Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
WELCOME TO ALL
Training Contents
Introduction to SPC
Types of Process Controls
Introduction to Statistics
Understanding Mean, Mode, Median, Range, Standard Deviation
Concept of Variation – Special cause & common causes
Stable & Unstable Process
Approach towards identification of Special Causes
Histogram – An illustration
Normal Distribution
Process Capability
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 2
Zero Defect Consultants
Statistical Process Control
Training Contents
Introduction to Control Charts
Types of Control Charts
Understanding application, methodology, interpretations of various
types of charts (Variable and Attribute type covered)
Exercises on Control Charts
SPC implementation methodology
Role of Operator in implementing SPC.
Common mistakes done in implementing SPC
Conclusion
Introduction to SPC
Process:-
Convert input to output using Man, Machine, Material, Method,
Measurement.
E.g. Analysis of rejection data and initiating actions to reduce the rejection
level.
SPC is
A tool to detect variation
It identifies problems, it does not solve problems
Introduction to Statistics
Data:
Any facts or numbers or observations made.
Set of observations forms the data.
Types of Data:
Variable data
Attribute data
Variable Data
Data generated by
Examples:
Attribute Data
Data generated by
Examples:
Measure of Location
Mean (Average)
Median
Mode
Measure of Dispersion
Range
Standard Deviation
Mean:
• Numerical value indicating the central value of data
• Sum of all data / Total number of data
= (55 + 65 + 59 + 59 + 57 + 61 + 53 + 63 + 59 + 57 + 63 + 55 + 61 + 61 + 57 +
59 + 61 + 57 + 59 + 63) / 20
= 1184 / 20 = 59.2
Median:
• Middle Value
• Value which divides data arranged in ascending or descending order
into two equal halves
0.97 0.98 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 1.00 1.00 1.00
1.00 1.00 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.03
Mode:
0.97 0.98 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 1.00 1.00 1.00
1.00 1.00 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.03
0.97 - 1
0.98 - 2
0.99 - 4
1.00 - 5 - 1.00 is Mode as this occurred more no. of times
1.01 - 4
1.02 - 3
1.03 - 1
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 17
Zero Defect Consultants
Statistical Process Control
Range: Definition
Range: Issues
It depends only on extreme values
Hence affected by outliers
Example:
5 4 7 3 2
15 9 8 5 2
Maximum Value = 15
Minimum Value = 2
Range = 15 – 2 = 13
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 18
Zero Defect Consultants
Statistical Process Control
Range: Issues
16
14
12
10
8 Range
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5 4 7 3 2
15 9 8 5 2
Step 1:
Calculate Mean
Mean = 6
5 4 7 3 2
15 9 8 5 2
Step 2:
Take deviations from Mean
-1 -2 1 -3 -4
9 3 2 -1 -4
Step 2:
Take deviations from Mean
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Step 3:
Since some values are positive & rest are negative, while
taking sum they will cancel out.
So square the values & Sum
1 4 1 9 16
81 9 4 1 16
Sum = 142
Step 4:
Standard Deviation = √(Sum of Squares / (n -1))
= √(142 / (10 -1))
= √ 15.77 = 3.972
Variation
• No two things are exactly alike
• It is impossible to produce or process two items exactly alike
• Variation is natural.
Example:
Suppose
A particular day , there is vehicle break down
that day it may not be possible to reach office at 9:30 ± 5 Minutes
Say, you reach office at 9:50 am
In other words
If you reach office too late (beyond normal range of 9:30 ± 5 minutes),
there will be some special reason for that or
it is easy to find out the reason for such variation
Unstable Process
• Assignable Causes are present
• Process is operating under assignable & common causes.
• Unstable process is unpredictable & not under Statistical control.
HISTOGRAM
• Histogram is a graphical representation of data and shows the
frequency of data.
• Histogram provides the easiest way to understand the distribution of
data. It gives the Birds eye view of the variation in Data set.
• Portrays the information on location, spread and shape that enables
the user to interpret the Process behavior.
• It indicates whether the process is operating under Normal / stable
conditions.
DEFINITIONS
Total N
HSITOGRAM – INTERPRETATIONS:
NORMAL
HSITOGRAM – INTERPRETATIONS:
BIMODAL
• Distribution appears to have two peaks. May indicate that data from
more than one process are mixed together
• Materials may come from 2 separate vendors
• Samples may have come from 2 separate machines.
HSITOGRAM – INTERPRETATIONS:
SKEWED
0
2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8
0
2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7
• Bell Shaped
• Symmetric
• Total Area under the curve is 1
Then : Normal Curve & Data follows Normal Distribution
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 42
Zero Defect Consultants
Statistical Process Control
Standard Normal Distribution:
If
Data follows Normal Distribution
then
(Data - Mean) / SD will follow Standard Normal Distribution
0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
68.26%
95.46%
99.73%
Between
Mean ± 1 SD : 68.26 % of Values will lie
Mean ± 2 SD : 95.46 % of Values will lie
Mean ± 3 SD : 99.73 % of Values will lie
A methodology to check whether the process have the potential to meet the
customer requirements
Generally
Customer requirements are given as specification on product characteristics
Example
Specification on Heat Treatment Process:
Hardness should be within 55 ± 5 HRC
Example:
Specification: 55 ± 5 HRC
Meaning:
As long as Hardness of the heat treated jobs are between 50 HRC to 60
HRC, Customer is satisfied
Customer requirements are also expressed as
Lower Specification Limit (LSL) = 50 HRC
Upper Specification Limit (USL) = 60 HRC
Example:
Specification: 55 ± 5 HRC
Allowed variation = 50 HRC to 60 HRC
Total Variation = 52 HRC to 58 HRC
Total Variation < Allowed variation
Hence
Process have the potential to satisfy customer
Example:
Specification: 55 ± 5 HRC
Allowed variation = 50 HRC to 60 HRC
Total Variation = 48 HRC to 62 HRC
Total Variation > Allowed Variation
Then
Process doesn’t have the potential to satisfy customer
Example:
Mean = 55 HRC & SD = 1HRC
Total Variation = 55 – 3 x 1 to 55 + 3 x 1
= 52 HRC to 58 HRC
20 data on acid content (mm) is given in the table below. If the specification on
acid content is 0.70 ± 0.2 mm. Check whether the process has the potential to
meet the customer requirement ?
0.85 0.75 0.80 0.65 0.75 0.60 0.80 0.70 0.75 0.60
0.80 0.75 0.70 0.70 0.75 0.75 0.85 0.60 0.50 0.65
Mean = 0.715
SD = 0.092
Pp = (USL – LSL) / 6 SD
= (0.90 – 0.50) / (6 x 0.092)
= 0.4 / 0.552 = 0.72
• Pp or Cp checks only whether the process has the potential to meet the
requirements
•Pp or Cp never checks whether the Process is actually meeting requirements
Ppk checks whether the process is centered at the middle of the specification
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3 SD Mean + 3 SD
c d
Example:
USL : 12 LSL: 6
2 4
Mean : 8 SD : 1
1.2
Ppu = 4 / 3 = 1.33
1
Ppl = 2 / 3 = 0.66
0.8
Ppk = Min [1.33,0.66] = 0.66
0.6
Ppk < 1, performance is not OK
0.4
0.2
0
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
- 3 SD Mean + 3 SD
3 3
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 58
Zero Defect Consultants
Statistical Process Control
6 12
Example:
USL : 12 LSL: 6
3 3 Mean : 9 SD : 1
1.2
Ppu = 3 / 3 = 1
1
Ppl = 3 / 3 = 1
0.8
Ppk = Min [1 , 1] = 1
0.6
0.4
Ppk = 1
0.2
0
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
- 3 SD Mean + 3 SD
3 3
Conclusion:
Ppu = 3 / 3 = 1
Ppl = 3 / 3 = 1
3 3 Ppk = Min [1 , 1] = 1
1.2
1
Pp = (USL – LSL) / 6 SD = 6 /6 = 1
0.8
When Mean is at middle of
Specification [(USL + LSL) / 2] then
0.6
Ppu = Ppl = Ppk = Pp
0.4
Otherwise
0.2
Ppk < Pp
0
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 When Ppk < Pp
- 3 SD Mean + 3 SD Performance is not optimum
3 3
Control Chart
UCL
CL
LCL
Control Chart
UCL
CL
LCL
Control Chart
UCL
CL
LCL
Control Chart
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Continuous Data
• Xbar & R Chart ( or Median – R Chart)
• Individual X & Moving range Chart
• Xbar & S Chart ( or Median – S Chart)
Discrete Data
Control Chart for Defectives
• p chart
• np chart
Control Chart for Defects
• c chart
• u chart
N
Are the data Y Y
variable
N
Is the sample Is the sample
Y size constant size constant
N
Use np Chart Y Y
Is it Use p Chart
homogeneous Use C Chart
in nature
N
Can sub group N
Y avg. easily Use Median Chart Use U Chart
calculated
Use X-MR Chart
Is “s”, Y N
Is the subgroup
calculated Use Xbar-R Chart
size 9 or more
Y easily
N
Use Xbar-S Chart Use Xbar-R Chart
Center Line
CL = Mean = Rbar = Sum of all Range Values / Total Number
of Values
= 0.21 / 9 = 0.0233
R Chart
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Center Line
CL = Mean = Xdoublebar = Sum of all Means / Total Number
of Values
= 44.975 / 9 = 4.997
5.02
5
4.98
4.96
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Step 11: If Capable, Set the Control limits for ongoing monitoring.
n d2 A2 D3 D4 E2
2 1.128 1.880 0 3.268 2.66
3 1.693 1.023 0 2.574 1.77
4 2.059 0.729 0 2.282 1.46
5 2.326 0.577 0 2.114 1.29
6 2.534 0.483 0 2.004 1.18
The following are the data on Time (in Minutes) to Process Transactions in a
BPO company. Construct an Xbar – R chart to monitor the process
Sample x1 x2 x3 Sample x1 x2 x3
Number Number
1 6.0 5.8 6.1 11 6.2 6.9 5.0
2 5.2 6.4 6.9 12 6.7 7.1 6.2
3 5.5 5.8 5.2 13 6.1 6.9 7.4
4 5.0 5.7 6.5 14 6.2 5.2 6.8
5 6.7 6.5 5.5 15 4.9 6.6 6.6
6 5.8 5.2 5.0 16 7.0 6.4 6.1
7 5.6 5.1 5.2 17 5.4 6.5 6.7
8 6.0 5.8 6.0 18 6.6 7.0 6.8
9 5.5 4.9 5.7 19 4.7 6.2 7.1
10 4.3 6.4 6.3 20 6.7 5.4 6.7
• For Short Run Process / Bulk Material Processing. Can be used when the
testing method is a destructive type.
• Not possible to collect data in Sub Groups
1 2.5
2 2.3
3 2.8
4 2.6
5 2.4
6 2.9
7 2.1
8 2.5
MR Chart
1.5
1
0.5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Center Line
CL = Mean = Xbar = Sum of all Data / Total Number
of Values
= 20.1 / 8 = 2.512
Individual X Chart
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
The data given below are surface Finish values of 30 jobs after chromium
plating. Construct an Individual X & Moving Range chart to monitor the
process?
0.078 0.079 0.077 0.076 0.074 0.072 0.069 0.075 0.078 0.077
0.075 0.078 0.08 0.081 0.08 0.079 0.082 0.073 0.078 0.074
0.072 0.075 0.068 0.073 0.074 0.081 0.076 0.08 0.074 0.07
1 47
2 42
3 48
4 58
5 32
6 38
7 53
8 68
9 45
10 37
CL = Mean
UCL = Mean + 3 SD
LCL = Mean – 3 SD
pbar = Sum of Defectives / total Number Inspected
= 468 /(1000*10) = 0.0468
np Chart
80
60
40
20
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 3 11 6
2 6 12 9
3 4 13 5
4 6 14 6
5 20 15 7
6 2 16 4
7 6 17 5
8 7 18 7
9 3 19 5
10 0 20 0
1 500 5
2 550 6
3 700 8
4 625 9
5 700 7
6 550 8
7 450 10
8 600 6
9 475 9
10 650 6
CL = Mean
UCL = Mean + 3 SD
LCL = Mean – 3 SD
pbar = Sum of Defectives / Total Number Inspected
= 74 / 5800 = 0.0128
p Chart
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 171 31 11 181 38
2 167 6 12 115 33
3 170 8 13 165 26
4 135 13 14 189 15
5 137 26 15 165 16
6 170 30 16 170 35
7 45 3 17 175 12
8 155 11 18 167 6
9 195 30 19 141 50
10 180 36 20 159 26
1 8
2 19
3 14
4 18
5 11
6 16
7 8
8 15
9 21
10 8
CL = Mean
UCL = Mean + 3 SD
LCL = Mean – 3 SD
cbar = Sum of nonconformities / No. of days
= 138 /10 = 13.8
CL = cbar = 13.8
UCL = Mean + 3 SD = 13.8 + 3 x 3.71 = 24.93
LCL = Mean - 3 SD = 13.8 - 3 x 3.71 = 2.67
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 97
Zero Defect Consultants
Statistical Process Control
c chart: Example
c Chart
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 22 11 15
2 29 12 10
3 25 13 33
4 17 14 23
5 20 15 27
6 16 16 15
7 34 17 17
8 11 18 17
9 31 19 19
10 29 20 22
1 10 45
2 10 51
3 10 36
4 9 48
5 10 42
6 10 5
7 10 33
8 8 27
9 8 31
10 8 22
CL = Mean
UCL = Mean + 3 SD
LCL = Mean – 3 SD
ubar = Sum of Defects / Total Number Inspected
= 340 / 93 = 3.66
u Chart
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 40 40 12 52 74
3 40 33 13 52 43
4 40 43 14 52 61
5 40 62 15 40 43
6 52 79 16 40 32
7 52 60 17 40 45
8 52 50 18 40 33
9 52 73 19 40 50
10 52 54 20 52 28
Is Process N
Stable
Is Process
Improve the Process
Capable N
Y
Establish Control Ongoing Process
Prepare Reaction Plan
Limits Control
Is Process in Y
Control (I.e no
special cause)
Take Disposition
action, if required
Any Questions
Thank You