Chapter 2: Regional classification of Floor Art -

Northern and Eastern parts of India

Diversity in the topography and geography of our country gives room for multiple styles in floor designs.
Each part of the country with its own trees and plants, birds and animals, hills and dales inspires the
artist to have multiple metaphors, series of symbols and innumerable images. Though we find certain
common stylistic characteristics, each region has its unique style of patterns, custom and faith having
enjoined that every important festival and ritual has its appropriate floor designs.

In the Northern and Eastern parts, rangoli is referred to as aipan or likhnoo in the Himalayan region,
chowkpurana in U.P., sona-rakhna in eastern parts of U.P., mandana in Rajasthan and M.P., aripana in
Bihar, alpana in Bengal and chita, osa or jhunti in Orissa. Besides these, a type of rangoli named sanjhi is
practised mainly by the temple priests at Vrindavan in U.P. and Rajasthan. Rangoli in all these regions is
drawn on festive occasions and various sacraments of life.

Besides the floor art, Jyontis (Jyonti,Jyoonti or Jhunti is the local word used for the Jeev Matrikas - Maha
Laxmi, Maha Saraswati and Maha Kali) or murals are traditionally painted on the walls of rooms where
religious ceremonies take place. These drawings are now made on paper, hardboard or plywood. Even
printed Jyonti pattas are available. Similarly, the wall paintings called as thapas are also popular all over
the region.

It is observed that two types of Lakshmis are worshipped in this region. The one auspicious, benevolent
and giver of prosperity is worshipped to seek her protection and blessings, while the other one
inauspicious and malignant goddess of misfortune and poverty, called Alakshmi is worshipped out of
fear. Numerous rites are enjoined for the clearing of the house of the goddess Alakshmi before the
auspicious Lakshmi enters. Drawing of related rangoli diagrams is one of the rites.
Besides rice flour and paste, wheat flour is also used in this region for executing rangoli. Wheat when
soaked in water for sometime and grounded, it becomes a white liquid like thick milk, which is then used
to draw the lines of rangoli. The sheaves of wheat are burnt and its ash is mixed with milk, forming a
brown paste which is used for background.

Himalayan region and Punjab:

In the Himalayan region, particularly the Dogra or Duggar region142, the making of folk paintings on the
floors, thresholds, walls, grain stores, ritual places etc. is still very much prevalent among the common
folk. About the floor art of the region, Ashok Jerath, an expert in the field of Himalayan art and culture
writes that before making a floor pattern, the floor is swept and brushed with cow-dung; when it is half
dried a round stone is rubbed against the surface of the floor to make it smooth. This rubbing forms a
half circle in two ways. In normal routine, the hollow of the half circle remains towards the door, but in
conditions of mourning or any sad happenings, it is in reverse direction. Thus looking at the floor, the
situation of the house is indicated to an outsider, before entering the house.143 Some rhythmic fluent
patterns bounded by foliated borders are also developed by the women with the effortless movement
of the figure-tips on the wet coating. These patterns composed impromptu, when dry, appear like a
beautiful mosaic on the floor. These patterns are referred to as hangaiyan.

The cow-dunging process is known as lipna in the region, whereas the floor art is referred to as likhnoo
(writing), dehar (with respect to dehali, the threshold) or chowk. Brown coloured earth, known as loshti
(just like the geru used in Maharashtra) serves as a background and sometimes also used to highlight
important motifs on the cow-dung background of the floor patterns. Besides rice or wheat flour and
paste, white earth known as golu or makol is also used for making the patterns. As elsewhere in India,
the patterns are normally executed with their fingers by the ladies but the patterns using makol involves

142
The term Dogra or Duggar is akin to the subjects of Himachal Pradesh, some areas of Punjab and whole region of
Jammu.
143
Ashok Jerath, Folk art of Duggar, Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi, n.d., p.49.
a different technique. The makol paste is prepared by adding water to the white earthen cakes. It is then
filled in an earthen pot with a small hole at its bottom which is then moved by the women so as to
create various circular patterns.144 Sometimes an earthen jar with a spout is used for this purpose. The
woman keeps on moving unselfconsciously in a rhythmic formation, spontaneously creating a large bold,
fluent and rhythmic pattern. Here, the fingers or hands are insufficient to perform the job, thus the
whole body moves blissfully to accomplish the feat. The patterns so formed are necessarily circular with
inset lotus symbols.

In this region too no attempt is made to protect the patterns from obliteration. In fact, it is considered
to be a good omen if the patterns get spoilt by playful children for that indicate a complete and
prosperous household. Intact and undamaged floor decoration would indicate that the house is childless
and hence cursed. 145

The courtyard in a Pahari house is cleaned and painted on all important occasions or Bada Tyohar like
the New year day as per the Vikram Samvat, the Sayar, i.e. the first day of the month of Ashwin
celebrated as first harvest day of the season, Diwali, Shivaratri and the days of the life-cycle rituals. The
theme of these drawings are many times derived from a popular folk legend, which the elder woman
tells on the occasion while the other ladies draw silently, for speaking while drawing is held ominous.146

The floral motifs and pointed geometrical figures drawn with rich colour are very popular in this region.
The drawing of open petalloid form of lotus, rose and some other flowers on the floor is called as Phull-
chittarana. In addition to these floral motifs, borders having squares, triangles, wavy lines, leaves and
creepers are also drawn (these types of borders are also seen in the Pahari miniature paintings). Besides
these, fruits and vegetable motifs are popular. A figure of mango is particularly considered to be very

144
K.L.Vaidya, The Cultural Heritage of the Himalayas, National Publishing House, New Delhi, 1977, p.94.
145
O.C. Handa, Western Himalayan Folk Arts, Pentagon Press, New Delhi, 2006, p.72.

146
Ibid., p.66.
auspicious and a symbol of good omen. Burning lamps and Swastika are drawn as auspicious symbols.
Like the other parts of India, the figure of eight-petalled lotus, the foot-prints of goddess Lakshmi and
the fish are considered very auspicious. These are employed for various sacraments of life and
particularly for welcoming the newly-wedded bride in her new home.

One popular traditional custom followed by the Dogra girls is during the festival of Rade, which falls on
the first day of the month of Shravan. The term Rade refers to the rims of broken earthen pots which,
on this day, are arranged in a circle representing the number of males in the house. The central Rada,
called Dhama Rada is the biggest and supposed to represent the head of the family. The girls draw
colourful floral and geometric designs around these rades. Triangles, squares, and five, six and eight
pointed stars are drawn with bright colours. The girls eat their food collectively placing their thali over
the rade and later recite songs related to the ceremony.147

Few popular likhnoos are mentioned below:

Likhnoo on Aas Navami day: The ninth day of the bright half of the month of Jyeshtha is called as Aas
Navami. Goddess Navami Parmeshwari (the goddess of hope) is propitiated on that day for the well-
being of the children in the family. She is believed to possess malevolent ascendency over those who
defy her rule. According to a tale told on the occasion, once a landlord and his wife had nine married
sons. The landlady deliberately defied the goddess one day. On this the goddess became furious and
cast a shadow of doom on the whole family. Her temper was ultimately cooled by propitiating her on
the ninth day of the bright half of the Jyeshtha by the landlady and her daughters-in-law. From that day
onward, married ladies worship Navami Parmeshwari.

147
Jerath, op.cit., p.21.
The characters of the tale find a
symbolic representation in the drawing made
on the floor on this day. Eleven figures
representing nine sons, the landlord and
his wife are drawn in a quadrangular
frame, symbolizing the earth. A figure of an
attendant is also drawn in the notch left
out at the bottom of the frame. The sun
and the moon also find a place in the frame
of the earth, probably symbolizing
cosmic unity. In two small pockets drawn within the frame, eighteen spots are marked to suggest
offerings to the goddess.

Though the courtyard decoration is something indispensible on all

festivals and happy occasions, the festival of Diwali see
exclusive patterns drawn for the worship of goddess
Lakshmi. From the outpost of the house to the seat of the
goddess, the path is profusely painted in white and coloured earths
with floral designs and creepers intricately interlaced to form
an elaborate pattern, with foot-prints of the goddess in an inside
direction. Every bend in the pathway is treated with a rich
curvilinear floral design in which a foot-print is prominently drawn.
Whole pattern is further enriched with the Ashtadala, fish and
Swastika motifs.

In the Punjab regions the wall paintings seem to be

more common than the floor painting. Bits of
information about the floor art are found in the
writings of few scholars who have
documented the rituals and ceremonies of the region.
For e.g. H.A. Rose mentions about the ritual of writing chowk in Gurgaon, on the deo-uthan day in the
month of Kartik, when Lord Vishnu is believed to awaken from his sleep. A figure of Vishnu is drawn
near the chowk and worshipped. The chowk is then covered with a mat. The women of the household
call in a Brahman lady and sing songs, they then beat the mat with which the figures are covered and
then it is believed, the god is awakened from his sleep. 148 It is observed that nowadays the practice of
making rangoli is limited mainly to the occasion of Diwali, when decorative patterns are made.

Uttarakhand:

Aipan is a popular folk art form of Kumaun149 region in Uttarakhand. These are geometric designs made
on reddish background of geru with rice paste. There are specific aipans for almost all religious
occasions.

The ritual of making aipan has a special place in all Kumauni homes. Just like the Himalayan region,
another word commonly used for it is likhai or likhnoo. About likhnoo, C.F. Oldham writes, “In the
Kumaun region, pilgrimages are made to the temples of Devas and Nagas as well as to those of the
Devis and Naginis. These are usually in fulfillment of vows or to ask some favour of the deity, and are
often undertaken by married women without children. These pilgrimages are frequently made by night,
and in some localities it is customary to make a mark at every few yards upon a stone or other object by
the road side. These marks are called likhnoo and are made with a mixture of rice-flour and water. They
are a sort of record that the pilgrimage has been duly performed”.150 In earlier times no girl of Kumaun
was considered fit to be a bride until she had perfected herself in the art of aipan draughtsmanship.
After the marriage ceremony, when she first entered her new home she had to give proof of her being

148
H.A. Rose, “Superstitions and ceremonies relating to dwellings in the Punjab”, The Indian Antiquary, XXXVIII –
May 1909, p.126.
149
Kumaun is one of the two regions and administrative divisions of Uttarakhand, a state of northern India, the
other being Gadhwal.
150
C. F. Oldham, “The Nāgas: A Contribution to the History of Serpent-Worship” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
of Great Britain and Ireland, July1901, p. 473.
an accomplished house wife by executing an aipan on the threshold of the house.151 These traditions are
still preserved in few families in the rural areas.

The ritual diagrams of aipans are made for poojas, festivals and the various life-cycle ceremonies.
The raw material used is simple geru (sienna red clay) for base and rice paste (called as biswar). The
execution is swift, direct and simple and made when the geru base is moist so as to enable smooth and
swift painting. The rice paste is easily absorbed by the ground and dries within a short time, leaving a
bright white design against the reddish brown background. Generally aipans are drawn with liquid
colours but sometimes they are also made with wheat and rice floor and dry-powdered earth colours.

Aipans are executed in the courtyard (called as kholi ke aipan), on the steps leading to the main door of
the house (dwar aipan), on the threshold (dehali aipan) in the pooja area, on low wooden stools, on the
vedi during sacrificial rituals, on the inner and outer surface of the winnowing scoop, on the outer
surface of the pot in which the tulsi plant is sown or on the floor round the mortar (ukhal) which consists
of a hollow stone sunk in the courtyard.

As a general rule, each part of an aipan consists of two types of designs – the ritualistic and the
decorative. The ritualistic designs usually comprise of a yantra or a symbol assigned to a particular deity,
which the artist is required to portray in its assigned shape and place, without any change. These aipans
are made on the floor of the prayer room and serve as a seat or pitha to the deity, desired to be invoked
for the associated ritual. The diagram of pitha is considered as the plan of the terrestrial place where the
deity resides.

The main symbols employed in this are the dot, triangle, circle, square, Swastika and lotus and their
various combinations. In the decorative design drawn around the ritualistic diagrams, the motifs used
are often fixed by tradition with emphasis on auspicious symbols such as shankha, betel and lotus
leaves, fish, various creepers and so on. However, the artist is at liberty to give free rein to her
imagination as to which symbols to use and how to place them.

On auspicious occasions, three or four women work simultaneously on a particular diagram. The
execution of the sacred chowki or pitha of the deity is often synchronized with songs by the women,
chanting of mantras by the priests, the playing of musical instruments by the musicians and the ringing
of bells and blowing of conch-shell, thus creating a sacred atmosphere.

151
N.R. Upreti, Folk Art of Kumaon, Ministry of Home Affairs, New Delhi, 1961, p.3.
Few examples of popular aipans:

Pitha or seat of Shiva or Mahadeva - Shiva is the reigning god of the

people of the Himalayas. This aipana is drawn for Parthiva pooja, i.e.
worship of Shiva who is also known as Parthiva. This pooja is done on
any auspicious day during the four months of Baisakh (April-May),
Shravana (July-August), Kartika (October-November) and Magha
(January- February), the months sacred to Shiva. The ceremony is
usually performed with the desire to be blessed with a son. The central
part of the design consists of a number of concentric squares with a
cross in the middle, representing four pathways, each having a gate at its end. These pathways lead
from four different directions to the centre where the main lingam which is worshipped as a symbol of
god Shiva is placed. Around it, along the lines of the squares, twenty-eight, a hundred and eight or a
thousand and eight lingams are placed for worship. The lingams are made either of cow-dung, clay or
rice flour mixed with scented herbs. The larger square indicates an altar or raised platform while the
number of lines around it are drawn to represent a low flight of steps leading from the ground to the
raised floor of the sanctuary, this being the seat of the divinity. Around the ritualistic design is added
border of creeper or betel leaves and the wavy patterns known as lahari bel or border of snail shell
called as ganelia bel (ganel meaning snail). Sometimes Swastika symbols are also added in the diagram.

Chowki or seat of goddesses Lakshmi and Saraswati – These

aipans are executed at the time of Lakshmi pooja during Diwali or
for worshipping goddess Saraswati at the time of initiating the child
in learning alphabets or at the time of thread ceremony. It
invariably involves drawing of the two interlocked triangles in the
centre sometimes enclosed by ashta-dal kamal, Swastika symbol,

Chowki of goddess Saraswati

foot-prints of goddess Lakshmi all placed in a square or a rectangle,
surrounded by creeper borders or borders patterns called tapaki bel (tapaki meaning dots) and linear
borders. Sometimes goddess Saraswati is also represented by a five-pointed star. For Lakshmi pooja, an
image of goddess Lakshmi152 and the articles required for her worship are placed interspersed with
lighted earthen lamps, on this chowki.

Chowki for goddess Durga - Durga, the goddess of power and strength, is worshipped for nine days
during Dassehra. The central design of the chowki which is drawn at the time of worship is composed of
nine Swastikas woven in an intricate pattern which is called khoria or bhadra. The pattern is made by
putting nine dots vertically and horizontally thus forming a square of eighty-one dots which are joined
by dashes in a particular order forming nine Swastikas. These nine Swastikas seem to represent the nine
names or forms by which goddess Durga is known.153 The pooja also continues for nine days during
Navaratri. Round this diagram is drawn the ashta-dal kamal within a square, surrounded by floral or
geometrical borders. Sometimes, the khoria is enclosed by two interlaced squares, a pattern called
athajala, i.e. having eight corners. Fish motifs are also used in the border.

Janeu or yajnopavita (sacred thread ceremony) aipan –

Janeu aipan is drawn on the floor or on the low wooden seat
on which the boy sits for receiving the sacred thread. The
central part of the design consists of the ritualistic pattern
composed of seven stars within hexagons which signify the
Sapta Rishi or the seven great sages154, visible in the heaven
during night in the form of seven stars, also known as the
Great Bear. This pattern is further surrounded by border of
floral and cowrie-shell motifs.

Dhuliargha chowki – Twilight in India is called Godhuli bela or the

time when cows return home from the pastures. The dust which
rises from their hooves gives the time its name. For
weddings the bridegroom's party also arrives at the bride's house
at this time of evening. It is at this time that an elaborate
aipan, Dhuliargha chowki, is drawn on the ground of the

152
Instead of a clay or metal statue of Lakshmi, sugarcane is cut and placed crosswise. It is adorned with a lehanga
and odhni (shawl) to make it look like a female form.
153
The nine forms of Durga are – Shailaputri, Brahmacharini, Chandraghanta, Kooshmanda, Skandamata,
Katyayani, Kalratri, Maha Gauri and Siddhiratri.
154
The names of the sages are – Kashyap, Atri, Bharadwaj, Jamadagni, Gautam, Vishwamitra and Vashishtha.
courtyard for welcoming the bridegroom. This aipana consists of four main parts. The central part with
the main ritualistic diagram, consists of four cross lines representing arani (fire-sticks) used in Vedic
times for kindling fire. On this the articles of pooja and objects of gifts to the bridegroom and the priest
are placed. The top portion of the diagram is called gagari (pitcher), signifying a pitcher full of water. On
the two sides of the circle are two branches springing from its periphery which are called phanga. The
bottom part of this aipana is called asana, the seat on which the bridegroom stands when he is first
received by the father of the bride. On the right side of the bridegroom stands the priest. A separate
aipan, similar to Dhuliargha, known as Acharya chowki is made for the priest to stand upon. Sometimes
fish, pair of parrots, shankha and Swastika, as a sign of good fortune are incorporated in the aipan.

Surya darshan chowki – This aipan is

executed on the floor or on the low seat on the
occasion of worship of the sun. It is
connected with the naming ceremony of a
newborn child. It is meant for worship at the
end of the namkarma of the child, when it is taken
out in the open for the first time for having the
first view of the sun. It is also drawn on the
occasion of surya vrata, observed on any
Sunday, particularly in the month of Paush in
winter, for obtaining the blessing of the sun god. On the top of the aipan on the right and left are
depicted the sun and the moon respectively. The figures in the centre are called suk sarang and
represent Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi reclining on the thousand-hooded serpent shesha naga. In the
middle is the lotus flower rising from the navel of Vishnu. The lower part of the aipan contains the
implements used for pooja. From left to right at the top are athajal (seat for the deity), a shankha, a bell
and a kundi (copper vessel). At the bottom are two asanas at the sides, an incense pot, water jug (jal
patra) and a lamp (aarti).
 Aipan depicting Alakshmi – The figure of Ghuiya or Alakshmi, the
goddess of poverty and bad luck is drawn on the floor as well as on the
back side of a winnowing scoop on Ekadashi, i.e. on the eleventh day
after the pooja of Mahalakshmi in Diwali. On the day, early in the
morning, after the Ghuiya is drawn with rice paste on the back of the
winnowing scoop, on the front side of it are drawn figures of Lakshmi
and Narayan. Two lighted earthen lamps, one small and the other
large, one pomegranate and one walnut are placed on it. The Ghuiya is then beaten by striking against
the back of the winnowing scoop with a stalk of sugarcane by the mistress of the house who in this
manner goes round every nook and corner of the house uttering the words – “Welcome Lakshmi, be
seated O’ Narayana, and out you go O’ Ghuiya”.155 After thus going round the whole house, the
pomegranate and the walnut are put into the stone mortar in the courtyard and then threshed with the
wrong end of a wooden pestle as an indication of smashing the ill luck of the whole family. The small
earthen lamp which is meant for Alakshmi is left to extinguish by itself outside the courtyard by the side
of the stone mortar. The big earthen lamp meant for Lakshmi and Narayan is kept inside the house in
the pooja area. On this occasion the stone mortar (ukhal) the grinding stones (chakki), the winnowing
scoop (soop) and even the broom (koochi) are decorated with aipan since these are important articles
for every household.

Four pairs of footprints of Lakshmi, who is supposed to be entering the house after the departure of
Alakshmi, are marked on the four corners of the diagram. Sometimes lotus leaves and footprints of
Lakshmi are incorporated in the surrounding borders. On this occasion, footprints indicating the
incoming of Lakshmi and Narayan are also made starting from the threshold of the main entrance up to
the house altar where gods are kept.

Miscellaneous aipans:

Aipans are also drawn on vedis and crossing of four pathways, before and after the important life cycle
rituals or Samskaras. The Vedi Navagraha is one such aipan. It is drawn a day before the actual
ceremony in order to propitiate the navagrahas for the successful completion of the ceremony
(discussed under planets in Chp.4).

155
This ritual of driving away Alakshmi finds mention in the RV where Alakshmi is said to be the non-giver, evil-
eyed and deformed, S.A. Dange, Cultural sources from the Veda, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 1977, p.88.
After the completion of an important Samskara ceremony, the ladies go to a water pool or spring for the
immersion of the pooja remains and other articles. On their way back home, a diagram called syo is
executed on the ground at the crossing of four pathways and worshipped. After its pooja, a small coin is
put in the middle of the syo and the worshipper and other accompanying ladies pass one by one by
crossing over it. The purpose of this ritual is to ward off the evil spirit, which is believed to be thus left at
the crossing to choose its own path.

Dehali aipans are made on the festival for

threshold worship called Phool-dei,
celebrated in Kumaun and Gadhwal region.
Variety of beautiful aipans adorn the
threshold on this day. The woman who
draws the best design is supposed to be
talented and caring wife who looks after her
home well. Entrances to homes are
decorated with good luck patterns, which
are many times just vertical white lines.

An aipan without dots is drawn on the twelfth day after a death in the family. Three days later it is
rubbed out with mud and a new one made with the dots thus indicating the end of mourning period.

The floor art in the mountainous regions of Gadhwal consists of fresh flower decorations made on
special occasions.

U.P.

Designs in square forms are generally known as chowk. The process of making chowk is referred to as
chowkpurana in U.P. The square chowkis are made for glorifying deities like Lakshmi, Durga and
Saraswati. These designs have symbolic motifs like the dot signifying the absolute, with a number of
concentric circles depicting growth and expansion. These are nearly always associated with a ritual.
Besides the chowks, general floor patterns drawn on various occasions are also referred to as sona
rakhna.

The art form of sanjhi which is different from all the other floor arts makes an interesting study. It is
made by priests in the temples of Braja in U.P. and Rajasthan. The theme for the sanjhi is derived from
Krishna- lila and the Bhakti movement. The development of this art form, its migration from U. P. to
Rajasthan and the Mughal influence visible in it is fascinating.

Sanjhi, a type of rangoli made using stencils is intrinsic to the rituals followed during the Pitra-paksha,
the period of the ancestors and the departed or the Shraddha month.

It is mainly practised in few temples in Vrindavan and the Ladililala temple in Barsana 156 in the
Braja region157 in northwestern U. P. and few temples in Rajasthan.

156
A village said to be the home of Radha.
The roots of this temple tradition of sanjhi rest in an ancient folk ritual. Sanjhi, (also known as Sanja,
Saijha, Sanjhuli, Sanjhulde, Sinjha, Sanjhya) a vernacular derivation from ‘Sandhya’, ‘evening’or ‘twilight’
in Sanskrit (Sanjha in Brajabhasa and Hindi) was originally worshipped as a goddess by the unmarried
young girls seeking the boon of obtaining a suitable husband.

The practice of creating images of the folk deity Sanjhi made of cowdung and flowers on walls and
venerating it at evening time is continued in the villages of Braja, Haryana, Malwa and Rajasthan to the
present day.158

This ritual too is practised during the Pitra-paksha fortnight, beginning with the full moon day in the
month of Bhadrapada (August- September) till the new moon day in the month of Ashwin (September-
October). It is at this period that male members of the family observe shraddha rites for deceased
relatives and the young girls worship goddess Sanjhi, after whom the ritual is named. Only unmarried
girls make sanjhi who, after marriage give up the practice and take up the task of transmitting this art
form and the associated ritual to their daughters.

What makes the study of this ritual interesting is that it is practised in two forms simultaneously- one by
the young unmarried girls in their homes and in the temples by the priests and local artisans. There is
inadequate authentic material available with which to trace the development of the sanjhi tradition,
either as played by young girls in their homes or in the temples by the priests, with certainty. But one
thing is certain that the roots of temple sanjhi rest in the ancient folk custom practised by young girls in

157
The two towns of Mathura and Vrindavan and some region around is traditionally known as Braja or
Brajabhoomi.
158
It is known as Hanjhya-Hanji in Malwa and Mamuliya in Bundelkhand. Similar practice is also followed by young
girls at few places in Gujarat, Maharashtra and Nepal where it is referred to with different names like Bhondla,
Bhulabai in Maharashtra. It is followed either during Pitri-paksha or Navratri in these places - Kahani Bhanawat,
“Sanjhi Balikaon Ki” in Sanjhi, Kripalsingh Shekhawat (ed.) Jawahar Kala Kendra and Anu Prakashan, Jaipur, 2005,
p.52.
their homes. Nevertheless, the common name shared for the ritual and the period of its practice at
home as well as the temple provides a clue to the connection between both the rituals.

In order to understand the evolution of the temple tradition of sanjhi it is necessary to study the folk
traditions first. In the folk tradition, young girls smear the outer wall of their homes and make designs
on it by sticking various objects such as flowers, coloured stones, shells, metal foil, pieces of mirror and
various shapes made of cow-dung etc. These symbolic depictions consist of motifs ranging from human
figures to utility items like ladder, fan, cot, game of dice, eatables etc. The image thus created is
venerated at evening time, when the girls perform aarti, sing songs and offer bhoga (food offering) to
the deity. This ritual is always referred to as playing, i.e. playing sanjhi. The design is effaced the
following day in order to create a new one in the same place on a fresh cow-dung background. The
material used in making each day’s design is saved and on the last day it is ritually immersed in water
bodies like well or river.

On the last day, the Sarvapitri Amavasya, a kota or killa kota -the final design is created. This design is
very elaborate and includes all the motifs created on the previous fourteen days and the figure of
goddess Sanjhi herself,159 placed in an enclosure having four or eight sides. Interestingly a figure of crow
is invariably drawn inside or outside the killa kota.

There are various opinions as to the purpose behind this folk ritual. The period of the ritual, i.e. Pitra-
paksha leads to the assumption that it is a form of ancestor worship performed by young girls to
propitiate the paternal ancestors. Besides, the presence of crow and ladder in the sanjhi design supports
this assumption.

159
This ritual appears to have some remote connection with the cult of the Mother Goddess of Indus Valley
Civilization which ingrained itself in the Indian folk mind and then lingered on to modern times.
Secondly, it is linked with the worship of the goddess Sanjhi, who is none other than Sandhyadevi, a
mind-born daughter created by Brahma from his austerities. According to the tale of Sandhyadevi,
Vishnu confers a boon upon her that all those who worshipped her would have their wishes fulfilled.160

Thus it is believed that a girl religiously carrying out the ritual of sanjhi should in return obtain a good
husband.

Here one can refer to the famous verse from the Braja poetry161

– O Sakhi

Vrindavan seems to be covered in flowers

It is the day for playing sanjhi

So let us go and pick flowers

And make a sanjhi of five colours

That will submerge the heart in love

This verse refers to the playing of sanjhi by Radha, the ultimate lover, seeking the ideal partner, who is
of course none other than Krishna. It is believed that Radha created sanjhis in the grove so that her lover
would arrive. In the poetic traditions we also find descriptions of Radha, Krishna and the sakhis going to

160
Malti Sharma, “Sanjhi: Brahma ki Manas Kanya” in Dr. Kailash Chandra Bhatia, Dr. Rajendra Ranjan Chaturvedi,
Dr. Radheshyam Agrawal & Shree Mohan Swaroop Bhatia (ed.) Brajlok, Shree Ram Narayan Agrawal Abhinandan
Granth, n.d., p. 223.

161
Asimakrishna Dasa, Evening Blossoms, The temple tradition of Sanjhi in Vrindavan, Indira Gandhi National
Centre for the Arts, Sterling, New Delhi, 1996, p.28.
the forest, gathering flowers and playing sanjhi in Radha’s house where Krishna goes in the disguise as
one of Radha’s sakhi.162

These poetic descriptions emulate the folk rituals very closely. The Bhagavata P. also describes how, in
Krishna’s absence, the gopis re-enacted his pastimes among themselves, emulating him and
remembering him only. Making sanjhi designs is believed to be one of the aspects of the gopi’s
behavior.163

Thirdly, it is also believed that the worship of Sanjhi or Sandhyadevi is Gauri puja (that is, worship of
Goddess Parvati) and is to be performed just as Radha worshipped Katyayanidevi in order to attain
Krishna.164

Inspired by the folk tradition, the Vaishnava temples took up the rural concept of sanjhi and
transformed the plain, naturalistic images into a highly sophisticated art form while at the same
time embedding the sanjhi theme in the Puranic Vaishnava mythology, speaking of Radha and
her companions preparing for worship of the goddess Sanjhi. According to Asimakrishna Das,
“the medieval Bhakti poets writing in Brajabhasha integrated the indigenous folk tradition of the
worship of Goddess Sanjhi that they witnessed in Braja into the story of the pastoral pastimes of
Radha and Krishna in Braja found in the Bhagavata P.165

Thus the sanjhi ritual practised by unmarried girls furnished the material for the depiction of
sanjhi in Brajabhasa poetry. The creation of sanjhi described in poetry in turn preceded the
institution of a temple festival consisting of producing sanjhi designs either with flowers or
coloured powders using stencils.

162
Ibid., p.25.
163
Ibid., p.40.

164
Ibid., p.31.

165
Ibid., p.20.
The temple tradition of sanjhi has evolved from the folk tradition and received its present shape during
the medieval period along with the establishment of Braja as a Vaishnava spiritual center. The rise of
the Bhakti movement with its emphasis on individual devotion to a personal god and its celebration of
rasa or the aesthetic sensibility seem to have transformed the folk ritual into a temple art, where it
acquires a new meaning that of upasana or service to Thakurji.166

The period of the ritual of temple sanjhi also remains the same, i.e. Pitra-paksha. One of the reasons
stated for this is that in the fortnight of Pitra-paksha no other life-cycle rituals or samskaras are
performed and thus the priests are relatively free and can afford to spare some time for the sanjhi
upasana.

The poetries in Brajabhasa focus on the creation of sanjhi with

flowers. Flower sanjhis remain an integral part of the temple
tradition at Vrindavan where the ten days of the Pitra-paksha
prior to Ekadasi are consecrated to making flower sanjhis. These
particular Sanjhi designs are the only ones in the temple
tradition made by girls. Generally a picture of a particular lila
related to Radha-Krishna is placed in the centre which is
167
surrounded by floral decoration.

On the last five days (from the eleventh day to fifteenth day of dark fortnight) the sanjhi is made
in coloured powders using stencils called as sancha or khaka. The creation of this type of sanjhi
requires considerable time and effort and is entrusted to specifically trained professional artists

166
Thakurji is one of the many names by which Krishna is addressed respectfully.

167
The flower Sanjhi may also be made in the temple on any occasion as a manoratha or the desire of a devotee to
please Krishna.
associated with the temple tradition as hereditary Brahman priests. Probably the practice which
began with creation of flower sanjhis gradually evolved and transformed into a highly
sophisticated art form of creating powdered sanjhis. Here one cannot fail to notice how a
Shastriya168 art form evolves from an Ashastriya or Laukik folk ritual. The creator of the art also
changes from young women to the priest as soon as it acquires the status of being Shastriya.
Also, the designs made by the girls on the outer walls of the houses, are created publicly but in
temples the sanjhi is usually created behind closed doors and only after the design is complete
and the bhoga offering is made, it is revealed to the devotees.

The sanjhi art distinguishes itself from the other types of rangoli, by its high degree of artistic perfection
coupled with profound mystic symbolism. Given the stronghold of Vaishnavism in the Braja region and
its predominant association with Lord Krishna, it is only natural that the art of sanjhi depicts Krishna
mythology as its principal theme.

Sanjhi is created on an earthen platform or

vedi, specially constructed by plastering
with mud and cow dung. The vedi is
octagonal or in the shape of eight-pointed
star (this reminds of the eight-petalled
lotus, a mandala linked to early Hinduism,
Buddhism and tantric practices).

Coloured powder is pushed through a cloth

with the fingers onto a stencil placed on the vedi. Whole series of stencils is used; creating a
sequence of patterns layered one over the other, like a printing process, resulting in the final
image having intricate design and depth. The hauda (also known as hrida or ‘heart’) or the
central portion of the sanjhi, constitutes the sanctum sanctorum, encircled by interlocking

168
The priests at the temples in Vrindavan consider powdered Sanjhi to be a Shastriya Kala which requires years of
training to attain perfection - personal communication with Shri Neelmani Bhatt Goswami of Radhamadanamohana
temple and Shrivatsa Goswami of Radharamana temple.
decorative patterns. The episodes in Lord Krishna’s life depicted in the hauda are changed
everyday. 169 Unlike the rangoli made by women which usually starts from the centre, sanjhi is
created from outer
side to inside that is, the border is created first and
then the central portion. To create the central
hauda, a bench is kept in such a way that the vedi
remains in the centre. The artist squats over the
bench and creates the hauda design. The larger
sanjhi, like the one created on the Sarvapitri
Amavasya, can sometimes take 12 to 15 hours and
7 to 8 artists to produce.

The sanjhi is revealed to the devotees in time

for the evening prayers. The aesthetic
experience of the revelation is
heightened by the accompaniment of songs
narrating stories about Lord Krishna's life in
front of the sanjhi. After worship, the
sanjhi is effaced to make the new image for
the following day. The material used is
disposed off in the Yamuna. 170

169
Sometimes the saints like Shri Hita Harivamsa and Krishna-Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, the founders of the
Radhavallabha and the Gaudiya school respectively are also depicted, especially in the Sanjhi of Radhavallabha and
Radharamana temples. However, the Radhamadanamohan or Bhattaji’s temple depicts scenes purely based on the
Bhagvata P.
170
The priest artists are of the view that though a great deal of effort goes in making the Sanjhi, they feel no pain
in its destruction, as the respective design has performed its function, and their duty is simply to create a new one
in order to please Krishna again. Thus the ritual is truly an ‘upasana’, a service done with the purpose of pleasing
Him and to fix the practitioners’ mind on Him.
Besides the devotional literature, the art of sanjhi, has found an eloquent response in the
traditions of music and theatre in Braja. The display of a sanjhi design is generally accompanied
by musical performances in the Vaishnava temple music styles known as samajagayana and
haveli sangeet featuring verses of devotional poetry pertaining to the sanjhi. Rasalila theatre
enacts the sanjhi theme in a play called sanjhi lila. Both literature and devotional theatre have
interwoven the folk ritual with Vaishnava mythology, speaking of Radha and her companions
preparing for worship of the goddess Sanjhi.

Sanjhi in Rajasthan:

Sanjhi is mainly practiced in two temples in Rajasthan, the Ladliji Ka Mandir in Jaipur and the Srinathji
temple at Nathdwara. The main shrine of Lord Krishna in both the temples, have the history of being
shifted to their current position during Aurangazeb’s period.

When Aurangazeb, an intolerant king proscribed Kanhaiya and rendered his shrines impure throughout
Vraj, the God was brought in to Nathdwara.171

The Ladliji ka Mandir in Jaipur too has similar history of having the Gods from the Govinda Dev Temple
of Vrindavan shifted there during Aurangazeb’s period. The tradition of making stenciled sanjhi is
followed in these two temples during the period of Pitra-paksha even today. The Srinathji temple is the
main shrine for the followers of the Pushtimarga sect. The various jhankis or episodes of the Krishna-lila
are created here in the form of sanjhi designs. The doorway of the Srinathji haveli is decorated with the
auspicious plantain leaves and the sanjhis depicting each of the places that are being visited by pilgrims
in the course of the annual pilgrimage through Braja, which happens to be at the same time, are made

171
William Crooke (ed.), Tods Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, Vol.II, Humphrey Milford Oxford University
Press, 1920, p.609.
daily. Thus the devotee at Nathadwara, not so fortunate as to make the actual pilgrimage through
Brajabhoomi, can have the feeling of doing so by circumambulating the sanjhi instead and thereby
attaining the merit of the pilgrimage.

In terms of the theme of the sanjhi designs, the temple tradition of Rajasthan is more similar to that of
the Ladililala temple of Barsana than the temples in Vrindavan. Sanjhi designs at Barsana are made
according to a planned theme of places and pastimes (lilas) to be depicted during the fortnight of the
Pitra-paksha and become progressively larger until the final design or kota is made on the no-moon day.
(The final elaborate design prepared traditionally by the young unmarried girls on the walls of their
homes is also called as kota)

The sanjhis made at the Ladliji Ka Mandir at

Jaipur follows a systematic pattern as far as
the designs are concerned. The designs made
on each day of the fortnight are pre-decided
and the same pattern is followed every year.
On the first day of Pournima, a Swastika is
drawn free-hand with gulal without the use of
stencil. This is followed by lotus, Madhuvan
Talavan, Kudarvan Bahulavan, Shantanukunda, Kusum Sarovar, Sheshshayi for the next six
days respectively. On the Saptami begins the use of stencil and coloured powders. The designs
are Giriraj for Saptami, Radhakunda for Ashtami, Gokul Rawal on Navami, Mathura on Dashmi,
Vrindavan on Ekadashi, Nandagram on Dwadashi, Barsana-dham on Trayodashi and Radha
Baug on Chaturdashi. On the final day of the fortnight, Gaulok-dham or Navkunj is made. If an
additional day falls in the Shraddha period, a sanjhi of Shri-yantra is drawn. 172

172
Devdatta Sharma “Sanjhi Ladliji ke mandir ki” in Kripalsinh Shekhawat (ed.), Sanjhi, Jawahar Kala Kendra,
Jaipur, 2005, p.36.
Stencils of Sanjhi: The temple priests at Vrindavan claim that the tradition of making sanjhi
using paper stencils is at least 400 years old. Contemporary evidences show the use of stencils
cut out in banana leaves in some temples in Rajasthan in order to decorate the hindola or swing
and also the courtyard of the temple. Probably the art of stenciling using leaves was earlier
common in India and was later transferred to paper.173 It appears that though the craft existed in
India before the advent of the Mughals, it was during the Mughal period that it got a major boost.
The commonalities in terms used for the design embellishments of sanjhi and the Mughal
miniature paintings help to justify this claim. The borders of the stencils are known as hashiyas
even today. The term hashiya is traditionally used for the decorative borders of arabesque
designs in Mughal miniatures, especially made at the time of Jahangir. Sanjhis appear like
miniature paintings in a rectangle with decorative hashiyas surrounding it. Similarly the word
hauda or howdah is an Urdu word for a decorated seat or canopy on the back of an elephant. In
the sanjhi, the central portion of the design is called the hauda or hrida meaning heart or centre.
Considering these similarities, one can conclude that the fine intricate work on paper stencils has
a major Mughal influence.

The artist (who in many cases is the temple priest) starts work only after offering prayers to his
guru who taught him the craft, his tools, and the gods.
The first stage in the process of creating a stencil is the
sketching of the theme and pattern. If more than one
copy is required the papers are pinned together on all
sides. The cutting of the stencil is the next step. The
scissors used are very fine and slightly curved at one end
to enable detailed cutting.174

While cutting, the paper is rotated so that the intricate design can be cut. Each colour requires a
separate paper cut of its own which means if a design consists of 20 colours the same number of
stencils is cut. Thus in each sanjhi design there is a sequencing of patterns that overlap one

173
Paper came to India in the 15th century C.E.
174
When not in use the scissors are carefully wrapped in cloth to protect the tip and as a mark of respect to the tool
that creates the Sanjhi.
another which results in an intricate design with depth. Each stencil is folded at the corner tip,
and the artist uses this fold to gently lift up the stencil once the colour has been filled through the
cutout. This requires enormous skill. The artist holds his breath as even a faint breathe of air can
disturb the colours and gently, in a single movement, lifts the stencil. Thus a beautiful pattern is
revealed to the gathered people.
(The current status of the sanjhi art is discussed in Chp.5)

Rajasthan & M.P.

Rajasthan, meaning the 'Land of the Kings', still retains the glory and richness of the olden imperial times
with its marvelous monuments, colourful traditions and customs. It covers most of the area of the
inhospitable Thar Desert, with one edge paralleling the Sutlej - Indus river valley along with its border
with Pakistan. It is the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area.

Rajasthan has an unending cycle of fairs and festivals throughout the year. They are perhaps the most
colourful and spectacular in the whole of India. The state is culturally rich and has artistic and cultural
traditions which reflect the ancient Indian way of life. There is rich and varied folk culture from villages
which is often symbolic of the state. Songs, dance, dramas, puppets, handicrafts, paintings etc.,
popularly known as the performing art are the major components of the folk culture. Besides these
popular arts, mehendi and mandana are the two arts of the women having common ritualistic import.
Mehendi, a leaf powder mixed in water, is used by the women-folk for embellishing their palms and feet
with beautiful designs, whereas mandanas, the subject matter of the present study, are drawn on the
ground of a kaccha house to make it look pleasant and give an elegant appearance.
The paintings made by the women on the mud walls of their houses are called thapa. Though the
technique of thapas is similar to mandana and the thapas or wall decorations are often referred to as
mandana, the major difference lies in the motifs used. Whereas the motifs on the walls consist mainly of
the flora and fauna of the region, like the peacock and the floral designs, the motifs of the mandanas are
highly symbolic. Though new objects like bicycle, motor-bike, bus, train, aeroplane etc. that have
become a part of the villager’s experience are incorporated in the wall decorations today, the floor
designs even today have remained symbolic with very less outer influence.

Mandanas are drawn both in M.P. and Rajasthan. In M.P. the paintings of the Gond and Bhil tribes and
the art of Gudna, i.e. body tattooing is very popular. Mandanas, mainly drawn on the floor, too find an
important place in the folk art of the region.

The word mandana derives from the word mandan which means ‘to decorate’. In this sense mandanas
are seen as ornaments of the earth. Mandana refers to both – a specific form of drawing and also to the
act of drawing. In Rajasthani local dialect mandana literally means likhana, i.e. to write.175 Besides the
mandanas, Sanjhi ritual, as discussed above, is also followed by the young girls and temple priests of
Rajasthan in the Pitra- Paksha period.

Mandanas are drawn on ground finished with cow-dung and clay which is usually crimson red, obtained
by mixing rati (red earth found locally in Rajasthan). Mandanas are drawn by women using kharia, a
solution of chalk or kaolin powder obtained by dissolving it in water and geru or hirmich (haematite or
red oxide) for highlighting the central motif. In the tribal regions, solution of white lime is used on the
greenish background of cow-dung smeared floors and walls, while in non-tribal regions of Hadoti, Jaipur
and Bharatpur, the red from geru and the yellow from ramraj are also used besides the white of chalk
powder. Sometimes kumkum and wheat flour is also used especially in M.P.

175
Jogendra Saksena, Art of Rajasthan, Sundeep Prakashan, Delhi, 1979, p.5.
It is seen that the cultural confluence in modern age
Rajasthan and M.P. has confined this tradition to rural areas
where women make mandana on the entrance of their houses after sweeping and washing the court-
yard. After the expiry of rainy season the rural women folk repair and smear their house with cow-dung
or white-wash them with lime and draw the mandana on their floors and walls. Even today, every time
the floor is repaired or replastered, a mandana in the form of a small Swastika or few dots is drawn as a
bare floor is believed to be inauspicious. ‘It does not matter if a son remains kunwara or unmarried, but
an aangan or the courtyard floor should never be left kora or without a mandana’ is a common
prevailing sentiment which indicates the importance given to this tradition. A kora aangan is a sign of
inauspiciousness.

One of the myths associated with the origin of floor painting popular in these regions, links it with
Shiva’s consort Parvati – Once Shiva and Parvati had an argument when Shiva challenged her to make
the courtyard of their house glitter and dazzle with splendour or else he would retreat to the Himalayas
for four months. He added further: “if you succeed, your art would spread in the world and be known by
your name”. Saying this he went away. Parvati racked her brain for very long till an idea struck her. She
mixed together dung and mud and smoothed it over the courtyard filling up cracked and flacking
surface. When Shiva returned he found the house sparkling clean because of fresh dung and mud
plaster but it still did not dazzle with splendour. He called out to Parvati and said: “You could not keep
the promise. I am leaving for the Himalayas”. Parvati, who was inside the house, ran after him to stop
him and as she did that, she left numerous foot-prints on the still wet ground and the courtyard began
to dazzle as if filled with beautiful flowers. Shiva was astonished and he said: “From now onwards these
mandanas would enhance the beauty of the houses in the world and in whichever house they would be
made, I would come to reside there. That house would prosper forever”. Since then, after the house has
been given new coat of mud and dung, mandana designs are drawn on it. One may step on to this
freshly plastered ground only after the mandanas have been drawn. 176

176
Kaushal, Molly, (ed.), Folk Paintings of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh, unpublished project undertaken by the
IGNCA, New Delhi, 1999, p.18.
It is a ritual art and can be traced to every house in villages and towns, bearing some characteristic
differences of the region from where it has originated. Apart from courtyards, floors of the verandah
and other rooms, steps, parapets, water- stands and stoves are also replastered during festive occasions
and decorated with mandanas.

Many folk songs of Rajasthan refer to the custom of smearing the courtyard with fresh, green cow-dung,
making chowk designs (square mandanas are referrred to as chowk) with white powder which appears
like beads of pearls (gajamukta), putting bandanvar (torana) of mango leaves, and water-pots.

For instance- “Mharai angana mein chandan lipavo ji

Gaja motiyan ke chowk puravo

Mharai kumbha kalasa le avo ji

Mharai bandarval bandhavoji”

“Bandarvar bandhavo hariye gobara gili dya vo

Motiyan chowk puravo”.177

This song clearly indicates the observance of the custom of mandana with white colour on the green
background on every auspicious occasion.

The lines of the mandana are marked on the floor with the tip of a finger, usually the ring finger. A swab
made with a piece of cloth or a tuft of hair is dipped in a liquid pigment made of white clay or lime
dissolved in water and gently pressed between the palm and thumb. This makes the liquid pigment

177
Swarnalata Agrawal, Rajasthani Lokagita, Rajasthan Sahitya Akadami, Udaipur, 1972, p.121.
trickle down to the floor through the tip of the ring finger. Women seldom repeat the same design as
that would be interpreted as their incompetence.

Mandana patterns:

Mandanas are mainly geometric patterns drawn freely without a dotted grid or any such reference. The
mandana designs comprise of three main parts, i.e. the main central motif in red ochre, the laddus
surrounding the central motif and filled with bharat or bharana, i.e. the design used for filling the empty
spaces and the smaller motifs called as the chhota-mota mandana which surrounds the main mandana.

The central motif is invariably enclosed within a circle or a series of lines (called dora) drawn, parallel to
the lines and angles of the original motif. Each central motif has its specific name. It is surrounded by
bharan or bharavana motifs which include oblique parallel lines, dots, small alternate squares making a
chess-board design and many other types varying from place to place and artist to artist. These motifs
have special names as chiran, jua etc. Some of the bharat motifs are used at the extremity of the designs
while others are generally used to fill the space created by lines and forms. For instance, choya, choga,
jhonra (tufts) and laddu are decorative motifs used for breaking the outer regular and hard line of the
central motif into soft, wavy flowing lines. Choya or choga is also known as ghughara, ghunghru because
in its simplified form it resembles all these objects. It is a formation obtained from a dot and a small
curved or straight line, resembling the punctuation mark of coma, but the shape of head may vary.

Chhota-mota mandanas: The purpose of using them is mainly associated with the special occasion for
which the mandana pattern is made and sometimes to fill up the residual space as well as to enhance
the beauty of the central design. These smaller motifs significantly surround the design and are the
independent forms of some objects.
Few important occasions and related mandanas:

There are seven main festivals on which elaborate floor patterns are made. They are: Deepawali in the
month of Kartik, Makar Sankranti in Magha, Holi in Phalguna, Gangaur in Chaitra, Bar Pujani Amavasya
or the Jyeshtha Krishna Amavasya, Teej on the third day of Shravana Shukla Paksha and
Rakshabandhan on the Poornima of the month of Shravana.

Deepawali: As elsewhere in India, Deepawali is an important festival celebrated to propitiate goddess

Lakshmi. On this day, the courtyard,
threshold, staircases, raised platforms
on either side of the main entrance
are decorated with mandanas. The
central motifs used are triangles, six-
pointed triangles, hexagons, ashtadal
kamal, chhah phoolya (six-petalled
lotus), Swastika, bijani (fan), bavari
(step-well), Jalis or Tapaki-ka-
mandana (designs made on dotted
grids).

The chota-mota mandanas scribed on

this occasion have motifs signifying
the customs and rituals, the seasonal
crops and so on, they are as follows:

A paglya (foot-print of the goddess) occupies a significant position in these smaller motifs. Papri, a
round sweet and salty preparation of wheat and gram flour which is distributed amongst relatives and
friends, bharadi, the ear of millet is a pointer to the winter crop that is round the corner and deepak, the
lamp indicates the festival itself. Hatri (an earthern toy), baat (weights) and tarazu (pair of scales) are
the motifs covering the trade paraphernalia and associated with Lakshmi-pooja. Divata (lamp-stand) and
kalamdaan (pen and ink-stand) are also associated with the pooja. Hir (a long lamp of unbaked clay) and
santha (sugarcane) point to the hir giving ceremony performed in the evening after Diwali pooja is over.
Similarly mori (head decoration for bullocks) and khura (hoofs of cattle) indicates the Godhan pooja
which is performed on the next day after Diwali.

Makar Sankranti: A mandana named Sankranti-ka-kunda is drawn

on this occasion. A kunda is a big round earthen bowl with a flat
bottom. In this mandana the circular kunda represent the round disk
of the sun. It is a geometrical composition drawn in a set of three,
five, seven, nine and like odd numbers of circles. Thus the size of the pattern can be extended or
reduced as per the requirement.

Holi: Mandana patterns pertaining to the Holi festival have a

wide range of subjects and are indicative of the rites and
customs observed by the people during the festival. Holi- ka-
danda, changa, dapha, khera and khanda are some of the motifs
drawn on this occasion.

Holi-ka- danda represents the trunk of a tree which is erected on the ground and which is then clustered
with wood, cow-dung cakes and some discarded things, which is burnt on the Holi night also referred to
as Bhogi. Holi-ka- danda comprises of two parts – one above the ground called danda and the other
buried under the ground and called lalya. As per the local belief, lalya represents Prahlada while danda
represents Holika, the sister of the mythological demon King Hiranyakashipu, who was the father of
Prahlada. In the bonfire of Holi, the danda standing for vice, gets burnt while the lalya representing
virtue remain intact. Thus this mandana, just like the Holi festival signifies the victory of good over evil.

The next day after Holi is Dhulendi, the festival of colour, fun
and frolic. Men and women sing, dance and make merry.
The celebration on this day is incomplete without the
musical instruments changa and dapha. The songs sung on
this day are at their best only when accompanied by a
changa and dapha. Holi-ka-changa and Holi-ka-dapha form
good subjects for mandana drawings during Holi.

The word khera stands for a village or a small township.

Mandanas known as khera, chowk-ka-khera, unli-sunli devari- ka-
khera are drawn at the time of Holi. These are invariably surrounded by drawings of weapons
like khanda (scimitars), chokris (knives) and swords and mukuta (crown). The significance of
these weapons at the time of Holi is mentioned by James Tod as, ‘On the last day of the 40 days
celebration of Holi, the Rana feasts his chiefs and distributes Khanda and Nariyal to them as an
honour’.178 These patterns indicate a well-planned state having good fortification and ruled by a
brave monarch.

Sometimes keri (raw mango) motifs surround the mandanas for Holi, thus pointing to the forthcoming
harvest of mangoes.

Gangour: Gangour is a popular festival celebrated by the women of Rajasthan. Married women worship
Gangour (goddess Gauri) for health, wealth and happiness whereas unmarried young girls worship her
with a desire for a suitable match. A dish of wheat and gram flour known as guna is prepared on this
day. Thus the mandana for this day is termed as Gangour-ka-guna.

Other mandanas made on this occasion are paglyas and Singhasan-Battisi-ka-chowk.

Bar Pujani Amavasya: The Jyeshtha Krishna Amavasya is known as the Bar Pujani Amavasya. Like in the
other parts of India, Rajasthani women too go out of their homes and worship a bar (banyan) tree. The
mandana drawn on this day depicts the banyan tree in its natural form along with the roots, trunk,
branches, fruits, birds and monkeys and a human figure at its base (discussed under vegetative motifs in
Chp.4).

Tija and Rakshabandhan: Lahariya (ripples of water)

motif, probably indicating the rainy season, is drawn on

178
Crooke (ed.), op.cit., p.663.
the occasion of Tija and Rakhi-ka-Nariyal, i.e. coconut design is made on the Rakshabandhan day.

Mandanas for some life sacrament rituals:

Janmotsava: On the first day of the eighth month of pregnancy called Athavansa, a pregnant woman is
anointed and bathed in perfumed water, her hands and feet are decorated with Mehendi and she is
decked with gorgeous clothes and ornaments. She is then seated on a chowki (wooden seat) and blessed
by other women by placing in her god (lap) sweets, dry and fresh fruits and a coconut. This ceremony is
called god bharana, i.e. filling of the lap. On this day a mandana called Athvansa-ka-chowk is drawn on
the cow-dung finished ground.
On the tenth day after child birth, the mother comes out of her apartment for the first time with the
newly born baby in her lap to glance at the sun in the sky and seek its blessings. This ceremony is known
as Suraj poojan and also as the Namakaran Samskar Divas or the naming ceremony day. Suraj-ka-chowk,
a circular mandana representing the sun is drawn on this day.

Yajnyopavitotsava: Traditionally the sacred thread ceremony in Rajasthan goes on for three to four
days and various mandanas are drawn for different rituals on the same day. The first day begins by
invoking the blessings of Bandyaka, i.e. Vinayak or Ganapati, who is supposed to remove all hurdles and
make the ceremony run smoothly. On this occasion, kunhiyan-ko-chowk is drawn. A kuhani means
elbow which is clearly depicted in this mandana but its significance is not known. The next day is called
as Mandal day and Mandal-ko-chowk is drawn. Bijani-ko-chowk is drawn on the occasion of barana and
tel. On the occasion of paharavani or bhata, Sinhasan-ko-chowk is made while on the main day known
as the mandap day Panchachowk-ko-jora is drawn.
Vivahotsava: All the functions and rituals and the related mandanas for the marriage ceremony are
same as the Yajnyopavitotsava, except for the Bahu agaman or the coming of the bride in the
bridegroom’s house. A lavish pattern named Pasarana (meaning prostration) is made for the reception
of the bride. The room in which the Bandyaka is invoked and installed at the beginning of the marriage
ceremony is called the Bandyakan-ko-ovara, and it is in this room where the married couple is first
directed to, and the Pasarana is made. Pasarana is a congregation of various mandanas like the kaparas
(six-pointed star) and the various chowks, but the main pattern is a set of seven thalis, i.e. platters. The
platters are drawn in ascending order of size beginning with the katora (bowl) which is the smallest and
ending with the seventh one called thali which is the biggest and ends at the feet of Ganapati.

On entering the Bandyakan-ko-ovara, the bride-groom first touches the katora with his kattar (dagger)
or talwar (sword) and then goes on touching each of the platters as he proceeds towards the seat of
Ganapati. The bride follows him bending down and touching each platter, thus giving an impression of
collecting them in her arms.
 Similar
tradition of
drawing the
seven
platters for
welcoming
the newly
married
couple is
followed in
Punjab,
U.P. and
Bihar too.
In these
regions,
sometimes,
seven thalis
supposed
to be picked up by the bride, are actually kept instead of drawing diagrams of the same.

Paglya motif: The paglyas or foot-prints form a very important part of a bigger mandana. A mandana
without a paglya motif is considered incomplete. Interestingly, the depiction of paglya in Rajasthan is
not realistic like the ones from other parts of India, rather it is highly symbolic. Geometric figures like
triangles, squares and rectangles find a place in the composition of paglya motifs. Solah-bijani-ka-paglya
(paglya of sixteen fans) Sankal-ka-paglya (paglya of chain motif) and Kali-ka-paglya (paglya of six-
petalled flowers) are some of the popular paglya patterns.

Besides the paglyas, the bijani (a hand fan woven like a mat), the bavari (step-well), chhopar or chaupad
(dice game) and the bara (banyan tree) motifs are very
popular.
These motifs are very relevant and meaningful, indicating the hot weather of Rajasthan. Bijani is
invariably used in every home in the rural areas even today. Bara and bavari are not only present in the
region but also form the core of folk tales of the region. The hero of the story generally chalks out his
further plans having reached a bavari or takes rest there after a long and strenuous journey. These
motifs are drawn in several ways. Either a single motif is drawn or a number of motifs are combined
together forming chains which are woven into one another. As mentioned in Chp.1, the motifs like khera
and bavari also point to the use of these patterns as architectural plans.

In the mandanas, as in the floor art of other parts of India, distinct symbols with definite meaning and
purpose are used. The few ancient symbols and motifs that are still used in mandana are
metamorphosed and most women do not remember their original meaning or significance. Fortunately,
in many cases the names of the motifs survive which gives clue about its meaning and significance.

Bihar:
Since ancient times, Mithila is reported to be marshy, densely forested and full of lakes, ponds and
rivers. It has been mentioned that easy and abundant food, cool climate, ample leisure and peaceful
government made it possible for the people to cultivate arts. Mithila enjoyed Hindu rule for longer time
because apparently the river Gandak secured Maithilians from Mohammedan invasion. Maithil rulers
were known for their cultural accomplishments. The Madhubani paintings of Mithila are world famous.

Through the ages, Shiva, Shakti and Vishnu have roused the Maithil’s devotion (hence the Maithils
customarily use three horizontal lines- symbolizing Shiva, the vertical white sandal paste standing for
Vishnu and the dot of red sandal on the forehead indicating the devotion to Shakti). However, the Shiva-
worship is more widespread. Equally prevalent is the Shakti-worship and Siddhis (supernatural powers
acquired through devotion etc.) too are in wider circulation. This is a feature notably shared with Bengal
and Assam. Maithili script and literature are also influenced by the Shakti-reverence. Tantric literature
abounds and the script called Mithilakshara with triangular alphabets has developed in imitation of the
tantric yantras (in tantra, triangle represents three things "desire, knowledge and action- desire is
related with goddess Lakshmi ,knowledge with goddess Saraswati and action with Goddess Kali). A
large number of songs such as Joga are based on pseudo-tantric beliefs and superstitions. There are also
many Maithili mantras used as charms etc. The floor art of Mithila known as aripans also reflect the
prevalence of the Shakti cult.

Some parts of Mithila fall in the territory of Nepal and some in the Indian territory. The aripan is
practiced in both the territories in the same manner. The religious-minded people of Mithila celebrate
one or the other folk festival in each and every month of the year. It is during such festivals that they
draw the aripans on the courtyard, on the threshold of their houses, and at the entrance gate of their
houses. No festival is observed without the depiction of the appropriate aripan. Besides the festivals,
each and every Samskaras or the life-cycle rituals, including the Shraddha or the ceremony of the dead
have a specific aripan diagram. The aripan diagrams seem to have a very strong tantric origin. The
yantra of the goddess and the red vermillion dots (rakta-bindu) placed at pre-determined spots in the
aripans, sets it apart from other rangoli diagrams.

It is believed that one of the basic objectives of the aripan is to purify the Earth, so traditionally
the floor is washed with cow dung before beginning the aripan. Rice paste known as pithar in
the local language is used for drawing the aripans. Rice powder mixed with turmeric and sindoor
is also used for some aripans.

Aripans are drawn on several auspicious occasions such as puberty, conception, Chhatiyar of newly born
child (sixth day rites after birth), Mundan (head shaving of a child), Upanayana (sacred thread
ceremony), initiation into learning and marriage ceremony. Its original form is semi-geometrical with
floral diagrams. Each diagram has a well-defined center on which a sacred pot and a plate are kept for
ritual purposes.

In the book titled Expression in Mithila:Tradition and Painting Jyotindra Jain writes-

“Aripan are mostly in the nature of semi-geometric floral diagrams. Each diagram has a well-defined
center on which an installation of a sacred pot plate, a basket or a seat is made for ritual purposes. The
intricately patterned diagrams are dotted with vermilion at specific points. Most of these are in the form
of a lotus flower or plant”. 179

The Hriday Kamal, the centralized lotus motif, the ashta-dal kamal or the sahasradala padma, the
thousand petalled lotuses is depicted in aripan. In some diagrams, the bamboo shoot accompanies the
lotus form. As diagrams of the generative organs, the female is an open lotus, the male is the bamboo
and the meeting of the two symbolizes union of the male and female.180 This symbolism often reflects in
the Madhubani paintings too.

Few examples of popular aripans:

179
Jyotindra Jain, Tradition and Expression in Mithila: Tradition and Painting, Mapin Publishing, Ahmedabad, 1977,
p.65.

180
Ibid., p.57 & Pupul Jayakar, The Earth Mother, Penguin Books Ltd. India, 1989, p.118.
Tusari pooja aripan – The Tusari pooja is
performed by young unmarried Maithili girls with
a desire to get good husband, health, wealth and
happiness. This pooja is carried out for one
month, i.e. from Makar Sankranti to Falgun
Sankranti (December to February), everyday
before sunrise. In this aripan they draw three
temples, the one on the top in white with plain rice
flour, one on the left with a mixture of turmeric and rice flour and on the right with a mixture of sindoor
and rice floor. Three strands of darbha grass are depicted on the top of the temples below which are the
lotus petals. Five triangles representing the five elements of nature - Prithvi (earth), Aap (water), Vayu
(air), Tej (luster), Aakash (ether) are drawn. A yantra of goddess Gauri also known as Bhagavati is made
in the centre of each temple. The sun, moon and the navagrahas are also drawn and worshipped.
Mantras, expressing their desires are chanted by the girls while drawing the aripan.

Prithvi aripan- This aripan is drawn for one year by the newly
married bride, from Magha Sankranti onwards. The
purpose is to venerate the mother earth and seek her
protection and blessings, as she blessed her daughter
Maithili, Janaki or Sita, the princess of Mithila. A triangle as a
symbol of earth goddess is depicted. Gauri yantra with the three
rakta- bindus representing the three female powers (tri-shaktis) is drawn in the centre.

Sanjha aripan is depicted for worship of Sandhya Devi (goddess of

evening). The whole cosmos is drawn and shown in the form of a
temple. Navagrahas, Panch Dev (five gods viz: Surya, Ganapati, Agni,
Durga and Raudra) and Sapta Rishis (seven sages) are depicted in the
form of dots. Gauri yantra is drawn in the centre of the temple.
Kalyan Dei Pooja aripan is drawn to celebrate the Kalyan Karika Devi worship (goddess of welfare). An
elaborated diagram depicting sun and the moon, temple (depicting Shiva-Parvati), Gaur (yantra of
goddess Gauri in a lotus), Sathi (lotus yantra of goddess Sashthi) and the navagrahas is made. This
aripan is drawn on the previous day of all the important sacraments of life (this day is called as
kumram), in order to propitiate the gods and planetary forces for successful completion of the
ceremony.

Raksha yantra aripan is drawn on all auspicious occasions below the seat of the main person for whom
the sacrament ritual is carried out, like the seat of
the child in annaprashana ceremony or the bride
and bridegroom at the time of marriage. The
diagram is believed to protect the respective
person from evil eye.

Dashpat aripan of women and men- Though there are sixteen samskaras in the
traditional Hindu code, usually only the main ten samskaras, also known as
Dashkarma are followed. The aripans drawn at the time of these Dashkarmas are
called Dashpat. Two types of Dashpat are made, one for the samskara
ceremonies of females and another one for the samskara ceremonies of males.
Besides the usual lotus, fish and peacock motif, the aripan consists of ten stems
with a circular leaf, the centre of which is marked with a vermillion dot.

Mauhak aripan is drawn usually on the fourth day

after the wedding. It is drawn on the floor of the
kohbar-ghar (nuptial chamber) while a mantra or
prayer is chanted. Mauhak or Mohak means to attract and thus the purpose of this aripan is to mitigate
tension between the married couple who may be unknown to each other since marriages are usually
arranged by family members. This aripan consists of two fully bloomed lotus flowers or leaves
connected by a stem, symbolizing a joining of fates of the bride and groom. They are made to sit before
this diagram on a patia or grass mat and perform a number of intimate rituals such as feeding each
other. At this time, relatives sing special songs to tease and bless the newly weds. Another aripan
mandala consisting of fertility symbols, such as, fish and lotus, is sometimes also drawn on the floor of
the kohbar-ghar.

Sashthi pooja aripan is painted on the fourth day after the

young girls attain puberty. On this day, the girl is ritually
purified with a bath and made to worship goddess Sashthi.
This aripan is made to honour the goddess Sashthi Devi. It
symbolizes the feminine power of creation and destruction.
Its main purpose is to generate motherly power in young
girls. Thirty dots representing the cycle of day and night in a
month and sixty dots representing minutes and seconds are
made in the aripan. In the space within the aripan, float
sixty lotuses with three vermillion dots, representing the
yantra of Sashthi Devi. At the base of the aripan is a sharp-
pointed flame resplendent with a dot, symbolizing the
awakening of desire in the young virgin.

Madhu Shrawani pooja aripan is drawn on the auspicious

occasion of Madhu Shrawani, which is celebrated by the newly
married couple from Shravana Krishna Panchami (Naga
Panchami) to Shravan Shukla Tritiya. On this occasion the snakes
are propitiated by drawing this aripan. The motifs comprise of
hundred and one snakes and an intertwined snake couple along with the sun, moon and the
navagrahas.

Dwad shah aripan is drawn on the ground after the death of a family member. On the twelfth day of
mourning, this aripan in the form of a simple white circle without any dot or colour is drawn in the
south direction, before the shrine of the Kul-devta, with the chanting of the mantras. It is enjoined to be
drawn with the left hand instead of the right hand by the lady of the house. This aripan is effaced with
cowdung as the Shradha ceremony comes to an end thus marking the end of the mourning period and
beginning of the daily routine of the household. The circle here symbolizes the wholeness or totality or
eternity which has neither the beginning nor the end, the point of all beginnings and all dissolutions. In
this aripan it probably also represents the consciousness of the continuity of the cycle of life and death.

Deepawali or Diwali aripan is known in the Mithila region as Sukharatri

Aripan, which is depicted to welcome Lakshmi, on the Diwali night. This aripan
along with the Kojagara Aripan drawn on the full moon festival which falls on the
full moon day of Ashwin (September), the Gawaha Sankranti Aripan drawn in
front of the Kuldevata (clan deity goddess Bhagavati) in the month of Kartik and
the Chatu Shankh Aripan drawn on the occasion of Devothan Ekadashi, have
very similar patterns with only slight variations. The main feature of these
aripans is that these are oblong in shape, drawn with precision from the
entrance of the gosauni ghar (room for the gods) to the main pitha (altar). The
aripan begins with a five-petal lotus with foot-prints of the goddess
(Lakshmi or Bhagavati) in the centre. This lotus is followed by series of
inverted triangles or bamboo shoots or circles, with footprints in the centre, as if
walking towards the altar.

Bamboo shoots along with the lotus are particularly drawn in the Gawaha Sankranti aripan with respect
to the belief that Lord Shiva visits the virgin goddess on the night of Gawaha Sankranti, thus symbolizing
their union. Similarly, the inverted triangle, the symbol of the power of creation of the goddess is drawn
in the Sukhratri aripan. As the name suggests, four shankhas are placed in the four corners of the Chatu
Shankh aripan.

The aripan ends at the pitha where the Ashtadal kamal is inscribed with the Ashtakona yantra. This
yantra is surrounded by auspicious symbols of the sun and the moon and various attributes of the
deities. The footprints of the deity, now turned and facing the devotee, are placed in the centre of the
yantra. These aripans indicate the entry and settling of the deity in the homes of the devotee, thus
assuring the deity’s constant affection, protection and blessings for the household.

Swastik Aripan or the Sarvatrobhadra (auspicious from all sides) aripan

is drawn by the Maithili ladies on the occasions of Tulsi pooja in the
month of Kartika and for Maha-ashtami Durga pooja during Navratri. To
draw this sacred diagram, the women place one, three, five, seven and
nine vermillion dots in ascending order on the prepared space. These
dots are placed in a formal arrangement of two triangles, one with its
apex pointing towards the sky, the other towards the earth. The dots are
joined in such a manner that forty-one swastikas, linked together are
formed. This diagram is surrounded by dots and the auspicious symbols of the deities. The main arms of
the diagram encompass the four cardinal directions and thus the diagram is Sarvatobhadra or auspicious
in its northern, southern, eastern and western regions. 181 The Sarvatobhadra diagram is made on the
sthandila (sacrificial ground) at the time of yadnyas since ancient times. All the main yantras emerge
from the amalgam of geometric forms that can be structured on the Sarvatobhadra.182 At the corner of
the aripan, four yantras of the goddesses, evolved from the Sarvatobhadra are placed. The panchjanyas
or the five conches of Vishnu are placed below the diagram.

181
As mentioned in Chp.1, the Agni P. and the Sharadatilaka describes the drawing of the sacred Sarvatobhadra
mandala in five colours.
182
Jayakar, op.cit., p.111.
 Shada-dal and ashta-dal (six and eight petalled lotus)
aripans, with the shatkona and ashtakona yantra
respectively are made on various other auspicious
occasions to propitiate the mother goddess Bhagavati. The
shadadal and ashtadal patterns inscribed in a circular
mandala are very cosmic in nature and contains the whole
universe including the sun and the moon, the planets and
stars, the dots representing the twelve months, six
seasons, the cycle of day and night, the hours, minutes,
seconds in a day and also the various symbols and
attributes of gods. These aripans are drawn to ensure
protection from the malevolent forces of nature and to
propitiate the goddess.

Bengal, Assam and Orissa:

From the earliest days of accountable history, Bengal has been inhabited by people belonging to
different ethnic groups and cultures, who eventually integrated into a composite whole. Each racial
group had distinct cultural traits which too through long centuries of history, slowly and steadily worked
out a process of a composite integrated culture which we call as the Bengali culture.183

An analysis of this Bengali culture, especially the socio-religious rites and practices reveals certain basic
forms and ideas that are undoubtedly non-Aryan184 but gradually these rites and practices were
incorporated in the Puranas, with a Brahmanical religious sanction.

183
Sudhir Ranjan Das, Folk Religion of Bengal- Part one (A study of vrata rites), S.C.Kar, Calcutta, 1953, p.1.

184
Ibid., p.3.
Survival of these non-Aryan and primitive cultural traits can be best traced in the folk religious rites and
rituals practised by the rural people, particularly the women. From time immemorial women have
practised numerous rites for the welfare of their husbands, parents, family etc. and the increase of
wealth and paddy. The alpanas, are closely associated with these folk rites and rituals. The alpana
patterns remain best documented amongst all the floor arts of India. In contrast to the above
mentioned types of rangolis, alpana is not geometric but is drawn free-hand.

The word alpana is derived from the Sanskrit word alimpana i.e. a + limpana or a + lepana, which means
‘to plaster’ or ‘whiten the walls etc. on festive occasions. Like elsewhere in India, first the ground on
which the drawing has to be executed is cleaned and smeared with cow-dung. It is then coated with red
oxide or geru. Then a mixture of rice-paste mixed with water which is called pithuli is prepared. A
quantity of sunned rice (atap chaul) is kept immersed for an hour or two in water and then ground into
a paste. It is next mixed with water in a small cup and used to draw the alpana. The female artist holds a
small piece of cloth in her right hand and dips it in the mixture which causes the mixture to be absorbed
into the cloth. She then draws the different designs with one of the fingers which may slightly protrude
beyond the other fingers holding the piece of cloth. The artist always starts her work from the centre of
the alpana and goes on building it up step by step. This process of painting, as elsewhere in India, is
equated to writing by the women and never as drawing or painting. In the Bengali alpanas, generally
liquid white pigment made of rice powder is used but the alpana drawn on the occasion of
Maghmandala-vrata (to be discussed later) is an exception. In this not only dry rice powder but
powdered colours are also used. The process of drawing designs with coloured rice powder is called
gundi chitra.185

In alpana, there are hardly any quadrangular or instrumental drawings. Circular designs which are
complete in itself are the life-blood of alpana. It grows round its own centre which happens to be its

185
Gurusadaya Dutt, Folk Arts and Crafts of Bengal – The Collected Papers, Seagull Books, Calcutta, 1990, p.97.
natural prime axis.186 There are a few exceptions like the Lakshmi-vrata alpana having a rectangular
form with an opening resembling the mouth of a pitcher.

Types of Alpanas:

Alpanas may be divided into three classes187

1. General decoration at the time of a festival or a ceremony,

2. Asana alpanas and
3. Vrata alpanas

General alpanas consist of abstract decorative motifs which are

drawn with no specific intentions and their sole purpose remains to
be good luck charms. These are non-ritualistic alpanas drawn every
morning or during festival and on auspicious days. The artist may
take the liberty of imagination with respect to the motifs drawn in
these. These alpanas are generally executed on the courtyard or on
the floor of a house. It is also found on the upper surface of
winnowing fans which usually consist of basketry work or may also
be depicted on the outer surface of earthern pots used in socio-
religious rites.

Asana alpanas are also called as pinrhichitras or alpanas of seats. They can be further categorized into
the asana for the deity and the asana for the bridegroom on the occasion of honouring him by means of
the baran ceremony at the time of marriage or the asana for the baby on the occasion of annaprasana
(the first day when the baby is fed rice).

186
Ajitcoomar Mookerjee, Folk Art of Bengal, University of Calcutta, 1939, p.6.
187
Dutt, loc.cit.
A strict rule of chastity in traditional form is observed in the asana alpanas for deities and these again
fall into two classes, viz. (a) the ordinary asana alpanas for the less exalted deities and (b) the asana
alpana for Lakshmi or the goddess of plenty and prosperity.

The asana alpana drawn for the less exalted deities can be identified by the following patterns - a
central lotus, drawn with a variety of designs; several concentric rings surrounding the central lotus,
accompanied by the creeper patterns; and a kalasha motif drawn around the circumference of the
concentric rings.188

The seat of the goddess Lakshmi never consists of concentric rings. The central motif here is a coiled
linear design in the centre of which is drawn two footprints symbolizing invitation, invocation and
presence of the goddess. Around these coiled designs, kalashas in variety of forms are made. The
patterns of leaf or shankha are placed in the intervening spaces. From one side of this central design of
the Lakshmi asana are drawn a series of approaching footprints denoting the approach of the goddess
to the seat. The symbolic seat of the worshipper is drawn on the other side.

Baran alpanas: The traditional form of this alpana consists of the central lotus with several concentric
rings of creepers around which are drawn designs of flowers, animals like horses and elephants and also
couple of love birds – a favourite motif. These are generally drawn on pinrhis, or wooden seats. The
conventional baran alpana may consist of two flowers joined to the same stem, indicating the married
couple joined in wedlock. The artist enjoys the liberty of free imagination while drawing the alpanas for
other auspicious occasions like annaprasana etc.

188
Ibid., p.98.
Vrata alpanas: The third category i.e. the vrata alpana is different from the other two. Characteristically
these are highly symbolic and executed in abstraction with the specific intentions for fulfilling the
desired objectives. The artist is required to put the ritualistic motifs in their proper shape and place and
has no option regarding these factors as the drawn motifs are of great importance in the vrata rite.

The term vrata (brata in Bengal) means “the taking of a vow” or to undergo solemnly certain physical
and mental discipline with a view to achieve a desired result or object.189 Of the numerous folk religious
rites and rituals, the vratas or the vowed observances are the most important. It is believed to be a non-
sacrificial rite prescribed by the Aryans to purify a vratya, a non-sacrificer and introduce him to the
Aryan fold. This rite was named after the vratyas.190 As discussed in Chp.1, the Atharva Veda has a long
hymn that describes the vratyas.191 Whether the vratyas were from the Vedic fold or came from outside,
their rites were admitted or re-admitted within the Vedic tradition. The Atharva Veda treats of the
vratya ritual; our knowledge of it stems from this source. It is believed that the Atharva Veda was
written when the Vedic Aryans migrated towards east of India.192

The Kaushika Sutra, written several centuries after the Atharva Veda, places the Atharvan hymns in
their ritual setting. The spells of the hymns were gathered and their corresponding ritual practices
recorded. There are a large number of rites and magical acts, named the Strikarmani, that pertain to
women. They are prescribed to obtain a good husband, to become fecund, to destroy a rival, to protect
the embryo and to capture a truant woman. The making of picture and effigy, to do evil and to protect,
are integral to many of the rituals. Later, many of these magical rites were translated into thousands of
vrata practices and cults. These were the keys to mysteries and energy, held and kept secret by
women.193

189
S.K. Ray, The Ritual Art of Bratas of Bengal, Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyaya, Calcutta, 1961, p.11.
190
P.V. Kane, History of Dharmashastra, Vol.II, pt. I, 2nd ed., B.O.R.I., Poona, 1974, p.386.
191
S.A. Dange, Cultural Sources from the Veda, op.cit., p.31.
192
Ibid., p.19.

193
Jayakar, op.cit., p.60.
The vrata-rite which emerges from this descent is primarily used for homeopathic magic – which is
explained by Sir James frazer as the magical principle based on the law of similarities.

The vratas observed by women in Bengal are locally known as Meyeli vratas. These Meyeli vratas can be
further subdivided into three categories: those observed by widows, those observed by married women
called Subhasini or Suvarcani vrata and those observed by unmarried girls Kumarivrata. Besides, there
are certain other vratas which are observed both by married and unmarried girls.194

The vratas observed by the widows are concerned more with ‘mukti’ rather than ‘bhukti’ or satisfaction
of worldly desires. However, the vratas observed by the married women and young girls are for the
fulfillment of worldly desires and for material prosperity. Abanindranath Tagore in his monograph on
vratas states that ‘any ritual performed in a society with desire is called vrata and thus the nucleus of
vratas is a desire’.195

In these vratas, the real primitive magico-religious elements are found. These are concerned mainly with
the two fundamental instincts of human life- to live and to procreate. Hence most of the rites are
observed for obtaining good husband and children, food and wealth, ample supply of paddy etc.

A vrata-rite thus consists of ‘aharana’ i.e. collection of articles for the observance of the rite; the art
‘alpana’ in which one finds the representations and reflections of the desires of the vratees; the magical
spell - chhada i.e. the expression of desires which are chanted during the observance of the rite; and
lastly, the katha or the tale which establishes the justification of the rite. Vratas also include song,
dance, visual imagery along with magic formulae of incantations and gestures.

194
Sudhir Ranjan Das, op.cit., p.11.

195
Abanindranath Thakur, Banglar Brata, Pub. Kumkum Bhatacharya, Vishwabharati, Calcutta, Ist ed. 1890, latest
ed. 1954, p.4.
The vrata-alpanas are mainly drawn in front of the altar or in some cases they are drawn in the open,
next to a pond or river bank. Each vrata has its own alpana. The alpana related to a vrata must clearly
depict the object the vratee desires to have, otherwise its performance will be meaningless and
impossible.196 In this rite we can often detect a sort of magical aspect than religious. The root of vrata
rituals lays in the belief that desire when visualized and made concrete through diagrams and activated
through spell and ritual gesture, generates an energy that ensures its own fulfillment. The rites and the
magical utterance of chhada along with the alpana paintings themselves reveal such characteristics. The
principle of sympathetic magic is applied here based on the principle of ‘like produces like’ or that an
effect resembles its cause.197

Few vratas with the accompanying alpanas are discussed below:

Lakshmi vrata:

In the case of Lakshmi vrata, which is the vow to

Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and good luck, girls draw the
footprints of Lakshmi so as to evoke her on the spot of the
rite and lead her inside the house by drawing more and more
footsteps in walking position. There are lots of other
auspicious and meaningful designs like lotus, swirls and
tassels, creepers and rice husks drawn along with the
footsteps to ensure the fertility and over all well-being of the
family and the vratee herself. An owl, the vehicle of
Lakshmi in Bengal is an indispensible part of this alpana. At the
end the girls draw a mandala in which various precious

196
S.K. Ray, op.cit., p.41.
197
J.G.Frazer, The Golden Bough, Macmillan & Co. Ltd., London, 1957, Vol.I, p.14.
objects that they like to obtain are drawn one by one, each with the magical spell chhada. The objects
range from a beautiful saree, gorgeous ornaments, rich paddy fields, modern house to live in, handsome
husband, etc. By painting these and chanting chhada, they believe the drawn objects and the uttered
words would come true as they have the magical power of fulfilling their desires.

Senjuti Vrata:

In this vrata too, the girls through prayers and songs express their ambition, their sweetness of temper
and even bitterness of feeling and jealousy. These desires are expressed by drawing the desired object
and praying for the fulfillment of the desires simultaneously. With a solution of powdered rice the girl
makes a bracelet and with joined hands pray – “I worship thee, oh bracelet of rice-paste, may I have a
pair of golden bracelets, grant me this boon. Similarly, she draws a palanquin and says- “Let me be
borne in a stately palanquin from my father’s house to my father-in-law’s” which is suggestive of a
desire of being married to a rich husband. Then she makes a kitchen, a cow-shed and a dwelling house
with the same material and prays to them each in the aforesaid manner that she may have these made
of bricks. She also draws and prays for diamonds and jewels to wear.198

Even a sort of black magic is performed in this vrata.

Besides the above prayers, towards the end of the
vrata-rite, the vratee seeks the aid of the deity for
another reason which was once a frequent
occurrence in our society; that was polygamous
marriage, current till very recently. The coming of a
co-wife is not only undesirable but also painful and
hence the maidens pray to god through the
observance of this vrata, that co-wives may not

198
P.K. Maity, Folk Rituals of Eastern India, Abhinav Publications, New Delhi, 1988, p.94.
enter their future married life. But thinking of the deeply-rooted practice of polygamy, a practice which
cannot be removed through prayers only, they utter various curses or maledictions for the satin or co-
wife.

She sings – “Oh Hara (Shiva)! I pray to thee for a boon. Let my husband (in future) be a king
and myself a queen, and let my (possible) co-wife be a maid, and once a year let me come to my
father’s house. By drawing a vermilion container she sings: “Handling the vermilion container,
kill the seven co-wives by burning.” By drawing the cooking knife, she sings: knife, knife, cut
the vegetables for the funeral of the co-wife. I shall put alta (red mark) on my feet by the blood
of co-wife and so on.199 This and many such spells indicate the severe social position of women
in olden times.

Maghmandala-vrata:

As mentioned earlier, the alpana of the Maghmandala-vrata is rather peculiar and exceptional and
more elaborate than the other vratas. Here, unlike the other vrata alpanas, dry rice powder and
powdered colours are used. But the general characteristics of the vrata rite and the chhada remain
similar to the other vratas.200

As the name suggests, this rite is observed at the end of

the month of Magha (Jan-Feb), at the end of the
winter season around the time of winter solstice. It is a
pre-puberty rite and is observed by girls aged

199
M.A. Konishi, “Symbological Significance of Alpana Painting of the Maghmandala Vrat Rite in Bengal”, Kirti
Trivedi (ed.), Indian Symbology, IDC, 1987, pp.101-2.
200
This vrata is popular in Bangladesh and is known by various names in different parts of the land, such as Magha
vrata, Surya vrata and Chungi vrata (Ibid., p.103, ft. nt.).
between 5-10 years for a period of five consecutive years.

Traditionally the alpana of the Maghmandala vrata was drawn near a pond where the sun is ritually
invoked by doing pooja and chanting chhadas. The chhadas or the chanting in the song form mostly
contain erotic descriptions of love-making, marriage, birth of sons, performance of samskaras etc.

In this alpana, the five circles with the sun at the top and the moon at the bottom are to be drawn by
lines incised on earth.201 The vratees begin with a single circle and go on adding an extra circle every
year till the fifth year of their observance of the vrata. The first circle is green - filled up with the powder
of dry bel leaves, the second one is yellow - filled with pounded turmeric, the third one with burnt husk
powder is black, the fourth one with powdered rice is white and the fifth one with powdered brick is
red. The sun is fully covered with powdered brick and the moon with powdered rice. 202

Tara-vrata:

The alpana of the Tara-vrata is the most favourite of the young girls. As the name suggests this vrata is
an invocation to stars and thus stars form the central motifs of these alpanas. The alpana drawn is
known as the Bhu-mandal or the universe.203 In the mind of the young girls the universe consisted of the
sun, the moon, the stars and the earth. Traditionally drawn every day in the month of Magha, on the
last day of that month all the motifs drawn before are to be drawn simultaneously.

Tara-vrata is mainly performed to gain the rain waters

and is also known as Vasundhara vrata. It is addressed

201
Mookerjee, op.cit., p.7.
202
Ibid., p.9.
203
T. M. Chatterjee, Alpona, Orient Longman Ltd. Calcutta, 1948, p.49.
to the thunder god Indra and sometimes to the river Ganga and Varuna as the main deities of the rite.
On the right of this alpana is the Bhu-mandal including the sun, the moon and the earth. Seven stars,
perhaps the Pleiades, are depicted in the middle of the circle representing the earth. On the extreme
right top is found an anthromorphic figure of Indra, with wavy hair. A threshold is drawn below the
crescent on which the vratee stands at the time of worship when she recites the chhada and places the
flowers on different objects of the alpana. The other objects on the left are the things desired by the
devotee like the ornaments, vermilion pot, comb, mirror, dhaner morai or the granary, conjugal birds,
fish, bride and bridegroom in the palanquin and so on. After the alpana is drawn, a ritual is conducted
where, in a small earthen jar with tiny holes, water is poured and allowed to flow out through the holes.
An over-all effect of rain water is created. Flowers are arranged in eight directions and the vratee then
makes an invocation appealing to the gods to grant her family, wealth, progeny and happiness. This
vrata is performed in the evening when the sun and the moon are visible in the sky.204

Ajitcoomar Mookerjee, gives an interesting description of alpana found in one of the popular ballads in
Mymensingh Gitika.205 (Songs of Mymensingh, a district in Eastern Bengal, current Bangladesh). This
ballad called Kajalrekha gives a vivid account of how a country girl illustrates a vrata-story by drawing
the alpana. Describing the material and the process of making rice paste, it says, ‘she (Kajalrekha) kept
handful of rice of a very fine quality-the shali, under water, until they were thoroughly softened. Then
she washed them carefully and pressed them on a stone and prepared a white liquid paste’.

Regarding the symbols it is said that first of all Kajalrekha drew the adored feet of her parents which
were always uppermost in her mind. She next drew two granaries taking care to paint the foot-steps of
the harvest goddess in the paths leading to them, and she introduced at intervals fine ears of rice
drooping low with their burden. Then she drew the palace of the great god Shiva and his consort Parvati
in the Kailasha mountains. In the middle of a big lotus leaf she painted Vishnu and Lakshmi seated

204
Ibid., p.59.

205
Mookerjee, op.cit., pp.9-10.
together, and on a chariot drawn by the royal swan, she painted the figure of Manasa Devi to seek her
blessings. Then she drew the figure of witches and the Siddhas who could perform miracles by tantric
practices and next of the nymphs of heaven. She drew a Seora grove (Trophis aspera) and under it the
figure of Bana Devi (the sylvan deity). Then she painted Raksha Kali-the Goddess who saves us from all
dangers, the warrior-god Kartikeya and the writer-god Ganesha with their respective vahanas or animals
they rode. And then Ram and Sita and Lakshamana were drawn by her admirably. The great chariot
Pushpaka, the aeroplane was sketched in her drawings and the Gods Yama and Indra were also
introduced in this panaroma.

Besides these drawings she also painted the sea, the sun and the moon and last of all an old dilapidated
temple in the middle of a woodland with the picture of a dead prince inside it. She drew all figures
excepting her own. When the painting was finished, she kindled a lamp fed by sacred butter and then
she bowed down with her head bent to the ground.

In this vrata-tale, the whole cosmos with its flora and fauna, with gods and goddesses and three worlds:
celestial, mortal and netherworld are made to come alive in consecrated space of the sacred diagram
and circumscribed time of the ritual, in order to propitiate and activate the life-generating principle.

As discussed in Chp.1, the motifs of vrata alpana appear like picture-writing and are hieroglyphic in
nature. Abanindranath Tagore in Banglar Brata writes about the hieroglyphic character of these motifs.
Traces of these forms and motifs are frequently noticeable in the sketches and pictographic marks of
ancient times some resembling the ones of Egypt.206

206
Abanindranath Thakur, op.cit., p.68.
Besides the above mentioned types, the alpanas of nagas are very popular in Bengal and Assam. The
naga cult as prevalent in this region is somewhat different in character from the other parts of India. An
anthropomorphic serpent goddess known as Manasa is worshipped in Bengal. An exclusive cult known
as the Manasa-cult has developed in this part of the country and is highly popular among all sections of
the Hindus, especially among the lower classes in some areas. The last day of the month of Shravana
(July-August), instead of the Naga-Panchami day, is the day for ritual worship. The rites are conducted
either at the public places of such worship or in the houses of the individual worshipers. Clay images of
goddess Manasa are made and worshipped. The floors of rooms, verandah and the courtyards are
beautifully decorated with special alpanas resembling the winding gait of the serpent.207

Similar ritual is also practised in East Bengal, (today’s

Bangladesh) where on the serpent festival the entire venue
of worship is decorated with alpanas representing serpents
in various forms. Around these drawings other paintings
illustrating the chief incidents of the principal Bengali snake-
story related to goddess Manasa are also drawn. Coloured
powders are used in such drawings. The entire floor of the
room appears to be a picture- gallery. From the first day of
the Bengali month of Shravana until the day of the worship, which falls on the last day of the month, the
principal snake story is recited in part every day after nightfall before the assembly of villagers. The
immersion ceremony of the deity takes place on the day following her worship.208

As in South India, there are records of Nagamandal nritya being performed by Vaidyas of Bengal to
appease naga. Rangoli of naga is drawn in the mandap and the Vaidyas perform the ritual dance around
it.209

The Kamakhya Temple in Assam is one of the most venerated Shakti shrines in India, and is regarded as
one of the Shakti pitha associated with the legend of Shiva and Daksha Yagna. Assam traditionally has
been known as the Kamarupa Desa and has been associated with tantric practices and Shakti worship.
Ritualistic diagrams for tantric practices are drawn in the region.

207
Asutosh Bhattacharyya, “The Serpent as a Folk-Deity in Bengal”, Asian Folklore Studies, Vol. 24, No. 1, 1965, p.3.

208
Ibid., p.6.

209
Joshi & Hodarkar, (ed.), BSK, op.cit., 1967, Vol.4, p.745.
Rangoli also forms an important part of the Bihu festival, a popular harvest festival of Assam.

Floor art in Orissa is known by various names like chita, osa and muruja. The term osa in Oriya means
vrata and hence the designs related to vrata rituals are referred to as osa. These are made using rice
paste. Muruja is a powder of a light variety of limestone, (usually used by tribals to make diagrams in the
temple of Puri) hence very often the floor patterns are referred to as muruja. Though chita is the most
common name for the floor art in general.

Traditionally, besides the threshold, the entrance of the house and the pooja room, the chitas are also
made in the kitchen, the dhaner marai (the place where grains are stored), cow-shed, near book-shelf
and the treasury, a place where valuables like ornaments are kept.

Most of these patterns are lotus shaped mandalas. The drawings of the feet of the goddess Lakshmi,
shankha, chakra, gadaa, fish, the chhatra (umbrella), alata -chamara (a fan for the deity made of
peacock feathers), are other commonly used designs. Besides the circular lotus mandalas, square
mandalas depicting an assemblage of some objects is also drawn like the Bela patri mandala, Rabibara
brata mandala, Shankha mandala, Satyanarayan mandala, Farua mandala and so on.

An interlaced snake mandala in five colours is drawn on the day of Anant Brata. A statue of goddess
Lakshmi and Narayan is placed on it and worshipped.

Like the alpana of Bengal, some of the chitas appear to be like a picture-writing where the ladies depict
the objects of their desire like the ornaments, mirror, fan etc. along with the auspicious symbols.