing interface, and the packet is then forwarded toward its destination. The data link
encapsulation depends on the type of interface on the router and the type of medium it connects to. It is very
likely that a router will receive a packet that is encapsulated in one type of data link frame, such as an
Ethernet frame and when forwarding the packet, the router will encapsulate it in a different type of data link
frame, such as Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP).

--Static routes and dynamic routing protocols are used by routers to learn about remote networks
and build their routing tables.

Router Components - The main components of router are

1. CPU: The CPU loads instructions defined in CISCO IOS software from the main processor memory and
executes instructions, such as system initialization, routing functions, and switching functions.

2. ROM: is known as Read-Only Memory and Non-volatile memory. Cisco devices use ROM to store:
-The bootstrap instructions
-Basic diagnostic software (instructions for power-on self-test (POST) diagnostics)
-Scaled-down version of IOS (mini IOS).
3. RAM: is known as Random Access Memory and it is volatile memory and loses its content when the router is
powered down or restarted. It stores routing tables, ARP cache, Performs packet buffering (shared RAM), and
it also provides temporary memory for the Running-configur while the router is powered on.

4. NVRAM: is known as Non-Volatile RAM and it provides storage for the startup configuration file, Retains
content when router is powered down or restarted and Configuration Register – 16 bit register which decides
boot sequence.

5. Flash memory: is nonvolatile computer memory that can be electrically stored and erased and it holds the
operating system image (IOS), Allows software to be updated without removing and replacing chips on the
processor, Retains content when router is powered down or restarted, it can store multiple versions
of IOS software

Router Power-On/Bootup Sequence

1. Perform power-on self-test (POST).

2. Load and run bootstrap code.

3. Locate the Cisco IOS software.

4. Load the Cisco IOS software.

5. Locate the configuration.

6. Load the configuration.

7. Run the configured Cisco IOS software.

After the Post:- After the POST, the following events occur as the router initializes:

Step 1: The generic bootstrap loader in ROM executes. A bootstrap is a simple set of instructions that tests
hardware and initializes the IOS for operation.

Step 2:- The IOS can be found in several places. The boot field of the configuration register determines the
location to be used in loading the IOS.

Step 3:- The operating system image is loaded.

Step 4: The configuration file saved in NVRAM is loaded into main memory and executed one line at a time.
The configuration commands start routing processes, supply addresses for interfaces, and define other
operating characteristics of the router.

Step 5: If no valid configuration file exists in NVRAM, the operating system searches for an available TFTP
server. If no TFTP server is found, the setup dialog is initiated.

Internetwork Operating System (IOS)

The operating system software used in Cisco routers is known as Cisco Internetwork Operating System (IOS).
Cisco IOS manages the hardware and software resources of the router, including memory allocation, processes,
security, and file systems. Cisco IOS is a multitasking operating system that is integrated with routing, switching,
internetworking, and telecommunications functions.

Running Configuration File: This is the configuration file that stores the configuration commands that the
router IOS is currently using. With few exceptions, all commands configured on the router are stored in the
running configuration file, known as running-config.

ARP Cache: This cache contains the IPv4 address to MAC address mappings, similar to the ARP cache on a PC.
The ARP cache is used on routers that have LAN interfaces such as Ethernet interfaces.

Packet Buffer: Packets are temporarily stored in a buffer when received on an interface or before they exit an
interface.

Interfaces:

Interface is a physical connector that used is to receive and forward packets. Routers have multiple interfaces that
are used to connect to multiple networks. Each individual interface connects to a different network. Each interface
has its own IP address and subnet mask, which identifies it as a member of a specific network. A single interface on
a router can be used to connect to multiple networks. A router cannot have multiple interfaces that belong to the
same IP subnet. Each interface must belong to a separate subnet. Cisco routers use LED indicators to provide
status information. An interface LED indicates the activity of the corresponding interface. If an LED is off when
the interface is active and the interface is correctly connected, this may be an indication of a problem with that
interface. If an interface is extremely busy, its LED will always be on. Depending on the type of router, there may
be other LEDs as well.

Types of Router interfaces: Router interface can be divided into two major groups:

1. LAN interfaces - LAN interfaces are used to connect the router to the LAN. Ethernet and FastEthernet
are examples of LAN interface. MAC addresses are used on LAN interfaces. An RJ-45 connector for the
unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable is the most common connector used to connect LAN interfaces. At
each end of an RJ-45 cable, you should be able to see eight colored strips, or pins. An Ethernet cable uses
pins 1, 2, 3, and 6 for transmitting and receiving data.

Two types of cables can be used with Ethernet LAN interfaces:

A straight-through, or patch cable, with the order of the colored pins the same on each end of the cable.
Straight-through cables are used for:
Switch-to-router
Switch-to-PC
Hub-to-PC
Hub-to-server

A crossover cable, with pin 1 connected to pin 3, and pin 2 connected to pin 6
Crossover cables are used for:
Switch-to-switch
PC-to-PC
Switch-to-hub
Hub-to-hub
Router-to-router
Router-to-server
The router's Ethernet or FastEthernet interface will be the default gateway IP address for any devices on
that LAN. And also participate in the ARP process as a member of that Ethernet network. These
 Interfaces have a Layer 2 MAC address. The show interfaces command displays the MAC address for the
Ethernet interfaces.

2. WAN interfaces - WAN interfaces are used to connect routers to external networks, usually over a
larger geographical distance. HDCL, PPP, Frame Relay and ISDN. Each WAN interface has its own IP
address and subnet mask, which identifies it as a member of a specific network. MAC addresses are not
used on WAN interfaces; they use their own Layer 2 addresses depending on the technology. A router
has a DB-60 port that can support five different cabling standards. Cisco routers support the EIA/TIA-
232, EIA/TIA-449, V.35, X.21, and EIA/TIA-530 standards for serial (WAN) connections. Because five
different cable types are supported with this port, the port is sometimes called a five-in-one serial port.

When a router's interface is configured with an IP address and subnet mask, that interface becomes a host on that
network. Hosts that are attached to the same LAN belong to the same network.

A Cisco 1841 router has the following interfaces:

Two FastEthernet interfaces: FastEthernet 0/0 and FastEthernet 0/1

Two serial interfaces: Serial 0/0/0 and Serial0/0/1

The serial interface will be in the up state only after the other end of the serial link has also been properly
configured. Serial interfaces require a clock signal to control the timing of the communications. If we not configure
clock signal on serial interface then it will show up/down in show interface serial 0/0/0 command. It means
physical link is up but protocol is down. The clock rate command will set the clock signal for the serial link.

Management Ports

Routers have physical connectors that are used to manage the router. These connectors are known as management
ports. Management ports are not used for packet forwarding.

1. The console port is used to connect a terminal, or most often a PC running terminal emulator software, to
configure the router without the need for network access to that router. The console port must be used during
initial configuration of the router.
2. Auxiliary port can also be used to attach a modem. Not all routers have auxiliary ports.

Routing Process:
1. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) creates an echo request payload (which is just the alphabet in the
data field).

2. ICMP hands that payload to Internet Protocol (IP), which then creates a packet.

3. Once the packet is created, IP determines whether the destination IP address is on the local network or a remote
one.

4. Since IP determines that this is a remote request, the packet needs to be sent to the default gateway so the
packet can be routed to the remote network. The Registry in Windows is parsed to find the configured default
gateway.
5. The default gateway of host 172.16.10.2 (Host_A) is configured to 172.16.10.1. To be able to send this packet to
the default gateway, the hardware address of the router’s interface Ethernet 0 (configured with the IP address of
172.16.10.1) must be known.

6. Next, the ARP cache is checked to see if the IP address of the default gateway has already been resolved to a
hardware address:

If the hardware address isn’t already in the ARP cache of the host, an ARP broadcast is sent out onto the local
network to search for the hardware address of 172.16.10.1. The router responds to the request and provides the
hardware address of Ethernet 0, and the host caches this address. The router also caches the hardware address of
Host_A in its ARP cache.

7. Once the packet and destination hardware address are handed to the Data Link layer, the LAN driver is used to
provide media access via the type of LAN being used (in this example, Ethernet). A frame is then generated,
encapsulating the packet with control information. Within that frame are the hardware destination and source
addresses, plus, in this case, an Ether-Type field that describes the Network layer protocol that handed the packet
to the Data Link layer—in this instance, IP. At the end of the frame is something called a Frame Check Sequence
(FCS) field that houses the result of the cyclic redundancy check (CRC).

8. Once the frame is completed, it’s handed down to the Physical layer to be put on the physical medium (in this
example, twisted-pair wire) one bit at a time.

9. Every device in the collision domain receives these bits and builds the frame. They each run a CRC and check
the answer in the FCS field. If the answers don’t match, the frame is discarded.

If the CRC matches, then the hardware destination address is checked to see if it matches, too (which, in this
example, is the router’s interface Ethernet 0). If it’s a match, then the Ether-Type field is checked to find the
protocol used at the Network layer.

10. The packet is pulled from the frame, and what is left of the frame is discarded. The packet is handed to the
protocol listed in the Ether-Type field—it’s given to IP.

11. IP receives the packet and checks the IP destination address. Since the packet’s destination address doesn’t
match any of the addresses configured on the receiving router itself, the router will look up the destination IP
network address in its routing table.

12. The routing table must have an entry for the network 172.16.20.0, or the packet will be discarded

Immediately and an ICMP message will be sent back to the originating device with a “destination network
unreachable” message.

13. If the router does find an entry for the destination network in its table, the packet is switched to the exit
interface—in this example, interface Ethernet 1.

14. The router packet-switches the packet to the Ethernet 1 buffer.

15. The Ethernet 1 buffer needs to know the hardware address of the destination host and first checks the ARP
cache. If the hardware address of Host_B has already been resolved, then the packet and the

hardware address are handed down to the Data Link layer to be framed. If the hardware address has not already
been resolved, the router sends an ARP request out E1 looking for the hardware address of 172.16.20.2. Host_B
responds with its hardware address, and the packet and destination hardware address are both sent to the Data
Link layer for framing.

16. The Data Link layer creates a frame with the destination and source hardware address, Ether-Type field, and
FCS field at the end of the frame. The frame is handed to the Physical layer to be sent out on the physical medium
one bit at a time.

17. Host_B receives the frame and immediately runs a CRC. If the result matches what’s in the FCS field, the
hardware destination address is then checked. If the host finds a match, the Ether-Type field is then checked to
determine the protocol that the packet should be handed to at the Network layer—IP, in this example.

18. At the Network layer, IP receives the packet and checks the IP destination address. Since there’s finally a
match made, the protocol field is checked to find out whom the payload should be given to.

19. The payload is handed to ICMP, which understands that this is an echo request. ICMP responds to this by
immediately discarding the packet and generating a new payload as an echo reply.

20. A packet is then created including the source and destination address, protocol field, and payload. The
destination device is now Host_A.

21. IP then checks to see whether the destination IP address is a device on the local LAN or on a remote network.
Since the destination device is on a remote network, the packet needs to be sent to the default gateway.

22. The default gateway IP address is found in the Registry of the Windows device, and the ARP cache is checked
to see if the hardware address has already been resolved from an IP address.

23. Once the hardware address of the default gateway is found, the packet and destination hardware addresses are
handed down to the Data Link layer for framing.

24. The Data Link layer frames the packet of information and includes the following in the header:

The destination and source hardware address

_ The Ether-Type field with 0x0800 (IP) in it

_ The FCS field with the CRC result in tow

25. The frame is now handed down to the Physical layer to be sent out over the network medium one bit at a time.

26. The router’s Ethernet 1 interface receives the bits and builds a frame. The CRC is run, and the FCS field is
checked to make sure the answers match.

27. Once the CRC is found to be okay, the hardware destination address is checked. Since the router’s interface is a
match, the packet is pulled from the frame and the Ether-Type field is checked to see what protocol at the
Network layer the packet should be delivered to.

28. The protocol is determined to be IP, so it gets the packet. IP runs a CRC check on the IP header first, and then
checks the destination IP address.

29. But the router does know how to get to network 172.16.10.0—the exit interface is Ethernet 0—so the packet is
switched to interface Ethernet 0.
30. The router checks the ARP cache to determine whether the hardware address for 172.16.10.2 has already been
resolved.

31. Since the hardware address to 172.16.10.2 is already cached from the originating trip to Host_B, the hardware
address and packet are handed to the Data Link layer.

32. The Data Link layer builds a frame with the destination hardware address and source hardware address, and
then puts IP in the Ether-Type field. A CRC is run on the frame, and the result is placed in the FCS field.

33. The frame is then handed to the Physical layer to be sent out onto the local network one bit at a time.

34. The destination host receives the frame, runs a CRC, checks the destination hardware address, and looks in the
Ether-Type field to find out whom to hand the packet to.

35. IP is the designated receiver, and after the packet is handed to IP at the Network layer, it checks the protocol
field for further direction. IP finds instructions to give the payload to ICMP, and ICMP determines the packet to
be an ICMP echo reply.

36. ICMP acknowledges that it has received the reply by sending an exclamation point (!) to the user interface.
ICMP then attempts to send four more echo requests to the destination host.

IP Routing Table: A routing table is a data file in RAM that is used to store route information about directly
connected and remote networks. The routing table contains network/next hop associations. It is also used to
determine the best path to forward the packet. Static routes and dynamic routing protocols are used by routers to
learn about remote networks and build their routing tables. The routing table is displayed with the show ip route
command. It displays the source of the route information, directly connected network, static route or a dynamic
routing protocol. The C represents a directly connected route. S is used for static route. When the routing table
includes a route entry for a remote network, additional information is included, such as the routing metric and the
administrative distance. Dynamic route can be any one R for RIP, O for OSPF, and. A routing table is a data
structure used to store routing information acquired from different sources. The main purpose of a routing table is
to provide the router with paths to different destination networks.

The routing table consists of a list of "known" network addresses - that is, those addresses that are directly
connected, configured statically, and learned dynamically.

The fewer the entries in the routing table, the faster the lookup process. To keep routing tables
smaller, network addresses with subnet masks are listed instead of individual host IP addresses. The
debug ip routing command displays routing table processes for any route, whether that route is a
directly connected network, a static route, or a dynamic route.

Routing:

Routing is the process of forwarding packets from source to destination by using IP address and it is
usually performed by a device called Router.

To route, a router needs to know:

1) Destination addresses, 2) Sources it can learn from 3) Possible routes 4) Best route
Type of IP Routing or Route:- Remote networks are added to the routing table either by
configuring static routes or enabling a dynamic routing protocol. There are 3 types of IP routing are:

1. Static Routes:- In static routing(route), routes are manually configured in the routing table by
administrator.
A static route includes the network address and subnet mask of the remote network, along with
the IP address of the next-hop router or exit interface. Static routes are denoted with the code S
in the routing table
Static routes should be used in the following cases:
A network consists of only a few routers. There is no need to use a dynamic routing
protocol across small network because dynamic routing may add more administrative
overhead.
A network is connected to the Internet only through a single ISP. There is no need to
use a dynamic routing protocol across this link because the ISP represents the only exit point
to the Internet.
A large network is configured in a hub-and-spoke topology. A hub-and-spoke topology
consists of a central location (the hub) and multiple branch locations (spokes), with each
spoke having only one connection to the hub. There is no need to use a dynamic routing
protocol because each branch has only one path to a given destination-through the central
location.
The Main advantage of Static routing are:
 Easy to configure.
 It requires Minimal CPU processing.
 Easier for administrator to understand.

The main disadvantage of Static routing are:

 It is not feasible in large networks.
 Configuration and maintenance is time-consuming.
 Administrator intervention is required to maintain changing route information.

NOTE: - As a rule, the next hop address should always be used when defining a static route on a multi-
access network such as Ethernet. A router interface on a multi-access network could have several link
partners, so the next hop address must be used to specify which neighbor should receive traffic for a given
network.

2. Default Routes:- A default route is a special type of static route that specifies a path if router
does not know how to reach the destination.
Default static routes are used:
1. When no other routes in the routing table match the packet's destination IP address. A
common use is when connecting a company's edge router to the ISP network. and
 2. When a router has only one other router to which it is connected. This condition is known
as a stub router.
We can create Default Route by using an IP address and subnet mask of 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0.

3. Dynamic Routing:- In dynamic routing, routes are automatically adjusted in the routing table
by routing protocols. It can be implemented using one or more protocols. It is used in large
network. It is used by routers to share information about the reachability and status of remote
networks. Dynamic routing protocols perform several activities, such as:
 Network discovery
 Update and maintain routing tables

RIP, OSPF, IGRP, EGRP, BGP and IS-IS are type of dynamic routing protocols.

Note:- Typically, a network uses a combination of both a dynamic routing protocol and static
routes. In most networks, a single dynamic routing protocol is used, however there are cases where
different parts of the network may use different routing protocols.

Routing Terms

 Autonomous System: is a group of networks under a common administrative domain that

share a common routing strategy. Each AS is assigned a unique number from 1 to 65,535 by
IANA (The Internet Assigned Number Authority). AS numbers within the range of 64,512
through 65,535 are reserved for private use.
Different types of autonomous systems such as single homed, multihomed nontransit, and
multihomed transit.
1. Single-homed autonomous systems: If an AS has only one exit point to outside networks, it
is considered as a single-homed system. Single-homed autonomous systems are often referred to
as stub networks or stubs. Stubs can rely on a default route to handle all traffic destined for non-
local networks. So singled-homed AS can be configured with a default route to reach outside
networks.
2. Multihomed nontransit autonomous systems : if an AS has more than one exit point to
outside networks, then it is known as muilti-homed
3.

Notes: A router looks at two items when choosing best path:

1) Administrative Distance and 2) Routing Metrics. A router looks first at is AD for a route
source and then metrics.

 Administrative Distance: is a value that is assigned to each protocol and it gives a measure
of the reliability of the routing protocols. Administrative Distance can range from 0 to 255.
 The protocols with lower A.D. are more reliable and preferred over higher one. The directly
connected route is most reliable.
If a router has two types of routes such as RIP and EIGRP for same network number, the
router uses the AD to choose best one and it choose EIGRP because AD of EIGRP is 90
so it is more reliable.

Routing Protocols Administrative Distance

Directly Connected interface 0

Static Route 1
BGP 20
Internal EIGRP (within same AS) 90
IGRP 100
OSPF 110
IS-IS 115
RIP 120
EGP 140
External EIGRP (from other EIGRP) 170
Unknown Route (considered as invalid 255
route and will not be used)

 Routing Metrics: is measure of path desirability and it is used by routing protocols to

determine which path is the best path to remote destination.
The most common routing metrics are:
 Hop Count: is the number of routers the packet must travel through before
reaching the destination.
 Cost: is an arbitrary value based on bandwidth, expense and other matrices assigned
by the administrator.
 Delay: is the time required to move the packet from the current router to the
destination. This depends on bandwidth, delay, congestion and distance.
 Bandwidth: Bandwidth is defined as the number of bits that can be transmitted over
a link per second i.e. is the capacity of the links in kbps.
 Load: is the amount of activity on the interface.
 Routing Table: is used by router to select best path to destination. A basic routing table
includes the following information:
Network number, which interfaces the router, should use to reach network number, the
metric of path and how router learned about this network number.

Protocol

A protocol is a set of rules that define how two devices can communicate with each other. It also
defines the format for the packets that is used to transmit data over communications lines.

Types of Protocols:- There are 2 types of protocol

 1. Routed protocol is used by a router to route packets from one router to another. IP and
IPX are the example of routed protocol.

2. Routing protocol determines how routers can communicate with each other to maintain
and update routing tables. It also determines best path to reach to the destination. RIP and
Interior IGRP are the example of routing protocol. The purpose of a routing protocol
includes:
 Discovery of remote networks
 Maintaining up-to-date routing information
 Choosing the best path to destination networks
 Ability to find a new best path if the current path is no longer available

Types of Routing Protocol:- There are 2 main types of routing protocols

1. IGP:- is known as Interior Gateway Protocol and it can exchange routing information
within an Autonomous System. RIP, OSPF, EIGRP and IGRP are example of IGP.
2. EGP:- is known as Exterior Gateway Protocol and it is used to exchange routing
information between different Autonomous system. BGP is example of EGP.

Routing protocols can be classified into different categories such as distance vector, link-state, or
advanced distance vector. IP routing protocols can also be classified as either classful or classless.

Classful vs Clasless Routing

1. Classful Routing:- is a routing protocol that does not support VLSM (variable length
subnetmask) and it does not include the subnet mask with the route advertisement. RIP
Version 1, IGRP are example of classful Routing.

2. Classless Routing:- is a routing protocol that supports VLSM and it includes the subnet
mask with the route advertisement. RIP Version 2, EIGRP, OSPF, IS-IS are example of
Classless Routing.

IGP Routing Protocol Types: Within an autonomous system IGP Routing can be further divided
into 2 categories: They are also known as Routing Methods or Routing Algorithm:-

1. Distance Vector Routing Protocols: uses Bellman-Ford algorithm to find best path to a
destination and it describe both distance and direction to reach to the final destination. It
passes periodic update of routing table to its directly connect neighbor routers. Distance
vector algorithms do not allow a router to know the exact topology of an internetwork. It is
also known as routing by rumor. It use broadcast to share the information and broadcast
 information to 255.255.255.255. RIPv1, RIPv2 and IGRP are example of Distance Vector
Protocol.
The main advantage of distance vector is that it is easy to configure and fewer router
resources required. The main disadvantage is that it provides slow convergence, Prone to
routing loops and Updates require more bandwidth.

2. Link State: uses Shortest Path First algorithm to find best path to a destination and it
describe exact topology of entire network. OSPF and IS-IS are the example of Link State.
The main advantage of link state is that it provides Fast convergence, there is no routing
loop, updates require less bandwidth and has detailed knowledge of distant networks and
routers. The main disadvantage is that it is more difficult to configure and more router
resource intensive.

How Link state Routing works:

 It forms adjacency relationship with connected neighbors.
 Exchange link attributes in the form of link state Advertisements (LSA)/ Link state
packets (LSP) with neighbors.
 Then it stores copy of all LSAs in Link State Data Base (LSDB) to form the graph of
the network.
 Then run dijkstra algorithm to find the shortest path to all links.
 Since all routers have the same LSDB therefore all SPF calculation are loop free.

3. Hybrid protocol: is the combination of both distance vector and link state. Typically it is
based on distance vector but it combines many features of link state protocols. The main
example of hybrid protocol is EIGRP.

Routing Loops:-
Routing Loop is a network problem in which packets continue to be routed in an endless circle.
Routing loops can occur when inconsistent routing tables are not updated due to slow convergence
in a changing network.

Loop Avoidance Methods: There are several methods to avoid loop.

 Maximum Hop Count:- Maximum Hop Count is a way to solve routing loop problem. It
will control how long it takes for a routing table entry to become invalid. For Ex RIP
permits a hop count of up to 15, so anything that requires 16 hops is deemed unreachable.

 Split Horizon:- The split horizon is a rule that states a router may not advertise a route
back to the neighbor from which it was received.

 Route Poisoning:- When a network becomes unreachable, an update with an infinite

metric is generated to advertise the Route as unreachable. Route Poisoning Usually used in
conjunction with split horizon. In the case of RIP, that would mean a hop count of 16.
 Poison Reverse:- A router advertises a network as unreachable through the interface on
which it was learned

 Triggered Updates:- When a router detects a topology change then it immediately sends an
update message to adjacent routers that, in turn, generate triggered updates notifying their
adjacent neighbors of the change. Triggered updates, used in conjunction with route
poisoning,

 Hold-downs:- Hold-down is a technique used to ensure that a route recently removed or

changed is not reinstated by a routing table update from another route. It makes a router
wait a period of time before accepting an update for a network whose status or metric has
recently changed.

Router ID (RID)

Cisco routers will obtain a router ID from one of three sources, in order:

1. An administratively configured value (the router-id command)1

2. The IP of the highest loopback interface
3. The IP of the highest other interface

Upstream:- is a router which is further away from destination than local router. This router will use
local router to get to the destination.

Downstream:- is a router which is close to the destination than local router.

IGRP

 IGRP is known as Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) is a Cisco-proprietary routing

protocol.
 It is a distance vector protocol and uses DUAL algorithm.
 EIGRP is a classful routing protocol that provides fast convergence.
 It uses bandwidth, delay and load as metrics to determine best path to a remote network.
 In IGRP maximum allowable hop count is 100.
 Its AD is 10.
 It sends update to all active interfaces every 90 seconds.
 It works well in small and medium networks.

IGRP Timers

 Update timers: specify how frequently routing-update messages should be sent. The default
is 90 seconds.

 Invalid timers: specify how long a router should wait before declaring a route invalid if it
doesn’t receive a specific update about it. The default is 3*90 = 270.

 Hold-down timers: specify the hold-down period. The default is three times the update
timer period plus 10 seconds. 280 seconds

 Flush timers: specifies how much time a router should wait before flushing a route from
the routing table. The default is seven times the routing update period. If the update timer is
90 seconds by default, then 7 × 90 = 630 seconds elapse before a route will be flushed from
the route table.

IGRP Vs RIP